1.

General Structure of Plants

Plant organs, like organs in animals, are composed of tissue (a group

of cells that have specific activities). Tissue is composed of cells. In every

living cell there is protoplasm bounded by a cell wall and it is in that cell that

all metabolic processes occur.

In general, plant organs consist of roots, stems, leaves, and flowers.

Roots grow into the soil so that it strengthens the establishment of the plant.

Roots also function to take water and mineral salts from the soil. Like some

other organs in plants, roots also function to store food. On the stem there are

leaves that function to produce food through photosynthesis and release water

through transpiration. In addition, the stem also plays a role in the passage of

water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves and the passage of

photosynthetic products from the leaves to all parts of the plant.

At the tips of stems and roots are shoot meristems. The shoot

meristem cells continuously divide, then grow and differentiate so that the

plant enlarges. The ends of the stems with young leaves form a

11
Sri Mulyani, Plant Anatomy: Jogjakarta, Kanasius, 2006. h : 16

15
 16

bud. There is also a modification to form scales, which function as a

protective shoot meristem.

Flowers are a means of plant reproduction. There are plants that

flower perfectly and there are plants that flower imperfectly. Perfect flowers

have stamens as female genitalia. There are imperfect flowers that have

stamens, but do not have pistils are called male flowers. Meanwhile, flowers

that do not have stamens, but do not have pistils. Such flowers are called male

flowers. Meanwhile, flowers that do not have stamens, but have a pistil are

called female flowers. There are single-flowered plants, that is, if on each

stalk there is only one flower. There are also compound flowering plants, that

is, if on one stalk there are many flowers to form a series / bouquet

a. Root

Roots are the lower part of the plant axis and usually develop below

the soil surface, although there are also roots that grow above the ground.

The morphology of the outer structure of the root consists of root

hairs, root stems, root tips and root caps. For more details, see the

morphological image of the outer root structure below.

Environmental conditions often affect root growth. Root systems of

plants that live in dry soil usually develop better. In plants that live on sandy

soils, the development of

12
Ibid , h : 17
 17

The roots are shallow, flat, and the lateral roots spread near the soil surface.

The root structure is manifold. Based on their function, there are known

storage roots, aerial roots, succulent roots, climbing roots, supporting roots,

respiratory roots (pneumataphores), and roots that are in symbiosis with fungi

(mycorrhizae).

Based on their origin, there are two types of roots, namely primary

roots and fibrous roots (adventitious). Primary roots develop from the limited

end of the embryo, while fibrous roots develop from mature root tissue or

from other parts of the plant body, such as stems and leaves.

Source:wandylee.wordpress.com . root-morphology/

Image : 2.1Root type

Description:

(a) Monocot root (fiber)

(b) Dicotyledonous plant roots (tap)

13
Sri Mulyani, Plant Anatomy: Jogjakarta, Kanasius, 2006. h : 16
 18

b. stem

The stem is a very important part of the plant body, and remembers

the place and position of the stem for the plant body. The stem can be likened

to the axis of the plant body. The parts of the stem according to its use can be

classified into 4 parts. To make it clearer, see the pictures of the parts of the

stem below.

Source:http://ninityulianita.wordpress/morfologiplant

Figure : 2.2.Stem parts

Description: 1. the bottom of the stem, 2. the middle of the stem, 3. the

base of the stem, 4. the tip of the stem.

In general, stems have the following properties:

1) Generally long round like a cylinder or can also be generally other shapes,

but always actinomorphic. This means that it can be with any number of

fields divided into two equal parts.

 19

2) It consists of segments, each of which is bounded by books, and it is on

these books that there are leaves

3) The plants are usually upwards. towards light or the sun (phototropic or

heliotrope).

4) It always gets longer at the end, that's why it's often said. that stems have

unlimited growth.

5) Stage branching and During his life plant no

aborted. Except occasionally a small branch or twig.

6) Generally not green. Except for plants whose age is still short, for example

grass and when the stems are still young.

As part of the plant body, the stem has a duty to:

a) Supports plant parts that are above the ground, namely: leaves, flowers,

and fruit.

b) By branching, it expands the area of assimilation, and places plant parts in

such a space. In terms of plant interests, these parts are in the most

beneficial position.

c) The road for transporting water and nutrients from the bottom up and the

road for transporting assimilated products from the top down

d) Become a place to store food substances in reserve.14

14
Ibid , h : 76
 20

c. Leaf

Leaves are an important part of plants and in general each plant has a

large number of leaves. This tool is only found on the stem and is never found

in plant parts. The part of the stem where the leaves are attached or where

they are called the nodes (nodes) of the stem.

The functions of leaves for plants are:

1) Taking food substances (resorption), especially in the form of

gaseous substances (CO2)

2) Processing of food substances (assimilation)

3) Evaporation of water (transpiration)

4) Respiration (respiration)

a) Leaf parts

A complete leaf has the following parts:

1) Upih leaves or leaf midrib (Vagina)

2) petiole (petiolus)

3) Leaf blade (lamina). 15

Complete leaves can be found on several kinds of plants, for example:

trees (Musa Paradisiaca L). Areca nut (Area catechu L.), bamboo (Bambu

sp.).

Plants that have complete leaves are not so many types.

15
Gembong Tjitrosoepomo, Plant Morphology, Yogyakarta : Gadjah Mada
University Press, 2005, h : 7.
 21

Most plants have leaves, which are missing one or two parts of the

three parts mentioned above. Such leaves are called incomplete leaves.

Recognizing an incomplete leaf arrangement there are several

possibilities:

(a) It only consists of stalks and strands

(b) Leaves consist of upih and strands,

(c) Leaves only consist of strands

(d) Leaves only consist of stalks

Complete leaves and incomplete leaves can be distinguished in the

image below.

Figure : 2.3.Complete leaves and incomplete leaves (Source Gembong

Tjitrosoepomo 2005)
 22

b) Leaf Base

The base of the leaf is the part of the leaf that is directly related to the

petiole. The bases on the left and right of the petiole, whether attached

or not, can be divided into at least six kinds, which can be seen in

Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4.Leaf base is pointed (a), tapered (b), blunt (c), rounded (d), flat

(e), and curved (f). 16

(a) Pointed

(b) tapered

(c) Blunt

(d) round

(e) Roof/flat

(f) Curvy

c) Leaf tip

The tip of the leaf is the top of the leaf, which is farthest from the

petiole. Leaf tips have a variety of shapes.

16
Dewi Rosanti, Plant morphology; Errangga : 2013, h: 28
 23

In plant morphology, it is known at least 7 forms of leaf tips that can

be seen in. (Figure 2.5.)

Figure 2.5. Leaf tips are pointed (a), tapered (b), blunt (c), rounded

(d), flat (e), split (f), prickly (g).17

d) Bone leaves

Leaf bone is a reinforcing structure of the leaf blade, the same

function as human bone which gives strength to support the

establishment of the body. The leaf bones consist of 4 parts which can

be seen in the. (Figure 2.7.)

17
Ibid, h. 29
 24

(a) Pinnate, on the side of the pinnate leaf bone, the position of

the branch bones is arranged on the right and left of the leaf

bone.

(b) Curved, there is a pinnate leaf bone system, the branch bone is

almost as large as the mother leaf bone.

(c) Fingers, in this bony system, the branch bones are almost as

large as the mother leaf bone.

(d) Parallel. In parallel leaf bones, the position of the branch

bones is to the left and right of the mother leaf bone.

 25

e) Wake (Shape) Leaves

Leaf shape is the shape of the leaf blade as a whole. To see the shape

of the leaf, only one leaf blade (lamina) is needed. If the leaf is a

compound leaf, to see the shape of the leaf, it can be observed on one

leaf of the leaf. Can be seen in Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7. Leaf shape; a. sword/dagger, b. needle, c. linear, d. lancet,

e. oval lancet, f. ovoid, g. flat eggs, h. tapered oval, i.
spatula, j. ovoid, k. circle, l. kidney, m. upside down
heart,
n. heart, o. rhombus, p. share pinnate, r. spear s. arrows, t.
triangle.
 26

d) Flower

Flowers are a means of reproduction in angiosperm plants.18 Given

the importance of flowers for plants, flowers have characteristics, which are

adjustments to carry out their duties as producers of the best means of

reproduction. Generally, from a flower the very attractive properties are:

1) The shape of the flower in its entirety and the shape of its parts,

2) the color

3) The smell

4) The presence or absence of honey or other substances

Thus the characteristics of these properties for each type or class of

plants, so that the characteristics of flowers are the most important

identification of plants.

Compound interest (antotaxis, Inflorescentia) a compound flower

must be distinguished from branches that support a number of flowers in the

armpit. On a branch with a number of flowers under the armpit is clearly

visible

, that among the flowers themselves are on the branch there are ordinary

leaves which are useful for assimilation. Based on these characteristics,

compound interest is divided into three groups, namely:

1) Infinite compound interest, namely compound interest whose mother stalk

can grow continuously.

18
Ibid , h: 237

19
Gembong Tjitrosoepomo, Plant Morphology, Yogyakarta : Gadjah Mada University
Press, 2005, h : 126
 27

2) Compound interest is limited, namely compound interest which the end of

the mother stalk is always covered with a flower.

3) Mixed compound interest, namely compound interest that shows both the

properties of limited compound interest and the nature of unlimited

compound interest.

flower parts

Flowers generally have the following parts:

1) The flower stalk (pedicellus), which is the part of the flower that

is still clearly stem, often has transitional leaves, i.e. parts that

resemble leaves, are green.

2) The base of the flower (receptaculum), which is the end of the

stalk that is often wide, with very short segments, so that the

leaves that have undergone metamorphosis into flower parts that

sit very close to each other.

3) Flower decoration (perianthium), which is the part of the flower

which is the incarnation of the leaves that still appear in the form

of sheets with bones or veins that are still clear.

4) Male genitalia (andoroecium), this part is actually also a leaf

metamorphosis that produces pollen.20

5) The female genitalia (gynaecium), which is part of the flower

which is usually called the pistil (pistillum), also consists of

metamorphosis of leaves called fruit leaves (carpella).

20
Ibid, h : 143
 28

The flower consists of various parts, so that More details can

be seen in the flower image below.

Figure : 2.8.Flower Parts

Looking at the parts contained in the flower (the stem and base of the flower

are not taken into account), then flowers can be distinguished in:

1) Complete flowers or perfect flowers (flos Completus), which can

consist of:

(1) 1 Circle of leaves and petals

(2) 1 circle of crown leaves

(3) 1 or 2 circles of fruit leaves

2) Flowers are incomplete or imperfect (flos in complete), if one part

of the flower decoration or one of the genitals is missing.21

21
Ibid, p: 144.
 29

e) Fruit

In fruit formation, there are times when the flower parts other than the

ovary also grow and are part of the fruit. while generally immediately after

pollination occurs and flower parts other than the ovary immediately wither

and fall. From the pistil itself, it is strictly stated that only the ovules, because

usually the stalk and the pistil also fall as well as the other parts.22 Below is a

picture of the fruit part of an apple.

Source: Eyewitness Series, Tree, 1982

Image : 2.9.

Description: a. Middle skin structure (thick and strong), b. The structure

of the meat (thick, soft, and juicy).

In general, plants can be divided into two groups, namely:

1) False fruit, or closed fruit, that is, if the fruit is formed from the ovary

and other parts of the flower, the main part of this fruit becomes large.

Pseudo fruit is divided into 3 kinds

(a) Single pseudo fruit, namely pseudo fruit that occurs from a

flower with an ovary, in this fruit in addition to the ovary there

are

22
Ibid. h : 218
 30

other parts of the flower that make up the fruit. The stalk on the

guava fruit

(b) Double pseudo fruit, ie if in one flower there are more than

ovules that are free from each other. For example, the arbe

(Fragraria vesca L.)

(c) Pseudo-compound fruit, is a pseudo-fruit that occurs from

compound interest. But all of them from the outside looks like

just one fruit, for example the jackfruit (Artocarpus integra

Merr.) .

2) True fruit or bare fruit, which usually occurs from the ovary. True fruit

is divided into 3 groups, namely:

(a) Single true fruit, is true fruit that occurs from one flower with

only one ovule, for example mango (Mangifera indica L.)

(b) Double true fruit, which occurs from one flower with several

ovules that are independent of each other, for example in

cempaka (Michelia champaca Bail.) .

(c) Compound true fruit, namely fruit that comes from a compound

flower, each of which supports one ovule. For example in

pandanus (Pandanus tettorius Sol.) .23

23
Ibid. h : 241
 31

f) Seed

Seeds are the main means of reproduction, because seeds contain new

plant candidates (institutions). With the production of seeds, plants can

maintain their species, and can also be scattered to other places

In general, seeds can be distinguished several parts, can be seen in the

image below.

Image : 2.10.Seed Section

1) Seed coat (spermodermis)

2) umbilical cord (funiculus)

3) The core of the seed or the contents of the seed (nucleus

seminis).25

The seed coat comes from the ovary membrane (integumentum),

usually the seed coat is from closed seed plants (Angiospermae) consisting of

two layers, namely:

24
Ibid. h : 242

25
Ibid. h : 243
 32

(a) The outer layer of skin (testa) . This layer has various properties, some are

thin, some are stiff like leather, some are hard like wood or stone.

(b) The inner layer of skin (tegmen), usually thin like a membrane, is often

also called the epidermis

1. Plant Inventory and Identification

Inventory is an activity to collect or to collect plant species found in

an area. While plant identification means revealing or establishing the identity

("identity") of a plant, in this case it is nothing but "determining its correct

name and proper place in the classification system". The term identification is

often also used with the term “determination”.27

In identifying a plant there are always two possibilities faced, namely:

a. The plants to be identified are not yet known to the world of science. To

identify plants that are not yet known by the world of science, they will be

identified, and can be done in several ways:

1) Asking the identity of plants that we do not know to someone we consider

an expert and able to provide answers to questions.

26
Ibid. h : 244

27
Gembong Tjitrosoepomo, General Taxonomy, Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada
University Press, 1998, pp. 70-73.
 33

2) Match with herbarium specimens that have been identified.

3) Match with candra and pictures in flora books or monographs.

4) Use the Species Identification Sheet.

b.The plants to be identified are already known to the world of science. To

identify plants that are already known by the world of science, it can be

done in several ways:

1) Make a candra or his description

2) Create diagnostic features

3) Determination of the category of specimens that must not deviate from

the applicable provisions, as stated in the KITT (International Code of

Plant Plantation).28

Plant identification is always based on real specimens, both living and

preserved specimens, usually by drying or in a vessel containing a liquid

preservative, such as alcohol or formalin. The perpetrator identified the

unknown specimen through careful study and then made a description in

addition to detailed pictures of plant parts containing diagnostic

characteristics.

Identification of plants that we do not know, but have been recognized

by the world of science, at this time there are several means available,

including:

28
Ibid, p.75.
 34

a. Asking the identity of plants that we do not know to someone we

consider an expert.

b. Match with herbarium specimens that have been identified.

c. Matching with Chandra and the pictures in the flora books

d. Using identification keys in plant identification

e. Using the Type identification sheet

The determination key is used to find the name of an unknown plant

or animal. The key to good determination is a key that can be used easily,

quickly and the results obtained are precise. In general, the keys are arranged

in a fork (dichotomous) manner.

2. Herbs

a. Definition of Herbs

Herbaceous plants are all plants that are two meters high, except for

tree regeneration or seedling, sampling and lower plants are usually found in

shaded places except in very dark places. This plant has organs that are not

fixed on the soil surface, a short life cycle with non-soft tissue. According to

Longman and Jenik, a number of herbs show attractive shapes, colors and leaf

surface structures, most of which have become papular house plants, such as

species from the Araceae, Gesneriaceae, Urticeae, and others.

 35

According to Soemarwoto, herbs have roots and stems in the soil that

remain alive in the dry season and the roots will grow new crowns on the

surface during the rainy season. 29

Based on the life of herbaceous plants are divided into three, including

annual, perenneal, and binnieal. Annual herbs produce seeds and die

completely after growing for one season. Perenneal or herb that lives more

than 2 years and may in reality be almost unlimited. Some of these herbs may

reproduce naturally by seed, but are highly reproductive by cuttings of stems,

tubers, rhizomes, stolons and leaves. There are other plants whose life span

lies between the two types of plants above. In the first year in the form of a

canopy which is then in the second year followed by the breeding tools. The

plant dies after the seeds are formed and this plant is called a 2-year herb or

binneal. 30

b. The Role of Herbs

The presence of herbs in a forest area has a very important role.

Newly successive forests are marked with

29
Thesis , Melfa Aisah Hutasuhut Study of Herbs in the Sibayak Forest I
University of North Sumatra Medan 2011.

30
Ibid , h : 4
 36

many pioneer plants and other small plants such as herbs and shrubs.

Herbs play an important role in the annual nutrient cycle. Herbal litter

is returned to the soil containing high nutrient elements. In addition, herbs are

also used as a source of animal feed, medicine and a source of germplasm

wealth, for example, the preservation of wildlife as a component of the

ecosystem is influenced by the presence and diversity of understorey plants

as a place to live and a high source of food. Soeriaadmadja said that herbs

function as ground covers which play a very important role in preventing

heavy raindrops from falling directly on the soil surface, thus preventing

humus from being carried by water.

Herbs and other plants play a major role in determining the style of an

ecosystem. The leaves of herbaceous plants filter the scorching rays of the

sun so that only part of the sun is in the open area, and by filtering the

sunlight, the air and soil temperatures are not too high.31

c. Herb Environmental Factors

Ismal, defines the environment as nature outside the organism that

effectively affects the organism. Plants in their life need a natural

environment that is suitable or at least meets the

31
Ibid , h : 4
 37

the minimum requirements needed to sustain life. If the natural environment

is outside the limits desired by plants, their growth and development will be

disrupted or will be completely destroyed. In the part of the forest where the

tree layer is not so dense and sufficient sunlight can penetrate the forest floor,

it is possible that the forest will develop fertile soil vegetation, especially in

places where the forest is open and near river flows.

The growth of herbs is largely determined by the environmental

conditions that support their growth and development. According to Holtum,

in general, the distribution of herbaceous plants is in forests and humid areas,

both in the lowlands and in the highlands, but there are also those that grow

well in open natural conditions with not too high sunlight intensity. The types

of herbs such as the family Araceae, Zingiberaceae, Polypodiaceae have a

fairly wide distribution and have a high adaptability to environmental factors.

These species can live in low humidity environmental conditions.

Gusmayana in Handayani stated that the diversity of herbaceous

plants is strongly influenced by environmental factors, such as light,

humidity, soil pH, canopy cover from surrounding trees, the level of

competition from each type of herb. For plants, sunlight is an important

factor in the process of development, growth, and reproduction. According to

Baker et.al in Indriyanto et al, the effect of radiation

 38

depending on the intensity, quality, or wavelength, duration of

pereodesitasnya and existing vegetation cover.

In a rainforest community, the penetration of sunlight that reaches the

forest floor is generally very little. This is because it is blocked by the canopy

layer by the forest, so that the undergrowth that grows on the soil surface

does not get enough sunlight. According to the pollunin, if the penetration is

not enough, the herbs cannot develop properly, so this plant is more fertile in

open forest areas or other places where the soil gets more light. Thus,

herbaceous vegetation in lowland rainforests is found in open forests, with

streams of water, and open but narrow places (such as paths, rivers) with

good light,

d. Diversity of Herbs

According to pollinators, herbaceous vegetation in tropical rain

forests is less diverse than tree vegetation in relatively open conditions. So it

is possible to form only one tribe. This is different from the herbs on the

slopes which are steeper with penetration

32
Ibid , h : 5
 39

more light causes an abundance of herbaceous diversity, but still much less

than the tree species.

Makinon et.al stated that many plant tribes contributed to the

herbaceous layer. including Monocotilidone, such as wild gingers and

bananas, begonias, Gesneriaceae, Melastomataceae, Rubiaceae various types

of ferns and orchids. Even under shaded conditions, many herbs regularly

produce flowers and fruit although vegetative propagation is also common.

The open area on the side of the road is always overgrown with wild banana

trees, smaller trees and various members of the Zingiberaceae and Peaceae.

Herbs are plants whose stems are soft because they do not form wood.

This kind of plant can be an annual plant, a bi-seasonal plant, or an annual

plant that can be called a herb, generally all vascular plants. Usually this

designation is only applied to plants that are small (less than two meters) and

are not applied to non-timber plants that propagate (classified as vines). In

addition, some herbaceous plants are classified as weeds.

In the tropics there are many annual herbs, while in temperate

climates the herb is usually very seasonal, the aerial parts (which grow on the

soil surface) fall off and die in the unsuitable season (usually winter) and

grow back in the appropriate season. The term herb in botany refers to

"herbs". But in the field of

 40

Herbal medicine means fresh plants or high water content used as a tonic,

treatment, or distillation material to extract their essential oils (Anon 2010).

Herbs are short plants (0.3-2 meters) that do not have wood and have

wet trunks because they contain a lot of water. According to Syabuddin 1992,

herbs are non-woody plants that are spread in the form of individual or

solitary groups in various habitat conditions such as moist or watery soil, dry

soil, rocks with habitats with dense shade.

Herbs are one of the types of plants that make up the forest, which are

much smaller in size compared to shrubs or trees with wet stems that are not

woody. Herbs also have strong competitiveness and high adaptation to

surrounding plants (such as shrubs, shrubs, even trees) so that they can grow

in empty places. 33

e. Flowering Herbs

Flowering herbaceous plants usually have woody stems that are

green, and tend to be relatively short-lived. Many herbaceous plants live for

only one or two years. Annual plants (eg sweet peas) grow from seeds,

produce flowers, then seeds, and die within a year. Biennial plants (eg wartel)

have a two-year life cycle. In the first year, seeds grow into plants, produce

33
Ibid , h : 6
 41

leaves and store food in storage organs in the soil. The stems and leaves then

die in winter. In the second year, stems grow from storage organs, produce

leaves, flowers, and seeds, then die. Some herbaceous plants (eg potatoes) are

perennials, they grow back year after year, produce shoots and flowers in the

spring, store food in underground tubers or rhizomes during the summer, die

in the fall, and survive in the soil during the winter. .

Herbs generally have a short life span, often 1 or 2 years. Some

herbaceous plants live longer, called annual (parenial). The above-ground

plant parts degenerate in the fall and grow again in the following summer

from underground parts such as roots, rhizomes, tubers and others.

f. Herbs According to Health Science

Herbs are all ingredients (plants, animals, fish, salt,/rocks) that contain

one or more active ingredients that can be used for medicinal purposes.

Herbalology comes from two words, namely "herba" which means

plants and "logi" or "logos" which means knowledge. Thus, herbalology is

the study of everything related to plants.

Encyclopedia, Plants ; Animal. Volume 2 Science and Technology, PT

34

Lantera Abadi Publisher, Jakarta 2009, page : 128

 42

In the world of herbal medicine, it is understood as a concept or method of

treatment using ingredients derived from plants.

The term herb itself is usually associated with non-woody plants or

shrubs. In the world of medicine, the term herb has a broader meaning,

namely all types of plants and their parts that contain one or more active

ingredients that can be used as therapeutic drugs. For example, forest noni

(Morinda citrifolia) which contains morindin as an active cancer ingredient,

gotu kola (Cantela asiatica) which contains asiaticoside which is useful for

skin problems and increases intelligence IQ.

 43

35
Moh Nazir, Research Methods, Jakarta: Ghalia Indonesia, 1988, p. 64.