Seismic Response Characteristics of Earth and Rockfill
Dams
L. Yu, X. Kong & B. Xu
State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian University of Technology,
China
SUMMARY:
With the development of theories and construction technologies, more and more well-compacted high rockfill
dams (200 m even 300 m high) have been built and are being planned worldwide. The seismic response of an
earth or rockfill dam, especially the maximum acceleration at dam crest, is one of the most important
engineering properties for dam design and safety evaluation after earthquake. An extensive review of case
histories of earth and rockfill dam behaviour during earthquake was undertaken in this study. The peak crest
accelerations and peak ground accelerations from 43 case histories were summarized. Results from finite
element analyses of 6 typical dams and 12 practical projects of modern high rockfill dams were also presented.
Due to the improvement in quality of rockfill compaction by modern advanced compacting technology,
well-compacted rockfill dams behave differently from those of early earth-rockfill dams. Therefore, the case
histories are classified into two categories: well-compacted rockfill dams and early earth-rockfill dams. The
effect of dam height on the seismic response distribution is discussed. An empirical equation was proposed for
preliminarily estimating the seismic response of a well-compacted rockfill dam according to the case history
records. Effects of dam height, narrowness of canyon, seismic motion input, angle of incidence, shear modulus
of the rockfill material and slope gradient on the peak crest acceleration of a rockfill dam are discussed
according to numerical analysis results.
Keywords: Earth dam; Rockfill dam; Seismic response; Earthquake engineering
1. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
Many engineers assume that well-compacted rockfill dams have a high resistance to seismic loading,
according to acceptable past performance of similar dams (Bureau 1985). However, as the number of
high rockfill dams under construction increases worldwide, the issues of seismic safeties of the
affiliated structures, rather than dam body rockfill materials, become of vital importance. These
affiliated structures include: clay or asphalt concrete cores for earth core rockfill dams (ECRDs),
concrete face slabs for concrete face rockfill dams (CFRDs), water retaining and release structures
such as spillways, monitoring systems, water and power supply facilities, etc.
A recent reminder of the need to improve our understanding of the affiliated structures is Wenchuan
earthquake (M = 8) that shook the 156-m-high Zipingpu dam (China) on May 12, 2008. The strong
earthquake caused significant cracks in the face slabs, severely damages to the buildings on the dam,
and damages on structures include the winch and hoisting devices for the tunnel spillways, some
devices of the gantry crane for power tunnel, the transmission frameworks and the insulation, and the
set bolts of the closed switch gears (Guan 2009). However, considering that the dam was designed for
a peak ground acceleration of only 0.26 g, Zipingpu dam behaved remarkably well during and after the
very strong shaking with a peak bedrock acceleration ≥ 0.5 g. Soon after the earthquake, the damage
was repaired and the dam became operational again.
The damages of the affiliated structures related closely to the seismic behaviour of the dam body in
two aspects: a), permanent deformation of the dam body due to the earthquake causes unrecoverable
cracks in face slabs and uneven settlements for on dam buildings; and b), amplified accelerations
increases the inertial loadings for the structures. Case histories of permanent deformation of earth and
rockfill dams has been presented by (Swaisgood 2003). This paper only focuses on the latter aspect,
i.e., the seismic response (peak crest acceleration and acceleration distribution) of earth and rockfill
dams.
The seismic response of an earth or rockfill dam depends on a large number of factors, such as the
quality of rockfill compaction, the dam geometry, the narrowness of the canyon, the irregularity of the
abutment, the flexibility of the canyon rock, the ground motion intensity, its frequency characteristics,
spatial variability, etc (Dakoulas 2012). Evaluations of seismic behaviour of earth or rockfill dams
have relied mostly on site investigations (Elgamal 1990), theoretical and numerical analyses (Gazetas
1992; Uddin 1995; Uddin 1999; Seiphoori 2011; Zou 2011), and shaking table tests (Han 1988; Kim
2011). Harder (Harder 1998) summarized more than 20 case histories of earth and rockfill dams
experienced earthquakes and presented the relationship of peak crest accelerations against peak ground
accelerations. However, due to the development of modern advanced compacting technology, rockfill
dams built after - 1968 obviously have more resistances to earthquake than early earth-rockfill dams,
which results in differences in the seismic response characteristics of these two dam types.
In this study, an extensive review of case histories of earth and rockfill dam behaviour during
earthquake was carried out. The peak crest accelerations and peak ground accelerations from 43 case
histories and 18 numerical analyses were summarized. Efforts have been made to find out if there is a
trend of seismic response that can be predicted, and if there are certain factors that consistently have
an effect on the value of peak crest acceleration during earthquakes. The differences in seismic
response characteristics between early earth-rockfill dams and well-compacted dams are discussed.
2. SEISMIC RESPONSES OF DAMS
The peak crest accelerations and peak ground accelerations from case histories are summarized in
Table 1. According to the property of filling materials, the data are classified into two categories: A,
earth dams or early built (before 1968) earth-rockfill dams; B, lately built (after 1968) well-compacted
rockfill dams. Although La Villita dam consisted of well-compacted rockfills (Resendiz 1982), it was
classified into Category A because of its 75 m thick alluvial deposits. Finite element results of 18
dams, which include 7 from unpublished research reports of modern well-compacted high rockfill
dams in China by the authors, are presented in Table 2.
Table 1. Accelerations at dam crest from case histories
Dam DH CL Earthquake Built PGA PCA
No Name Location AFC Reference
Type m m Date year g g
Category A: earth dams and early (before 1968) earth-rockfill dams
1 Baihe China E 66 960 7/28/1976 1960 0.053 0.128 2.42 (Shen 1981)
(Boulanger
1993;
2 Cogswell USA CFRD 85.3 175 10/1/1987 1935 0.064 0.151 2.36
Boulanger
1995)
(Boulanger
1993;
3 Cogswell USA CFRD 85.3 175 10/1/1987 1935 0.064 0.151 2.36
Boulanger
1995)
4 Del Valle USA 67.7 10/17/1989 0.04 0.08 2.0 (Harder 1998)
El (Resendiz
5 Mexico ECRD 148 350 3/14/1979 1963 0.105 0.355 3.38
Infiernillo 1982)
(Nagayama
6 Ishibuchi Japan CFRD 53 345 5/26/2003 1953 0.147 0.268 1.82
2004)
7 Kawanishi Japan E 43 170 10/23/04 1978 0.56 0.58 1.04 (Yasuda 2005)
(Elgamal
8 La Villita Mexico ECRD 60+751 497 10/11/1975 1967 0.073 0.348 4.77
1990)
(Elgamal
9 La Villita Mexico ECRD 60+751 497 11/15/1975 1967 0.041 0.204 4.98
1990)
(Elgamal
10 La Villita Mexico ECRD 60+751 497 3/14/1979 1967 0.083 0.39 4.69
1990)
(Elgamal
11 La Villita Mexico ECRD 60+751 497 10/25/1981 1967 0.087 0.42 4.95
1990)
(Elgamal
12 La Villita Mexico ECRD 60+751 497 9/21/1985 1967 0.042 0.21 5.00
1990)
Leroy
13 USA ECRD 71.6 436 4/24/1984 1950 0.41 0.63 1.54 (Bureau 1985)
Anderson
Leroy
14 USA ECRD 71.6 436 10/17/1989 1950 0.26 0.43 1.65 (Harder 1998)
Anderson
15 Lexington USA E 62.5 247 10/17/1989 1953 0.45 0.45 1 (Harder 1998)
Long
16 USA E 60 184 5/ /1980 0.17 3.06 0.52 (Gazetas 1987)
Valley
(Harder 1998;
Los
17 USA E 47 1/17/1994 0.28 0.43 1.54 Swaisgood
Angeles
2003)
18 O'Neill USA E 21.3 10/17/1989 1967 0.008 0.14 1.75 (Harder 1998)
19 Oroville USA E 235 1707 8/1/1975 1968 0.1 0.12 1.2 (Bureau 1985)
20 San Luis USA E 95.4 10/17/1989 1967 0.04 0.19 4.75 (Harder 1998)
Santa (Abdel-Ghaffar
21 USA E 83.3 389 9/2/1971 1955 0.217 0.207 0.954
Felicia 1979)
Category B: lately built (after 1968) well-compacted rockfill dams
22 Kisenyama Japan ECRD 95 255 9/ /1969 1969 0.01 0.1 10 (Gazetas 1987)
(JEPCETA
23 Kuzuryu Japan ECRD 127.7 355 9/ /1969 1968 0.02 0.04 2.0
1986)
New
24 Matahina ECRD 86 400 3/2/1987 0.24 0.35 1.45 (Pender 1987)
Zealand
(Iwashita
25 Miho Japan ECRD 95 588 1/29/1980 1978 0.031 0.066 2.45
1995)
(Iwashita
26 Miho Japan ECRD 95 588 4/14/1981 1978 0.031 0.087 2.8
1995)
(Iwashita
27 Miho Japan ECRD 95 588 8/8/1983 1978 0.148 0.257 1.74
1995)
(Iwashita
28 Miho Japan ECRD 95 588 2/17/1987 1978 0.011 0.066 5.96
1995)
(Iwashita
29 Miho Japan ECRD 95 588 8/5/1990 1978 0.028 0.080 2.87
1995)
(Iwashita
30 Miho Japan ECRD 95 588 2/2/1992 1978 0.012 0.032 2.65
1995)
31 Nagara Japan ECRD 52 250 12/17/1987 1985 0.262 0.369 1.408 (Tani 2000)
32 Otani Japan RD 75.5 360 10/23/2004 1993 0.062 0.195 3.14 (Yasuda 2005)
(Iwashita
33 Oya Japan ECRD 56.5 240 2/7/1993 1992 0.066 0.193 2.93
1995)
(Iwashita
34 Oya Japan ECRD 56.5 240 2/8/1993 1992 0.007 0.038 5.67
1995)
(Iwashita
35 Oya Japan ECRD 56.5 240 2/16/1993 1992 0.098 0.03 3.02
1995)
(Iwashita
36 Oya Japan ECRD 56.5 240 2/22/1993 1992 0.014 0.053 3.69
1995)
(Iwashita
37 Oya Japan ECRD 56.5 240 12/8/1993 1992 0.004 0.015 3.42
1995)
(Iwashita
38 Oya Japan ECRD 56.5 240 6/7/1994 1992 0.005 0.01 2.08
1995)
39 Sagurigawa Japan ECRD 119.5 420 10/23/2004 1993 0.046 0.146 3.174 (Yasuda 2005)
40 San Justo USA ECRD 41 340 10/17/1989 1986 0.26 0.4 1.53 (Harder 1998)
(Nagayama
41 Takami Japan ECRD 120 435 9/26/2003 1983 0.058 0.325 5.62
2004)
(Guan 2009;
42 Zipingpu China CFRD 156 635 5/12/2008 2006 0.552 1.65/0.82 1.6
Kong 2010)
43 Zipingpu China CFRD 156 635 11/6/2008 2006 0.034 0.08 2.4 (Kong 2011)
Note: 1. There’s a 75 m alluvial deposit layer under La Villita dam.
2. A peak acceleration of 1.65 g was recorded along stream direction by the observation stations on
Zipingpu dam. However, the peak acceleration reduces to 0.8 g after filtering the high-frequency
components of the acceleration response. The latter value of 0.8 g was believed to be the reasonable
value of the peak crest acceleration of Zipingpu dam during Wenchuan earthquake (Kong 2010). The
monitoring stations failed to record the PGA at dam site. The value of 0.55 g was estimated according
to a large amount of analyses (Kong 2010).
Table 2. Accelerations at dam crest from numerical analyses
DH CL PGA
No Name Location Dam Type AFC AF1/5 Reference
m m g
1 A typical dam CFRD 100 300 0.49 3 2 (Seiphoori 2011)
2 0.69 2.23 1.45 (Uddin 1995)
3 0.6 2.43 1.78 (Uddin 1995)
4 A typical dam CFRD 100 2D 0.42 2.1 1.79 (Uddin 1995)
5 0.37 2.27 1.38 (Uddin 1995)
6 0.36 1.72 1.0 (Uddin 1995)
7 CFRD 85.3 2D 0.064 2.97-4.53 (Boulanger 1993)
Cogswell USA
8 Category A 85.3 2D 0.264 1.33-2.58 (Boulanger 1993)
9 Houziyan China CFRD 223.5 283 0.3 3.5 2.0 Unpublished report
10 Liangfengtai China CFRD 100 257 0.146 3.2 2.6 Unpublished report
11 Lianghekou China ECRD 295 0.29 2.6 1.17 Unpublished report
12 Longpan China ECRD 266 734 0.407 2.3 0.81 Unpublished report
13 Messochora Greece CFRD 150 330 0.35 3.9 2.43 (Dakoulas 2012)
14 Shuangjiangkou China ECRD 312 584 0.205 3.9 1.61 Unpublished report
15 Wenquan China CFRD 102 306 0.171 3.7 2.63 Unpublished report
16 Wuyi China ECRD 102.5 464 0.22 3.3 1.59 Unpublished report
17 0.55 1.6 0.91 (Zhou 2011)
Zipingpu China CFRD 156 635
18 0.034 3.0 1.3 (Kong 2011)
1/5
Note: Most of the values of AF are estimated form figures.
The abbreviations in the tables and in this paper are,
AFC – Acceleration amplified factor at crest, AFC = PCA/PGA;
AF1/5 – Acceleration amplified factor at top 1/5 height of the dam;
CFRD – concrete face rockfill dam;
CL – Crest length;
DH – Dam height;
E – Earth dam.
ECRD – Earth core rockfill dam;
PCA – Peak crest acceleration;
PGA – Peak ground acceleration;
3. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Seismic response characteristic of modern high well-compacted rockfill dams
Modern compacting technology can densify the rockfill material to a dry unit weight of 2.1 - 2.2 g/cm3.
While the dry unit weight is about 1.7 - 1.8 g/cm3 for dumped rockfills and 1.8 - 1.9 g/cm3 for early
compacted rockfills, such as of El Infiernillo dam (Resendiz 1982). Well-compacted rockfill materials
have a higher shear modulus, thus have a higher resistance to seismic loading than early earth and
rockfill dams. This results in differences not only in the value of AFC, but also in the distribution of
acceleration along the vertical dam axis. It is necessary to keep in mind the differences in the seismic
response between earth and well-compacted rockfill dams before analyzing the case history data.
Most earth dams are lower than 50 m and have a smaller shear modulus. While most well-compacted
rockfill dams in the case histories are - 100 m in height. Some latest built or planning rockfill dams
reach 200 m even 300 m high. Figure 1 shows the effect of dam height on the peak acceleration
distribution of a rockfill dam from numerical analyses (田村重四郎 1991; Kong 1992). It can be seen
that the higher is the dam, the smaller amplified factor (AF) can be found below the top 1/3 to 1/5 area
of the dam. But for a higher dam, AF amplifies more obviously at the top area of the dam. That is to
say, the higher is the dam, the more obvious is the “whip-lash” phenomenon in the seismic response of
rockfill dams.
0.2
Z / DH (Depth / Dam Height)
0.4 250m
200m
150m
100m
0.6
50m
Z DH
1:
1.4
1.4
1:
0.8
Upstream direction Downstream direction
1
-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Acceleration / g
Figure 1. Effect of dam height on the peak acceleration distribution (田村重四郎 1991; Kong 1992)
Considering the characteristic of acceleration distribution, it is evident that measures to improve the
performance of high rockfill dams subjected to strong ground shaking should focus on the mid-upper
part of the dam, such as: (a) use of a flat slope in the upper part (top 1/3 to 1/5), to reduce high
deformations and avoid surface rockfill instability; (b) use of a wide crest to improve safety under high
accelerations and reduce the effects of any crest settlements due to rockfill sliding at the downstream
face; and (c) strengthening of slopes in the upper area of the dam.
3.2. Acceleration amplified factor at crest centre from case histories
As mentioned above, the seismic response of an earth or rockfill dam depends on a large number of
factors. Due to the varieties in those factors for various dams, it is difficult to find out the effect of
each factor on the characteristic of seismic responses of earth or rockfill dams from case histories.
However, the acceleration amplified factor at crest (AFC) show a relatively clear trend to the value of
PGA, as shown in Figure 2. It can be seen in general that the value of AFC decreases with increasing
PGA.
The AFC results of well compacted rockfill dams and those of early earth-rockfill dams are marked by
solid dots and hollow marks respectively. For rockfill dams suffered strong earthquakes (PGA > 0.1),
all the AFC values are lower than 2.0, which showed good performances of rockfill dams under
seismic loading. For rockfill dams under small shocks, i.e., PGA < 0.1 g, the value of AFC scattered in
a large range from 2.0 to 6.0. No obvious relationship between AFC and DH can be found for rockfill
dams. The following equation can be used to approximately predict the value of AFC for
well-compacted rockfill dams according to the value of PGA,
PCA 0.5
AFC 1.0 (3.1)
PGA PGA
where AFC is the amplified factor at crest; PCA is the peak crest acceleration; and PGA is the peak
ground acceleration. As shown in Figure 2, Eqn (3.1) forms the upper bound of the AFC values of
well-compacted rockfill dams, except one case of Takami dam.
Category A, DH>90m
7
Milo 95m
Acceleration amplified factor at crest (AFC)
Category A, DH<90m
Takami 120m
6 Category B, DH>75m
La Villita 60m+75m Category B, DH<60m
5
Eqn (3.1)
San Luis 95m
4
El Infiernillo 148m
3
Zipingpu
156m
2
1 Milo
Oroville 95m Matahina 86m
235m
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Peak ground acceleration (PGA)
Figure 2. Variation of acceleration amplified factor at crest against PGA from case histories
7 A typical dam (100m, Seiphoori 2011)
Acceleration amplified factor (AF)
A typical dam (100m, Uddin 1999)
6 A typical dam (100m, Uddin 1999)
A typical dam (100m, Uddin 1999)
5 A typical dam (100m, Uddin 1999)
A typical dam (100m, Uddin 1999)
Houziyan (223m)
4
Liangfengtai (100m)
Lianghekou (295m)
3 Longpan (266m)
Messochora (150m, Dakoulas 2012)
2 Shuangjiangkou (312m)
Wenquan (102m)
Wuyi (102.5m)
1
Zipingpu (156m, Zhou 2012)
Zipingpu (156m, Kong 2011)
0 Eqn (3.1)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Peak ground acceleration (PGA)
Figure 3. Variation of AF against PGA from numerical analyses
(upper point – AFC; lower point – AF1/5)
3.3. Acceleration amplified factor at crest centre from numerical analyses
Besides of data from case histories, acceleration amplified factors from published numerical analyses
are also summarized, as listed in Table 2. The effect of variety in numerical models is not specifically
analyzed in this study. The numerical results from modern well-compacted rockfill dams are plotted in
Figure 3. As discussed above, the “whip-lash” effect is obvious for modern compacted rockfill dams
under strong shaking. Only the top area of the dam experiences extremely high accelerations.
Therefore, besides of the value of AFC, the acceleration distribution is also important for estimating
the seismic safety of the dam. Therefore, both AFC and AF1/5 are plotted in Figure 3 for each case.
Similar to the results from case histories, the values of AFC and AF1/5 from numerical analyses also
decreases with increasing PGA. However, AF values calculated by Eqn (3.1) are not the upper bound
of the values of AFC from numerical analyses. This may be because that the case history results are
from 60 to 120-m-high dams mostly built before 1990, while the numerical results are mostly from
much higher dams (100 m to 300 m). Besides, the case histories of rockfill dams experienced strong
earthquakes are very limited. The “whip-lash” effect may not be excitated during practical earthquakes.
Anyway, most of the values of AF1/5 are lower than or close to the predictions by Eqn (3.1).
3.3. Effects of other factors on the seismic response of rockfill dams
As mentioned above, the seismic response of an earth or rockfill dam depends on a large number of
factors, such as the quality of rockfill compaction, the dam geometry, the narrowness of the canyon,
the irregularity of the abutment, the flexibility of the canyon rock, the ground motion intensity, its
frequency characteristics, spatial variability, etc. The situation of a dam differs from another, results in
difficulties when attempting to analyze the effect of any of the factors on the seismic response of
rockfill dams. By contrast, numerical analyses show their advantages to investigate the effect of a
specified factor on the seismic response, by changing the value of the factor but keep all the other
parameters unchanged. The seismic response characteristics of rockfill dams investigated by numerical
analyses can be concluded in Table 3.
Table 3. Effects of some factors on the seismic response of a rockfill dam by numerical analyses
ID Factors Effect Degree
Peak ground An increase in PGA lead to obvious decrease in AFC (Zou
1 Obvious
acceleration (PGA) 2011). PGA↗ AFC↘
A 3D canyon gave higher PCA than 2D plane strain analyses
(Gazetas 1987);
Narrowness of canyon The results of a 300-m-high rockfill dam with various crest
2 length (CL) showed that the increase of CL from DH/CL = 1:1 Moderate
(DH/CL)
to 1:3 decreases the AFC from 3.0 to 2.4 (Zou 2011).
CL/DH↗ AFC↘
The variation in seismic motion input response (with same
derived PGA) has certain effects on the value of PCA due to
3 Seismic motion input Moderate
various frequency characteristic of each input response (Zou
2011).
The maximum response is obtained at an angle θ = 30° - 35°
4 Angle of incidence and is about 25% higher than the response caused by vertically Moderate
propagating waves (Gazetas 1992).
AFC decreases from 3.5 to 3.0 when increasing DH from 100 m
to 300 m, with unchanged slope gradients and the same ground
5 Dam height (DH) motion input (Zou 2011). Moderate
DH has obvious effects on the acceleration distribution of a
rockfill dam (Kong 1992).
The inhomogeneity in shear modulus lead to a reduction in PCA
6 Shear modulus Moderate
(Gazetas 1987);
The results of a 300-m-high rockfill dam with various slop
7 Slope gradient gradients from 1:1.4 to 1:2.0 showed that the slope gradient has Minor
minor effects on the value and distribution of AF (Zou 2011).
4. CONCLUSIONS
This study summarized 43 case histories and 18 numerical analyses of earth and rockfill dam
behaviour during earthquake, focusing on the characteristics of seismic response, i.e., the acceleration
distribution and peak crest acceleration. Conclusions were drawn in the following:
(a) The peak crest acceleration (PCA) decreases with increasing the peak ground acceleration
(PGA). An approximate equation was present to predict the upper bound of PCA of
well-compacted rockfill dams according to the results of case histories.
(b) Well-compacted rockfill dams have a higher resistance than early earth-rockfill dams. The
higher is the rockfill dam, the more obvious is the “whip-lash” phenomenon.
(c) Both case histories and numerical analyses show that the acceleration amplified factor
increases more obviously at the top 1/3 to 1/5 area of the dam in vertical direction and 3/10
area from the crest centre in the axial direction. Aseismic measures for high rockfill dams
should focus on the mid-top area of the dam.
(d) The narrowness of canyon, seismic motion input, angle of incidence, shear modulus of rockfill,
and dam height have moderate effects on the value of PCA. The dam slope has a minor effect
on the seismic response of a rockfill dam.
AKCNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51138001, 51121005,
51149002, 51078061), the Research Fund for the Earthquake Engineering of China (201208013) and the
Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities of China (DUT12LK43, DUT11LK36). These
supports are gratefully acknowledged.
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