Passi City College

Passi City, Iloilo

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Stylistics

PART-TIME ENGLISH INSTRUCTOR

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CGN 101- Stylistics and Discourse Analysis Module No: 6
 Passi City College
Passi City, Iloilo

SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION

MODULE 6 | LINGUISTIC STYLISTICS AND GENRE

ANALYSIS
Module Overview:
This module focused on genre, coherence, cohesion, conversation analysis and
variation analysis. The learners are expected to discussed how to analyze genre, wrote analysis
of certain genre, critiqued various classroom situation with the help of genre analysis and
explained cohesion and coherence.
Module Outcomes
At the end of the module the learner should have:
 discussed on how to analyze genre
 wrote analysis of certain genre
 critiqued various classroom situation with the help of genre analysis
 explained cohesion and coherence

Module Content
A. How to analyze Genre
B. Coherence and Cohesion
C. Conversation Analysis
D. Variation Analysis

Read

Conversation Analysis

Conversation analysis is an approach to discourse which has been articulated by a

group of scholars known as ethno methodologists. They are known as ethno methodologists
because they set out to discover what methods people use to participate in and make sense of
interaction. The ethno methodologists examined what people did with their words, when they
were not consciously producing samples for linguists. They felt that the examples produced by
professional linguists were unnatural, since these utterances were not embedded in actually
occurring talk, because actual talk, by contrast, was typically found in everyday conversation
(Mey, 2001:137). Mey further argues that contrary to the received bias of official linguistics,
conversation talk was not in the least incoherent or irregular. It was discovered that the rules
that conversation followed were more like the rules that people had devised for other social
activities; and they resembled those discovered by researchers in sociology and anthropology
for all sorts of social interaction, much more than they resembled linguistic rules.

Hence the need to develop a technique that was in many respects different from the
classical transcription techniques of linguistics. Schiffrin (1994:232) contends that conversation
analysis provides its own assumptions, its own methodology (including its own terminology),
and its own way of theorizing. The focus of the conversation analyst is chiefly on the
organization and structuring of conversation, and not so much its correctness. Schiffrin notes
that even though conversation analysis has its roots in sociology, it still differs from other

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CGN 101- Stylistics and Discourse Analysis Module No: 6
 Passi City College
Passi City, Iloilo

SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION

branches of sociology because rather than analyzing social order per se, it seeks to
discover the methods by which members of a society produce a sense of social order.

It is a source of much of our sense of social role. Applying the CA approach in the
analysis of what she calls “there + BE + ITEM” data, Schiffrin posits that conversation
analysis approaches to discourse consider how participants in talk construct systematic
solutions to recurrent organizational problems. Among the many problems that are solved are
opening and closing talk, turn taking, repair, topic management, information receipt, and
showing agreement and disagreement. She mentioned that the solutions to such problems are
discovered through the close analysis of how participants themselves talk and to what aspect of
talk they themselves attend: CA avoids positing any categories (whether social or linguistic)
whose relevance for participants themselves is not displayed in what is actually said.

Variation Analysis
The initial methodology and theory underlying the variationist approach to discourse
were those of William Labov. The variationist approach is the only approach discussed in this
section that has its origins solely within linguistics. The approach is concerned with the study of
variation and change in language. The theory proceeds from the assumptions that linguistic
variation is patterned both socially and linguistically, and that such patterns can be discovered
only through systematic investigation of a speech community. Thus, variationists set out to
discover patterns in the distribution of alternative ways of saying the same thing, that is, the
social and linguistic factors that are responsible for variation (Schiffrin, 1994: 282). Although
traditional variationist studies were chiefly concerned with the semantically equivalent variants
(what Labov calls “alternative ways of saying the same thing”), such studies have now been
extended to texts. Schiffrin also notes that it is in the search for text structure, the analysis
of text-level variants and of how text constrains other forms, that a variationist approach to
discourse has developed. She further contends that one of the main tasks in variation
analysis is to discover constraints on alternative realizations of an underlying form: such
constrains (that can be linguistic and/ or social) help determine which realization of a single
underlying representation appears in the surface form of utterance.

Again, since variationists try to discover patterns in the distribution of alternative ways of
saying the same thing, that is, the social and linguistic constraints on linguistic variation, an
initial step in variationist studies is to establish which forms alternate with one another and in
which environments they can do so. Variationists use quantitative methods of analysis to test
hypothesis about constraints on the distribution of forms within connected speech – these
methods differ markedly from those of formal linguists. Schiffrin explains that variationist
approaches compare different explanations by searching for data that confirm (or cast doubt
upon) the co-occurrences predicted by each explanation. She notes that although this is not a
goal unique to variationists, variationist approaches add the strengths (and limitations) of
quantitative analysis to such efforts. The variationists also consider the social context as part of
the study of discourse units hence the setting in which a story is told allows (or inhibits) the
display of linguistic competence – it considers social context under certain methodological and
analytical circumstances. Schiffrin therefore concludes that the variationist approach to
discourse is based within a socially realistic linguistics – in some ways, linguistics clearly
pervades the variationist approach to discourse. Thus, a variationist approach to discourse is a
linguistically based approach that adds social context to analyses of the use of language.

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CGN 101- Stylistics and Discourse Analysis Module No: 6
 Passi City College
Passi City, Iloilo

SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Discourse Rankscale

The concept of ‘rankscale’ is popular in grammar or linguistics. By ‘rank’, we mean the

order of progression on a ladder. By that, we may have something at the base (bottom) and
another at the apex (top). The grammatical rankscale in English grammar or linguistics as
recognized by Halliday (1961, 2004) has the morpheme at the base, and the sentence at the
apex. Therefore, the linguistic grammatical rankscale progresses from
morpheme-word-group/phrase-clause-sentence. In the same vein, Sinclair and Coulthard
(1975) proposed a five-unit rankscale for discourse. Also, from the lowest to the highest, we
have ACT-MOVE-EXCHANGE- TRANSACTION-LESSON.

1. ACT: Act is the lowest unit on the discourse rank scale which is not divisible. It can be
created using grammatical units such as words, groups, clauses or sentences. For example, (i)
She has arrived (Act - Sentence), (ii) Over the bar (Act - Group), (iii) One (Act - word). An Act
can be informative, eliciting or directing. Therefore, there are three types of Act. These are
informative, elicitation and directive.
(i) Informative: Informative act gives information which can either yield a positive or a negative
response. It gives information to discourse participants. Let us consider the conversation
between the following participants:
Speaker A: The food is ready
Speaker B: Thank you very much (Positive)
Speaker A: Mum, I need some money.
Speaker B: I don’t have (Negative)
(ii) Elicitation: Elicitation act comes in form of Question-Answer discourse pattern. The first
speaker here starts the discourse and invites the next speaker into the discourse. The response
of the next speaker can be immediate or delayed depending on his interest in the discourse.
Speaker A: What is your name?
Speaker B: Mary (Immediate)
(iii) Directive: Directive act calls for action. It is a situation where the discourse opener throws
the other participant into action.

Husband: Bring the food here

Wife: (Jumps into action) Yes dear.

2. MOVE: Move is the unit of discourse that is immediately next in rank to act. It consists of one
or more acts. It can be simple when the request is very straight to the point, for example, ‘give
me the bag’. It can also be complex when there are too many demands in one, for example,
‘Dad, I need a school bag. Not only that, do endeavour to put some note books inside it. Don’t
also forget to add a pen and two or more pencils. It should also contain some of the relevant
textbooks. I think that is just fair enough or are my demands too much for you?’ There
are different types of move. They include the following:

(i) Opening and answering moves: An opening move is used to start a discourse. It
can ask a question, give information, request something, and direct an action. The
opening move is often followed or accompanied by an answering move as an answer
to the opening move.
(ii)

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CGN 101- Stylistics and Discourse Analysis Module No: 6
 Passi City College
Passi City, Iloilo

SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Driver: Where do I drop you off?(Opening)
Driven: Just keep moving. I’ll stop you when I get there. (Answering)

(ii)Focusing and framing moves: Focusing and framing moves are more commonly found in
the classroom situation. It can also be useful in a religious setting, for instance in the church
where a sermon is to be preached. Focusing often comes before framing.

Preacher: The topic of our sermon today is the end-time Christians (Focusing). However, before
we go into that, we need to explain who a Christian is (Framing).

(iii) Follow-up or feedback move: the follow-up move serves as a verdict on the answering
move. It is also very useful in the classroom situation. It is a situation where the teacher asks a
question and comes back to assess to the correctness or otherwise of the question. In other
words, the teacher gives judgment. For example:

Teacher: How many semesters make a session?

Student: Two semesters: Harmattan and Rain.
Teacher: Good of you. (Follow-up move)

3. EXCHANGE: An exchange is formed by a set of moves. It involves a situation where

discourse participants engage in series of moves. An exchange can consist of a question, an
answer, a comment or more, depending on the given situation. For instance, when the first
speaker asks the next speaker a question and he responds and the first comes back to give a
follow-up, an exchange can be said to have taken place. Consider the following example:

Speaker A: What time is it? Speaker B: Twelve thirty.

Speaker A: Thanks.
Speaker A: Let's come tomorrow. Speaker B: Oh yeah.
Speaker A: Yes.
Each of these exchanges consists of three moves. The first move (“What time is it?')
functions as a question. The first move in (2) is heard as making a request. Types of exchange
include free exchanges, bound exchanges, opening exchanges, medical exchanges and closing
exchanges. However, it should be noted that exchanges can still be as many as the discourses
of different fields of study or profession.

4. TRANSACTION: A transaction is made up of, at least, an exchange. In other words,

therefore, a transaction can be called a set of exchanges. Some framing words such as right,
well, good, now serve as transaction boundaries. They are used to indicate the end of a
transaction and the beginning of another one.

5. LESSON: A lesson is made up by many transactions. In other words, therefore, a lesson can
be called a set of exchanges.

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CGN 101- Stylistics and Discourse Analysis Module No: 6
 Passi City College
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Discourse Features/Structure
There are different terms associated with the study of discourse. Some of them include
what is known as discourse features or structures.
Discourse features/structures are essential in the study and analysis of discourse.
The constraints of space will not permit us to discuss them in detail. The reader, therefore,
should pay close attention to the items in bold print.
Conversation takes place when, at least, two speakers are talking. In such a situation,
both speakers are expected to contribute, either by talking and responding or listening.
Discourse can be seen as the issue being discussed by two or more participants. Discourse
opening is the preliminary exchange between participants. It is expected to open or start off a
discussion or conversation. Discourse closing is the closing exchange between participants,
which is expected to terminate the discussion. Discourse participants are the people who are
involved in a conversation or discussion. Discourse interruption occurs when a speaker has
the floor, and another makes a move to take over and successfully paves a way for him/her by
taking over the discussion. Speaker is the person that has the floor to speak. Current speaker
is the person that currently has the floor to speak. Next speaker is the person that takes over
the floor from the current speaker. Speaker change occurs when the current speaker stops
speaking and allows the next speaker to step in, a change has occurred. There is also a
situation in which depending on the age, status and qualification of different speakers, they are
assigned different roles in speech communication. This is known as Role sharing.

Adjacency pairs often feature as reciprocal exchanges. In other words, they are
exchange structures in pairs. They often take the form of Speaker A asking question and
speaker B responding (Question- Response), or Speaker A challenging speaker B and speaker
B reacting to speaker A’s challenge. Speech errors are errors made when a turn is going on. It
may include hesitations or slot fillers such as: ‘er’, ‘em’ ‘I mean’, ‘you know’, ‘as in’, etc. Again,
in speech, when errors or mistakes (speech errors) are made by a speaker, he can quickly seek
redress by withdrawing the earlier statement, by restating the intended. This is known as Repair
Mechanism. Turn is the current opportunity that is given to a particular speaker to speak. When
the turn of a speaker expires and another takes over, the other has taken his turn, which is
known as Turn-taking. Speakers may also be involved in a topic which is uninteresting to one
of the discourse participants and the dissatisfied participant may wish to bring in another topic
for discussion, all he has to do in the situation is just to negotiate the topic by creeping into the
discussion. This is known as Topic negotiation. Talk initiation is the process involved when a
speaker tries to start off a talk with other participants. Situations also occur in which the current
speaker seemingly forces the interlocutor to talk, probably, by asking question or demanding a
response. This is known as Elicitation in talk. Summon is a deliberate and conscious invitation
to talk. It is a situation where the speaker uses an attention-catching device like calling the
name of the current or next speaker in order to establish a (facial) contact before a new speaker
or discourse is introduced.

Discourse Analysis and Social Context

Discourse analysis takes into account how the formal and situational features of
language confer cohesion and coherence on text. The two main approaches to language
identified by Cook (1989: 12) are sentence linguistics and discourse analysis. The former
is mainly concerned with the study of the formal linguistic properties of language, especially the
well-formedness of a sentence.

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CGN 101- Stylistics and Discourse Analysis Module No: 6
 Passi City College
Passi City, Iloilo

SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION

This approach to language believes that contextual features, that is, the knowledge of
the world outside language, which enable us to interpret and make meaning in our
communication activities, should be excluded in the analysis of language. To them, the
analysis of language should be based on the system of rules that govern such language,
and not on any external circumstances. Sentence linguists, therefore, restrict their
inquiries to what happens within the sentence. Sentence linguists perceive discourse as a
particular unit of language above the sentence or above the clause. Schiffrin (1994:20) regards
this as a formalist paradigm or view of discourse.

The other perspective to discourse which recognizes the crucial place of context of
situation and context of culture in the analysis of language has been described as the
functionalist paradigm by Schiffrin (1994:20). The functionalists describe discourse as language
use. Discourse in the functionalist perspective, according to Schiffrin, is ‘viewed as a system
(socially and culturally organized way of speaking) through which particular functions are
realized’ (32). The functional definitions of discourse assume an interrelationship between
language and context (34). This approach explores the interconnectedness between language,
culture and social context. The functionalists believe that, as Barbara Johnstone (2002:50) puts
it ‘As people construct discourse, they draw on the resources provided by culture […] Each
instance of discourse is another instance of the laying out of a grammatical pattern or
expression of a belief, so each instance of discourse reinforces the patterns of language and
the beliefs associated with the culture.

Furthermore, people do things in discourse in new ways, which suggests new patterns,
new ways of thinking about the world.’ Discourse analysis therefore takes into account non-
linguistic issues like the speaker’s race, sex, age, class, occupation/profession, nationality,
religion, location and so in the analysis of data. Those who approach discourse from the
functional perspective believe that the formal properties of language alone are not sufficient for
a comprehensive understanding of discourse or text. This view of language or discourse owes
much to the inspirational work J.R. Firth and other neo- Firthians like M.A.K. Halliday, Ruqaiya
Hasan, John Spenser and Michael Gregory.

Discourse Analysis and Grammar

We mentioned above that the notion of ‘coherence’ is important in the study of
discourse. We also noted that discourse does not have to be composed of well-formed
sentences or conform to grammatical rules. Cook (1989:14) however notes that both formal and
contextual links enable us to account for discourse. They enable us to see or have a feeling of
how a particular stretch of language (whether written or spoken) hangs together or has unity.
The contextual links are features outside the language such as the situation, the people
involved, what they know and what they are doing. These features enable us to construct
stretches of language as discourse; as having meaning and a unity for us. However, there is a
kind of formal link that connects one sentence with another in discourse to create unity and
meaning for the reader/hearer. The features of formal links refer to facts inside the language
unlike those of contextual links that refer to facts outside the language. Cook observes that
stretches of language treated only formally are referred to as text. While mainstream linguistics
have traditionally concentrated on formal features which operate within sentences, discourse
analysis goes beyond that by looking at the formal features which operate across sentences.
The formal links between sentences and clauses are known as cohesive devices.

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CGN 101- Stylistics and Discourse Analysis Module No: 6
 Passi City College
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SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION

As noted earlier, the works of linguistic scholars such as M. A. K. Halliday (see Halliday
and Hasan, 1976) have had a lot of influence on the grammar or formal properties in discourse.
By cohesion, we mean a linguistic unit by which a text functions as a single unit. It refers
to the relations of meaning that exist within the text. In cohesion, the interpretation in
discourse is dependent on another. In this situation, the one presupposes the other and
cannot be fully understood without recourse to it. Cohesion therefore refers to the
semantic relation that exists within the text. It exists where the interpretation of some
element of a discourse is dependent on that of another. That is, the meaning of a given
presupposition cannot be effectively interpreted without recourse or reference to another.
Halliday and Matthiessen (2004:536) contend that the “cohesive resources make it possible to
link items of any size, whether below or above the clause, and to link items at any distance,
whether structurally related or not.”

Therefore, in this section, we shall consider the grammatical terminologies which relate
to the discussion at hand. Since the construction of natural and sophisticated discourse might
be impossible without a command of the resources offered by the grammar of the given
language, the consideration of the importance of grammar is considered expedient.
Grammatical connections are displayed in both spoken and written discourses between
individual clauses and utterances. These grammatical links can be classified under reference,
ellipsis, substitution and conjunction.

Reference
Reference has to do with the relations between language and extra- linguistic reality. It
has to do with retrieving information for referential meaning. Reference can also be seen as a
relationship between an expression and what it stands for in the outside world. Basically,
there are two types of co-reference relations. These are endophoric and exophoric
references. The interpretation of endophoric reference lies within a text. In other words,
cohesive ties are formed within the text. It can be further divided into anaphoric and cataphoric
references. Exophoric reference, on the other hand, refers to a reference which plays no part in
textual cohesion. The interpretation here lies outside the text. A simpler way of putting them is
to say:
Exophoric Reference: Looking Outside
Endophoric Reference: Looking Inside
Anaphoric Reference: Looking Backward
Cataphoric Reference: Looking Forward

Exophoric Reference (Looking Outside) – This has to do with a situation where the meaning
of an expression is extratextual. In other words, the referential meaning cannot be located in the
given text. The reader or analyst may have to think outside the particular text for full realization
of meaning. For instance, if in the body of a text, a politician says, ‘I will only allow that after May
29’, the full understanding of the meaning here requires that the reader or analyst knows that
May 29 stands for democracy day in Nigeria. It is the official day that political office holders
hand over power to their successors after a four-year tenure. Therefore, it is expected that the
analyst here looks outside the text for the full meaning of the date in reference. Hence,
exophoric reference is often used to refer to a world shared by sender and receiver of the
linguistic message, regardless of cultural background, but equally often, references will be
culture-bound and outside the experiences of the language learner (McCarthy 1991).

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CGN 101- Stylistics and Discourse Analysis Module No: 6
 Passi City College
Passi City, Iloilo

SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Another example can be seen in the following sentence: ‘Since the government has placed
embargo on employment, we have to go for private employment’. In this example, the reader
does not need to look forward or backward in the text. It is expected that by shared beliefs or
knowledge between the writer and the reader, the reader should look outside the text to know
that the government refers to the people in power in that particular country.

Endophoric Reference (Looking Inside) – This has to do with a situation where the meaning
of an expression is intratexual. In other words, the referential meaning can be located in the
given text. The reader or analyst may only have to look forward or backward to locate what it
refers to. Examples of endophoric reference are given under the anaphoric and cataphoric
references below.

Anaphoric Reference (Looking Backward)

This is a kind of reference which is backward looking. Here, the analyst has to look
backward to get the desired meaning. Basically, the personal pronouns – he, she, it, they
function typically with anaphoric reference. Beyond the personal pronouns, the definite article –
the, and demonstratives like – that can also be used to make anaphoric reference. Some other
words such as one did, aforementioned, aforesaid, the former etc, can also be used. Consider
the following example: If the president is thinking of re-election, he should better impress his
followers in his first term.

Cataphoric Reference (Looking Forward)

This is a kind of reference which is forward looking. Here, the analyst has to look
forward to get the desired meaning. Basically, the personal pronouns – he, she, it, they and
other pro-forms, which anticipate the noun phrases with which they co-occur, are used. The
withholding of referents in cataphoric reference is a classic device for engaging the reader's
attention. This can, sometimes, be done for quite long stretches of text. For example, He
should better impress his followers in his first term if the president is thinking of re-election.
In the examples above, while in the first (anaphoric reference), the analyst has to look backward
to know who the he and his refer to; in the second (cataphoric reference), he has to look forward
to know who the he and his refer to. In both examples, the he and his refer to the president.

Substitution
Substitution has to do with the relation between linguistic items, such as words and
phrases. Substitution is similar to ellipsis, in that, in English, it operates either at the nominal,
verbal or clausal level. The items commonly used for substitution in English are: One/ones, do,
the entire clause.
Nominal Substitution: One(s): I offered her a drink. She said she didn't want one.
Verbal Substitution: Do: Did Ayo inform the School of the changes? He might have done.
John reads now more than Sade is doing.

Clausal Substitution: I asked him if they were all invited to the party, he said he thought
so.

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Ellipsis
Ellipsis simply has to do with deletion. It is the omission of elements which are normally
required by the grammar of a language, but which the speaker or writer assumes are obvious
from the context of the text. To the speaker or writer, therefore, the deletion of such items will
not bring about any serious change. The essence of such a deletion is to make room for
grammatical cohesion in discourse. There are broadly three types of ellipses which include
nominal ellipsis, verbal ellipsis and clausal ellipsis.

Nominal Ellipsis: At this level, emphasis is placed on a nominal element. In other words, a
noun item may be deliberately deleted. Nominal ellipsis often involves omission of a noun
headword. For example, David liked the blue car but Daniel preferred the white.

Verbal Ellipsis: At this level, emphasis is placed on a verbal element. In other words, a verb
item may be deliberately deleted.
For example,
A: Will anyone be waiting?
B: Jude will.
Clausal Ellipsis: At this level, emphasis is placed on clausal element. With clausal ellipsis in
English, individual clause elements may be omitted; especially the subject-operator omissions.

A: What do you have to do tomorrow?

B: Play and sleep.

Conjunction
Conjunction is also a grammatical device which is used to achieve cohesion. It
includes the use of conjuncts such as and, yet, although, but etc. A conjunction presupposes a
textual sequence and signals a relationship between segments of the discourse. There are
many conjunctive items. In fact, they are almost not exhaustive, except when considered from
the natural data, especially spoken, a few conjunctions (and, but, so and then) will be identified.
Some of the types of conjunction include additive, adversative, causal, continuative and
temporal meanings. Let us consider the following examples. Joshua is good. And he’s very
reliable (additive). I've travelled all over the world but I’ve never seen a place as
underdeveloped as this (adversative). He fell from the hill and got his bones broken (causal).
She has to love you, after all you fulfilled all the marriage requirements (continuative). I got up
early and was the first to get to school. (temporal sequence).

Discourse analysis and Vocabulary

This aspect can also be called lexical cohesion. When the word ‘vocabulary’ is used,
what readily comes to mind is lexis. Lexical cohesion involves the use of lexical devices to
achieve cohesion. Cohesion refers to the relations of meaning that words keep. Halliday and
Hasan (1976) have also had a lot of influence on the vocabulary patterns in discourse. This has
to do with the consideration of related vocabulary items which occur across clause and
sentence boundaries in written texts and across act, move and turn boundaries in speech. The
two principal kinds of lexical cohesion are: reiteration and collocation.

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CGN 101- Stylistics and Discourse Analysis Module No: 6
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Reiteration: Reiteration has to do with saying or doing something repeatedly or several times.
Reiteration means either restating an item in a later part of the discourse by direct repetition or
reasserting its meaning by exploiting lexical relations. It manifests in different ways: repetition
(for instance, a word can be repeated between two sentences to show emphasis), hyponym
(when a super-ordinate term is used in place of a word, for example, rose and flower. Rose
is a hyponym of flower) and synonym (when two different but similar words are used
interchangeably).
Collocation: Collocation is a term used for words that appear to move very closely together in a
given discourse. They are words that move in company of each other. The mention of one
immediately brings to mind the other. Such words are regarded as collocates. There are
different types of collocation. They include complementaries (brother and sister), converse
(wining and dining), antonyms (coming and going these several seasons), part and whole
(building and door), part and part (driver’s seat and passenger’s seat), co-hyponyms (fork and
knife) and links (teachers and students). The role of certain words in organizing
discourses to signal discourse structure cannot be backgrounded. Vocabulary, therefore,
plays an important role in the analysis of discourse.

Discourse Analysis and Phonology

Phonology, as a branch of linguistics, also has a vital role to play in discourse. The
aspect of phonology that is most significant in this regard is intonation. This is not far-fetched
from the belief that the most exciting developments in the analysis of discourse have been in the
study of the suprasegmental (with emphasis on intonation) rather than at the segmental level
(the study of phonemes and their articulation) and partly because the teaching of intonation in
phonology is open to challenges from a discourse analyst's viewpoint.

At the segmental level, emphasis is placed on phonemes. In other words, it is the angle
where we give consideration to pronunciation (teaching). To do the teaching-learning of such
phonemes appropriately, beyond the production of sounds, similar sounds are contrasted with
other words, for example, the phonemes /p/ and /b/ in English contrast in the words pill and bill.
However, at the suprasegmental level, attention is shifted to longer stretches. For instance, in
the consideration of a stretch of spoken English discourse, the rhythmic pattern of utterances is
measured by the occurrence of stressed syllables. The regularity or otherwise of such stressed
syllables and the alternation between strong and weak 'beats' in various patterned recurrences
dictate the rhythmic pattern. Rhythm is an important element in the teaching of phonology.
Likewise in spoken discourse, rhythmicality is seen in varying degrees in long stretches of
speech. It also points attention to the speaker, whether he is a native speaker or second learner
of the language. It brings to fore how careful a speaker is in the consideration of deliveries such
as (news) broadcast, talks, teaching, reading speeches and citations, as well as some ordinary
conversation. Also, since English is seen as a stress-timed language, unlike most Nigerian
languages which are syllable-timed, the spoken discourses of the natives of both origins are
likely to differ. The principal distinction is brought as a result of the difference between stress-
timing and syllable-timing.
Considering intonation in discourse, speech can be divided into small units in which each unit
has at least a main or nuclear prominence. This prominence is marked by some variation in
pitch, either predominantly rising or falling. These are different tunes. Beyond these two, there
can still be a longer list such as fall-rise tune, rise-fall tune, etc. They give different meanings to
different utterances.

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CGN 101- Stylistics and Discourse Analysis Module No: 6
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Passi City, Iloilo

SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION

The prominence given to any syllable in an utterance is a pointer to any significant
variation in pitch that the speaker might use. It is the duty of the speaker to decide on how the
information is to be distributed into tone groups and where the tonic is placed. The speaker
rests his decision on what he needs to say, the information he intends to pass across and what
he wants to be highlighted for the listener. With the right tune, speakers manage large stretches
of interaction, in terms of turn-taking and topic-signalling even as they use different pitch levels
to interact. The intonational cues such as turn-taking, topic-framing and topic-signalling interact
with other factors like syntax, lexis, non-verbal communication and context, and are typical of
how the different levels of encoding have to be seen. It is worthy of note to remark that the
interpretation of tone choice in spoken discourse is to see tones as fulfilling an interactive role in
signalling the intended information in discourse.

Critical Discourse Analysis

Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is an innovative, multidisciplinary approach, which
tackles a number of important social issues. It draws on many of the methodological tools of
more traditional fields such as critical linguistics, text linguistics and sociolinguistics (Osisanwo,
2011). In fact, Norman Fairclough’s approach or model draws upon the Hallidayan systemic
functional linguistics (SFL) theory; his concern with language, discourse and power in society
allows the integration of sociological concepts as well. CDA researchers do not merely ‘simply
appeal to ‘context’ to explain what is said or written or how it is interpreted’, rather, they have
come to see language as a form of social practice (Fairclough, 1992:47). Discussions on the
origin and developments of CDA have often centred around the quartet of Norman Fairclough,
Ruth Wodak, Teun van Dijk and Paul Chilton (Blommaert, 2005: 21). Another major scholar
whose propositions and initial theory have greatly encouraged the development of this theory is
Roger Fowler, the proponent of Critical Linguistics. CDA has been viewed as an offshoot of
Critical Linguistics.

Different analysts, especially discourse analysts and critical discourse analysts, have
tried to examine what CDA is all about and sets out to achieve. Most of them mainly considered
this from the angle of its concern. There have been divergences in their opinions since the
discipline itself is multidisciplinary. According to van Dijk (2000:353) CDA is ‘a type of discourse
analytical research that primarily studies the way social power abuse, dominance and inequality
are enacted, reproduced and resisted by text and talk in the social and political context’. Van
Dijk’s position here shows that, for CDA to actually become realistic, society must be in place,
since it is concerned with the social issues, especially political issues. His definition also reveals
that CDA sets out to resist social inequality and expose the social ills, which possibly pervade or
seemingly affect the human psyche. CDA is a type of discourse analytical study that primarily
focuses on ‘opaque as well as transparent structural relationships of dominance, discrimination,
power and control as manifested in language’ (Wodak, 1995:204). It takes into account how
issues are manifested through language. It studies the way texts and talks are used in enacting,
reproducing and resisting social power abuse, dominance and inequality (van Dijk, 2000). Its
domain of concern mainly centres on social and political issues. Wodak (2001:2) also says CDA
is mainly concerned with analyzing people as well as transparent structural relations of
dominance, discrimination, power and control as manifested in language.

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CGN 101- Stylistics and Discourse Analysis Module No: 6
 Passi City College
Passi City, Iloilo

SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Another very useful definition of CDA that encapsulates most of the other definitions is the one
given by Fairclough (1995b). According to him, CDA is the study of often-opaque relationships
of causality and determinism between:

(a) discursive practices, events and texts, and

(b) wider social and cultural structures.
Fairclough and Wodak (1997:271-80) give a summary of the main tenets of CDA to include:
(i) CDA addresses social problems
(ii) Power relations are discursive
(iii) Discourse constitutes society and culture
(iv) Discourse works ideologically
(v) Discourse is historical
(vi) The link between text and society is mediated
(vii) Discourse analysis is interpretive and explanatory, and
(viii) Discourse is a form of social action.

While Fairclough (1989:24-6) identifies and describes three stages which are salient in
CDA practice, O’Halloran (2003:2) identifies two stages. Fairclough identifies description stage,
interpretation stage, and explanation stage. At the description stage, the formal properties of a
text are considered. At the interpretation stage, the relationship between text and interaction is
the central concern, that is, getting to see the text as a very useful resource in the process of
interpretation. The explanation stage looks into the relationship between interaction and social
context, with emphasis on the processes involved in production and interpretation vis-à-vis their
social effects. O’Halloran (2003:2) claims that at the interpretation stage, CDA focuses on the
cognition of texts, thereby unveiling how text can mystify the events being described for the
understanding of the reader. At the explanation stage, according to him, CDA focuses on the
connections between texts and socio-cultural context. The focus in this regard is on the relation
between linguistic analysis and the socio-cultural context (O’Halloran, 2003:2). However, a
major observable defect in this regard is CDA’s concentration on the explanation stage than the
interpretation. A good analysis within the framework, therefore, requires a concise
understanding and application of the two stages of interpretation and explanation.
The three stages and two stages of CDA which were identified by both Fairclough
(1989:24-6) and O’Halloran (2003:2) respectively try to ask; How is a text produced? What are
the properties put together in producing it? What informs its production? Does it have any
affinity with the socio-cultural setting in which it is produced? In relation to social theory, CDA
sees discourse as a social phenomenon (Blommaert, 2005) and works in two distinct directions.
First, it has interest in the theories of power and ideology, hence, it borrows from the ideas of
Michael Foucault (1975, 1982), Antonio Gramsci (1971), with bias for hegemony.

Second, it has interest in making attempt to overcome structuralist determinism, hence it

borrows mainly from Anthony Gidden’s (1984) theory of stucturation.
Certain notions are central to the whole idea of CDA. Some of them are: dominance, hegemony,
ideology, class, gender, race, discrimination, interests, reproduction, institutions, ‘social
structure and social order’ (van Dijk 2000:354).

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CGN 101- Stylistics and Discourse Analysis Module No: 6
 Passi City College
Passi City, Iloilo

SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION

CDA focuses primarily on social problems and political issues and the way issues
relating to power and dominance in society are enacted, confirmed, challenged or reproduced
by language, or more specifically discourse structures. Van Dijk (1993:249) asserts that CDA
tries to answer questions on the relations between discourse and power, dominance, social
inequality and the discourse analysts’ position in the relationships.

Activity No. 1 Illustrate!

Direction: Illustrate using the ladder graphic organizer the value and implication of Discourse
Rankscale based on our discussion. Briefly put an implication/s in every rankscale and please
do a wrap up after you complete the illustration. (50 pts)

DISCOURSE RANKSCALE

Wrap up
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________

Rubric for Scoring your Activity

Content---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------20 pts
Organization of Ideas---------------------------------------------------------------------15 pts
Conventions (grammar, punctuations, spelling etc.-------------------------------15 pts
__________________________________________________________________

Total------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------50pts

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CGN 101- Stylistics and Discourse Analysis Module No: 6
 Passi City College
Passi City, Iloilo

SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Evaluate

Test I-Identification
Direction: Identify what is being described. Write your answer on your answer sheet.

1. It is an approach to discourse which provides its own way of theorizing.

2. These are group of scholars that set out to discover what methods people use to participate
in and make sense of interaction.
3. It is an approach concerned with the study of variation and change in language.
4. Takes place when, at least, two speakers are talking and where both speakers are expected
to contribute, either by talking and responding or listening.
5. This is the issue being discussed by two or more participants in a conversation.
6. The preliminary exchange between participants where both are expected to open or start off
a discussion or conversation.
7. The closing exchange between participants, which is expected to terminate the discussion.
8. They are the people who are involved in a conversation or discussion.
9. It occurs when a speaker has the floor, and another makes a move to take over and
successfully paves a way for him/her by taking over the discussion.
10. The person that has the floor to speak in a discourse is called_______?
11. The person that currently has the floor to speak.
12. Occurs when the current speaker stops speaking and allows the next speaker to step in, a
change has occurred
13. A situation in which depending on the age, status and qualification of different speakers,
they are assigned different roles in speech communication.
14. These are errors made when a turn is going on.
15.It is a term called when the turn of a speaker expires and another takes over, the other has
taken his turn.

References:

Book:
Ikenna Kamalu & Ayo Osisanwo. (2020). Discourse Analysis. Retrieved in PDF format at
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343214812

In the midst of chaos, remember you’re not alone. Trust HIM!

Break a leg!

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