MATH PROJECT

NAME: - ANARITA TIRKEY

CLASS: - XI I-3 SET
ROLL NO.: - 2003219 THEORY
Set Theory is the branch of mathematics that studies set, which are collections
of objects. Although any type of object can be collected into a set, set theory is
applied most often to objects that are relevant to mathematics.
The modern study of set theory was initiated by Cantor and Dedekind in
1870s. After the discovery of paradoxes in informal set theory, numerous
axiom systems were proposed in the early twentieth century, of which the
axiom of choice, are the best-known.

BASIC CONCEPTS
Set theory with a fundamental binary relation between an object o and a set
A. If o is member( or element) of A, we write. Since sets are objects the
membership relation can relate sets as well. A derived binary relation between
two sets is the subset relation, also called set inclusion. If all the members of
set A are also members of set B, then A is a subset of B, denoted. From this
definition, it is clear that a set is a subset of itself; in cases where one wishes to
avoid this, the term proper subset is defined to exclude this possibility.
Just as arithmetic features binary operations on numbers, set theory features
binary operations on sets. The:
1) Union of the sets A and B, denoted A U B, is the set whose members are
members of at least one of A or B.
The union of {1,2,3} and {2,3,4} is the set {1,2,3,4}.
 2) Intersection of the sets A and B, denoted A ∩ B, is the set whose
members are members of both A and B. The intersection of {1,2,3} and
{2,3,4} is the set {2,3}
3) Complement of set A relative to set U, denoted, is the set of all members
of U that are not members of A. This terminology is most employed
when U is a universal set, as in the study of Venn diagrams. This
operation is also called the set difference of U and A, denoted Ac. The
complement of {1,2,3}relative to {2,3,4} is {4}, while, conversely, the
complement of {2,3,4}relative to {1,2,3} is {1}.

 Symmetric difference of sets A and B is the set whose members are

members of exactly one of A and B. For instance, for the sets {1,2,3}, the
symmetric difference set is{1,4}.

POWER Set
The power set of a set A is the set whose members are all possible subsets of A
. For examples, the power set of {1,2} is { {}, {1}, {2}, {1,2} }.
DESCPRITION OF A SET
A set is often described in the following two forms:
(1) ROSTER OR TABULAR FORM
(2) SET-BUILDER FORM

ROSTER FORM
In this form a set is defined by listing elements, separated by commas, within
braces { }.
ILLUSTRATION 1 The set of vowels of English Alphabet may be described as { a,
e, i, o, u}.
ILLUSTRATION 2 The set of even natural numbers can be described as {2, 4, 6,
……}. Here the dots stand for ‘and so on’.
NOTE: The order in which the elements are written in a set makes no
difference. Thus, {a, e, i, o, u} and {e, a, i, o, u} denote the same set. Also, the
repetition of an element has no effect. For example, {1, 2, 3, 2} is the same set
as {1, 2, 3}.
SET-BUILDER FORM
In this form, a set is described by a characterizing property P(x) of its elements
x. In such a case the set is described by {x : P(x) holds } or, {x | P (x) holds},
which is read as ‘the set of all x such that P (x) holds’. The symbol ‘ | ’ or ‘ : ’ is
read as ‘such that’ . Sometimes a colon : or semicolon ; is also used in place of
the
In other words, in order to describe a set, a variable x (say) (to denote each
element of the set ) is written inside the braces and then after putting a colon
the common property P (x) possessed by each element of the set is written
within the braces.
ILLUSTRATION 1 The set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 } can be written as A = { x € N :
x ≤ 8 }.

ILLUSTRATION 2 The set A = {0, 1, 4, 9, 16, ….} can be written as A = { X2 : ∈ Z }.

FINITE AND INFINITE SETS

FINITE SET:- A set is called a finite set if it is either void set or its elements can
be listed ( counted, labelled) by natural numbers 1, 2, 3, ….and the process of
listing terminates at a certain natural number n (say).
CARDINAL NUMBER OF A FINITE SET: - The number n in the above definition is
called the cardinal number or order of a finite set A and is denoted by n(A).
For example, if W be the set of people living in a town, then W is finite.
INFINITE SET: - A set whose elements cannot be listed by the natural numbers
1, 2, 3, …, n, for any natural number n is called an infinite set.
For examples, If P be the set of all the points on a line between the distinct
points A and B then P is infinite.
EMPTY SET or NULL SET
A set is said to be empty or null or void set if it has no element and it is
denoted by ∅. In Roster method, ∅ is denoted by {}.
For example, the set A is given by A = {x: x is an even prime number greater
than 2} is an empty set because 2 is the only even prime number.
A set consisting of at least one element is called a non-empty or non-void set.
NOTE: If A and B are any two empty sets, then x ∈ A iff ( if and only if) x ∈ B is
satisfied because there is no element x in either A or B to which the condition
may be applied. Thus, A = B. Hence, there is only one empty set and we denote
it by ∅. Therefore, article ‘the’ is used before empty set.
EQUAL SETS
Equal sets are set which have the same members. For example, if
P = {1,2,3} , Q = {2,1,3}, R = {3,2,1}
Then P=Q=R.
EQUIVALENT SETS
Two finite sets A and B are equivalent if their cardinal numbers are same.
i.e. n(A) = n(B).
SINGLETON SET
A set consisting of a single element is called a singleton set.
For examples, the set {5} is a singleton set.
The set {x : x ∈ N and x2 = 9} is singleton set equal to {3}.
SUBSETS
Set which are the part of another set are called subsets of the original set. For
example, if A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = { 1, 2 } THEN B is a subset of a it represented
by ⊆ to mean “ is a subset of “.
REMEMBER THAT:
THEOREM 1: EVERY SET IS A SUBSET OF ITSELF.
THEOREM 2: THE EMPTY SET IS A SUBSET OF EVERY SET.
THEOREM 3: A ∈ B AND B ∈ C => A ∈ C [ The total number of subsets of a finite
set containing n elements is 2n.
 I would like to express my special thanks for gratitude to my
teacher Mr. Rajendra who gave me the golden opportunity to
do this wonderful project of PROGRAMMING which helped me
in doing a lot of Research and I came to know about so many
new things I am really thankful to them.

Secondly, I would also like to thank my parents, friends and

teachers who helped me a lot in finalizing this project within
the limited time frame.

ANARITA TIRKEY
XII IIT
I am presenting a project file on the topic PROGRAMMING. I have tried to
give all the important points regarding this topic. I am thankful to everyone
who all supported me to complete this project on time.
I am equally thankful to my Sir who gave me a little support and guided
me to complete this project on time. While doing this project I came to know
many things.
Last but not the least, I would like to thank my parents who helped me a
lot.
Precautions are taken to avoid mistaken over all some mistakes may be
possible.

As the project comes to an end, we gained different knowledge about

PYTHON PROGRAM.
This project was very much educational and enlightening for us. We could
conclude from this project that the PYTHON is important for us.
The history of basketball began with its invention in 1891 in Springfield,
Massachusetts by Canadian physical education instructor James Naismith
as a less injury-prone sport than football. Naismith was a 31-year
 graduate student when he created the indoor sport to keep athletes
indoors during the winters.
A set is a well-defined collection of objects, whose elements are fixed and
cannot vary. It means set does not change from person to person. Like for
example, the set of natural numbers up to 7 will remain the same as
{1,2,3,4,5,6,7}. Still, if we say the set of best players in a football team,
then the name of footballers could vary every time we ask about the best
players, as each person has its own choice to consider the best player.
Similarly, if we speak about the set of rivers in India, the elements of the
set will remain the same. So, this is a real-life example of a set. In
mathematics, we represent the sets in curly brackets { }.

Pascal’s principle, also called Pascal’s law, in fluid (gas or liquid) mechanics,

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one part is transmitted without loss to every portion of the fluid and to the
walls of the container. The principle was first enunciated by the French
scientist Blaise Pascal.

Pressure is equal to the force divided by the area on which it acts. According

to Pascal’s principle, in a hydraulic system a pressure exerted on
a piston produces an equal increase in pressure on another piston in the
system. If the second piston has an area 10 times that of the first, the force on
the second piston is 10 times greater, though the pressure is the same as that
on the first piston. This effect is exemplified by the hydraulic press, based on
Pascal’s principle, which is used in such applications as hydraulic brakes.