MATHEMATICS

(FORMULA BOOKS)

SETS AND RELATION

1. Intervals are basically subsets of R and are commonly used in solving inequalities or in finding
domains. If there are two numbers a, b  R such that a  b , we can define four types of intervals
as follows:
Symbols used
(i) Open interval: (a, b)  {x : a  x  b} i.e., end points are not included. () or ] [
(ii) Closed interval: [a, b]  {x : a  x  b} i.e., end points are also included. []

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This is possible only when both a and b are finite.
(iii) Open-closed interval: (a, b]  {x : a  x  b} (] or ] [
(iv)
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Closed-open interval: [a, b)  {x : a  x  b} [) or [ [
2. The infinite intervals are defined as follows:
(i) (a, )  {x : x  a}
(ii) [a, )  {x : x  a}
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(iii) (, b)  {x : x  b}
(iv) (, b]  {x : x  b}
(v) (, )  {x : x  R}
3. Laws of Algebra of sets (Properties of sets):
(i) Commutative law: ( A  B)  B  A; A  B  B  A .
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(ii) Associative law: ( A  B)  C  A  ( B  C );( A  B)  C  A  ( B  C ) .

(iii) Distributive law: A  ( B  C )  ( A  B)  ( A  C ); A  ( B  C )  ( A  B )  ( A  C ) .
(iv) De-morgan law: ( A  B)  A  B;( A  B)  A  B .
(v) Identity law: A  A  U , A  A  ,( A)  A .
(vi) Idempotent law: A  A  A, A  A  A .
4. Some important results on number of elements in sets:
If A, B, C are finite sets and U be the finite universal set then
(i) n( A  B)  n( A)  n( B)  n( A  B)
(ii) n( A  B)  n( A)  n( A  B)
(iii) n( A  B  C )  n( A)  n( B)  n(C )  n( A  B)  n( B  C )  n( B  C )
 n( A  C )  n( A  B  C )
(iv) Number of elements in exactly two of the sets
A, B, C  n( A  B)  n( B  C )  n(C  A)  3n( A  B  C )
(v) Number of elements in exactly one of the sets
A, B, C  n( A)  n( B)  n(C )  2n( A  B)  2n( B  C )  2n( A  C )  3n( A  B  C )
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5. Types of relations:
In this section we intend to define various types of relations on a given set A.
(i) Void relation: Let A be a set. Then   A  A and so it is a relation on A. This relation
is called the void or empty relation on A.
(ii) Universal relation: Let A be a set. Then A  A  A  A and so it is a relation on A. This
relation is called the universal relation on A.
(iii) Identity relation: Let A be a set. Then the relation I A  {(a, a) : a  A} on A is called the
identity
Relation on A. In other words, a relation I A on A is called the identity relation if every
element of A is related to itself only.
(iv) Reflexive relation: A relation R on a set A is said to be reflexive if every element of A
is related to itself. Thus, R on a set A is not reflexive if there exists an element
a  A such that (a, a)  R .
Note: Every identity relation is reflexive but every reflexive relation in not identity.

FUNCTIONS

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1. Domain, Co-domain and Range of a Function:
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Let f : A  B , then the set A is known as the domain of f and the set B is known as co-domain
of f. The set of all f images of elements of A is known as the range of f. Thus,
Domain of f  {a | a  A,(a, f (a))  f }
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Range of f  { f (a) | a  A, f (a)  B}

It should be noted that range is subset of co-domain. If only the rule of function is given then the
domain of the function is the set of those real numbers, where function is defined. For a
continuous function, the interval from minimum to maximum value of a function gives the range.
2. Important types of functions:
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(i) Polynomial functions:

If a function f is defined by f ( x)  a0 xn  a1 xn1  a2 xn2  ....an1 x  an where n is a non
negative integer and a0 , a1 , a2 ,...., an are real numbers and a0  0 , then f is called a
polynomial function of degree n.
Note:
(a) A polynomial of degree one with no constant term is called an odd linear function.
i.e., f ( x)  ax, a  0 .
(b) There are two polynomial functions, satisfying the relation;
f ( x). f (1 / x)  f ( x)  f (1 / x) . They are (i) f ( x)  x n  1 (ii) f ( x)  1  xn , where n
is a positive integer.
(ii) Absolute value function: A function y  f ( x)  x is called the absolute value function
 x if x  0
or modulus function. It is defined as: y  x   .
  x if x  0
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 (iii) Signum function:
A function y  f ( x)  Sgn( x) is defined as follows:
1 for x  1
y  f ( x)  0 for x  0
 1 for x  0
It is also written as Sgn x  x / x; x  0; f (0)  0 .

(iv) Greatest Integer or step up function:

The function y  f ( x)  [ x] is called the greatest integer function where [x] is called the
greatest integer function where [x] denotes the greatest
integer less than or equal to x. Note that for:
1  x  0; [ x]  1 0  x  1; [ x]  0
1  x  2; [ x]  1 2 x3 [ x]  2 and so on.

Properties of greatest integer function:

(a) [ x]  x  [ x]  1 and x  1  [ x]  x,0  x  [ x]  1

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(b) [ x  m]  [ x]  m if m is an integer.
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(c) [ x]  [ y ]  [ x  y ]  [ x]  [ y ]  1
(d) [ x]  [ x]  0 if x is an intger
=  1 otherwise.
(v) Fractional part function:
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It is defined as:
g ( x)  {x}  x  [ x]
e.g., the fractional part of the no. 2.1 is
2.1  2  0.1 and the fractional part of −3.7 is 0.3. The period of this function is 1 and
graph of this function is as shown.
3. DOMAINS AND RANGES OF COMMON FUNCTION:
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Function Domain Range

( y  f ( x)) (i.e., values taken by x) (i.e., values taken by f ( x))
(A) Algebraic Functions
(i) xn ,(n  N ) R  (set of real numbers) R, if n is odd
R  {0},

if n is even
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(ii) ,(n  N ) R  {0} R  {0}, if n is odd
xn
R , if n is even
(iii) x ,(n  N )
1/ n
R, if n is odd R, if n is odd
R  {0},

if n is even R, if n is odd
Function Domain Range
( y  f ( x)) (i.e., values taken by x) (i.e., values taken by f ( x))
1
(iv) ,(n  N ) R  {0}, if n is odd R  {0}, if n is odd
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x1/n
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R , if n is even R , if n is even
(B) Trigonometric Functions
(i) sin x R [ 1, 1]
(ii) cos x R [ 1, 1]

(iii) tan x R  (2k  1) , k  I R
2

(iv) sec x R  (2k  1) , k  I (, 1]  [1, )
2
(v) cosec x R  k , k  I (, 1]  [1, )
(vi) cot x R  k , k  I R
(C) Inverse Circular Function (Refer after inverse is taught)
  
(i) sin 1 x [ 1, 1]  2 , 2 
 
(ii) cos1 x [ 1, 1] [0, ]
  
(iii) tan 1 x R  , 
 2 2
  
(iv) cosec1 x (, 1]  [1, )   2 , 2   {0}
 

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
(v) sec1 x (, 1]  [1, ) [0, ]   

(vi) cot 1 x
Si R (0, )
2

(D) Exponential Functions

(i) ex R R
(ii) e1/x R  {0} R  {1}
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(iii) ax , a  0 R R
(iv) a1/ x , a  0 R  {0} R  {1}
(E) Logarithmic Functions
(i) loga x,(a  0)(a  1) R R
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(ii) log x  (a  0)(a  1) R  {1} R  {0}

log a x
(F) Integral Part Functions
(i) [ x] R I
1
(ii) R  [0,1) (1,  )
[ x]
(G) Fractional Part Functions
(i) {x} R [0,1)
1
(ii) RI (1,  )
{ x}
(H) Modulus Functions
Function Domain Range
( y  f ( x)) (i.e., values taken by x) (i.e., values taken by ( f ))x
(i) x R R  {0}
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(ii) R  {0} R
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x
 (I) Signum Function
x
 , x0
(i) sgn( x) x R {1,0,1}
 0, x  0
(J) Constant Functions
(i) say f ( x)  c R {c}
4. Equal or Identical Function:
Two functions f and g are said to be equal if:
(i) The domain of f = the domain of g.
(ii) The range of f = the range of g and
(iii) f ( x)  g ( x) , for every x belonging to their common domain. e.g.
1 x
f ( x) 
and g ( x)  2 are identical functions.
x x
5. Classification of Functions: One-One Function (Injective mapping):
A function f : A  B is said to be a one-one function or injective mapping if different elements
of A have different f images in B. Thus for x1 , x2  A and f ( x1 ) ,
f ( x2 )  B, f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )  x1  x2 or x1  x2  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) .

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Note:
(i) Any function which is entirely increasing or decreasing in whole domain, then f ( x) is
one-one.
(ii) If any line parallel to x-axis cuts the graph of the function atmost at one point, then the
function is one-one.
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Many one function:

A function f : A  B is said to be a many one function if two or more elements of A have the
same

f image in B. Thus, f : A  B is many one if for; x1 , x2  A, f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) but x1  x2 .

Note:
(i) Any continuous function which has atleast one local maximum or local minimum, then
f ( x) is many-one. In other words, if a line parallel to x-axis cuts the graph of the function
atleast at two points, then f is many-one.
(ii) If a function is one-one, it cannot be many-one and vice versa.
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 Onto functions (surjective mapping): If the function f : A  B is such that each element in B
(co-domain) is the f image of atleast one element in A, then we say that f is a function of A ‘onto’
B. Thus, f : A  B is surjective if f  b  B,  some a  A such that f (a)  b .

Note that: If range  co-domain, then f ( x) is onto.

Into function: If f : A  B is such that there exists atleast one element in co-domain which is
not the image of any element in domain, then f ( x) is into.

Note that: If a function is into, it cannot be into and vice versa. A polynomial of degree even

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will always be into.
Thus a function can be one of these four types:
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(a) One-one onto (injective and surjective)
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(b) One-one into (injective but not surjective)

(c) Many-one onto (surjective but not injective)

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(d) Many-one into (neither surjective nor injective)

Note:
(i) If f is both injective and surjective, then it is called a Bijective mapping.
The bijective functions are also named as invertible, non-singular or bi-uniform
functions.
(ii) If a set A contains n distinct elements then the number of different functions defined from
A  A is nn out of it n! are one-one.
6. Composite of uniformly and non-uniformly defined functions:
Let f : A  B and g : B  C be two functions. Then the function gof : A  C defined by
( gof )( x)  g ( f ( x))  x  A is called the composite of the two functions f and g .
Diagrammatically 
x
 f 
f ( x)
 g 
 g ( f ( x)) . Thus the image of every x  A under the
function gof is the g-image of the f-image of x.
Note that gof is defined only if  x  A, f ( x) is an element of the domain of g so that we can
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take its g-image. Hence for the product gof of two functions f and g , the range of f must be a
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subset of the domain of g.

 Properties of composite functions:
(i) The composite of functions is not commutative i.e., gof  fog .
(ii) The composite of functions is associative i.e., if f , g , h are three functions such that
fo( goh) and (fog )oh are defined, then fo( goh)  ( fog )oh .
(iii) The composite of two bijections is a bijection i.e., if f and g are two bijections such
that gof is defined, then gof is also a bijection.
7. Inverse of a function: Let f : A  B be a one-one and onto function, then their exists a unique
function g : B  A such that f ( x)  y  g ( y )  x, x  A and y  B . Then g is said to be
inverse of f. Thus g  f 1 : B  A  {( f ( x), x) | ( x, f ( x))  f } .

Properties of a function:
(i) The inverse of a bijection is unique.
(ii) If f : A  B is a bijection and g : B  A is the inverse of f, then fog  I B and gof  I A ,
where I A and I B are identity functions on the sets A and B respectively.

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Note that the graphs of f and g are mirror images of each other in the line y  x . As
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shown in the figure given below a point ( x, y) corresponding to y  x2 ( x  0) changes

to ( y, x) corresponding to y   x , the changed form of x  y .

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(iii) The inverse of a bijection is also a bijection.

(iv) If f and g two bijections f : A  B, g : B  C then the inverse of gof exists and
( gof )1  f 1og 1 .
8. Odd and even functions:
If f ( x)  f ( x) for all x in the domain of ' f ' then f is said to be an even function. e.g.,
f ( x)  cos x; g ( x)  x2  3 . If f ( x)   f ( x) for all x in the domain of ' f ' then f is said to be
an odd function. e.g., f ( x)  sin x; g ( x)  x3  x .
Note:
(a) f ( x)  f ( x)  0  f ( x) is even and f ( x)  f ( x)  0  f ( x) is odd.
(b) A function may neither be odd nor even.
(c) Inverse of an even function is not defined.
(d) Every even function is symmetric about the y-axis and every odd function is symmetric about
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the origin.
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 (e) Every function can be expressed as the sum of an even and an odd function.
f ( x)  f (  x) f ( x)  f (  x)
e.g., f ( x)  
2 2
Even Odd

(f) Only function which is defined on the entire number line and is even and odd at the same
time is f ( x)  0 .
(g) If f and g both are even or both are odd then the function f . g will be even but if any one
of them is odd then f . g will be odd.
9. Periodic Function:
A function f ( x) is called periodic if there exists a positive number T (T  0) called the period
of the function such that f ( x  T )  f ( x) , for all values of x within the domain of x e.g. The
function sin x and cos x both are periodic over 2 and tan x is periodic over  .
Note:
(a) f (T )  f (0)  f (T ) , where ‘T’ is the period.
(b) Inverse of a periodic function does not exist.
(c) Every constant function is always periodic, with no fundamental period.
(d) If f ( x) has a period T and g ( x) also has a period T then it does not mean that f ( x)  g ( x)
must have a period T. e.g., f ( x)  sin x  cos x .

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(e) If f ( x) has a period p, then
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f ( x)
and f ( x) also has a period p.

(f) If f ( x) has a period T then f (ax  b) has a period T / a (a  0) .

10. General: If x, y are independent variables, then:
(i) f ( xy )  f ( x)  f ( y )  f ( x)  k ln x or f ( x)  0 .
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(ii) f ( xy)  f ( x). f ( y)  f ( x)  xn , n  R .

(iii) f ( x  y)  f ( x). f ( y)  f ( x)  a kx .
(iv) f ( x  y )  f ( x)  f ( y )  f ( x)  kx , where k is a constant.
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TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

1. Trigonometric functions of sum or Difference of Two Angles:

(a) sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  cos A sin B  2sin A cos B  sin( A  B)  sin( A  B) and
2cos A sin B  sin( A  B)  sin( A  B)
(b) cos( A  B)  cos A cos B sin A sin B
2cos A cos B  cos( A  B)  cos( A  B) and 2sin A sin B  cos( A  B)  cos( A  B )

(c) sin 2 A  sin 2 B  cos2 B  cos2 A  sin( A  B).sin( A  B)

(d) cos 2 A  sin 2 B  cos2 B  sin 2 A  cos( A  B).cos( A  B) .

cot A cot B 1
(e) cot( A  B) 
cot B  cot A
tan A  tan B  tan C  tan A tan B tan C
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(f) tan( A  B  C )  .
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1  tan A tan B  tan B tan C  tan C tan A

2. Factorisation of the sum or difference of two Sines or Cosines:
CD CD
(a) sin C  sin D  2sin cos
2 2
CD CD
(b) sin C  sin D  2cos sin
2 2
CD CD
(c) cos C  cos D  2cos cos
2 2
CD CD
(d) cos C  cos D  2sin sin
2 2
3. Multiple and Sub-multiple Angles:
 
(a) cos 2 A  cos 2 A  sin 2 A  2cos 2 A  1  1  2sin 2 A;2cos 2  1  cos , 2sin 2  1  cos  .
2 2
2tan A 1  tan 2 A
(b) sin 2 A  ,cos 2 A 
1  tan 2 A 1  tan 2 A
(c) sin 3 A  3sin A  4sin 3 A
(d) cos3 A  4cos3 A  3cos A
3tan A  tan 3 A

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(e) tan 3 A 
1  3tan 2 A
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4. Important Trigonometric Ratios:
(a) sin n  0;cos n  (1); tan n  0, where n  I
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 3 1 5
(b) sin15 or sin   cos75 or cos ;
12 2 2 12

 3 1 5
cos15 or cos   sin 75 or sin ;
12 2 2 12

3 1 3 1
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tan15   2  3  cot 75; tan 75   2  3  cot15

3 1 3 1
 5 1  5 1
(c) sin or sin18  and cos36 or cos 
10 4 5 4
5. Range of Trigonometric Expression:
 a2  b2  a sin   b cos   a2  b2
6. Sine and Cosine Series:
n
sin
2 sin    n  1  
 
sin   sin(  )  sin(  2)  ...  sin   n  1 
 
 2 

sin
2
n
sin
2 cos    n  1  

cos   cos(  )  cos(  2)  ....  cos   n  1    
 2 

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sin
2
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7. Trigonometric Equations:
Principle solutions: Solutions which lie in the interval [0, 2) are called Principle solutions.
General solutions:
  
(i) sin   sin     n  (1) n  where     ,  , n  I .
 2 2
(ii) cos   cos     2n   where   [0, ], n  I .
  
(iii) tan   tan     n   where     ,  , n  I .
 2 2
(iv) sin 2   sin 2 ,cos2   cos2   cos2 , tan 2   tan 2     n   .

SOLUTON OF TRIANGLE

a b c
1. Sine Rule:   .
sin A sin B sin C
2. Cosine Formula:

r
b2  c 2  a 2
(i) cos A 

(ii) cos B 
2bc
c2  a 2  b2
Si
2ca
a 2  b2  c 2
(iii) cos C 
2ab
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3. Projection Formula:
(i) a  b cos C  c cos B
(ii) b  c cos A  a cos C
(iii) c  a cos B  b cos A
4. Napier’s Analogy – Tangent rule:
N

B C bc A
(i) tan  cot
2 bc 2
C A ca B
(ii) tan  cot
2 ca 2
A B a b C
(iii) tan  cot
2 ab 2
5. Trigonometric function of Half Angles:
A ( s  b)( s  c) B ( s  c)( s  a ) C ( s  a )( s  b)
(i) sin  ;sin  ;sin 
2 bc 2 ca 2 ab
A s( s  a) B s ( s  b) C s ( s  c)
(ii) cos  ;cos  ;cos
2 bc 2 ca 2 ab
A ( s  b)( s  c)  abc
(iii) tan   where S  is semi perimeter of triangle.
s(s  a) s(s  a)
10

2 2
2 2
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(iv) sin A  s ( s  a)( s  b)( s  c) 

bc bc
 1 1 1
6. Area of triangle ():   ab sin C  bc sin A  ca sin B  s( s  a)( s  b)( s  c) .
2 2 2
7. m-n rule: A
If BD : DC  m : n , then
(m  n)cot   m cot   n cot   

 n cot B  m cot C C
B
m n
8. Radius of circumcircle:
a b c abc
R    .
2sin A 2sin B 2sin C 4
9. Radius of the incircle:

(i) r
s
A B C
(ii) r  ( s  a) tan
 ( s  b) tan  ( s  c) tan
2 2 2
B C
a sin sin
(iii) r 2 2 and so on
A
cos

r
2 Si
A B C
(iv) r  4 R sin sin sin
2 2 2
10. Radius of the Ex-circles:
   B C
(i) r1  ; r2  ; r3  a cos cos
sa s b s c r1  2 2 and so on
KC

(iii)
A
A B C cos
(ii) r1  s tan ; r2  s tan ; r3  s tan 2
2 2 2
A B C
(iv) r1  4 R sin .cos .cos
2 2 2
11. Length of angle bisectors, medians and altitudes:
N

ma Aa

a

B C
D E F
A
2bc cos
(i) Length of an angle bisector from the angle A  a  2 .
bc
1
(ii) Length of median from the angle A  ma  2b 2  2c 2  a 2 .
2
2
11

(iii) Length of altitude from the angle A  Aa  .

a
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12. The Distance of the Special Points form Vertices and Sides of Triangle:
(i) Circumcentre (O): OA  R and Oa  R cos A
A
(ii) Incentre (I): IA  r cosec and I a  r
2
A
(iii) Excentre (I1): I1 A  r1 cosec .
2
(iv) Orthocentre: HA  2R cos A and Ha  2R cos B cos C
1 2
(v) Centroid (G): GA  2b 2  2c 2  a 2 and Ga 
3 3a
13. Orthocentre and Pedal Triangle:
The triangle KLM which is formed by joining the feet of the altitudes is called the Pedal Triangle.
(i) Its angles are   2 A,   2B and   2C .
(ii) Its sides are a cos A  R sin 2 A, b cos B  R sin 2 B and c cos C  R sin 2C .
(iii) Circumradii of the triangles PBC, PCA, PAB and ABC are equal.

r
14. Excentral Triangle:
The triangle formed by joining the three excentres I1 , I 2 and I3 of  ABC is called the excentral
or excentric triangle.
Si
(i)  ABC is the pedal triangle of the  I1 I 2 I 3 .

 A  B  C
 ,  and  .
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(ii) Its angles are

2 2 2 2 2 2
A B C
(iii) Its sides are 4 R cos , 4 R cos and 4 R cos .
2 2 2
A B C
(iv) I I1  4 R sin ; I I 2  4 R sin ; I I 3  4 R sin .
2 2 2
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(v) Incentre I of  ABC is the orthocentre of the excentral  I1 I 2 I 3 .

15. Distance between special points:

(i) Distance between circumcentre and orthocentre
OH 2  R 2 (1  8cos A cos B cos C )
(ii) Distance between circumcentre and incentre
 A B C
OI 2  R 2  1  8sin sin sin   R 2  2 Rr
 2 2 2
(iii) Distance between circumcentre and centroid
1
OG 2  R 2  (a 2  b 2  c 2 )
9
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 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

1. Principal values and domains of inverse trigonometric/circular functions:

Function Domain Range
 
(i) y  sin 1 x where 1  x  1   y
2 2
(ii) y  cos 1 x where 1  x  1 0 y
 
(iii) y  tan 1 x where xR   y
2 2
 
(iv) y  cosec1 x where x  1 or x  1   y ,y0
2 2

(v) y  sec1 x where x  1 or x  1 0  y  ; y 
2
(vi) y  cot 1 x where xR 0 y

 
P-2 (i) sin 1 (sin x)  x,  x (ii) cos 1 (cos x)  x; 0  x  
2 2

 

r
(iii) tan 1 (tan x)  x; 
2
x
2
Si (iv) cot 1 (cot x)  x; 0  x  

  
(v) sec1 (sec x)  x; 0  x  , x  (vi) cosec 1(cosec )x ; x x 0,
  x
2 2 2
KC

P-3 (i) sin 1 ( x)   sin 1 x,  1  x  1 (ii) tan 1 ( x)   tan 1 x, xR

(iii) cos 1 ( x)    cos 1 x,  1  x  1 (iv) cot 1 ( x)    cot 1 x, x  R

 
P-5 (i) sin 1 x  cos 1 x  , 1  x  1 (ii) tan 1 x  cot 1 x  , xR
N

2 2


(iii) cosec1 x  sec1 x  , x 1
2

2. Identities of Addition and Subtraction:

I-1 (i) sin 1 x  sin 1 y  sin 1[ x 1  y 2  y 1  x 2 ], x  0, y  0 and ( x 2  y 2 )  1

   sin 1[ x 1  y 2  y 1  x 2 ], x  0, y  0 and x 2  y 2  1

(ii) cos 1 x  cos 1 y  cos 1[ xy  1  x 2 1  y 2 ], x  0, y  0

x y
(iii) tan 1 x  tan 1 y  tan 1 , x  0, y  0 and xy  1
1  xy
x y 
   tan 1 , x  0, y  0 and xy  1  , x  0, y  0 and xy=1
1  xy 2
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I-2 (i) sin 1 x  sin 1 y  sin 1  x 1  y 2  y 1  x2  , x  0, y  0
 

(ii) cos1 x  cos1 y  cos1  xy  1  x2 1  y 2  , x  0, y  0, x  y

 

x y
(iii) tan 1 x  tan 1 y  tan 1 , x  0, y  0
1  xy

 1
 2sin x
1
if x 
 2
I-3 (i) 
sin 1 2 x 1  x 2  
    2sin 1 x if x 
1
2

 1
 (  2sin x) if x   2
1

 2cos 1 x if 0  x  1
(ii) cos1 (2 x 2  1)  
 2  2cos x if  1  x  0
1

 2 tan 1 x

r
if x  1
(iii) tan 1 2x 
   2 tan x
1  x2 
1
Si
if x  1
 (  2 tan 1 x) if x  1


 2 tan 1 x if x  1
KC

2x 
(iv) sin 1
   2 tan x 1
if x  1
1  x2 
 (  2 tan x) if x  1
1


1  x 2  2 tan 1 x if x  0
(v) cos1 
1  x 2  2 tan 1 x if x  0
N

 x  y  z  xyz 
If tan 1 x  tan 1 y  tan 1 z  tan 1   if, x  0, y  0, z  0 and ( xy  yz  zx) 1. .
1  xy  yz  zx 

NOTE:

(i) If tan 1 x  tan 1 y  tan 1 z   then x  y  z  xyz .


(ii) If tan 1 x  tan 1 y  tan 1 z  then xy  yz  zx  1 .
2

(iii) tan 1 1  tan 1 2  tan 1 3  

1 1 
(iv) tan 1 1  tan 1  tan 1 
2 3 2
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 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

1. Quadratic Equation: ax2  bx  c  0, a  0 .

b  b 2  4ac
x , The expression b 2  4ac  D is called discriminant of quadratic equation.
2a
b c
If ,  are the roots, then (a)      (b)   .
a a
A quadratic equation whose roots are  and  is ( x  )( x  )  0 i.e., x 2  (  )    0 .
2. Nature of Roots:
Consider the quadratic equation, ax 2  bx  c  0 having  as its roots; D  b 2  4ac .

D=0 D0

r
Si
KC
N

3. Common Roots:
Consider two quadratic equations a1 x 2  b1 x  c1  0 and a2 x 2  b2 x  c2  0 .
a1 b1 c1
(i) If two quadratic equations have both roots common, then   .
a2 b2 c2
c1a2  c2 a1 b1c2  b2 c1
(ii) If only one root  is common, then    .
a1b2  a2b1 c1a2  c2 a1
4. Range of Quadratic Expression f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c .
Range in restricted domain: Given x [ x1 , x2 ] .
b
(a) If   [ x1 , x2 ] then, f ( x)   min  f ( x1 ), f ( x2 ) , max  f ( x1 ), f ( x2 ) .
2a
b   D  D 
(b) If   [ x1 , x2 ] then, f ( x)   min  f ( x1 ), f ( x2 ),   , max  f ( x1 ), f ( x2 ),   .
15

2a   4 a   4 a 
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5. Location of Roots:
Let f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c , where a  0 and a.b.c  R .
(i) Conditions for both the roots of f ( x)  0 to be greater than a specified number ' x0 ' are
b2  4ac  0; f ( x0 )  0 and (b / 2a)  x0
(ii) Conditions for both the roots of f ( x)  0 to be smaller than a specified number ' x0 ' are
b2  4ac  0; f ( x0 )  0 and (b / 2a)  x0
(iii) Conditions for both roots of f ( x)  0 to lie on either side of the number ' x0 ' (in other
words the number ' x0 ' lies between the roots of f ( x)  0 )
(iv) Conditions that both roots of f ( x)  0 to be confined between the numbers x1 and
x2 ,( x1  x2 ) are b 2  4ac  0; f ( x1 )  0 and x1  (b / 2a)  x2 .
(v) Conditions for exactly one root of f ( x)  0 to lie in the interval ( x1 , x2 ) i.e.,
x1  x  x2 is f ( x1 ). f ( x2 )  0 .

COMPLEX NUMBER

1. The complex number system:

z  a  ib , then a  ib is called conjugate of z and is denoted by z .

r
Equality in Complex Number: z1  z2  Re( z1 )  Re( z2 ) and Im ( z1 )  Im ( z2 ) .
2.
3. Representation of A Complex number:
Si
4. Properties of arguments:
(i) arg( z1 z2 )  arg( z1 )  arg( z2 )  2m for some integer m.
KC

(ii) arg( z1 / z2 )  arg( z1 )  arg( z2 )  2m for some integer m.

(iii) arg( z 2 )  2arg( z )  2m for some integer m.

(iv) arg( z )  0  z is a positive real number.

arg( z )   / 2  is purely imaginary and z  0 .

N

(v)
5. Properties of conjugate:
(i) zz (v) z1 z2  z1 z2

zz  z
2
(ii)  z1  z1
(vi)    ( z2  0)
 z2  z2
(iii) z1  z2  z1  z2

(iv) z1  z2  z1  z2

z1  z2  ( z1  z2 )( z1  z2 )  z1  z2  z1 z2  z1 z2
2
(vii)

(viii) ( z1 )  z
(ix) If w  f ( z ) , then w  f ( z ) .
16

(x) arg( z )  arg( z )

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6. Rotation theorem:
If P( z1 ), Q( z2 ) and R( z3 ) are three complex numbers and PQR   , then
 z3  z2  z3  z2 i 
  e .
 z1  z2  z1  z2
7. Demoivre’s Theorem:
Case I: If n is any integer then
(i) (cos   i sin )n  cos n  i sin n
(ii) (cos 1  i sin 1 )(cos 2  i sin 2 )(cos 3  i sin 2 )(cos 3  i sin 3 )...(cos n  i sin n )
 cos(1  2  3  ....n )  i sin(1  2  3  ...  n )
 2k    2 k   p 
Case II: If p, q  Z and q  0 then (cos   i sin ) p / q  cos    i sin  
 q   q 
where k  0,1, 2,3,...., q  1 .
8. Cube Root of Unity:
1  i 3 1  i 3
(i) The cube roots of unity are 1, , .
2 2

r
(ii) If  is one of the imaginary cube roots of unity 1    2  0 . In general
Si
1  r  2 r  0 ; where r  I but in not the multiple of 3.
9. Logarithm of a Complex Quantity:
1  
(i) log e (  i )  log e ( 2  2 )  i  2n  tan 1  where n  I .
2  
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10. Geometrical Properties:

Distance formula: z1  z2 .
mz2  nz1 mz  nz1
Section formula: z  (internal division), z  2 (external division)
mn mn
(1) amp( z )   is ray emanating from the origin inclined at an angle  to the x-axis.
N

(2) z  a  z  b is the perpendicular bisector of the line joining a to b.

(3) The equation of a line joining z1 and z2 is given by, z  z1  t ( z1  z2 ) where t is a real
parameter.
(4) The equation of circle having centre z0 and radius  is:
z  z0   or zz  z0 z  z0 z  z0 z  2  0 which is of the form zz  z  z  k  0 , k is real.

Centre is  and radius    k . Circle will be real if   k  0 .

(5) If z1  z1  z  z2  k  z1  z2 then locus of z is an ellipse whose foci are z1 and z2 .

z  z1
(6) If  k  1,0 , then locus of z is circle.
z  z2

(7) If z  z1  z  z2  k  z1  z2 then locus of z is a hyperbola, whose foci are z1 and z2 .

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 PERMUTATON AND COMBINATION

1. Arrangement: Number of permutations of n different things taken r at a

n!
time  n Pr  n(n  1)(n  2)....(n  r  1) 
(n  r )!
2. Circular Permutation:
The number of circular permutations of n different things taken all at a time is: ( n  1)! .
n
n! P
3. Selection: Number of combinations of n different things taken r at a time  n Cr   r.
r !(n  r )! r !
4. The number of permutations of ‘n’ things, taken all at a time, when ‘p’ of them are similar and
of one type, q of them are similar and of another type, ‘r’ of them are similar and of a third type
n!
and the remaining n  ( p  q  r ) are all different is .
p! q! r !
5. Selection of one or more objects:
(a) Number of ways in which atleast one object be selected out of ‘n’ distinct objects is
n
C1  n C2  n C3  ......  n Cn  2n  1

r
(b) Number of ways in which atleast one object may be selected out of ‘p’ alike objects of one
Si
type ‘q’ alike objects of second type and ‘r’ alike of third type is
( p  1)( q  1)( r  1)  1
(c) Number of ways in which atleast one object may be selected from ‘n’ objects where ‘p’ alike
of one type ‘q’ alike of second type and ‘r’ alike of third type and rest n  ( p  q  r ) are
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different, is ( p  1)(q  1)(r  1)2n ( p  q  r )  1 .

6. Multinomial Theorem:
Coefficient of x r in expansion of (1  x) n  n  r 1Cr (n  N ) .
7. Let N  p a q b r c .... where p, q, r are distinct primes and a, b, c..... are natural numbers then:
(a) The total numbers of divisors of N including 1 and N is  (a  1)(b  1)(c  1)... .
N

(b) The sum of these divisors is

 ( p 0  p1  p 2  ....  p a )(q 0  q1  q 2  ...  q b )(r 0  r1  r 2  ...  r c )...
(c) Number of ways in which N can be resolved as a product of two factors is
1
(a  1)(b  1)(c  1)... if N is not a perfect square
2
1
[(a  1)(b  1)(c  1)...  1] if N is a perfect square
2
(d) Number of ways in which a composite number N can be resolved into two factors which are
relatively prime (or coprime) to each other is equal to 2n1 where n is the number of different
prime factors in N.
8. De-arrangement:
Number of ways in which ‘n’ letters can be put in ‘n’ corresponding envelopes such that no letter
 1 1 1 1 1
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goes to correct envelope is n !1     .....  (1) n  .

 1! 2! 3! 4! n! 
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 BINOMIAL THEOREM

1. Statement of Binomial theorem: If a, b, R and n  N , then

n
(a  b)n  n C0 a n b0  n C1a n 1b1  n C2 a n  2b 2  ....  n Cr a n  r b r  ....  nCn a 0b n   nCr a n r b r
r 0

2. Properties of Binomial Theorem:

(i) General term: Tr 1  n Cr a n  r b r .

(ii) Middle term(s):

n2
(a) If n is even, there is only one middle term, which is   th term.
 2 

 n 1  n 1 
(b) If i is odd, there are two middle terms, which are   th and   1 th terms.
 2   2 

n!
3. Multinomial Theorem: ( x1  x2  x3  ..... xk ) n   r ! r !...r !
x1r1 .x2r2 ....xkrk
r1  r2  ... rk  n 1 2

r
k

Here total number of terms in the expansion  n  k 1Ck 1 .

4. Application of Binomial Theorem:

Si
If ( A  B)n  I  f where I and n are positive integers, n being odd and 0  f  1 then

( I  f ) f  k n where A  B2  k  0 and A  B  1.
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If n is an even integer, then ( I  f )(1  f )  k n .

5. Properties of Binomial Coefficients:

(i) n
C0  n C1  n C2  ....  n Cn  2n
N

(ii) n
C0  n C1  n C2  n C3  .......  (1)n n Cn  0

(iii) n
C0  n C2  n C4  ......  n C1  n C3  n C5  ....  2n 1

(iv) n
Cr  n Cr 1  n 1
Cr
n
Cr n  r 1
(v) n

Cr 1 r

6. Binomial Theorem for Negative Integer or Fractional Indices:

n(n  1) 2 n(n  1)(n  2) 3 n(n  1)(n  2)...(n  r  1) r
(1  x)n  1  nx  x  x  ...  x  ..., x  1
2! 3! r!
n(n  1)(n  2)...(n  r  1) r
Tr 1  x
r!
19
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 SEQUENCE AND SERIES

1. An arithmetic progression (A.P.): a, a  d , a  2d ,...a  (n  1)d is an A.P.

Let a be the first term and d be the common difference of an A.P., then n th term  tn  a  (n 1)d .
The sum of first n terms of are A.P.
n n
Sn  [2a  (n  1)d ]  [a  ]
2 2
r of an A.P. when sum of first r terms is given is tr  Sr  Sr 1 .
th

2. Properties of A.P.
(i) If a, b, c are in A.P.  2b  a  c and if a, b, c, d are in A.P.  a  d  b  c .
(ii) Three numbers in A.P. can be taken as a  d , a, a  d ; four numbers in A.P. can be taken
as a  3d , a  d , a  d , a  3d ; five numbers in A.P. are a  2d , a  d , a, a  d , a  2d and
six terms in A.P. are a 5d , a  3d , a  d , a  d , a  3d , a  5d etc.
(iii) Sum of the terms of A.P. equidistant from the beginning and end = sum of first and last
term.
3. Arithmetic Mean (Mean and Average) (A.M.):
If three terms are in A.P. then the middle term is called the A.M. between the other two, so if

r
a, b c are in A.P., b is A.M. of a and c.
n-Arithmetic Means between two numbers:
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If a, b are any two given numbers and a, A1 , A2 ,...An , b are in A.P. then A1 , A2 ,... An are the
ba 2(b  a) n(b  a)
n A.M.’s between a and b. A1  a  , A2  a  ,....., An  a 
n 1 n 1 n 1
KC

n
 Ar  nA where A is the single A.M. between a and b .
r 1

4. Geometric Progression: a, ar, ar 2 , ar 3 , ar 4 ,.... is a G.P. with a as the first term and r as common
ratio.
(i) n th term  a r n 1
 a (r n  1)
N

 , r 1
(ii) Sum of the first n terms i.e., Sn   r  1
 na, r 1

a
(iii) Sum of an infinite G.P. when r  1 is given by Sn  ( r  1) .
1 r
5. Geometric Means (Mean Proportional) (G.M.):
If a, b, c  0 are in G.P., b is the G.M. between a and c , then b 2  ac .
n-Geometric Means between positive number a, b: If a, b are two given numbers and
a, G1 , G2 ,...., Gn , b are in G.P. Then G1 , G2 , G3 ,...., Gn are n G.M.’s between a and b .
G1  a(b / a)1/ n 1 , G2  a(b / a)2/ n 1 ,......, Gn  a (b / a )n / n 1 .
6. Harmonic Mean(H.M.):
2ac
If a, b, c are in H.P. b is the H.M. between a and c , then b  .
ac
1 11  1
20

H.M. H of a1 , a2 ,....an is given by     .....   .

H n  a1 a2 an 
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7. Relation between means:
G 2  AH , A.M .  G.M .  H .M . and A.M .  G.M .  H .M . if a1  a2  a3  .....  an
8. Important Results:
n n n
(i)  (ar  br )   ar   br
r 1 r 1 r 1

n n
(ii)  k ar  k  ar
r 1 r 1

n
(iii)  k  nk ; where k is a constant.
r 1

n
n(n  1)
(iv)  r  1  2  3  ....  n  2
r 1

n
n(n  1)(2n  1)
(v)  r 2  12  22  32  .....n2  6
r 1

n
n2 (n  1)2
(vi)  r 3  13  23  33  ....  n3  4
r 1

n
(vii) 2  ai a j  (a1  a2  .....  an )2  (a12  a22  .....  an2 )
i  j 1

r
Si
DETERMINANT
a1 b1
1. The symbol is called the determinant of order two.
a2 b2
KC

Its value is given by D  a1b2  a2b1 .

a1 b1 c1
2. The symbol a2 b2 c2 is called the determinant of order three.
a3 b3 c3
N

b2 c2 b c1 b c1
Its value can be found as: D  a1  a2 1  a3 1 or
b3 c3 b3 c3 b2 c2
b2 c2 a c2 a b2
D  a1  b1 2  c1 2 and so on. In this manner we can expand a determinant in
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3
6 ways using elements of R1 , R2 , R3 or C1 , C2 , C3 .
3. Minors: The minor of a given element of a determinant is the determinant of the elements which
remain after deleting the row and the column in which the given element stands for example, the
b2 c2 a c1
minor of a1 in (Key Concept 2) is and the minor of b2 is 1 . Hence, a determinant
b3 c3 a3 c3
of order two will have “4 minors” and a determinant of order three will have “9 minors”.
4. Cofactor: If M ij represents the minor of some typical element then the cofactor is defined as:
Cij  (1)i j .M ij ; Where i and j denotes the row and column in which the particular element lies.
Note that the value of a determinant of order three in terms of ‘Minor’ and ‘Cofactor’ can be
21

written as: D  a11M11  a12 M12  a13 M13 or D  a11C11  a12C12  a13C13 and so on.... .
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5. Properties of Determinants:
P – 1: The value of a determinant remains unaltered, if the rows and columns are inter
a1 b1 c1 a1 a2 a3
changed. e.g., if D  a2 b2 c2  b1 b2 b3  D D and D  are transpose of each
a3 b3 c3 c1 c2 c3
other. If D   D then it is skew symmetric determinant but
D  D  2D  0  D  0  skew symmetric determinant of third order has the value
zero.
P – 2: If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant be interchanged, the value of determinant
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
is changed in sign only. E.g., Let D  a2 b2 c2 and D  a1 b1 c1 Then D   D
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3
P – 3: If a determinant has any two rows (or columns) identical, then its value is zero. e.g.,
a1 b1 c1
Let D  a1 b1 c1 then it can be verified that D  0 .
a3 b3 c3
P – 4: If all the elements of any row (or column) be multiplied by the same number, then the

r
determinant is multiplied by that number.
a1 b1 c1
e.g., If D  a2 b2 c2 and D  a2
SiKa1 Kb1 Kc1
b2 c2 . Then D   KD
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3
P – 5: If each element of any row (or column) can be expressed as a sum of two terms then
KC

the determinant can be expressed as the sum of two determinants. e.g.,

a1  x b1  y c1  z a1 b1 c1 x y z
a2 b2 c2  a2 b2 c2  a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3
P – 6: The value of a determinant is not altered by adding to the elements of any row (or
N

column) the same multiples of the corresponding elements of any other row (or column)
e.g.,
a1  x b1  y c1  z a1 b1 c1 x y z
Let a2 b2 c2  a2 b2 c2  a2 b2 c2 .
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3
Note: That while applying this property ATLEAST ONE ROW (OR COLUMN)
must remain unchanged.
P – 7: If by putting x  a the value of a determinant vanishes then a factor of the
determinant.
6. Cramer’s Rule: [Simultaneous Equation Involving three Unknowns]
Let a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1 ....(I); a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d2 ...(II); a3 x  b3 y  c3 z  d3 ...(III) .
D1 D2 D
Then, X  ,Y  ,Z  3
D D D
a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1 a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1
22

Where D  a2 b2 c2 ; D1  d 2 b2 c2 ; D2  a2 d2 c2 and D3  a2 b2 d2
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a3 b3 c3 d3 b3 c3 a3 d3 c3 a3 b3 d3
 NOTE:
(a) If D  0 and atleast one of D1 , D2 , D3  0 , then the given system of equations are consistent
and have unique non trivial solution.
(b) If D  0 and D1  D2  D3  0 , then the given system of equations are consistent and have
trivial solution only.
(c) If D  D1  D2  D3  0 , then the given system of equations are consistent and have infinite
a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1 

solutions. In case a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d 2  represents these parallel planes then also
a3 x  b3 y  c3 z  d 3 
D  D1  D2  D3  0 but the system is inconsistent.
(d) If D  0 but atleast one of D1 , D2 , D3 is not zero then the equations are inconsistent and have
no solution.
7. If x, y, z are not all zero, the condition for a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  0; a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  0
a1 b1 c1
and a3 x  b3 y  c3 z  0 to be consistent in x, y, z is that a2 b2 c2  0 . Remember that I a
a3 b3 c3

r
given system of linear equations have Only Zero solution for all its variables then the given
Si
equations are said to have TRIVIAL SOLUTION.

MATRICES
KC

Useful in study of science, economics and engineering

1. Definition: Rectangular array of x  a number. Unlike determinants it has no value.
 a11 a12 ...... a1 n   a11 a12 ...... a1 n 
   
A   a21 a22 ...... a2 n  or  a21 a22 ...... a2 n 
 am1 am 2 ...... amn   amn 
 am1 am 2 ......
N

Abbreviated as: A  [aij ]1  i  m;1  j  n, , i denotes the row and j denotes the column is called
a matrix of order m  n .
2. Special Type of Matrices:
(a) Row matrix: A  [a11 , a12 ],......a1 n having one row. (1  n) matrix (or row vectors)
 a11 
a 
(b) Column Matrix: A    having one column. (m  1) matrix (or column vectors)
21

 : 
 
 am 1 
(c) Zero or Null Matrix: ( A  0mn ) an m  n matrix all whose entries are zero.
0 0  0 0 0 
 
A  0 0  is a 3  2 null matrix and B  0 0 0  is 3  3 null matrix
0 0  0 0 0 
23

1 2 3 4 
(d) Horizontal Matrix: A matrix of order m  n is a horizontal matrix if n  m.  .
2 5 1 1 
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 2 5
1 1 
(e) Vertical Matrix: A matrix of order m  n is a vertical matrix if m  n.  .
3 6
 
2 4
(f) Square Matrix: (Order n) If number of row = number of column  a square matrix.
Note:
(i) In a square matrix the pair of elements aij and a ji are called Conjugate Elements e.g.,
 a11 a12 
 .
 a21 a22 
(ii) The elements a11 , a22 , a33 ,....an n are called Diagonal Elements. The line along which the
diagonal elements lie is called “Principal or Leading” diagonal. The qty  aii  trace
of the matrices written as, i.e., tr A . Triangular Matrix Diagonal Matrix denote as
ddia (d1 , d2 ,...., dn ) all elements except the leading diagonal are zero diagonal Matrix Unit
or Identity Matrix.
Note: Minimum number of zeros in a diagonal matrix of order n  n(n  1) . “It is to be noted that
with square matrix there is a corresponding determinant formed by the elements of A in the same

r
order.”
Equality of Matrices: Let A  [aij ] and B  [bij ] are equal if,
3.
(i) Both have the same order.
Si
(ii) aij  bij for each pair of i and j .
a b c   ka kb kc 
4.  
Multiplication of A matrix by a Scalar: If A   b c a  ; kA   kb kc ka  .
KC

 c a b   kc ka kb 
5. Multiplication of Matrices: (Row by Column):
AB exists if, A  m  n and B  n  p 2  3 3  3 AB exists, but BA does not AB  BA .
 b1 
b 
 A  pre factor
N

Note: In the product AB,  A  (a1 , a2 ,.....an ) and B   2  1  n n  1 A .

 B  post factor :
 
bn 
n
B  [a1b1  a2b2  ...  anbn ] If A  [aij ] m  n and B  [bij ] n  p matrix, then ( AB)ij   air .brj .
r 1

Properties of Matrix Multiplication:

1. Matrix multiplication is not commutative.
1 1  1 0  1 0  1 1 
A  ;B    ; AB    ; BA     AB  BA (in general)
0 0  0 0  0 0  0 0
1 1   1 1  0 0 
2. AB       AB  O  A  O or B  O .
 2 2   1 1 0 0 
Note: If A and B are two non-zero matrices such that AB  O then A and B are called the
divisors of zero. Also if [ AB]  O  A B  0  A  0 or B  0 but not the converse. If A
24

and B are two matrices such that

(i) AB  BA  A and B commute each other.
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(ii) AB   BA  A and B anti commute each other.

 3. Matrix Multiplication is Associative:
If A, B and C are conformable for the product AB and BC , then ( A.B).C  A.( B.C )
4. Distributivity:
A( B  C )  AB  AC 
( A  B)C  AC  BC 
Provided A, B and C are conformable for respective products.

5. Positive Integral powers of a Square Matrix:

For a square matrix A, A2 A  ( AA) A  A( AA)  A3
Note that for a unit matrix I of any order, I m  I for all m  N .
6. Matrix polynomial:
If f ( x)  a0 xn  a1 xn1  a2 xn2  ...  an x0 then we define a matrix polynomial
f ( A)  a0 A  a1 A  a2 A  ....  an I where A is the given square matrix. If f ( A) is the
n n1 n2 n

null matrix then A is called the zero or root of the polynomial f ( x) .

Definitions:
(a) Idempotent Matrix: A square matrix is idempotent provided A2  A .
Note that An  An  2, n  N .
(b) Nilpotent Matrix: A square matrix is said to be nilpotent matrix of order m, m  N , if

r
Am  O, Am1  O . Si
(c) Periodic Matrix: A square matrix is which satisfies the relation A K 1  A , for some positive
integer K, is a periodic matrix. The period of the matrix is the least value of K for which this
holds true.
Note that period of an idempotent matrix is 1.
(d) Involuntary Matrix: If A2  I , the matrix is said to be an involuntary matrix.
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Note that A = A−1 for an involuntary matrix.

6. The transpose of a matrix: (Changing rows and columns)
Let A be any matrix. Then A  aij of order m  n .
 AT or A  [a ji ] for 1  i  n and 1  j  m of order n  m
N

Properties of Transpose:
(a) ( A  B)T  AT  BT ; note that A and B have the same order.
(b) ( AB)T  BT AT A and B are conformable for matrix product AB.
(c) ( A )  A
T T

(d) (kA)T  kAT k is a scalar.

General: ( A1 , A2 ,.... An )T  AnT ,....., A2T , A1T (reversal law for transpose)
7. Symmetric and Skew symmetric matrix:
A square matrix A  [aij ] is said to be, symmetric if, aij  a ji  i and j (conjugate elements are
equal)
(Note A = AT)
n(n  1)
Note: Maximum number of distinct entries in a symmetric matrix of order n is and skew
2
symmetric if, aij  a ji  i and j (the pair of conjugate elements are additive inverse of each
25

other) (Note A = −AT). Hence If A is skew symmetric, then aii  aii  0 i . Thus are diagonal
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elements of a skew symmetric matrix are all zero, but not the converse.
 Properties of symmetric and Skew Matrix:
P – 1: A is symmetric if A  AT is skew symmetric if AT   A .
P – 2: A  AT is a symmetric matrix A  AT is a skew symmetric matrix. Consider
( A  AT )T  AT  ( AT )T  AT  A  A  AT , A  AT is symmetric. Similarly we can
prove that A  AT is skew symmetric.
P – 3: The sum of two symmetric matrix is a symmetric matrix is a skew symmetric matrix.
Let AT  A; BT  B where A and B have the same order. ( A  B)T  A  B similarly we
can prove the other.
P – 4: If A and B are symmetric matrices then,
(a) AB  BA is a symmetric matrix
(b) AB  BA is a skew symmetric matrix.
P – 5: Every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as a sum of a symmetric and a skew
symmetric matrix.
1 1
A  ( A  AT )  ( A  AT )
2 2
P Q
Symmetric Skew Symmetric
 a11 a13 

r
a12
 
8. Adjoint of a square matrix: Let A  [ aij ]   a21 a22 a23  be a square matrix and let the matrix
Si
a
 31 a32 a33 
 C11 C12 C13 
 
formed by the cofactors of [aij ] in determinant A is  C21 C22 C23  . Then
C C33 
 31 C32
KC

 C11 C21 C31 

 
adjA =  C12 C22 C32  .
C C33 
 13 C23
N

 C11 C21 C31 

 
Very Important Theorem: adjA =  C12 C22 C32  , If A be a square matrix of order n.
C C C33 
 13 23

Note: If A and B are non-singular square matrices of same order, then

n1
(i) adjA  A
(ii) adj ( AB)  (adjB)(adjA)
(iii) adj ( KA)  K n1 (adjA), K is a scalar
Inverse of a Matrix (Reciprocal Matrix): A square matrix A said to be invertible (non-singular)
if there exists a matrix B such that, AB  I  BA .
B is called the inverse (reciprocal) of A and is denoted by A1 . Thus,
A1  B  AB  I  BA.
We have, A.(adjA)  A I n .
(adj A)
A1 A(adjA)  A1 I n A ; I n (adjA)  A1 A I n  A1 
26

A
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Note: The necessary and sufficient condition for a square matrix A to be invertible is that A  0.
 Important Theorem: If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order, then ( AB)1  B1 A1 .
This is reversal law for inverse.
Note:
(i) If A be an invertible matrix, then AT is also invertible ( AT )1  ( A1 )T .
(ii) If A is invertible, (a) ( A1 )1  A ; (b) ( Ak )1  ( A1 )k  A k , k  N
(iii) If A is an Orthogonal Matrix: AAT  I  AT A .
(iv) A square matrix is said to be orthogonal if, A1  AT .
1
(v) A1  .
A

LIMITS OF FUNCTION
1. Limit of a function f ( x ) is said to exist as x  a when,
lim f (a  h)  lim f (a  h)  some finite value M .
h  0 h  0

(Left hand limit) (Right hand limit)

2. In determinant Forms:
0 
, ,0  ,   , ,0 and 1

r
0 
3. Standard Limits:

lim
x 0
sin x
 lim
x 0
tan x
 lim
x 0
tan 1 x
Si
 lim
x 0
sin 1
 lim
x 0
ex 1
 lim
x 0
l n(1  x)
1
x x x x x x
ax 1 xn  an
x
 1
lim(1  x)  lim 1    e,lim
1/ x
 log e a, a  0,lim  na n 1
x 0 x 
 x x  0 x x  a xa
KC

4. Limit Using Expansion:

x ln a x 2 ln 2 a x3 ln 3 a
(i) ax  1    ...a  0
1! 2! 3!
x x 2 x3
(ii) e x  1     ...
1! 2! 3!
N

x 2 x3 x 4
(iii) ln(1  x)  x     .... for  1  x  1
2 3 4
3
x x5 x 7 x3 2 x5
(iv) sin x  x     ... (vi) tan x  x    ...
3! 5! 7! 3 15
x 2 x 4 x6 x3 x5 x 7
(v) cos x  1     ... (vii) tan 1 x  x     ...
2! 4! 6! 3 5 7
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 .3 5 1 .3 .5 7
(viii) sin 1 x  x  x3  x  x  ...
3! 5! 7!
n(n  1) 2 n(n  1)(n  2) 3
(ix) For x  1, n  R(1  x)n  1  nx  x  x  .... .
1.2 1.2.3
5. Limits of form 1 , 00 , 0
Also for (1) type of problems we can use following rules.
lim [ f ( x ) 1] g ( x )
lim(1  x)1/ x  e,lim[ f ( x)]g ( x ) , where f ( x)  1; g ( x)   as x  a  lim  e xa
x 0 x a x a
27

6. Sandwich Theorem or Squeeze Play Theorem:

If f ( x)  g ( x)  h( x)  and lim f ( x)   lim h( x) then lim g ( x)  .
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x a x a xa
 METHOD OF DIFFERENTIATION

1. Differentiation of some elementary functions:

d n d
1. ( x )  nx n 1 6. (cos x)   sin x
dx dx
d x d
2. (a )  a x n a 7. (sec x)  sec x tan x
dx dx
d 1 d
3. ( n x) 8. (cosec)   cos ec x cot x
dx x dx
d 1 d
4. (log a x)  9. (tan x)  sec2 x
dx x na dx
d d
5. (sin x)  cos x 10. (cot x)  cosec2 x
dx dx
2. Basic Theorems:
d
( f  g )  f ( x)  g ( x) d  f ( x)  g ( x) f ( x)  f ( x) g ( x)
1.
dx
4.  
dx  g ( x)  g 2 ( x)
d dy
(kf ( x))  k d

r
2. f ( x) 5. ( f ( g ( x)))  f ( g ( x)) g ( x)
dx dx Si dx
d
3. ( f ( x).g ( x))  f ( x) g ( x)  g ( x) f ( x)
dx

Derivative of Inverse Trigonometric Functions.

d sin 1 x 1 d cos 1 x 1
KC

 ,  , for  1  x  1
dx 1 x 2 dx 1  x2
d tan 1 x 1 d cot 1 x 1
 ,  ( x  R)
dx 1 x 2
dx 1  x2
d sec 1 x 1 d cosec 1 x 1
 ,  , for x  (, 1)  (1, )
x2  1 x2  1
N

dx x dx x
3. Differentiation using substitution:
Following substitutions are normally used to simplify these expression.
 
(i) x2  a2 by substituting x  a tan  , where     .
2 2
 
(ii) x2  a2 by substituting x  a sin  , where     .
2 2

(iii) x2  a2 by substituting x  a sec  , where  [0, ],   .
2
xa
(iv) by substituting x  a cos  , where   (0, ] .
ax
4. Parametric Differentiation:
dy dy / d 
If y  f () and x  g () where  is a parameter, then  .
dx dx / d 
28
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5. Derivative of one function with respect to another:
dy dy / dx f ( x)
Let y  f ( x); z  g ( x) , then   .
dz dz / dx g ( x)
f ( x ) g ( x ) h( x )
6. If f ( x)  l ( x) m( x) n( x) , where f , g , h, l , m, n, u , v, w are differentiable functions of x then
u ( x) v( x) w( x)
f ( x) g ( x) h( x) f ( x) g ( x) h( x) f ( x) g ( x) h( x)
f ( x)  l ( x) m( x) n( x)  l ( x) m( x) n( x)  l ( x) m( x) n( x) .
u ( x) v( x) w( x) u ( x) v( x) w( x) u ( x) v ( x) w( x)

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

1. Equation of tangent and normal

Tangent at ( x1 , y1 ) is given by ( y  y1 )  f ( x1 )( x  x1 ) ; when, f ( x1 ) is real.
1
And normal at ( x1 , y1 ) is ( y  y1 )   ( x  x1 ) , when f ( x1 ) is non-zero real.
f ( x1 )

r
2. Tangent from an external point Si
Given a point P(a, b) which does not lie on the curve y  f ( x) , then the equation of possible
tangents to the curve y  f ( x) , passing through can be found by solving for the point of contact
Q.
f ( h)  b
f (h) 
KC

ha Q(h, f(h))

P(a, b)
y = f(x)
N

f ( h)  b
And equation of tangent is y  b  ( x  a) .
ha
3. Length of tangent, normal, sub-tangent, subnormal
1
(i) PT  k 1   Length of Tangent
m2
(ii) PN  k 1  m 2  Length of Normal
k
(iii) TM   Length of sub-tangent.
m
(iv) MN  km  Length of subnormal.
4. Angle between the curves:
Angle between two intersecting curves is defined as the acute angle between their tangents (or
normals) at the point of intersection of two curves (as shown in figure).
29

m1  m2
tan  
Page

1  m1m2
5. Shortest distance between two curves:
Shortest distance between two non-intersecting differentiable curves is always along their
common normal. (Wherever defined)
6. Rolle’s Theorem:
If a function f defined on [a, b] is
(i) Continuous on [a, b]
(ii) Derivable on ( a, b) and
(iii) f (a)  f (b)
Then there exists at least one real number c between and a and b (a  c  b) such that f (c)  0 .
7. Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem (LMVT):
If a function f defined on [a, b] is
(i) Continuous on [a, b] and
(ii) Derivable on ( a, b)
Then there exists at least one real numbers between a and b (a  c  b) such that
f (b)  f (a)
 f (c) .
ba

r
8. Useful formulae of Mensuration of Remember:
1. Volume of a cuboid  lbm .
Si
2. Surface area of cuboid  2(lb  bh  hl ) .
3. Volume of cube  a 3 .
4. Surface area of cube  a 3 .
1
KC

5. Volume of a cone  r 2 h .
3
6. Curved surface area of cone  rl (l  slant height) .
7. Curved surface area of a cylinder  2rh .
8. Total surface area of a cylinder  2rh  2r 2 .
4
N

9. Volume of a sphere  r 3 .
3
10. Surface area of a sphere  4r 2 .
1
11. Area of a circular sector  r 2  , when  is in radians.
2
12. Volume of a prism = (area of the base) × (height).
13. Lateral surface area of a prism = (perimeter of the base) × (height).
14. Lateral surface area of a prism = (perimeter of the base) × 2(area of the base)
(Note that lateral surfaces of a prism are all rectangle).
1
15. Volume of a pyramid  (area of the base)  (height) .
3
1
16. Curved surface area of a pyramid  (permimeter of the base)  (slang height) .
2
(Note that slant surfaces of a pyramid are triangles).
30
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 INDEFINITE INTEGRATION

1. If f and g are functions of x such that g ( x)  f ( x) then,

d
 f ( x)dx  g ( x)  c  dx {g ( x)  c}  f ( x) , where c is called the constant of integration.

2. Standard Formula:
(ax  b)n 1
 (ax  b) dx   c, n  1
n
(i)
a(n  1)

dx 1
(ii)  ax  b  a n(ax  b)  c

1 ax b
e dx  c
ax  b
(iii) e
a
1 a px  q
 a dx   c; a  0
px  q
(iv)
p na

1
(v)  sin(ax  b)dx   a cos(ax  b)  c

r
(vi)  cos(ax  b)dx  a sin(ax  b)  c
1
Si
1
(vii)  tan(ax  b)dx  a n sec(ax  b)  c
KC

1
(viii)  cot(ax  b)dx  a n sin(ax  b)  c

1
 sec (ax  b)dx  tan(ax  b)  c
2
(ix)
a
1
 cosec (ax  b)dx   cot(ax  b)  c
2
(x)
N

a
 x
(xi)  sec x dx  n(sec x  tan x)  c or n tan     c
 4 2
x
(xii)  cosec x dx  n(cosec x  cot x)  c or n tan  c or  n(cosec x  cot x)  c
2
dx x
(xiii)   sin 1 c
a x
2 2 a

dx 1 x
(xiv)  a2  x2 
a
tan 1  c
a
dx 1 x
(xv)   sec1  c
x x a
2 a a 2
31

dx
(xvi)   n[ x  x 2  a 2 ]  c
x a
2 2
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 dx
(xvii)   n[ x  x 2  a 2 ]  c
x a
2 2

dx 1 ax
(xviii)  a2  x2 
2a
n
ax
c

x 2 a2 x
(xix)  a 2  x 2 dx 
2
a  x 2  sin 1  c
2 a
x 2 a2  x  x2  a2 
(xx)  x 2  a 2 dx 
2
x  a2  n
2  a
c


x 2 a2  x  x2  a2 
(xxi)  x 2  a 2 dx 
2
x  a2 
2 
n
a
c


3. Integration by substitutions
If we substitute f ( x)  t , then f ( x) dx  dt
4. Integration by part:
 d 
 ( f ( x) g ( x))dx  f ( x)  ( g ( x))dx    dx ( f ( x))  ( g ( x))dx  dx
dx dx
 ax 2  bx  c ,  ,  ax 2  bx  c dx .

r
5. Integration of type:
ax  bx  c
2

Make the substitution x 

b
2a
t.
Si
6. Integration of type:
px  q px  q
 ax 2  bx  c dx,  dx,  ( px  q ) ax 2  bx  c dx
ax  bx  c
2
KC

b
Make the substitution x   t , then split the integral as some of two integrals one containing
2a
the linear term and the other containing constant term.
7. Integration of trigonometric functions
dx dx dx
(i)  a  b sin 2 x or  a  b cos2 x or  a sin 2 x  b sin x cos x  c cos2 x put tan x  t
N

dx dx dx x
(ii)  a  b sin x or  a  b cos x or  a  b sin x  c cos x put tan 2  t .
a cos x  b sin x  c d
(iii)  cos x  m sin x  n dx. Express Nr  A( Dr )  B dx ( Dr )  c and proceed.
8. Integration of type:
x2  1
 x4  Kx2  1dx where K is any constant.
1
Divide Nr and Dr by x 2 and put x t .
x
9. Integration of type:
dx dx
 (ax  b) px  q or  (ax2  bx  c) px  q ; put px  q  t .
2

10. Integration of type:

32

dx 1 dx 1
 , put ax  b  ;  , put x  .
(ax  b) px  qx  r t (ax  b) px  q
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2 2 2 t
 DEFINITE INTEGRATION

Properties of definite integral

b b
1.  f ( x)dx   f (t )dt
a a

b a
2.  f ( x)dx    f ( x)dx
a b

b c b
3.  f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   f ( x) dx
a a c

 a
f ( x)dx   ( f ( x)  f ( x))dx   0
a a
2 f ( x)dx, f (  x)  f ( x)
4. 
a 0  f (  x)   f ( x)
 0,
b b
5.  f ( x)dx   f (a  b  x)dx
a a

a a
6.  f ( x)dx   f (a  x) dx

r
0 0 Si
 a
f ( x)dx   ( f ( x)  f (2a  x))dx   0
2a a
2 f ( x)dx, f (2a  x)  f ( x)
7. 
0 0  f (2a  x)   f ( x)
 0,
8. If f ( x) is a periodic function with period T, then
KC

nT T a  nT T

 f ( x)dx  n  f ( x)dx, n  z ,  f ( x)dx  n  f ( x)dx, n  Z , a  R

0 0 a a

nT T a  nT a

 f ( x)dx  (n  m)  f ( x)dx, n  z ,  f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx, n  Z , a  R

mT 0 nT 0

b  nT a

 f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx, n  z, a, b  R
N

a  nT a

b b b b
9. If ( x)  f ( x)  ( x) for a  x  b , then   ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   ( x)dx .
a a a a

b
10. If m  f ( x)  M for a  x  b , then m(b  a)   f ( x)dx  M (b  a) .
a

b b
11.  f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx .
a a

b
12. If f ( x)  0 on [a, b] then  f ( x)dx  0 .
a

13. Leibnitz Theorem:

h( x)
dF ( x)
If F ( x)   f (t ) dt , then  h( x) f (h( x))  g ( x) f ( g ( x)) .
dx
33

g ( x)
Page
 AREA UNDER CURVE (AUC)

Things to remember:
1. The area bounded by the curve y  f ( x) , the x-axis and the ordinates at x  a and x  b is given
by,
b b

A   f ( x) dx   y. dx
a a

2. If the area is below the x-axis then A is negative. The convention is to consider the magnitude
only i.e.,
b

A   y dx in this case.
a

3. Area between the curves y  f ( x) and y  g ( x) between the ordinates at x  a and x  b is given
by,
b b b

A   f ( x) dx   g ( x) dx   [ f ( x)  g ( x)] dx

r
a a a Si
4. Average value of a function y  f ( x) w.r.t. x over interval a  x  b is defined as:
 b
y(av)   f ( x) .
ba a
KC

dAax
5. The area function Aax satisfies the differential equation  f ( x ) with initial condition Aaa  0.
dx
Note: If F ( x) is any integral of f ( x) then,
Aax   f ( x) dx  F ( x)  c
Aaa  0  F (a)  c  c  F (a)
N

Hence, Aax  F ( x)  F (a) . Finally buy taking x  b we get, Aab  F (b)  F (a) .
6. Curve Tracing:
The following outline procedure is to be applied in sketching the graph of a function y  f ( x)
which in turn will be extremely useful to quickly and correctly
evaluate the area under the curves.
(a) Symmetry: The symmetry of the curve is judged as follows:
(i) If all the powers of y in the equation are even then the
curve is symmetrical about the axis of x.
(ii) If all the powers of x are even, the curve is symmetrical about the axis of y.
(iii) If powers of x and y both are even, the curve is symmetrical about the axis of x as
well as y.
(iv) If the equation of the curve remains unchanged on interchanging x and y, then the
curve is symmetrical about y  x .
(v) If on interchanging the signs of x and y both equation of the curve is unaltered then
34

there is symmetry in opposite quadrants.

Page
 dy
(b) Find and equate it to zero to find the points on the curve where you have horizontal
dx
tangents.
(c) Find the points where the curve crosses the x-axis and also the y-axis.
(d) Examine if possible the intervals when f ( x) is increasing or decreasing. Examine what
happens to ‘y’ when x  or   .
7. Useful results:
(i) Whole area of the ellipse, x2 / a2  y 2 / b2  1 is  ab .
(ii) Area enclosed between the parabolas y 2  4ax and the line y  mx is 16ab / 3 .
(iii) Area included between the parabola y 2  4ax and the line y  mx is 8a2 / 3m3 .

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

1. Elementary types of first order and first degree differential equations:

Type – 1: Variables separable: If the differential equation can be expressed as;
f ( x)dx  g ( y )dy  0 then this is said to be variable-separable type.
A general solution of this is given by  f ( x) dx   g ( y) dy  c ; where c is the arbitrary

r
constant. Consider the example (dy / dx)  e x y  x2 .e y .
Si
dy
Type – 2:  f (ax  by  c), b  0 . To solve this, substitute t  ax  by  c . Then the equation
dx
reduces to separable type in the variable t and x which can be solved. Consider the
dy
example ( x  y ) 2  a2 .
dx
KC

dy f ( x, y )
Type – 3: Homogeneous equations: A differential equation of the form  where
dx ( x, y )
f ( x, y ) and (x, y ) are homogeneous functions of x and y, and of the same degree, is
dy x
called homogeneous. This equation may also be reduced to the form  g   and
dx  y
N

is solved by putting y  vx so that the dependent variable y is changed to another

variable v, where v is some unknown function, the differential equation is transformed
dy y ( x  y )
to an equation with variables separable. Consider  0.
dx x2
Type – 4: Equations reducible to the homogeneous form:
dy a1 x  b1 y  c1 a a
If  ; where a1b2  a2 b1  0, i.e., 1  2 then the substitution
dx a2 x  b2 y  c2 b1 b2
x  u  h, y  v  k transform this equation to a homogeneous type in the new variables
u and v where h and k are arbitrary constants to be chosen so as to make the given
equation homogeneous which can be solved by the method as given in Type – 3. If
(i) a1b2  a2b1  0 , then a substitution u  a1 x  b1 y transforms the differential
equation to an equation with variables separable.
(ii) b1  a2  0 , then a simple cross multiplication and substituting
d ( xy ) for xdy  ydx and integrating term by term yields the result easily.
35

(iii) In an equation of the form: yf ( xy )dx  xg ( xy )dy  0 the variables can be

separated by the substitution xy  v .
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 Important Note:

(a) The function f ( x, y ) is said to be a homogeneous function of degree n if for any

real number t ( 0), we have f (tx, ty)  t n f ( x, y) .
For e.g., f ( x, y)  ax2/3  hx1/3 . y1/3  by 2/3 is a homogeneous function of degree 2/3.
dy
(b) A differential equation of the form  f ( x, y ) is homogeneous if f ( x, y ) is a
dx
homogeneous function of degree zero i.e., f (tx, ty )  t  f ( x, y )  f ( x, y ) . The
y x
function f does not depend on x and y separately but only on their ratio or .
x y
Type – 5: Linear differential equation of first order:
dy
 Py  Q ,
The most general form of a linear differential equations of first order is
dx
where P and Q are functions of x. To solve such an equation multiply both sides by

e .
Pdx

NOTE:

(1) The factor e  on multiplying by which the left hand side of the differential

r
Pdx
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equation becomes the differential coefficient of some function of x and y, is called
integrating factor of the differential equation popularly abbreviated as I.F.
(2) It is very important to remember that on multiplying by the integrating factor, the
left hand side becomes the derivative of the product of y and the I.F.
(3) Sometimes a given differential equation becomes linear if we take y as the
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independent variable and x as the dependent variable. e.g., the equation;

dy dx
( x  y  1)  y 2  3 can be written as ( y 2  3)  x  y  1 which is a linear
dx dy
differential equation.
Type – 6: Equations reducible to linear form:
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dy
The equation  py  Q. y n where P and Q functions of x, is reducible to the linear
dx
form by dividing it by y n and then substituting y  n1  Z . Its solution can be obtained
as in Type – 5. Consider the example ( x3 y 2  xy)dx  dy .
2. Trajectories:
Suppose we are given the family of plane curves. ( x, y, a )  0 depending on a single parameter
a. A curve making at each of its points a fixed angle  with the curve of the family passing
through that point is called an isogonal trajectory of that family; if in particular    / 2 , then
it is called an orthogonal trajectory.
Orthogonal trajectories: We set up the differential equation of the given family of curves. Let
it be of the form F ( x, y, y)  0 . The differential equation of the orthogonal trajectories is of the
 1
form F  x, y ,    0 . The general integral of this equation 1 ( x, y, C )  0 gives the family of
 y 
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orthogonal trajectories.
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 STRAIGHT LINE

1. Distance Formula: d  ( x1  x2 ) 2  ( y1  y 2 ) 2 .

mx2  nx1 my  ny1

2. Section Formula: x  ;y  2 .
mn mn
3. Centroid, Incentre and Excentre:
 x  x  x3 y1  y2  y3 
Centroid G  1 2 , ,
 3 3 
 ax  bx2  cx3 ay1  by2  cy3 
Incentre I  1
a  b  c 
,
 abc
  ax1  bx2  cx3  ay1  by2  cy3 
Excentre I1 
 a  b  c 
,
 a  b  c
4. Area of a Triangle:
x1 y1 1
1
 ABC  x2 y2 1

r
2
x3 y3 1

5. Slope Formula:
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y1  y2
(i) Line joining two points ( x1 y1 ) and ( x2 y2 ), m  .
x1  x2
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x1 y1 1
6. Condition of collinearity of three points: x2 y2 1  0 .
x3 y3 1

m1  m2
7. Angle between two straight line: tan   .
1  m1m2
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8. Two lines: ax  by  c  0 and ax  b  c two lines

a b c
1. Parallel if   .
a  b c 
c1  c2
2. Distance between two parallel lines  .
a 2  b2
3. Perpendicular: If aa  bb  0 .
9. A point and line:
ax1  by1  c
1. Distance between point and line  .
a 2  b2
x  x1 y  y1 ax  by  c
2. Reflection of a point about a line:   2 1 2 1 2 .
a b a b
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x  x1 y  y1 ax  by  c
   1 2 12 .
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3. Foot of the perpendicular from a point on the line is

a b a b
 ax  by  c ax  by  c
10. Bisectors of the angles between two lines:  .
a b
2 2
a 2  b2
a1 b1 c1
11. Condition of Concurrency: of three straight lines a1 x  b1 y  c1  0, i 1, 2,3 is a2 b2 c2  0 .
a3 b3 c3

12. A pair of straight line through origin: ax 2  2hxy  by 2  0 .

2 h 2  ab
If  is the acute angle between the pair of straight lines, then tan   .
ab

CIRCLES

1. Intercepts made by circle x 2  y 2  2 gx  2 fy  c  0 on the axes:

(a) 2 g 2  c on x-axis (b) 2 f 2  c on y -axis

r
2. Parametric Equation of a Circle: x  h  r cos ; y  k  r sin  .
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3. Tangent:
(a) Slope form: y  mx  a 1  m2 .
(b) Point form: xx1  yy1  a 2 or T  0 .
(c) Parametric form: x cos   y sin   a .
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4. Pair of Tangents form a Point: SS1  T 2 .

5. Length of a Tangent: Length of tangent is S1 .

6. Direction Circle: x 2  y 2  2a 2 for x 2  y 2  a 2 .

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7. Chord of Contact: T  0 .
2 LR
1. Length of chord of contact  .
R 2  L2
RL3
2. Area of the triangle formed by the pair of the tangents and its chord of contact  .
R 2  L2
 2 RL 
3. Tangent of the angle between the pair of tangents form ( x1 , y1 )   2 .
L R 
2

4. Equation of the circle circumscribing the triangle PTT

1 2 is:

( x  x1 )( x  g )  ( y  y1 )( y  f )  0 .
8. Condition of orthogonality of Two Circles: 2 g1 g2  2 f1 f 2  c1  c2 .
9. Radical Axis: S1  S2  0 i.e., 2( g1  g2 ) x  2( f1  f 2 ) y  (c1  c2 )  0 .
Family of Circles: S1  KS2  0, S  KL  0 .
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10.
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 PARABOLA

1. Equation of standard parabola:

y 2  4ax , Vertex is (0, 0), Focus is ( a,0) , Directrix is x  a  0 and Axis is y  0 .
Length of the latus rectum  4a , ends of the latus rectum are L(a,2a) and L(a1  2a) .
2. Parametric Representation: x  at 2 and y  2at .
3. Tangents to the Parabola y 2  4ax :
a
1. Slope form y  mx  (m  0) .
m
2. Parametric form ty  x  at 2 .
3. Point form T  0 .
4. Normals to the parabola y 2  4ax :
y1
y  y1   ( x  x1 ) at ( x1 , y1 ); y  mx  2am  am3 at (am 2 , 2am); y  tx  2at  at 3 at (at 2 , 2at )
2a

ELLIPSE

r
x2 y 2
  1 , where a  b and b 2  a 2 (1  e2 ) .
1. Standard Equation:
a 2 b2
b2
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Eccentricity: e  1  ,(0  e  1) ,
a2
a
Directrices: x   .
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e
Foci: S  ( ae,0) . Length of, major axes  2a and minor axes  2b .
Vertices: A  (a,0) and A  (a,0) .
2b2
Latus Rectum:   2a(1  e2 ) .
a
2. Auxiliary Circle: x 2  y 2  a 2 .
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3. Parametric Representation: x  a cos  and y  b sin  .

4. Position of a Point w.r.t. an Ellipse:
x12 y12
  1   or  0 .
The point P( x1 , y1 ) lies outside, inside or on the ellipse according as;
a 2 b2
x2 y 2
5. Line and an Ellipse: The line y  mx  c meets the ellipse 2  2  1 in two points real,
a b
coincident or imaginary according as c is  or  a m  b .
2 2 2 2

6. Tangents:
Slope form: y  mx  a 2 m2  b2 ,
xx yy
Point form: 21  21  1 ,
a b
x cos  y sin 
Parametric form:   1.
a b
a 2 x b2 y (a 2  b 2 )
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7. Normals:   a 2  b2 , ax sec   by cosec   (a 2  b2 ), y  mx  .

x1 y1 a 2  b 2 m2
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8. Director Circle: x 2  y 2  a 2  b 2 .
 HYPERBOLA

x2 y 2
1. Standard Equation: Standard equation of the hyperbola is   1 , where b 2  a 2 (e 2  1) .
a 2 b2
Foci: S  ( ae,0) ,
a
Directrices: x   .
e
Vertices: A  ( a,0) .
2b2
Latus Rectum ( ):   2a(e2  1) .
a
x2 y 2 x2 y 2
2. Conjugate Hyperbola:   1 and    1 are conjugate hyperbolas of each.
a 2 b2 a 2 b2
3. Auxiliary Circle: x 2  y 2  a 2 .
4. Parametric Representation: x  a sec  and y  b tan  .
5. Position of A point ‘P’ w.r.t A Hyperbola:
x12 y12
S1    1 ,  or  0 according as the point ( x1 , y1 ) lies inside, on or outside the curve.

r
a 2 b2 Si
6. Tangents:
(i) Slope form: y  mx  a 2 m2  b2 .
xx1 yy1
(ii) Point form: at the point ( x1 , y1 ) is  1.
a 2 b2
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x sec  y tan 
(iii) Parametric form:   1.
a b
7. Normals:
a 2 x b2 y
(a) At the point P( x1 , y1 ) is   a 2  b2  a 2e2 .
x1 y1
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ax by
(b) At the point P(a sec , b tan ) is   a 2  b2  a 2e2 .
sec  tan 
(a 2  b 2 )m
(c) Equation of normals in terms of its slope ‘m’ are y  mx  .
a 2  b2 m2
x y x y x2 y 2
8. Asymptotes:   0 and   0 . Pair of asymptotes: 2  2  0 .
a b a b a b
9. Rectangular or Equilateral Hyperbola: xy  c 2 , eccentricity is 2.
Vertices: ( c,  c) ; Foci: ( 2c,  2c) . Directrices: x  y   2c .
Latus Rectum (l): l  2 2c  T . A.  C. A.
Parametric equation x  ct , y  c / t , t  R  {0} .
x y x
Equation of the tangent at P( x1 , y1 ) is   2 and at P(t ) is  ty  2c .
x1 y1 t
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Equation of the normal at P(t ) is t 3  yt  c(t 4  1) .

Chord with a given middle point as (h, k ) is kx  hy  2hk .
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 VECTORS

1. Position Vector of a Point:

Let O be a fixed origin, then the positon vector of a point P is the vector OP . If a and b are
positon vectors of two points A and B, then, AB  b  a  pv of B  pv of A. .
Distance formula: Distance between the two points A(a ) and B(b ) is AB  a  b .

na  mb a b
Section formula: r  . Mid point of AB  .
mn 2
2. Scalar Product of two Vectors: a.b  a b cos  , where a , b are magnitude of a and b

respectively and  is angle between a and b .

a.b
1. i.i  j. j  k .k  1; i. j  j.k  k .i  0 projection of a on b 
b

2. If a  a1i  a2 j  a3 k and b1i  b2 j  b3k then, a.b  a1b1  a2b2  a3b3 .

a.b
3. The angle  between a and b is given by cos   ,0     .

r
Si a b

4. a.b  0  (a  0, b  0)
3. Vector product of Two Vectors:
1. If a and b are two vectors and  is the angle between them then a  b  a b sin  n , where

n is the unit vector perpendicular to both a and b such that a, b and n forms a right handed
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screw system.
2. Geometrically a  b area of the parallelogram whose two adjacent sides are represented by

a and b .
3. iˆ  iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0; iˆ  ˆj  kˆ, ˆj  kˆ  iˆ, kˆ  iˆ  ˆj
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iˆ ˆj kˆ
4. If a  a1iˆ  a2 ˆj  a3kˆ and b  b1iˆ  b2 ˆj  b3kˆ then a  b  a1 a2 a3 .
b1 b2 b3

5. a  b  0  a and b are parallel (collinear) (a  0, b  0) i.e., a  Kb , where K is a scalar.

a b
6. Unit vector perpendicular to the plane of a and b is nˆ   .
a b

 If a, b and c are the pv’s of 3 points A, B and C then the vector area of triangle
1
ABC  [a  b  b  c  c  a ] . The points A, B and C are collinear if
2
a b  b c  c a  0 .
1
 Area of any quadrilateral whose diagonal vectors are d1 and d2 is given by d1  d 2 .
2
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2 a.aa.b
 Lagrange’s Identity: (a  b )2  a b  (a.b ) 2 
2
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a.bb .b
4. Scalar Triple Product:

 The scalar triple product of three vectors a, b and c is defined as: a  b .c  a b c sin  cos .

 Volume of tetrahedron V  [abc ] .

 In a scalar triple product the positon of dot and cross can be interchanged i.e.,

a.(b  c )  (a  b ).c or [abc ]  [bca ]  [cab ]

 a.(b  c )  a (c  b ) i.e., [abc ]  [acb ]

a1 a2 a3
 If a  a1i  a2 j  a3 k ; b  b1i  b2 j  b3k and c  c1i  c2 j  c3k then [ abc ]  b1 b2 b3 .
c1 c2 c3

In general, if a  a1l  a2 m  a3 n; b  b1l  b2 m  b3 n and c  c1l  c2 m  c3n .

a1 a2 a3

r
then [abc ]  b1 b2 b3 [l m n ] ; where l m n are non coplanar vectors.
c1 c2 c3
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 If a , b , c are coplanar  [abc ]  0 .

 Volume of tetrahedron OABC with O as origin A(a ), B(b ) and C (c ) be the vertices
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1
 [ abc ] .
6

 The positon vector the centroid of a tetrahedron if the pv’s of its vertices are a , b , c and d are
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1
given by [a  b  c  d ] .
4

5. Vector Triple Product: a  (b  c )  (a.c )b  (a.b )c ,(a  b )  c  (a.c )b  (b .c )a .

 (a  b )  c  a  (b  c ) , in general.

6. Reciprocal System of Vectors:

If a, b , c and a, b, c are two sets of non coplanar vectors such that a.a  b .b '  c .c  1 then the

b c c a a b
two systems are called Reciprocal System of vectors, where a  , b  , c  .
[abc ] [abc ] [abc ]
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 3-DIMENSION

1. Vector representation of a point: Position vector of point P( x, y.z) is xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ .

2. Distance formula: ( x1  x2 )2  ( y1  y2 )2  ( z1  z2 )2 , AB  OB  OA .

3. Distance of P from coordinate axes: PA  y 2  z 2 , PB  z 2  x 2 , PC  x 2  y 2 .

mx2  nx1 my  ny1 mz  nz1

4. Section Formula: x  ,y 2 ,z  2 .
mn mn mn
x1  x2 y  y2 z z
Mid point: x  ,y 1 ,z  1 2 .
2 2 2
5. Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios:
(i) Direction cosines: Let , ,  be the angles which a directed line makes with the positive

directions of the axes of x, y and z respectively, then cos ,cos ,cos  are called the

direction cosines of the line. The direction cosines are usually denoted by (l , m, n) . Thus,

l  cos , m  cos , n  cos  .

r
(ii)
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If l , m, n be the direction cosines of a line, then l 2  m2  n 2  1 .
(iii) Direction ratios: Let a, b, c be proportional to the direction cosines l , m, n then a, b, c
are called the direction ratios.
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(iv) If l , m, n be the direction cosines and a, b, c be the direction ratios of a vector, then

a b c
l ,m   ,n  
a b c
2 2 2
a b c
2 2 2
a  b2  c2
2

(v) If the coordinates P and Q are ( x1 , y1 z1 ) and ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) then the direction ratios of the
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line PQ are, a  x2  x1 , b  y2  y1 and c  z2  z1 and the direction cosines of line PQ

x2  x1 y y z z
are l  , m  2 1 and 2 1 .
PQ PQ PQ

6. Angle between two lines segments:

a1a2  b1b2  c1c2

cos   .
a  b12  c12 a22  b22  c22
2
1

a1 b1 c1
The line will be perpendicular if a1a2  b1b2  c1c2  0 , parallel if   .
a2 b2 c2

7. Projection of a line segment on line:

If P( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 , z2 ) then the projection of PQ on a line having direction cosines
43

l , m, n is l ( x2  x1 )  m( y2  y1 )  n( z2  z1 ) .
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8. Equation of a plane: General form ax  by  cz  d  0 , where a, b, c are not all zero,
a, b, c, d  R .
(i) Normal form: lx  my  nz  p .
(ii) Plane through the point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) : a( x  x1 )  b( y  y1 )  c( z  z1 )  0 .

x y z
(iii) Intercept form:    1.
a b c
(iv) Vector form: (r  a ).n  0 or r .n  a.n .
(v) Any plane parallel to the given plane ax  by  cz  d  0 is ax  by  cz    0 .

d1  d 2
Distance between ax  by  cz  d1  0 and ax  by  cz  d2  0 is .
a  b2  c2
2

(vi) Equation of a plane passing through a given point and parallel to the given vectors:

r  a  b  c (parametric form) where  and  are scalars.

or r .(b  c )  a.(b  c ) (non parametric form)

r
9. A plane and a point: Si
(i) Distance of the point ( x, y, z) from the plane ax  by  cz  d  0 is given by

ax  by   cz   d
.
a 2  b2  c2
a.n  d
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(ii) Length of the perpendicular from a point ( a ) to plane r .n  d is given by p  .

n

(iii) Foot ( x, y, z) of perpendicular drawn from the point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) to the plane

x  x1 y   y1 z   z1 (ax  by  cz  d )
ax  by  cz  d  0 is given by     1 2 1 2 12 .
a b c a b c
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(iv) To find image of a point w.r.t. a plane:

Let P( x1 , y1 , z1 ) is a given point and ax  by  cz  d  0 is given plane let ( x, y, z) is

x  x1 y  y1 z   z1 (ax  by  cz  d )
the image point. Then    2 1 2 1 2 1 2 .
a b c a b c
10. Angle between two Planes:

aa  bb  cc

cos  
a  b 2  c 2 a 2  b2  c 2
2

a b c
Planes are perpendicular if aa  bb  cc  0 and planes are parallel if   .
a  b c 
n1 . n2
The angle  between the planes r .n1  d1 and r .n2  d2 is given by, cos   .
n1 n2
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Planes are perpendicular if n1. n2  0 and planes are parallel if n1  n2 ,  is a scalar
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11. Angle Bisectors:
(i) The equations of the planes bisecting the angle between two given planes
a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1  0 and a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d2  0 are
a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1 a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d 2
 .
a b c
2
1 1
2 2
1 a22  b22  c22
(ii) Bisector of acute/obtuse angle: First make both the constant terms positive. Then
a1a2  b1b2  c1c2  0  origin lies on obtuse angle
a1a2  b1b2  c1c2  0  origin lies in acute angle
12. Family of Planes:
(i) Any plane through the intersection of a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1  0 and a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d2  0
is a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1  (a2 x  b2 y  c2 z 2 )  0 .
(ii) The equation of plane passing through the intersection of the planes
r .n1  d1 and r .n2  d2 is r .(n1  n2 )  d1  d2 where  is arbitrary scalar
1
13. Area of triangle: From two vector AB and AC . Then area is given byAB  AC .
2
14. Volume of a tetrahedron: Volume of a tetrahedron with vertices A( x1 , y1 , z1 ), B( x2 , y2 , z2 ) ,
x1 y1 z1 1

r
1 x2 y2 z2 1
C ( x3 , y3 , z3 ) and D( x4 , y4 , z4 ) is given by V  .
6 x3 z3 z3 1
Si x4 y4 z4 1

A LINE (3-D)
1. Equation of a line:
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(i) A straight line is intersection of two planes.

It is represented by two planes a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1  0 and a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d2  0 .
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
(ii) Symmetric form:   r.
a b c
(iii) Vector equation: r  a  b .
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(iv) Reduction of Cartesian form of equation of a line to vector form and vice versa.
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
   r  ( x1iˆ  y1 ˆj  z1kˆ)  (aiˆ  bjˆ  ckˆ)
a b c
2. Angle between a plane and a line:
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
(i) If  is the angle between line   and the plane ax  by  cz  d  0,
l m n
al  bm  cn
then sin   .
(a 2  b 2  c 2 ) l 2  m2  n 2
(ii) Vector form: If  is the angle between line r  (a  b ) and r .n  d then
 
b .n
sin    .
b n 
 
l m n
  ,b  n0 .
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(iii) Condition for perpendicularity

a b c
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(iv) Condition for parallel al  bm  cn  0 b.n  0 .

3. Condition for a line to lie in a plane:
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
(i) Cartesian form: Line   would lie in a plane ax  by  cz  d  0,
l m n
if ax1  by1  cz1  d  0 and al  bm  cn  0 .
(ii) Vector form: Line r  a  b would lie in the plane r . n  d if b . n  0 and a. n  d .
4. Skew lines:
(i) The straight lines which are not parallel and non-coplanar i.e., non-intersecting are called
         
skew lines. If   l m n  0 , then lines are skew.
l m n

(ii) Vector Form: For lines r  a1  b1 and r  a2  b2 to be skew (b1  b2 ).(a2  a1 )  0 .

(a2  a1 )  b
(iii) Shortest distance between lines r  a1  b1 and r  a2  b2 is d  .
b

5. Sphere:
General equation of a sphere is x 2  y 2  z 2  2ux  2vy  2wz  d  0. (u, v,  w) is the centre

r
and u 2  v2  w2  d is the radius of the sphere.
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PROBABILITY

1. Classical (A priori) Definition of Probability:

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If an experiment results in a total of ( m  n) outcomes which are equally likely and mutually
exclusive with one another and if ‘m’ outcomes are favourable to an event ‘A’ while ‘n’ are
unfavourable, then the
m n( A)
Probability of occurrence of the event ' A '  P( A)   .
m  n n( S )
N

We say that odds in favour of ‘A’ are m : n , while odds against ‘A’ are n : m .
n
P ( A)   1  P( A)
mn
2. Addition theorem of probability: P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)  P( A  B)
De Morgan’s Laws: (a) ( A  B)c  Ac  B c (b) ( A  B)c  Ac  B c
Distributive Laws:
(a) A  ( B  C )  ( A  B)  ( A  C )
(b) A  ( B  C )  ( A  B)  ( A  C )
(i) P( A or B or C )  P( A)  P( B)  P(C )  P( A  B)  P( B  C )  P(C  A)  P( A  B  C )
(ii) P (at least two of A, B, C occur)  P( B  C )  P(C  A)  P( A  B)  2 P( A  B  C )
(iii) P (exactly two of A, B, C occur)  P( B  C )  P(C  A)  P( A  B)  3P( A  B  C )
(iv) P (exactly one of A, B, C occur) =
P( A)  P( B)  P(C )  2 P( B  C )  2 P( A  B)  3P( A  B  C )
46
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 P( A  B)
3. Conditional Probability: P ( A / B)  .
P( B)
4. Binomial Probability Theorem:
If an experiment is such that the probability of success or failure does not change with trials, then
the probability of getting exactly r success in n trials of an experiment is n Cr p r q n  r , where ‘p’ is
the probability of a success and q is the probability of a failure. Note that p  q  1 .
5. Expectation:
If a value M i is associated with a probability of pi , then the expectation is given by  pi M i .
n
6. Total Probability Theorem: P( A)   P( Bi ).P( A / Bi ) .
i 1

7. Bayes’ Theorem:
If an event A can occur with one of the n mutually exclusive and exhaustive events B1 , B2 ,..., Bn
and the probabilities P( A / B1 ), P( A / B2 )....P( A / Bn ) are known, then
P ( Bi ).P ( A / Bi )
P( Bi / A)  n .
 iP ( B ).P ( A / B i )
i 1

B1 , B2 , B3 ,..., Bn
A  ( A  B1 )  ( A  B2 )  ( A  B3 )  .....  ( A  Bn )

r
n
P( A)  P( A  B1 )  P( A  B2 )  ....  P( A  Bn )   P( A  Bi )

8. Binomial Probability Distribution:

Si i 1

(i) Mean of any probability distribution of a random variable is given by:

 pi xi
   pi xi .
 pi
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 pi xi
(ii) Variance of a random variable is given by,     pi xi .
 pi

STATISTICS
N

1. Arithmetic Mean/or Mean:

If x1 , x2 , x3 ,....xn are n values of variate xi then their A.M. x is defined as
n

x
x1  x2  x3  .....  xn i1 i
x 
n n
If x1 , x2 , x3 ,....xn are values of veriate with frequencies f1 , f 2 , f3 ,.... f n then their A.M. is given by
n

fx
f1 x1  f 2 x2  f 3 x3  .... f n xn i1 i i n
x  , where N   f i
f1  f 2  f 3  .... f n N i 1

2. Properties of Arithmetic Mean:

(i) Sum of deviation of variate from their A.M. is always zero that is ( xi  x )  0 .
(ii) Sum of square of deviation of variate from their A.M. is minimum that is ( xi  x )2 is
minimum.
(iii) If x is mean of variate xi then
A.M. of ( xi  )  x  
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A.M. of 1 . xi   . x
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A.M. of (axi  b)  ax  b
3. Median:
The median of a series is values of middle term of series when the values are written is ascending
order or descending order. Therefore median, divide on arranged series in two equal parts.
For ungrouped distribution:
If n be number of variates in a series then

  n  1  th
  term, (when n is odd)
 2 
Median   th th
Mean of  n  and  n  2  term (when n is even)
    
 2 2 

4. Mode:
If a frequency distribution the mode is the value of that variate which have the maximum
frequency. Mode for

For ungrouped distribution:

r
The value of variate which has maximum frequency.

For ungrouped frequency distribution:

Si
The value of that variate which have maximum frequency.
Relationship between mean, median and mode.
KC

(i) In symmetric distribution, mean = mode = median

(ii) In skew (moderately asymmetrical) distribution, median divides mean and mode
internally in 1 : 2 ratio.
2(Mean)  (Mode)
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 median 
3
5. Range:
Difference of extreme values L  S

Sum of extreme values LS
where L = largest value and S = smallest value
6. Mean deviation:
n

x i
A
Mean deviation  i 1

n
n

f i
xi  A
Mean deviation  i 1
(for frequency distribution)
N
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7. Variance:
Standard deviation   variance
( xi  x ) 2
Formula: 2x  .
n
n
 n x  n x2
x i
 i
2

  i
 2x  i1   i1   n  (x )
i 1 2

n  n 
 
 di2   di 
2

2d    , where di  xi  a, where a = assumed mean

n  n 

Coefficient of S.D.   
x

Coefficient of variation     100 (in percentage)
x
Properties of variance:
(i) var (xi +)  var (xi )
(ii) var ( . xi )  2 (var xi )
(iii)

r
var (axi  b)  a2 (var xi ) where, , a, b are constant.
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MATHEMATICAL REASONING

1. Let p and q are statements:

KC

p q pq pq pq q p pq q p

T T T T T T T T
T F F T F T F F
F T F F T F F F
F F F F T T T T
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Tautology: This is a statement which is true for all truth values of its components. It is denoted
by t.
Consider truth table of p  p
p p p p
T F T
F T T

Fallacy: This is statement which is false for all truth values of its components. It is denoted by f
or c. consider truth table of p  p
(i)
Statements p q p q pq pq
Negation ( p)  (q) ( p)  (q) p  ( q ) p  q

(ii)
Let p  q then
49

(contrapositive of p  q ) is (q   p )
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