IV Semester B.Sc.

, Physics : Unit 2 - Diffraction of Light

Diffraction of Light : The phenomenon of bending of light waves around edges

of small obstacles and hence it's spreading into the geometrical shadow of the
obstacle is called diffraction. The diffraction effects were first observed by Grimaldi
in 1665. The effects can be observed only when the size of
the obstacle is very small and comparable to the
wavelength of light.
This phenomenon shows that the rectilinear propagation of
light (light traveling along a straight) is only approximate i.e.
light bends at the corners of small obstacles and enters the
regions of geometrical shadows.
Light from the source S is made to fall on a slit AB whose
width is very small. The region CD on the screen is found to contain unequally
spaced alternate bright and dark fringes with light bending into the region above C
and below D. This is due to diffraction effects. Fresnel explained this phenomenon
by applying the Huygens ‘Principle along with the principle of interference.
Diffraction phenomenon is classified into two types
Fresnel's diffraction: Fraunhofer's diffraction
1. The source of light and the screen on 1. The source of light and the screen on
which the diffraction pattern is which the diffraction pattern is
observed are at finite distance from observed are at infinite distance
the obstacle or aperture. from the obstacle or aperture.
2. The incident wavefront and the 2. The incident wavefront and the
diffracted wavefronts are spherical or diffracted wave fronts are plane
cylindrical. wave fronts.
3. The incident beam is a divergent 3. The incident beam is a parallel beam
beam whereas the diffracted beam is and the diffracted beam is also
a convergent beam. parallel beam.
4. No changes in the wavefront are 4. The incident rays from a source are
made by using either lenses or made parallel using a convex lens
mirrors. and the diffracted rays are brought
5. The centre of the diffraction pattern is to focus on a screen using another
either bright or dark. The pattern is convex lens (converging lenses).
the image of the obstacle or aperture. 5. The centre of the diffraction pattern
is always bright. The pattern is the
image of the source itself.

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College Page 1

 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : Unit 2 - Diffraction of Light

Examples of diffraction – (1) The luminous border that surrounds the profile of a
mountain just before sun rises behind it, (2) the light streaks that one sees while
looking at a strong source of light with half shut eyes and (3) the coloured spectra
one sees while viewing a distant source of light through a fine piece of cloth.

Fresnel’s assumptions
Fresnel in 1815, combined the Huygens principle of wavelet and the principle of
interference to explain the bending of light around obstacles and also the rectilinear
propagation of light.
1. According to Huygens’ principle, each point of a wavefront (wavefront is a
locus of points in a medium that are vibrating in same phase) is a source of
secondary disturbance and wavelets coming from these points spread out in
all directions with the speed of light. The envelope of these waves constitute
the next wavelet.
2. According to Fresnel, a wavefront can be divided into a large number of strips
or zones called Fresnel zones of small area. The resultant effect at any point
will depend on the combined effect of all the secondary waves coming from
various zones.
3. The effect at a point due to any particular
zone depends on distance of the point from
the zone.
4. The effect will also depend on the obliquity
(inclination) of the point with reference to the
zone under consideration.

Division of wavefront into Fresnel’s half period zones – Expression

for resultant displacement/amplitude – Rectilinear propagation of light
ABCD is a plane wave front of
monochromatic light of
wavelength . The diagram
shows the plane wavefront as
perpendicular to plane of the
paper. Consider a point P at a
distance b from the wave front at
which amplitude due to the wave is to be found.

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College Page 2

 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : Unit 2 - Diffraction of Light

To find the resultant amplitude at P due to entire wavefront, Fresnel assumed the
wavefront to be divided into a number of concentric half period zones called

Fresnel’s half period zones:

𝜆 2𝜆
With P as centre and with 𝑀1 𝑃 = (𝑏 + ) , 𝑀2 𝑃 = (𝑏 + ) , … .. as radii, a
2 2
series of concentric spheres are drawn on the wavefront. These spheres intersect the
wavefront in concentric circles. These circles or zones are of radii OM 1, OM2 ,….. on
the wavefront with O as centre.
The secondary waves from any two consecutive zones reach the point P with a path
𝜆 𝑇
difference of or a time period of . Hence these zones are called half period zones.
2 2
The area of the circle OM1 is called first half period zone. The area between the
circles of OM2 and OM1 is called second half period zone and so on. The area
between the nth and (n – 1)th circle is called the nth half period zone.

To find the radius of a half period zone :

In the diagram, from the right angled triangle OM1P,
𝜆
𝑂𝑀1 = √(𝑀1 𝑃)2 − (𝑂𝑃)2 = √(𝑏 + ) 2 − 𝑏 2
2

𝜆 𝜆2 𝜆2
𝑂𝑀1 = √(𝑏 2 + 2𝑏 +
2 4
) − 𝑏 2 or 𝑂𝑀1 = √𝑏 (neglecting 4
as b   )

𝑶𝑴𝟏 = √𝒃 is the radius of first half period zone.

The radius of the second half period zone is

2𝜆 2
𝑂𝑀2 = √(𝑀2 𝑃)2 − (𝑂𝑃)2 = √(𝑏 + ) − 𝑏2 Thus 𝑶𝑴𝟐 = √𝟐𝒃
2

𝑛𝜆 2
Similarly the radius of the nth half period zone is 𝑂𝑀𝑛 = √(𝑏 + ) − 𝑏2
2

or 𝑶𝑴𝒏 = √𝒏𝒃
Thus the radii of 1st , 2nd , …… half period zones are √𝑏, √2𝑏, ……√𝑛𝑏 .
Therefore, the radii of the zones are proportional to the square root of natural
numbers.

To find the area of half period zones :

The area of first half period zone is

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College Page 3

 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : Unit 2 - Diffraction of Light

= 𝜋 (𝑂𝑀1 )2 = 𝜋[(𝑀1 𝑃)2 − (𝑂𝑃)2 ] (As area = 𝜋𝑟 2 )

𝜆 2
= 𝜋 [(𝑏 + ) − 𝑏 2 ] = 𝜋 𝑏
2

The area of 2th half period zone = 𝜋[(𝑂𝑀2 )2 − (𝑂𝑀1 )2 ]

= 𝜋[2𝑏 − 𝑏] = 𝜋 𝑏
The area of nth half period zone = 𝜋[(𝑂𝑀𝑛 )2 − (𝑂𝑀1 )2 ]
= 𝜋[𝑛𝑏 − 𝑏] = 𝝅 𝒃
Thus the area of each half period zone is same and is equal to  .
Also, the area of any zone is directly proportional to the wavelength () of light and
the distance of the point from the wavefront (b).

To find amplitude due to the wavefront :

The amplitude of the waves at P due to an individual
zone is
1. Directly proportional to the area of the zone
2. inversely proportional to the distance of the point P from the given zone.
3. the obliquity factor (1+ cos ) where  is the angle between normal to the zone and
the line joining the zone to the point P. The effect at P decreases as obliquity
increases.
𝜆
The path difference between any two consecutive half period zones is . Hence the
2
waves from two consecutive zones will reach P in opposite phase. If m1, m2, m3 ,…..
are the amplitudes at P due to 1st, 2nd, 3rd, ….. half period zones, the resultant
amplitude at P due to entire wavefront is
𝐴 = 𝑚1 − 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 − 𝑚4 + ⋯ . + 𝑚𝑛 if n is odd
and 𝐴 = 𝑚1 − 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 − 𝑚4 + ⋯ . − 𝑚𝑛 if n is even.
As the obliquity increases amplitudes decreases, ie. m2 is less than m1, m3 is less than
m2 etc…
𝑚1 + 𝑚3 𝑚3 + 𝑚5
Thus on the average 𝑚2 = ….(1) Similarly 𝑚4 = . ……..(2)
2 2
The equation 𝐴 = 𝑚1 − 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 − 𝑚4 + ⋯. can be written as
𝑚1 𝑚1 𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚5
𝐴= + ( − 𝑚2 + )+ ( − 𝑚4 + )+⋯ ……..(3)
2 2 2 2 2
Substituting equations (1) and (2) in (3) we get
𝑚1 𝑚𝑛
𝐴= + if n is odd ….(5) ( The terms in the bracket cancel)
2 2
𝑚1 𝑚𝑛−1
𝐴= + − 𝑚𝑛 if n is even. ….(6).
2 2
Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College Page 4
 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : Unit 2 - Diffraction of Light

As the amplitudes are of diminishing order, for large n, mn and mn-1 tend to zero.
𝒎𝟏
Thus 𝑨 = .
𝟐
The amplitude of the wave at any point P, in front of a large plane wavefront is
equal to half the amplitude due to the first half period zone.
As the intensity is proportional to square of the amplitude, (𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2 the intensity at P
𝑚1 2 𝑚1 2
is proportional to (𝐼 ∝ ). Thus the intensity at point P is one fourth of the
4 4
intensity due to the first half period zone.

Explanation of rectilinear propagation of light

𝑚1 2
The intensity at point in front of a wave front is proportional to where 𝑚1 is the
4
amplitude of the first half period zone. Thus the intensity at point P is one fourth of
the intensity due to the first half period zone.
Thus only half the area of the first half period zone is effective in producing the
illumination at the point P. A small obstacle of the size of half the size of half the area
of first half period zone placed at O will block the effect of whole wavefront and the
intensity at P due to rest of the wavefront is zero.
While dealing with the rectilinear propagation of light, the size of the obstacle used
is far greater than the area of the first half period zone and hence the bending effect
of light round the corners of the obstacle is diffraction effects cannot be noticed.
Thus if the size of the obstacle placed in the path of light is very small and
comparable to wavelength of light, then it is possible to observe illumination in the
region of the geometrical shadow also. Thus, rectilinear propagation of light is only
approximately true.

Zone plate
A zone plate is a specially constructed screen such that light is obstructed from every
alternate zone.The correctness of Fresnel’s method in dividing a wavefront into half
period zones can be verified with the help of zone plate.

A zone plate is constructed by drawing concentric

circles on a white paper such that radii are proportional
to the square root of the natural numbers. The odd
numbered zones (i.e. 1st, 3rd, 5th …) are covered with
black ink and a reduced photograph is taken.

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College Page 5

 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : Unit 2 - Diffraction of Light

The negative of the photograph appears is as shown in Fig. (a). The negative shows
odd zones are transparent to incident light and even zones will cut off light. This is a
positive zone plate. If odd zones are opaque and the even zones are transparent
then it is a negative zone plate. Fig. (b)

X
Theory
M2
Let S be a point source of light of wavelength 
M1
placed at a distance a from centre O of the zone S P
a O b
plate. Let P be the point on a screen placed at
distance b at which intensity of diffracted light Y

bright.
Let r1, r2,r3…….rn be the radii of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd ……nth half period zones
respectively. The position of the screen is such, that from one zone to the next there
𝜆
is an increasing path difference of 2 .
Thus, from the diagram 𝑆𝑂 + 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑎 + 𝑏
𝜆
𝑆𝑀1 + 𝑀1 𝑃 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + …….(1)
2
2𝜆
Similarly 𝑆𝑀2 + 𝑀2 𝑃 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + and so on
2
From the triangle SM1O 𝑆𝑀1 = (𝑆𝑂2 + 𝑂𝑀12 )1/2 = (𝑎2 + 𝑟12 )1/2
Similarly from the triangle PM1O 𝑀1 𝑃 = (𝑂𝑃 2 + 𝑂𝑀12 )1/2 = (𝑏 2 + 𝑟12 )1/2
Substituting the values of 𝑆𝑀1 and 𝑀1 𝑃 in equation (1), we get
𝜆
(𝑎2 + 𝑟12 )1/2 + (𝑏 2 + 𝑟12 )1/2 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 +
2
1/2 1/2
𝑟12 𝑟12 𝜆
or 𝑎 (1 + ) + 𝑏 (1 + ) =𝑎+𝑏+
𝑎2 𝑏2 2
Expanding and simplifying the above equation, we get
𝑟12 𝑟12 𝜆
𝑎 (1 + ) + 𝑏 (1 + )=𝑎+𝑏+
2𝑎2 2𝑏2 2
𝑟12 𝑟12 𝜆
𝑎+ +𝑏 + =𝑎+𝑏+
2𝑎 2𝑏2 2
𝑟12 1 1 𝜆 1 1
or (𝑎 + 𝑏) = or 𝑟12 (𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝜆
2 2
Thus for the radius of the nth zone the above relation can be written as
1 1 𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏𝜆
𝑟𝑛2 ( + ) = 𝑛 𝜆 …..(2) or 𝑟𝑛2 = 𝑛𝜆 or 𝑟𝑛 = √ √𝑛
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎+𝑏

Thus the radii of the half period zones are proportional to the square root of the
natural numbers.

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College Page 6

 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : Unit 2 - Diffraction of Light

𝟏 𝟏 𝒏𝝀
From equation (2) can written as (𝒂 + 𝒃
)= 𝒓𝟐𝒏
…..(3)
1 1 1
This equation is similar to the lens formula + = …..(4)
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓

𝟏 𝒏𝝀 𝒓𝟐𝒏
Comparing equations (3) and (4) = or 𝒇 =
𝒇 𝒓𝟐𝒏 𝒏𝝀
𝑓 is the focal length of zone plate and acts as a convex lens of multiple foci.
The path difference between any successive transparent zones is  and the phase
difference is 2. Waves from successive zones reach P in phase.

Focussing action of Zone plate

The amplitude at P depends on (a) area of the zone, (b) distance of the zone from P
and (c) obliquity factor.
2
The area of nth zone = 𝜋𝑟𝑛2 − 𝜋 𝑟𝑛−1
𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏𝜆
As 𝑟𝑛2 = 𝑛 𝜆, the area of the nth zone = 𝑛𝜆− 𝜋 (𝑛 − 1) 𝜆 = 𝜋
𝑎+𝑏 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎+𝑏
Area is independent of n. Area of all zones are same. But the distance of the zone
from P and obliquity factor increases as n increases.
The resultant amplitude at P is
A = m1 + m3 + m5+….for positive zone plate
A = - (m2 + m4 + m6 +……) for negative zone plate.
𝑚1
This is much greater than A = which is due to all zones.
2
As the intensity from the zone plate is very high, the zone plate is said to have
focussing action
Differences between Zone plate and Convex lens
Zone plate Convex lens
𝟏 𝒏𝝀 1 1 1
Focal length of a zone plate is = Focal length of lens is + =
𝒇 𝒓𝟐𝒏 𝑢 𝑣 𝑓

f depends on  and show chromatic f depends on  and show chromatic

aberration. Forms real image. aberration. Forms real image.

It has multiple foci. If (2p -1) is the It has single focus.

number of half period elements in 1 1 1
= (𝑛 − 1) ( − )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝒓𝟐𝒏
each zone 𝒇𝒑 =
(𝟐𝒑 −𝟏)𝒏 𝝀

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 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : Unit 2 - Diffraction of Light

Zone plate Convex lens

All the waves reaching the image All waves reaching the image point
point through consecutive transparent have same optical path.
zones have a path difference of  .

fviolet > fred fviolet < fred

Intensity of image is less Intensity of image is greater.

Theory of Cylindrical half period strips

S is a narrow rectangular slit
or a linear source of light of
wavelength . AB is the
cylindrical wavefront. P is a
point on the axis of the
wavefront at which resultant
intensity is to be found.
To find the resultant
amplitude/intensity at P due to the wavefront
If m1, m2, m3 ……are the amplitudes at P due to 1st, 2nd, 3rd, …… half period strips on
either side of O, the resultant amplitude due to one half of the wavefront is A = m1
– m2 + m3 - m4 +….
𝑚1 𝑚1 𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚5
𝐴= + ( − 𝑚2 + )+( − 𝑚4 + )+…
2 2 2 2 2
𝑚1 𝑚1 +𝑚3
A= ( since = 𝑚2 )
2 2
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟏
Hence the resultant amplitude due to entire wavefront is 𝑨 = + = m1
𝟐 𝟐

Diffraction at a straight edge

Theory - S is a narrow rectangular slit
illuminated light of wavelength . OE is
the straight edge (opaque object
covering half the slit in vertical plane),
AB is the cylindrical wavefront, XY is
the screen. CX is the region of
diffraction fringes and CY has illuminationof decreasing intensity.

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College Page 8

 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : Unit 2 - Diffraction of Light

The intensity at P at distance y from C on the screen is due to upper part of

wavefront AB above O’ and that due to exposed portion OO’ of the wavefront.
𝑚1
The amplitude at P due to upper half above O’ is = .
2
If portion OO’ contains one half period strip,
𝑚1 3𝑚1
the total amplitude at P = + 𝑚1 = (maximum amplitude)
2 2
If OO’ contains two half period strips,
𝑚1 3𝑚1
then the total amplitude at P = +𝑚1 − 𝑚2 = − 𝑚2 (minimum amplitude)
2 2
When region OO’ has odd half period strips, the amplitude is maximum and for
even half period strips it is minimum.
Above C, on the screen a diffraction pattern of alternate maxima and minima are
observed. As distance on the screen increases, the intensity becomes uniform.

Conditions for maxima and minima of diffraction pattern

The path difference between waves from O and O’ reaching P is 𝛿 = 𝑃𝑂 − 𝑃𝑂′
𝝀
If 𝜹 is odd multiples of 𝟐 , amplitude at P is maximum.
𝝀
i.e. 𝜹 = 𝑷𝑶 − 𝑷𝑶′ = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏) …..(1)
𝟐
𝝀
If 𝜹 is even multiples of 𝟐 , amplitude at P is minimum.
𝝀
i.e. 𝜹 = 𝑷𝑶 − 𝑷𝑶′ = 𝟐𝒏 = 𝒏𝝀 ……(2)
𝟐
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ……

From the diagram, 𝑃𝑂 = √(𝑂𝐶)2 + (𝐶𝑃)2

1/2
𝑦2 𝑦2
= √𝑏 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑏 [1 + 2
] = 𝑏 [1 + ]
𝑏 2𝑏2
𝑦2
Thus 𝑃𝑂 = 𝑏 +
2𝑏

and 𝑃𝑂′ = 𝑆𝑃 − 𝑆𝑂′ = √(𝑆𝐶)2 + (𝐶𝑃)2 −𝑆𝑂′

= √(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 + 𝑦 2 −𝑎
1/2
𝑦2
= (𝑎 + 𝑏) [1 + (𝑎+𝑏)2
] −𝑎
𝑦2 𝑦2
Thus 𝑃𝑂′ = (𝑎 + 𝑏) [1 + 2
]−𝑎 =𝑏+
2(𝑎+𝑏) 2(𝑎+𝑏)
𝑦2 𝑦2
Hence 𝑃𝑂 − 𝑃𝑂′ = 𝑏 + −𝑏−
2𝑏 2(𝑎+𝑏)
𝑎𝑦 2 +𝑏𝑦 2 −𝑏𝑦 2 𝑎𝑦 2
𝑃𝑂 − 𝑃𝑂′ = = …..(3)
2𝑏(𝑎+𝑏) 2𝑏(𝑎+𝑏)

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College Page 9

 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : Unit 2 - Diffraction of Light

Comparing equation (3) with (1), the condition for maximum is

𝑎𝑦 2 𝜆 2𝑏(𝑎+𝑏) (2𝑛+1)𝜆
= (2𝑛 + 1) or 𝑦2 =
2𝑏(𝑎+𝑏) 2 2𝑎

𝒃(𝒂+𝒃) (𝟐𝒏+𝟏)𝝀
or 𝒚𝒏 = √ . This is distance of nth maximum from the centre C.
𝒂
𝑎𝑦 2
Comparing equation (3) with (2), the condition for minimum is = 𝑛𝜆
2𝑏(𝑎+𝑏)

𝟐𝒃(𝒂+𝒃)𝒏𝝀
or 𝒚𝒏 = √ . This is distance of nth minimum from the centre C.
𝒂

The diagram shows the diffraction pattern due to straight edge.

The graph shows the intensity distribution due to diffraction at a straight edge. The
intensity on the screen XY is due to upper part of wavefront AB only as the lower
half is blocked.
𝑚1 𝑚1 2
The resultant amplitude at C is and the intensity at C is . It is the one fourth of
2 4
the intensity compared to intensity when entire wavefront is exposed.

Intensity within the geometrical shadow

For a point Q on the screen in the shadow region, O1 is the pole of wavefront AB.
Light from region below O1 is cut off. Also part of upper region OO1 is cut off. If the
region above O1 till O cuts off only first half period zone, then amplitude at Q is due
𝑚2
to other zones given by 𝑚2 − 𝑚3 + 𝑚4 − 𝑚5 … . . =
2
𝑚3
If it cuts off two zones, then amplitude = and so on.
2
Thus intensity decreases rapidly initially and then slowly as we move further into
geometrical shadow.

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College Page 10

 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : Unit 2 - Diffraction of Light

Fraunhofer diffraction
The phenomenon of bending of light waves around edges of small obstacles and
hence it's spreading into the geometrical shadow of the obstacle is called diffraction.
In case of Fraunhofer diffraction -
➢ The source of light and the screen are at infinite distance from the obstacle or
aperture.
➢ The incident wavefront and the diffracted wave fronts are plane.
➢ The incident beam and diffracted beams are parallel. Convex lenses are used
to make the wavefront parallel.

Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit

Consider a point source of light S placed at the principle focus of lens L1. The parallel
rays strike the single slit AB. L1 L2

Each Point on the slit AB act A


P
as sources of secondary S
O
N
disturbances and sends out
B
secondary waves in all
directions. The diffracted rays after passing through lens L2 are brought to focus on
the screen. The diffraction pattern consists of central bright and alternate bright and
dark bands of decreasing intensity.
The waves travelling from A and B reaching O are in phase. Thus the path difference
between AO and BO is zero. The waves superpose constructively resulting in central
maximum at O (Bright region)
A perpendicular is drawn from A to the line BP. BN is the path difference between
the waves travelling from Aand B reaching P. It is given by BN = d sin
𝐵𝑁
(Since, from right angled triangle ABN, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = or 𝐵𝑁 = 𝐴𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and AB = d.
𝐴𝐵
2𝜋
As Phase difference = × path difference
𝜆
2𝜋
Thus Phase difference = × d sin
𝜆
If number of equal parts to which the wavefront AB is divided = n,
Phase difference between any two consecutive waves from these parts is
1 1 2𝜋
= × total phase = × × d sin = 𝜙 (say)
𝑛 𝑛 𝜆
𝑛𝜙
𝑠𝑖𝑛
2
From the method of vector addition, the resultant amplitude 𝑅 = 𝑎 𝜙
𝑠𝑖𝑛
2

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 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : Unit 2 - Diffraction of Light

where a is the amplitude of the wave from each part

𝑛 1 2𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛 × × × 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
2 𝑛 𝜆
𝑅=𝑎 1 1 2𝜋 =𝑎 𝛼
𝑠𝑖𝑛 × × × 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑛
2 𝑛 𝜆
𝝅𝒅𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
where 𝜶 = Since is very small, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 =
𝝀 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
Thus 𝑅 = 𝑎 𝛼 = 𝑛𝑎 =𝐴 or the resultant amplitude is 𝑅 = 𝐴
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
𝑛

(when n → ∞, 𝑎 → 0 but A = 𝑛𝑎 remains finite).

As intensity is directly proportional to square of amplitude
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 2
𝐼 = 𝑅2 = 𝐴2 ( ) = 𝐼0 ( )
𝛼 𝛼

Condition for principal maximum

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝐴 𝛼3 𝛼5 𝛼7
R= 𝐴 = [𝛼 − + − + …]
𝛼 𝛼 3! 5! 7!
𝛼2 𝛼4 𝛼6
or R = 𝐴 [1 − + − + …]
3! 5! 7!
If the negative terms vanish, the value of R is maximum,
𝜋𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
i.e. 𝛼 = 0, ∴ 𝛼 = = 0 or 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0. Thus R = A (max. amplitude and max.
𝜆
Intensity). This corresponds to principal maximum.

Condition for minimum intensity

The intensity will be minimum when 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 0. The values of 𝛼 which satisfy this
equation are 𝛼 = ± 𝜋, ±2𝜋, ±3𝜋, ± … … . = ±𝑚𝜋
𝜋𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
or 𝛼 = = ±𝑚𝜋 or 𝒅𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = ±m𝝀 where m = 1, 2, 3, …..
𝜆
This condition corresponds to minimum intensity.

Condition for secondary maxima

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 2
As 𝐼 = 𝐴2 ( ) Differentiating this equation w.r.t 𝛼 and equating to zero,
𝛼
𝑑𝐼 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 2 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝑑𝛼
=
𝑑𝛼
[𝐴2 ( 𝛼
) ]=0 we get 𝐴2
𝛼
[
𝛼3
]=0

Thus either 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 0 or 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 0

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 0 gives condition for minimum. Hence positons of maxima are given by
roots of the equation 𝜶 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶 = 𝟎 or 𝜶 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜶

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 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : Unit 2 - Diffraction of Light

The values of 𝛼 satisfying 𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 are obtained graphically by plotting the

curves, 𝑦 = 𝛼 and y = tan𝛼 on the same graph.
The points of intersection of the two
curves gives the values of 𝛼 which
satisfy y = tan𝛼
The points of intersection are
3𝜋 5𝜋
𝛼 = 0, ± ,± ,..
2 2
or 𝛼 = 0, ±1.430𝜋, ±2.462𝜋,……
Here 𝛼 = 0, gives principal maximum.
(𝐼0 = 𝐴2 )
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜋/2 2 𝐴2
Putting the values of 𝛼 in the eqn. 𝐼 = 𝐴2 ( ) 𝐼1 = 𝐴2 ( ) =
𝛼 3𝜋/2 22
(first subsidiary maximum or first secondary maximum)
𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝜋/2 2 𝐴2
𝐼2 = 𝐴2 ( ) = (second subsidiary
5𝜋/2 62
maximum or secondary maximum) and so on.
The graph indicates the intensity distribution in case of
diffraction due to single slit.

Plane diffraction grating

An arrangement consisting of a large number of parallel slits of same width and

separated by equal opaque spaces is called diffraction grating.
If a – width of each slit and b – width of each opaque space, then (a + b) is called
grating element.
Theory of diffraction grating (normal incidence)
Consider parallel beam of light striking the transmission diffraction grating MN. The
waves from different slits superpose and produce diffraction pattern on the screen.
The pattern consists of a number of principal maxima with minima and secondary

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 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : Unit 2 - Diffraction of Light

maxima in between. The incident beam travelling in the same direction will be
brought to focus at O which corresponds to central maximum.
To find the intensity at 𝑃1 - Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit is applied.
The wavelet travelling from all the points in a slit along the direction 𝜃 are
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝜋𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
equivalent to a single wave of amplitude R = 𝐴 where 𝛼 = t
𝛼 𝜆
If there are N slits, there are N waves each from middle of the slits.
The path difference between any two consecutive slits is
𝛿 = 𝐶𝐺 = 𝐴𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
[From diagram above, consider the triangle ACG, where CG is the path difference
and 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐶𝐺/𝐴𝐶 where AC = (a + b)
2𝜋
The phase difference = × (a + b) sin
𝜆
This is a constant and let it be equal to 2𝛽
2𝜋 𝜋(a + b) sin
2𝛽 = × (a + b) sin or 𝛽=
𝜆 𝜆
By the method of vector addition of amplitudes, the resultant amplitude in the
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽
direction of  is R= 𝐴
𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝑛𝜙
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
[ By vector addition 𝑅 = 𝑎 2
𝜙 and here a= 𝐴 , 𝑛 = 𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜙 = 2𝛽
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
2

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽 2
The resultant intensity I = 𝑅 2 = (𝐴 ) ( )
𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 2
The factor (𝐴 ) gives distribution of intensity due to single slit and the factor
𝛼
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽 2
( 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
) gives distribution of intensity as combined effects of all the slits.

Condition for principal maxima

The intensity would be maximum when 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 = 0,
or 𝛽 = ± 𝑛𝜋 where n = 0, 1, 2, …
At the same time 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽 = 0, so that the factor 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽/𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 becomes
indeterminate.
It is evaluated as follows
𝑑
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽) 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑁𝛽
𝑑𝛽
lim = lim 𝑑 = lim = ±𝑁
𝛽→±𝑛𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝛽→±𝑛𝜋 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽) 𝛽→±𝑛𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
𝑑𝛽

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 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : Unit 2 - Diffraction of Light

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽 2
Hence lim (
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
) = 𝑁2
𝛽→±𝑛𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 2
The resultant intensity is I = 𝑅 2 = (𝐴 ) 𝑁2
𝛼
The maxima are referred to as principal maxima.
𝜋(a + b) sin
The maxima are obtained for 𝛽 = ± 𝑛𝜋 or 𝛽= = ±𝑛𝜋
𝜆
or (𝒂 + 𝒃) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 = ± 𝒏𝝀 where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,…….
n = 0 → central maximum
n = 1, 2, 3,…. → first, second, third,…… principal maxima.

Condition for minima

A number of minima occur, when 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽 = 0 but 𝑛𝛽 ≠ 0 .
Thus 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽 = 0 implies 𝑁𝛽 = ±𝑚𝜋
𝜋(a + b) sin
𝑁𝛽 = 𝑁 = ±𝑚𝜋
𝜆
or N(a + b) sin = ±𝑚𝜆 where m has all integral values except 0. N,
2N,…….nN, since for these values 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 = 0 corresponding to principal maxima.
Thus m = 1, 2, 3, ……(N – 1).

Condition for secondary maxima

As there are (N – 1) minima between two adjacent
principal maxima, there must be (N – 2) other
maxima between two principal maxima. These are
known as secondary maxima. As N becomes large,
intensity of these maxima decreases relative to
principal maxima and become negligible.
The graph shows the intensity distribution curve
under different conditions as shown.

Width of principal maxima in the diffraction pattern

The condition for the nth maxima in the diffraction pattern due to grating is given by
(𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆 …..(1)
or 𝑁(𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 = 𝑁𝑛𝜆, ……(2) N – number of slits
Considering minima on either side of principal maxima,
then its direction is (𝜃𝑛 ± 𝑑𝜃𝑛 ) with 𝑑𝜃𝑛 → angular half width of the nth maximum.

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 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : Unit 2 - Diffraction of Light

For the first minima of the nth principal maxima m = 𝑁𝑛 ± 1

𝑁(𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛 ± 𝑑𝜃𝑛 ) = (𝑁𝑛 ± 1)𝜆 ……..(3)
𝑁(𝑎 + 𝑏)[𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝜃𝑛 ± 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑑𝜃𝑛 ] = (𝑁𝑛 ± 1)𝜆
Since 𝑑𝜃𝑛 is very small, cos 𝑑𝜃𝑛 =1 and sin𝑑𝜃𝑛 = 𝑑𝜃𝑛
Thus 𝑁(𝑎 + 𝑏)[𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 ± 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛 𝑑𝜃𝑛 ] = (𝑁𝑛 ± 1)𝜆
𝑁(𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 ± 𝑁(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛 𝑑𝜃𝑛 = (𝑁𝑛 ± 1)𝜆 …..(4)
Using condition (2) in (4) 𝑁𝑛𝜆 ± 𝑁(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛 𝑑𝜃𝑛 = 𝑁𝑛𝜆 ± 𝜆
𝜆
𝑁(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛 𝑑𝜃𝑛 = 𝜆 or 𝑑𝜃𝑛 =
𝑁(𝑎 +𝑏)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛
The angular width of nth principal maxima is given by
𝟐𝝀
(𝜽𝒏 + 𝒅𝜽𝒏 ) − (𝜽𝒏 − 𝒅𝜽𝒏 ) = 𝟐𝒅𝜽𝒏 =
𝑵(𝒂 +𝒃)𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏

Maximum number of orders available with a grating

For the principal maxima (𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆
(𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑠𝑖𝑛
or 𝑛=
𝜆
(a + b)
The maximum angle of deflection is  = 900, the maximum order is 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜆
If the grating element is less than twice the 𝜆, then (a + b) 𝜆 or 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 < 2 𝜆/ 𝜆 <
2 . Thus only first order is possible.

Theory of diffraction grating (oblique incidence)

Consider parallel beam of light of wavelength  incident on a grating at oblique
incidence as shown in the diagram. AB is a slit of width
‘a’ and BC is the opaque region of width ‘b’. The path
difference between the waves from points A and C is 𝛿 =
𝐹𝐶 + 𝐶𝐸
From triangle AFC, 𝐹𝐶 = (𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
From triangle, AEC, 𝐶𝐸 = (𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
∴ 𝛿 = 𝐹𝐶 + 𝐶𝐸 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)[𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃]
For the nth principal maximum,
(𝑎 + 𝑏)[𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑛 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖] = 𝑛𝜆 …..(1)
𝜃𝑛 +𝑖 𝜃𝑛 −𝑖 𝜃𝑛 +𝑖 𝑛𝜆
(𝑎 + 𝑏) [2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ] = 𝑛𝜆 or 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 𝜃 −𝑖
2 2 2 2(𝑎+𝑏)𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛
2

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 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : Unit 2 - Diffraction of Light

The total deviation of the diffracted beam 𝑑 = 𝜃𝑛 + 𝑖 . For the deviation to be

𝜃𝑛 +𝑖
minimum, sin should be minimum,
2
𝜃𝑛 −𝑖 𝜃𝑛 −𝑖
i.e. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 should be maximum. i.e. =0 or 𝜃𝑛 = 𝑖.
2 2
If 𝐷𝑚 is angle of minimum deviation, 𝐷𝑚 = 𝜃𝑛 + 𝑖, As 𝜃𝑛 = 𝑖 ,
𝐷𝑚
Thus 𝑖 = 𝜃𝑛 = Thus the condition for principal maximum is
2
𝑫𝒎
𝟐(𝒂 + 𝒃) [𝒔𝒊𝒏 ] = 𝒏𝝀 (from (2))
𝟐

Detrmination of wavelength of spectral line using grating

The condition for principal maximum in
case of diffraction pattern due to grating
is (𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆 …..(1)
(a + b) is the grating element. If N is the
Number of lines on the grating per inch,
2.54
then (𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑐𝑚. To find 𝜆,
𝑁
the angle of diffraction  is to be determined experimentally and the above equation
is to be used.
Equation (1) also shows that for a particular wavelength , the angle of diffraction 
is different for principal maxima of different orders. Also for white light and for a
particular order n, the light of different wavelengths will be diffracted in different
directions. The longer the wavelength, greater is the angle of diffraction. So in each
order there will be as many lines as there are wavelengths. Thus n = 0 corresponds to
central maximum where all wavelengths coincide and a white colour is seen. Also n
= 1 correspond to first order of all coloured lines corresponding to different
wavelengths with violet being the innermost colour and red being the outermost
colour. Similar if for other orders.

Dispersive power of grating

Dispersive power of a gating is its ability to split the white light into its constituent
colours and show them distinctly.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝜃
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝜔) = =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝜆

For a grating (𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆

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 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : Unit 2 - Diffraction of Light

𝑑𝜃
Differentiating w.r.t 𝜆, (𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 =𝑛
𝑑𝜆
𝒅𝜽 𝒏
Thus 𝝎 = =
𝒅𝝀 (𝒂 + 𝒃) 𝒄𝒐𝒔
From the above equation it is clear that the dispersive power is directly proportional
to the order n, inversely proportional to the grating element and inversely
proportional to cos, i.e. larger the value of , smaller the value of cos, and higher
is the dispersive power.

Resolving power
The ability of an optical instrument to show two close lying point objects as well
separated point objects is called its resolving power. The resolution is limited by the
diffraction patterns of the two close lying point objects which overlap as shown.

Rayleigh criterion for resolution

1. Condition for just resolved – Two close lying sources of light or point objects
are said to be just resolved, if the central maximum of the diffraction pattern
due to one source coincides with the first minimum of the diffraction pattern
due to the second source. It also means that the distance between two central
maxima due to two sources is equal to the distance between the central
maximum and first minimum of any one of them.
2. Condition for well resolved – Two close lying sources of light or point
objects are said to be well resolved, if the distance between two central
maxima of the diffraction pattern due to two sources is greater than the
distance between the central maximum and first minimum of any one of
them.
3. Condition for unresolved – Two close lying sources of light or point objects
are said to be unresolved, if the distance between two central maxima of the

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 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : Unit 2 - Diffraction of Light

diffraction pattern due to two sources is less than the distance between the
central maximum and first minimum of any one of them.

Resolving power of grating

It is the capacity of the grating to form separate
diffraction maxima of two wavelengths that are
close to each other.
The direction of nth principal maximum for
wavelength 𝜆 is
(𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆 ……..(1)
The equation for minima is N(𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 = 𝑚𝜆 where m has all integral
values except 0, N, 2N…..nN because for these values of m, the condition for
maxima is satisfied.
Thus the first minimum adjacent to nth principal maximum in the direction 𝑛 + 𝑑
is obtained by substituting the value of m as (nN + 1). Thus the first minimum in
the direction of (𝑛 + 𝑑) is N(a + b) sin(𝑛 + 𝑑) = (nN + 1)𝜆 …..(2)
The direction of nth principal maximum for wavelength 𝜆+d 𝜆 is
(𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛 + 𝑑) = 𝑛(𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆) …….(3)
Multiplying (3) by N, we have N(𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛 + 𝑑) = 𝑛𝑁(𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆) ….(4)
The two lines appear just resolved if the angle diffraction (𝑛 + 𝑑) also correspond
to the direction of first secondary minimum due to the first diffraction pattern.
Comparing (2) and (4)
𝜆
𝑛𝑁(𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆) = (𝑛𝑁 + 1)𝜆 or 𝑛(𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆) = 𝑛𝜆 +
𝑁
𝜆 𝝀
𝑛 𝑑𝜆 = or = 𝒏𝑵 → Expression for resolving power of grating
𝑁 𝒅𝝀
Thus the resolving power is (1) directly proportional to the order of the spectrum
and (2) the total number of lines on the grating surface.

Resolving power of a telescope

Consider the parallel beam of light striking
the lens of the telescope. Path difference
between the rays is 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐵𝑃2 − 𝐴𝑃2
From the diagram
𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝑑𝜃.

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 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : Unit 2 - Diffraction of Light

For small angles, sin 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝜃 . Thus 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑑 × 𝑑𝜃 ( AB = d).

If 𝑑 × 𝑑𝜃 = 𝜆, P2 corresponds to first minimum of the first image which is also
the position of central maximum of second image.
𝜆
Thus Raleigh’s criterion for resolution is satisfied if 𝑑 × 𝑑𝜃 = 𝜆 or 𝑑𝜃 =
𝑑
1.22𝜆
According to Airy, this condition in case of a circular aperture is 𝑑𝜃 =
𝑑
𝑑𝜃 is the minimum resolvable angle between two distinct point objects called limit of
resolution. Resolving power is the reciprocal of limit of resolution,
1 𝑑
i.e. 𝑅𝑃 = = .
𝑑𝜃 1.22𝜆

Differences between dispersive power and resolving power of grating

Dispersive power Resolving power
1 It provides the angular separation It provides the limit of just resolution
between two spectral lines. of two close objects.
2 𝑑𝜃 𝑛 𝜆
= = 𝑛𝑁
𝑑𝜆 (a + b) cos 𝑑𝜆
3 If N increases, dispersive power If N increases, resolving power also
remains same. increases.
4 If the grating element (a + b) If the grating element (a + b)
increases, dispersive power increases, resolving power remains
decreases. unchanged.

Differences between Prism spectrum and Grating spectrum

Prism Spectrum Grating spectrum
1 Due to dispersion – velocities of Due to diffraction – angle of
different colours are different inside diffraction is different for different
the prism. wavelengths.
2 Produces only one spectrum Different orders of spectrum
3 Spectrum is brighter Spectrum is of less brightness.
4 Deviation is least for red and Deviation is maximum for red and
maximum for violet least for violet
5 Dispersive power 𝜔 =
𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝜃 𝑛
𝑛 −1 𝜔= =
𝑑𝜆 (a + b) cos
n is refractive index
6 Spectrum depends on material of Spectrum independent of material of

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 IV Semester B.Sc., Physics : Unit 2 - Diffraction of Light

the prism. Resolving power is less the grating. Resolving power is

higher.

Difference between Interference and Diffraction

Interference Diffraction
1. It is the modification in the intensity 1. It is the bending of light around the
of light due to super position of two corners of small obstacles and hence
or more light waves. it's spreading into the region of
geometrical shadow.
2. It is due to the superposition of 2. It is due to the superposition of
finite number of waves from infinite number of secondary waves
different coherent sources. from different points of the same
wavefront.
3. Interference fringes are of equal 3. Diffraction fringes are of unequal
width. width. The width of the central band
is maximum and the widths of the
less bright bands gradually
4. Interference pattern consists of decrease.
alternately bright and dark bands, 4. Diffraction pattern consists of a
all the bright bands being of the central bright band of maximum
same brightness. brightness, surrounded on either
side by alternately dark and less
5. In an interference pattern, a good bright bands called secondary
contrast between dark and bright maxima.
bands exists. The intensity of dark 5. In a diffraction pattern the contrast
bands is nearly zero. between the secondary maxima and
minima are comparatively lesser.
The intensity of secondary maxima
decrease with distance.

Dr. K S Suresh, Associate Professor, Vijaya College Page 21