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African Nationalism Full Notes

The document provides guidance on how to prepare for and write a high-quality history exam essay in 3 or fewer sentences: 1) Read all exam questions thoroughly several times before choosing which to answer, understand what each requires, and pick the easiest questions focusing on relevant details for three-quarters of the required points. 2) Structure essays with a clear introduction stating the stand point, body paragraphs in chronological order, and conclusion. 3) Plan each essay response for 5-10 minutes first to determine complexity and ensure a logical flow.

Uploaded by

nganda Kenneth
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
965 views331 pages

African Nationalism Full Notes

The document provides guidance on how to prepare for and write a high-quality history exam essay in 3 or fewer sentences: 1) Read all exam questions thoroughly several times before choosing which to answer, understand what each requires, and pick the easiest questions focusing on relevant details for three-quarters of the required points. 2) Structure essays with a clear introduction stating the stand point, body paragraphs in chronological order, and conclusion. 3) Plan each essay response for 5-10 minutes first to determine complexity and ensure a logical flow.

Uploaded by

nganda Kenneth
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Basi

cnot
esofHi
stor
yP210/
1Nat
ionalMovement
sandNewSt
atesi
nAf
ri
cacour
tesyofl
ine.

Keyel
emnt
sofhi
stor
yofAf
ri
caP210/
1

St
ruct
ureofastar
dar
dexami
nationpaper
 Thepapercompri
sest
enquesti
ons,eachcar
ry25mar
ks

 Thecandi
dat
eisexpect
edt
oanswerf
ourquest
ionsi
nthr
eehour
s

 Noquesti
oniscompul
sor
yunl
essst
ated;howeveracandi
dat
eisexpect
edt
oreadt
he
i
nst
ruct
ions

Bef
oreat
tempti
nganexaminati
on
 Readthr
oughal
lthequest
ionsaboutt
hreet
imesbef
orechoosi
ngany

 I
nter
ptr
ett
hequest
ionscar
eful
l
ynanddet
ermi
net
her
ightappr
oachf
oreach

 Under
standt
hel
anguagei
neachquest
ionandknowt
her
equi
rement
s

 Under
standi
ngt
hel
aunguegei
nthequest
ionhel
pst
odet
ermi
net
heeasi
estquest
iont
o
at
tempt

 Anyessayquesti
onisonet
owhi
chacandi
dat
ehast
her
ightappr
oachandenough
cor
respondi
ngpoi
nts

 Threequart
ersofther
equi
redpoi
ntsshoul
dbepr
esent
edf
oronet
oscor
ebet
terr
esul
ts
foreachquest
ion

HowtopassHistoryP210/1
 Chosetheeasiestquest
ions

 Gi
ver
elevantandenoughpoi
nts,aboutt
hreequar
terofwhati
srequi
red

 Havet
her
ightski
l
lsi
nwr
it
ingexcel
l
enctessay

 Obser
veandmai
ntai
nchr
onol
ogi
calor
deri
nyourpr
esent
ati
on

 Gi
veandmai
ntai
nacl
earst
andpoi
ntf
oraquest
iont
hatr
equi
resone

 Planyouressayi
.
e.useabout5-
10mi
nut
est
ocar
eful
l
ypl
anf
oreachquest
ionbef
ore
answeri
ng

Whypl
an?
 Todet
ermi
net
hecompl
exi
tyoft
hequest
ion

 Anabl
esacandi
dat
etor
ecal
leasl
y

 I
tensur
eschr
onol
ogi
calf
lowoft
heessay

 Hel
pst
oavoi
drepet
it
ion

 Todeterminet
herightstandpoi
nt
Howtopresentagoodessay
Agoodessayorpresentat
ionmustbeal
ogi
calsequencepr
esent
ati
oni
.e.i
tshoul
dormust
haveani
ntr
oduct
ion,bodyandt
heconcl
usi
on

1.Ani
ntr
oduct
ion

 Anintr
oduct
ionist
hepr eci
seinf
ormat
ioninthe1stparagr
aphoftheessaythatbri
efl
y
tal
ksaboutt
heit
em ort
opicint
hequest
ionbef
orepresenti
ngthegui
stoft
heenti
reessay

 I
tist
heopeni
ngr
emar
koft
heessay.I
tset
sthet
oneoft
hequest
ion

 I
tgi
vest
her
eadert
hesenseofdi
rect
ion

 I
tgi
vest
hei
mpr
essi
onandt
her
efor
edet
ermi
nest
hemar
kessaycanf
etch

 Fort
hequesti
onsthatrequi
resthest
andpoi
ntthest
andpointshouldbepr
esent
edf
ir
sti
n
thei
ntr
oduct
ionbefor
eitisr
eflect
edi
nthebodyandtheconcl
usion

 Anessaywit
houtacor
respondi
ngi
ntr
oduct
ioni
saf
air
lygoodessayandf
etchesa
maxi
mum of15mar
ks

Howtointr
oduceanessay
 Ident
if
ythemaintopi
corsub-
themeorsubj
ectoft
hequest
ion

 Gi
vebr
iefdef
ini
ti
onsoft
hemaj
orconcept
sorsub-
themei
nthequest
ion

 Foraneventwit
hacleart
imef r
ame,(
peri
odwhenaneventoccur
red)gi
vet
heavai
l
abl
e
i
nfor
mationl
ikedat
esandyear
sinthei
ntr
oduct
ion.

 I
tisnecessar
ytoment
ionkeypar
ti
esi
.
e.count
ri
es,power
s,andper
sonal
i
ty,i
nanevent
wher
etheyexist
.

 Forquestionsaboutachi evement sorfail


uresofaconcept ,ideaoranor gani
sat
ionwhose
aimsandobj ectivesarecl ear,showawar enessoftheai msandobj ect
ivesbyment i
oni
ng
atleastoneort woi nt
hei ntroduction.
 Stateaclearstandpointint heintroducti
onf oraquesti
ont hatr equir
esit.
Not
e:
 Ani ntr
oducti
oni snotasummar yofthepoi nt
st obepr esentedi ntheessay!Itmust
theref
ore,bebriefandpr ecise.Itshouldbeabout5- 7li
nes.
2.Thebody
 Thebodycompr i
sest herel evantpointspresented,wellstat ed,explai
ned,il
l
ustrat
edand
li
nkedtot hequest i
on.

 I
tisi
mportantthatyoust
artever
ypar
agr
aphwi
tht
hepoi
nt,wel
ll
inkedt
othequest
ion.I
.e.
pr
esentaparagraphpoi
nt.

 Avoi
dstar
ti
ngyourparagr
aphswi
thsuchwordsandphr
asesli
kefi
rstandf
oremost,also,
tobegi
nwith,t
oaddont heabove,asi
fthati
snotenough,Iam sti
l
lcoming,et
cetera.
Suchphr
asesmaybiastheexami
ner.

 Usever
ysi
mpl
eEngl
i
shwhenexpl
aini
ngyourpoi
nts;avoi
dcompl
i
cat
edvocabul
ari
esand
sl
angs.

 Wherepossi ble,gi
veanexampl eforeverypointyoupresent.Examplesmayrangefrom
datesandyear sofhist
ori
calevent
s,placesofevents,part
iesinvol
vedintheevent
si .
e.
countr
ies,personal
it
iesandorgani
sati
ons,etc.
 Avoidcongest
ingmanyideasinonepar
agr
aph;ever
ypar
agr
aphshoul
drepr
esenta
di
ffer
enti
deaorpoi
ntofdi
scussi
on.

 Pr
operpunct
uat
ionshoul
dbeobser
ved.Wr
it
eshor
tsent
encesf
oreasypunct
uat
ion.

 Punct
uat
ingpr
event
stheessayf
rom bei
ngnar
rat
ive

 Avoi
dheadi
ngorunder
li
ningyourpoi
nts,pr
esentpar
agraphpoi
ntst
oensureasyst
emat
ic
fl
owofi
deasint
heessay.Li
nkeverypointt
othequesti
onbefor
eexpl
aini
ngi
t.

 Ensur
easyst
emat
icf
lowofi
deasi
.e.chr
onol
ogi
calor
der(
arr
angement
)ofhi
stor
icalf
act
s.

 Ever
ypar
agr
aphshoul
danswert
hef
oll
owi
ngquest
ions,

(
i) WHATcausedanevent(
stat
ementoft
hepoi
nt)
?

(
ii
) HOW di
di heevent(
tcauset expl
anat
ionwi
thanexampl
e?

(
ii
i) SOWHAT;agoodanal ysedpoi ntwi t
haconcl usionli
nkingthepoi
ntbackt
othe
quest
ion.
Bel
owi
sthesimpleformulaofwr i
tingagoodpar agr
aphinhi st
ory:
P StatethePointandl inkittothequesti
on
E Explai
nthepoi ntclearly
E Giveanapplicableexampl eorI l
l
ustr
ation
R Concludethepoi ntrelati
ngitbacktothequestion

 Presentapar aphofaboutei
agr ght-
to-
tenl
i
nesi
.e.aboutt
hreet
ofourpar
agr
aphsper
pageofanexaminat
ionanswerbookl
et.

3.Theconclusi
on
 Thesear
etheclosi
ngr
emar
ksoft
heessaypr
esent
edt
other
eaderorexami
ner
.

 Theconcl
usi
oni
smor
econci
set
hant
hei
ntr
oduct
ion.

I
tisoneoft
hekeyar
east
hatcr
eat
eimpr
essi
onandhencedet
ermi
net
hemar
ktheessay
f
etches.

I
fyouressayhasnoconcl
usi
on,t
heni
tisshor
tofal
ogi
calsequencepr
esent
ati
on.

 Youmu3tther
efore,Ensur
ethatyoudonotl
eaveyouressayhangi
ngandal
waysgi
vei
tan-
appr
opr
iat
econclusion.

 Mai
ntai
nthest
andpoi
nti
ntheconcl
usi
onf
oraquest
iont
hatr
equi
resone.

 Somet i
mesitisr
ightt
oident
if
yandwr
it
east
andpoi
ntasconcl
usi
onf
oraone-
sided
present
ati
on.

 Anessaywi
thoutaconcl
usi
onscor
esamaxi
mum of15mar
ks

Aconcl
usi
onisnotasummaryofthefact
spresent
edi
ntheessay;i
tissi
mpl yafi
nalanal
ysi
s
oft
hewholepr
esent
ati
on(
essay)
.Itshoul
dther
efor
ebeaboutt
wo-to-
fourl
ines.

Chr
onol
ogyandsyst
emat
icpr
esent
ati
on

Whati
schr
onol
ogi
calpr
esent
ati
onandhowshoul
dchr
onol
ogybeobser
ved?
 Agoodessayin"ADVANCEDLEVELhi
stor
y"shoul
dhaveacenterofdi
rect
ion.I
tisnota
f
airpl
ayi
fyouri
deasaresi
mpl
yscat
ter
edort ownanyhowt
hr hr
oughoutt
heessay.

 Astudentofhi
stor
yatadvancedlevelshoul
dai
m atpr
esent
ingaqual
i
ty-
essayi
nor
dert
o
scor
everygoodorexcel
l
entmar ks.

 Oneoftheaspectsofqual
it
yandexcell
enceinpr
esent
ingA'l
evelhi
stor
yisensur
ing
chr
onol
ogyorsyst
emati
cfl
owofhi
stor
icalf
act
s.

 Chr
onologyisthear
rangementofhist
ori
calf
actsoreventsi
norderofwhatoccur
redf
ir
st
t hel
ot asteventt
ooccur,orbyconsi
deri
ngpol
it
ical
,soci
alandeconomi
caspects.

 Chr
onol
ogi
calar
r heessaycandependondat
angementoft esandyear
sofevent
s.

 Someevent sl
eadt
otheoccur
renceofot
herevent
sandt
heseshoul
dbear
rangedi
nor
der
ofsequence.

 Chronol
ogymaybedet
ermi
nedbyconsi
der
ingt
hest
rengt
hoff
act
orst
hatcauseanevent
underdi
scussi
on.

 Asyst
ematical
lyflowi
ngessaycanal
sobeconsi
deredbydi
scussi
ngpr
imar s(
yevent most
i
mportantf
actors)pri
ort
oorbefor
eevent
sthatf
oll
owedlat
er.

 I
tcanal
sobear
rangedbet
weeni
nter
nalandext
ernalf
act
ors

St
andpoi
nt:
 Themostsi gni
ficantaspecti
nhist
oryisast andpoi
nt.Thi
sist heposi
ti
onthatonet
akes
onacont
radict
ingsituat
ionoracont
rover
sialqueston(
i two-
sidedquesti
on)
.

 Iti
sthesideordecionahi
si stor
iant
akesi
nanar
gumentorpr
esent
ati
ont
hati
snotal
l
concl
usi
ve.

 Thestandpoi
ntdi
sti
ngui
shesamat
urear
gument
,pr
esent
atonor(
i essay)f
rom anor
dinar
y
one.

 I
tcr
eat
esthefir
sti
mpr
essi
onbef
oreanyt
hingel
sei
ntheessayespeci
all
yifwel
lst
atedi
n
t
hei
ntr
oduct
ion.

 Astandpoi
ntshowst hehi
hatt stor
iani
sabl
etowei
ghf
act
sandt
akeapar
ti
cul
arposi
ti
on
oft
hemanyi deasavail
abl
e.

Basi
csofastandpoi
nt
 Astandpointmustbecl
ear
,speci
fi
candquant
if
iabl
eormeasur
abl
e.

 I
tmustbemai
ntai
nedt
hroughoutt
heessayandnotcont
radi
cted.

 Thestandpoi
ntshouldbeidenti
fi
edinthei
ntr
oduct
ion,t
ransi
ti
onpar
agr
aph(
commonl
y
knownas"howeverpart
”)andconcl
usi
on.

 Ast
andpoi
ntdoesnotdependont henumberofpoi
ntspr
esent tr
edbuti at
herconcer
ns
t
hemostimpor
tanteventorf
act
orofal
lfact
spr
esent
ed.

 Anyessaywi
thoutast
andpoi
ntonaquest
iont
hatr
equi
resi eabove12of
tmaynotscor
25marks.
 I
nt hesameway,acontr
act
edstandpoi
ntwillaff
ectt
hescor heessayt
eoft hatcoul
dhave
beenverygood(19~21marks)orexcel
lent(22-25mar
ks).Acontr
act
edstandpoi
ntmay
fet
chamaximum of13of25mar ks.

Exampl esofcl ear,specifi


candval i
dstandpoi
nts
a)Toal arger/bi gger/gr eat erextent
b)Toal argest/bi ggest/gr eatestextent
c)Toaver ylar ge/ver ybig/ver ygreatest
d)Lar gelyled...
e)Toasmal ler/lesserext ent
f) Toasmal lest/l eastextent
g)Toaver ysmal l/veryless
h)Mor eimpor tant/mor esi gni f
icant
i
) Mosti mpor tant/mostsi gnificant
j
). ..waspr imar i
lyresponsi ble
k)Pl ayedat remendousr ole

Examplesofuncl earandi nval


idstandpoi
nts
a)Tosomeext ent
b)Toacer t
ainext ent
c)Toaf ai
rextent
d)Coul dbetoabi gextent
e)Maybet oal argeextent
f) Thecontri
but i
onwasf i
fty-
fi
ft
y

Examplesofcontr
adict
edst andpoints
a) Toal ar
gerextentWorldWarI Iledtot
hegr
owt
hofAf
ri
cannat
ional
i
sm.
..however
,ot
her
fact
orsweretoalargerextent
..
.

b)Pl
ayedasi
gni
fi
cantr
ole.
..however
,ot
herf
act
orswer
etoal
argerext
ent
..
.

c) ….
waspr
imar
il
yresponsi
ble.
..however
,ot
herf
act
orswer
etoagr
eat
erext
ent
..
.

d)…….
waspr
imar
il
yresponsi
blet
oasmal
l
erext
ent
..
.

e) Achi
evedt
oal
argerext
ent
..however
. ,thef
ail
ureswer
ever
ymany

f
) Afr
icanel
i
tecont
ri
but
est
oal
argerext
ent
..however
. ,thesuperpower
spl
ayedaver
ygood
rol
e……….

Pleasenot
e:
Att i
mesthestandpoi
nti
scont
radi
cteddur
ingdiscussi
onoff act
shenceacandi
dat
emust
takecar
eofthewordssel
ect
edanduseddur
ingthepresent
ati
on

Markal
locationof“ A”levelHistor
yasof2018
00-
05(anirrelevantorhopelessessay)
06-
09(justtot hepoint
)
10-
12(generalizedorO' l
eveltypeessay)
13-
15(fair
lygoodessay)
16-
18(goodessay)
19-
21(verygoodessay)
22-
25(excellentessay)

Not
e:
1.A'l
evelHi
stor
yismar
kedbyi
mpr on-i
essi mpr
essi
oni
sthei
mpactcr
eat
edont
her
eaderor
exami
nerbyt k(
hewor essay)pr edbyahi
esent stor
ian.

2. I
mpressionisdeter
mined,cr
eatedoraff
ect
edbyt hequal
i
tyandquanti
tyoftheessay
pr
esented.Qual
i
tyandquanti
tyshoul
dbewel
lbal
ancedtocr
eat
e"bet
teri
mpressi
on.
"

3. I
mpression could be posi
ti
ve ornegat
ive.'ther
efor
e,itattr
actsrewar
d orpenal
ty
r
espect
ivel
ywhi chl
eadstogoodorpoormar ksawardedtoanessay.

Bel
owi
showi
mpr
essi
onDet
ermi
nesmar
ksf
orahi
stor
yessay:

I
rr
elevantessay( 00- 05)
• Candidatesetst heirquestion
• Hasawr ongi nter pret
ati
onoft hequest
ion
• Veryscantyinformat i
on
• Veryfewf actsgivenandi noutli
ne
• Wr ongornoexampl es
• Answersdonotr efl
ectthequest i
ondemands"
•Theessayi sverypoorandf ullofgambl
ing
• Poorspelli
ngs
• Thequest i
oni sgener all
ymi sfi
red

Justt
othepoi nt(
06- 09)
• Thestem ofthequest ionispoor l
yhandled
• Pointsar
eout l
ined
• Someoft hefactsar eaccidentall
ymentionedwit
hnoexampl es
• Astandpointmaybeacci dentall
ymentionedandcontr
adict
ed
• Somanyhi stor
icalfactualerr
or s
• Veryfewfactsaregi venwithnoexplanat i
on
• Onlyonesideoft heessayi sgivenonaquest i
onrequi
rngt
i wo

“
O”levelessay( 10-12)
• Questioninterpr
etati
onisrightbuttheessayislar
gelynarrati
ve
• Nosyst emat i
cfactualanal
ysis
• Shall
owexpl anationspresented
• Somef act
sar eoutli
nedandl ackli
nkaget ot
hequestiondemands
• Manyr epetit
ionswi t
hveryfewexampl es
• Astandpoi ntisnotpresented,buti
fstated,i
tisei
thernotclear,ori
tiscont
radi
cted
• Veryfewpoi nts/histori
calfactsarepresent
ed

Fai
rl
ygoodessay( 13-15)
• Rightinterpretationandgoodquest i
onappr oach
• About½oft her equiredpoi ntsorhist or
icalfactsgiven
• Standpoi ntgivenbutt hestem notexhaust ed
• Fairlygoodpr esent ation
• Thoughsomef actsgi venar ewr ong
• Somet imest hepoi nt
sgi venar egoodbutt hest andpoi
ntisaccident
all
yment i
oned.
• Wel lexplai
nedpoi ntsbutnoexampl es
• Fairlanguageandcommuni cati
onint heessay
• Thest em oft hequest ionisnotwel lhandl ed(inat wo-
sidedpresent
ation)
• Thequest i
onl acksei therar elevantintr
oduct i
onorconcl usi
on,orboth
• Theessaycoul dhavequal i
f i
edt obegoodorver ygoodbuti slimit
edbyf act
ualerr
orsor
l
imi t
edcover age

Agoodessay(
16-
18)
• Theessayhasal lthegoodf eaturesmentionedinaf air
lygoodbr acket.
1
• Thepr esent
ati
onismor ethan / 2oftherequir
edpoi nt
s
• Theessayhasasyst emat icflow,theint
roducti
on,bodyandconcl usi
on
• Theessayi swellfocusedwi t
hgoodanal ysi
s
• Thepoi ntsarewellexplainedanddemonst rat
edwi thqualit
yreasoningandinlinewit
hthe
demandsoft hequest i
ononl y,
• Thest em ofthequest ioniswel lhandl
ed(withatleasteightpoints)
•Thepoi ntsarewellstatedandl inkedtothequestion,explai
ned,ill
ustr
atedandconcl
udedor
ref
err
edbackt othequest ion
• Goodexampl esorill
ust r
ationsgiven
• Acor r
ectandmeasur abl
ecl earstandpoi
ntisgiven
• Theessaycoul dqual i
fyt obever ygoodbutt hest andpointisnotment i
onedwhen
expected

Ver
ygoodessay( 19-21)
• Allthegoodf eaturesi nagoodessayar eexhi bit
ed
• Muchofwhatexpect edi sgiveni .
e.½oft heexpect edpointsr
aised
• Poi nt
sar epresentedsyst emat icall
y,wellar guedingoodandsi mpleEngl
ish
• Thepoi ntsarelinkedt ot hequest ionandnotacci dental
lymentioned
• Chronologicalfl
owofi nf ormationi sobser ved
• Relevanthistori
calf actsar egivenwi thcor rectspell
ings
• Nof actualerror
s,nol i
es
• Acl earandmeasur abl estandpoi ntisgi veni nthei nt
roduct
ion,tr
ansi
ti
onpar
agr
aphand
conclusi
on,andmai ntai
nedt hroughoutt heessay
• Theessayi scoher ent
• Somedegr eeofor iginali
tyident i
fied
• Respectofapr opert ime- f
rame

Excel
lentessay( 22-25)
• Almostal lt
her equiredpoint sareexhaust ed
• Allthepointsarecor rectandnotr epeated
• Newi deasorpoi ntsar egivenont opoft hoseexpected
• Cor rectexampl esandnospel l
ingerror
s
• Carefull
yselectedandsi mpl eEnglishused
• Theessayi ssystemat i
candf lowsi nachr onol
ogicalor
der
• Aver yclearstandpoi ntisgivenwher eitisexpectedandmaint
ainedt
hroughoutt
heessay
• Respectofapr opert i
me-frame
• Or i
ginali
tyandcr eativit
yint heessayobser ved
• Allthefeaturesofaver ygoodessayar erecognised

PleaseNote:
Majorit
yofthecandidat
esproducefairl
ygoodessays.Af air
lygoodessaywouldbeaVERY
GOODorevenEXCELLENTESSAYbutt herearemist
akesal wayscommi tt
edbyhist
orians,
whichlimi
tthescoresofsuchanessay.E. g.anessaywi thacontradi
ctedst
andpointwill
scoreamaxi mum of13of25yetift hestandpoi
ntwaswel lstat
edandnotcontr
adi
cted;the
mar kcoul
dri
seto19of25,ifthepresentat
ionwaswelldi
scussed.

InordertoscoreC3,D2andDlinA'levelhi
stor
y,andt
heref
orest
andachanceofachi
evi
ng
pri
ncipl
epass'A'or'
B'
,acandi
dateneedstoscoreamini
mum of18Marksonever
yquesti
on
att
empted.(Youshoul
dai
m atthi
s..
.)

Whymostessays ar e(onl
y)fair
lygood i.
e.common mistakes commi
tt
ed i
n hi
stor
y
pr
esentat
ion,whichleadstol
owscor esof(
13-15)
• Wronginter
pretat
ionofquest
ionswhichl
eadstowr
ongappr
oaches
• Lackofcont entorknowl edgeont hesubj ectmat terint hequestion
• Scant yandsket chyi nf ormationpr esented
• Wr ongspel l
ingsofhi storicalter
ms,namesorevent s
• Poorcommuni cationi .e.inabil
it
yt oexplainhi stor
icalf acts
• Nor especttot imef ramei .e.presentingf actsout sidethest i
pulatedper i
odofeventi n
quest ionorgivingwr ongt enses
• Failuretogiveexampl eswher erequiredorgi vingwr ongandi r r
elevantexampl es
• Li
mi t
edcover agei .e.gi vi
ngver yfewpoi nts,lesst han% orwor stofall,l
esst han½oft he
requiredanswer s.
• I
gnor ingast andpoi ntonanessaywher eitisexpect edorcont r
adicti
ngofst andpoint
.
• Wr ongst at
ementofpoi ntsinthepar agraphsi .
e.failuretoli
nkyourpoi ntstot hequesti
on
• Ver ygoodEngl i
shpr esentedwi thadi sput i
ngandahar dtoreadhandwr it
ing
• Failuretointroduceorconcl udet heessay.

(NB:ahistor
yessayismarkedasawholeincl
usi
veoft
heint
roducti
onandconclusi
on,f
or
anoverallimpr
ession.Anyessaythatl
ackseit
heranint
roduct
ionorconclusionisan
i
ncompleteonehence,itf
all
sshor
tofbei
nggood,ver
ygoodorexcell
ent
).

Solut
ion:
Ifcandidat
es car
eful
lyunder
stood t
he above common er
rors which rest
rictt
hem from
excel
li
ngandwor ktowar
dsdoingtherightt
hingsint
heexaminat
ion,theywillbeassur
edof
excel
lentgr
ades.

NATIONALI SM,AFRICANNATI ONALI SM ANDDECOLONI SATION


Nat
ional
ism persei sast rongdevot i
ontoone'snati
onusuallymanifest
ingitselfthr
ough
pat
ri
oti
cf eeli
ngs,ef
for
tsandprinci
ples.Iti
saforceofchangeorpowerf
ulideat hatcandri
ve
menandwomenofagi venstat
eornat i
ontoact
ioninordert
oachievet
heirwell
-being.

Peopl
elongtodeci
defortheirowndesti
nybecauseofnationali
sm.Therefor
e,nat
ional
ism i
s
adesi
rebypeopl
eofagivennat i
ontogover
nthemselveswithoutext
ernalorf
orei
gninfl
uence.
I
tputsthewel
far
eofthestateoverandaboveever
ythi
ngelse.

Thi
smeansthatnati
onal
ism isloyal
tyanddevoti
ontoone'
snati
on.I
tisregardedasaduty
andi
ncl
udespr
ideinthenat
ion'scult
ure,hi
stor
yandt
hedesi
ref
ornati
onali
ndependence.

However,apol
it
icali
ndependencewithoutcontr
oloftheeconomyisnotcomplet
ef r
eedom i
f
acountryistobei ndependentoffor ei
gninfl
uenceandi nt
erf
erence.Theeconomicsub-
st
ruct
uredeter
minesthesocio-
poli
ti
calsuper-
str
uctur
eofsociet
y.

AFRI CANNATI ONALI SM


Ont heot herhand,Africannat i
onali
sm ist hepol i
ti
calawarenessofal lpeopleofAf r
ica
regardlessoftheirori
gin,colour,race,andr el
igi
on,"t
hattheybelongtotheAf r
icanconti
nent
andt hattheydesiretopr otectanddef endt heirconti
nentfrom humili
ati
on,oppressi
on,
exploitat
ion,di
scr
imination(racialsegregat
ion)slaver
y,andcoloni
ali
sm agai
nstallodds.

I
tmeanst hatAf
ri
cansdesir
et obetreat
edbet
terbytheinter
nati
onalcommuni
tywi
tht
he
hi
ghestdegr
eeofequal
i
tyl
iketheot
herpeopl
esf
rom t
herestoftheWorld.

LEVELSOFAFRI CANNATI ONALISM


a.Ethno-consciousness(intr
a-stat
eorsubnational
ism)
ThisisanAf ri
canbelongingdef i
nedbytheint
erconnecti
onofpeopl eofsimil
arethni
cort
ribal
ori
gin.Thisform ofAf r
icannat i
onali
sm i
scommonl yexpressedthroughtr
ibal
i
sm,nepotism
andsect ar
iani
sm of t
encausi ngcivi
lwarsandsecessionistorseparati
stmovements.Et
hno-
consciousnesswasexper i
encedi nRwandain1959and1990- 94,i
nNi ger
iaduri
ngtheBiafr
a
warof1967- 70andi nCongodur ingtheKat
angacr i
sisof1961-64.
b.Racialconsci
ousness( racism)
Iti
sdef i
nedbysegr egati
on( discr
iminati
on)basedoncol ourdi
fferences.Thiswaswitnessed
i
nSout hAf ri
caduringApar t
hei d(
Afri
kanernational
ism)wher ethemi nori
tywhi
tesoppressed
theblackmaj or
ity.Racialnat i
onali
sm wasal soexper iencedi
nZi mbabwewher ethewhi te
sett
ler
sdi scr
imi
natedt heblackmaj ori
tyespecial
lyduringIanSmi t
h'sr egi
meandintheSudan
whereAr absofthenorthdomi nat
edblacksofthesout h.

c.Supernat i
onali
sm (Transethnicnati
onal
ism)
Thisisnational
ism atcountryornati
onall
evel.Iti
saf eel
ingoftogether
nessorbelongi
ngtoa
nati
onr egardl
essofdi f
ferencesinethni
cor i
gins,colour
,backgroundorr el
i
gion.I
tisafor
ce
thatbroughttogetherAfr
icansofgivennati
onst ostruggl
efortheiri
ndependence.

d.Supranationali
sm (PanAf ri
canism)
PanAf ri
cani
sm i sthespi ri
tualunit
yorsol i
dari
tyofAf r
icansl
ivi
ngwithi
nAf r
icaandthe
Diaspor
a;theirl
ovef ortheAf r
icanconti
nentandtheprideinbel
ongingt
ooror
igi
nati
ngfr
om
theAfri
cancontinentregardl
essofnat i
onalboundar
ies.

Thi
sfor
m ofnat
i sm i
onal
i sei
ther
'

i
.Tr
ans-
Saharannati
onali
sm wheretheAr
abNor
thAf
ri
cawor
ktoget
herandconf
ir
m wi
th
Bl
ackAfr
ica(subSaharanAf
ri
ca)or

i
i
. Trans-
Atlant
icnat
ional
i
sm whereAfr
icansont heconti
nentar
ef ul
l
yintouchwi
thAf
ri
can
descendantsout
sideAfr
icai
.e.i
nAmerica,Car
ibbeanandWestindi
es.

DEFINITI
ONANDUNDERSTANDI NGOFAFRI CANNATIONALISM:
Afri
canNati
onal
ism canbedefi
nedasthedesi
reofAf
ri
canstoendal lmaj
orfor
msofforei
gn
contr
olandi
nfl
uenceinordert
ohavecontr
oloft
hei
rpol
it
ical
,soci
alandeconomicaf
fai
rs.

The intr
oducti
on offorei
gn systems ofgovernmentand t
he loss ofindependence to
for
eignerscausedfeel
ingsofr esist
anceamongr ul
ersandpeoplesofAf r
ica.Theref
ore
for
eign contr
olcaused feel
i
ngs ofnat ional
i
sm among Af r
icans and theirdesir
ef or
decoloni
zati
on.

Decolonizati
onisther
efor
etheprocessofgr
ant
ingAfr
icanssel
f-
rul
eandi
ndependence,and
thei
rf r
eedom f r
om forei
gn(Eur
opean)rul
e.Decol
onizat
ionwashencemot i
vatedbyt he
nati
onalistspi
ri
tofAfri
cans.

Di
ff
erentAf
ri
canl
eader
sandhi
stor
yschol
arshavedef
inedAf
ri
canNat
ional
ism di
ff
erent
ly:

NkrumahlooksatAfr
icannati
onal
ism asAfri
caneff
ort
stowardsi
ndependence,mobil
izat
ion
ofAfr
icanpeopl
etowardsdevel
opmentofthei
rnat
ionandopposi
ti
ontoforei
gninf
luence.

Jul
iusNyerer
eexplai
nsthatAf
ri
cannational
ism shouldbegearedtowardsindependenceand
motivat
iont
oAfr
icanstorej
ectfor
eigni
nterf
erence;andensur
et hei
rdesti
ny.

Accordi
ngt oNelsonMandel a,Afr
icannational
ism ai
msatf r
eei
ngofAf ri
cansfr
om f
oreign
dominati
onandl eader
shi
p,thecreationofaunit
ednationoutofmanytri
bes,andt
hecr
eation
ofcondit
ions,whichcanenableAfricanstomaket hei
rowncontri
but
ionstohumanprogress
andhappiness.

ProfessorAl iMazr
uidescri
besAfri
canNat i
onal
ism astheAf r
icandesir
efornati
onhoodand
theemer gencyofnew statesinAf ricatowardspolit
icalandeconomi cemanci pat
ion.He
emphasi zest heel
i
minati
onofcolonialism andthebir
thofconsciousnessandprideofbeing
Afri
can;bel ongi
ngtotheAfri
cancontinentandli
berati
onagainstfor
eigndominat
ion.
ProfessorSemakul
aKiwanukadef i
nesAfri
canNational
ism asatotalr
eject
ionofal
lfor
msof
coloni
ali
sm andmanif
estati
ons(charact
eri
sti
cs)i
npolit
ical
,soci
al,andeconomicspher
esso
ast oachi
evecompl
eteindependence.

Accor
ding to Muhamood Mamdani,Afri
can nati
onal
ism i sthe Af
rican struggl
efor
i
ndependenceandel
imi
nat
esfor
eigni
nfl
uencef
rom soci
o-economi
caff
air
sofAfrica.

Afr
icannati
onal
ism hastakenthetrendorf orceoftr
yingt
ocreateuni
tyandpatri
oti
cfeeli
ngs
among people ofAf r
ica r
egardl
essofcol or,rel
i
gion,cul
tur
e,tri
be and f
ight
ing agai
nst
i
mper i
ali
sm i
nalli
tsformsandmal pract
ices.

TheconceptofAfri
canNationali
sm canalsobeexplai
nedasdesi r
eforAfr
icanindependence
andfreedom f
rom ei
therf
oreignori
nternaloppr
essi
on,"t
heawar enessofAfri
canpeoplethat
theybelongt
oanat i
onwit
hpol i
ti
cal
,social
,andeconomicident
it
iesandint
erestsofthei
rown.

Itemphasi
zestheconsci
ousnessorawar
enessofbelongi
ngtoAfr
icaandAf
ricannati
on,
shownbyt hedesir
etodevelopthatnat
ionsoci
all
y,poli
ti
cal
l
yandeconomi
call
ywithout
for
eigni
nfl
uence.

Iti
sapol i
ti
calwayoftheAfri
can-peopl
einopposi
ti
ontofor
eigndomi
nati
onandfavour
Afri
canrul
e.Itisanexpr
essi
onofhostil
i
tyt
oforei
gnrul
einallit
smani
fest
ati
onpol
it
ical
,
soci
alandeconomic.

I
nconclusionther
efor
e,Afri
canNati
onal
i
sm isanexpr
essi
onofhost
il
it
yt of
oreignrul
eand
dominat
ioninalli
tsforms;adesi
retocreat
euni
tyandsol
idar
it
yandforgedevelopmentof
Afr
icanpeople.

FACTORS RESPONSI
BLE FOR THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF AFRI
CAN
NATIONALI
SM

Referencequesti
ons
a)Examinethefactor
sthatl
edt
othegr
owt
hofmoder
nAf
ri
cannat
ional
ism

b)Expl
aint
hef
act
orst
hati
nfl
uencedt
hest
ruggl
efori
ndependencei
nAf
ri
ca

c)Accountf
ort
hegr
owt
hofAf
ri
cannat
ional
i
sm

d)Whatwer ethefactorsresponsi
bleforthegrowthofmoder nnati
onal
ism i
nAf r
ica?
Before1960,muchofAf ri
cawasst il
lunderEuropeancol
onialcont
rol
.However,by1970most
ofAf ri
cawasi ndependentofEur opeancolonial
ism.Therefor
e,theevent
st hatinfl
uenced
Afr
icanst odemandf orself-
rul
eandcompl eteeradi
cat
ionofEur opeaninfl
uencecanbe
analysedasfol
lows'

1.Europeanoppr essivecol onialpoliciesinAf ri


ca
Theexi st
enceofEur opeancol oniali
sm ar ousedAf ri
cangr i
evanceagai nstcolonial
ism.These
coloni
alpolici
esincl
udedr acialdiscriminati
on,poort axati
onsyst em li
ketheunpopul arhutt ax
chargedonmal esof12year sandabove,poorl aboursystem ( forcedorcont ractlabour )
,
grabbingofAf ri
canlandandf orcingt hem intoreservesandar bi t
raryarr
est( wi
thoutt r
ial
)of
Afri
can nat i
onal
ist
s.The col oni
alpol i
cies humi l
i
ated,oppr essed and expl oi
ted Af r
icans.
Afri
canel i
tes(nati
onalists)whoei t
hercondemnedorr oseupagai nstcoloni
algover nment s
l
ikeKwameNkr umahoft heGol dCoast ,JomoKenyat taofKenyaandNel sonMandel aof
SouthAf ri
cagotar rest ed.'somel ikeAmi l
canCabr alofPor tugueseGui neaandEdwar do
Mondl aneofMozambi quewer emur deredwhi l
eKi ngEdwar dMut esa(Buganda)andSul t
an
MuhammadofMor occower ef orcedi ntoexi l
e.Thus,t hecolonialoppressivepolici
eswhi ch
wer eaimedatconsol idatingEur opeandomi nati
onspr ovokedAf ri
canpat r
iotstost r
ugglef or
i
ndependence.

2.Mi ssionar yactivi


ti
esi nAf r
ica
Theact ivitiesofChr ist
ianmi ssionariesinfl
uencedAfricanst rugglesfori ndependence.Some
Europeanmi ssionari
esshowedhumaneconcer ntot hecauseofAf ri
canst obef reef r
om
colonialexpl oi
tation.Theypr eachedt hegospelofequal i
tyofr acesbef or eGodandl ovefor
others,andcondemnedt hemi streatmentofAf ri
cansubj ect sbyEur opeancol onial
ists.This
missionar yi mpactwasf eltinSout hAf ri
caandCent r
alAf rica.InNyasal and( Mal awit oday),
theScot tishmi ssionari
essuppor tedtheAf r
icancausef orli
ber t
yandpol iticalr
ightsaswel las
emphasi zingindependencet hrought hesloganof" Africaf orAf r
icans''Insomest atesl i
ke
Kenyahowever ,themi ssionari
esneverl i
vedwhatt heypr eached.Theywer edi scr
imi nati
ve
andact ivelytookpar tinmi streati
ngKenyans.Never theless,posi t
ivelyornegat ively,the
missionar yactivit
ieswer einstrument ali
nther i
seofAfr i
cannat ionali
sm.

3.Ther i
seofAfricanindependentchur ches
Theemer genceofAf ri
cani ndependentchur chmovementwasast ept owardsanticol
onial
strugglesi nAfr
ica.Byt hel at
eni net
eent hCentury,Afr
icancl ergymenhadf ail
edi ntheir
demandst obei ncludedinchur chgover nancethatwasdomi nat edbyt hewhi t
epr i
estsand
missionar i
es.Afri
canconver t
s( pr
iest
s)est abli
shedtheirownchur chesbasedonAf ri
can
pri
nciples.Theindependentchur chmovementwasact i
vei nNi geri
a,Nyasal andandKenya.
Thel eadersofthesechur chesl i
keJohnChi l
embweofNyasal andandI saiahofSout hAfri
ca
preached againstoppr ession ofAf ri
cansand demanded f orAf r
ican r i
ghts.TheAf ri
can
churches exhibi
ted t he factthatAf ri
cans couldr un t
heirown af f
airs.The success of
i
ndependentChur chesinfl
uencedAf ri
candemandf orpol
it
icali
ndependence.

4.Theexi st
enceofindependentAf ri
canst ates,LiberiaandEt hi
opia
Thepr esenceofindependentAfricanstatesmot ivatedAf r
icansundercol onial
ism todemand
fori ndependence.Byear l
y19t hCent ury,almostt heent i
reAf ricancont i
nentwasunder
Europeancol oni
aldominati
onapar tfrom LiberiaandEt hi
opia.Liberiawaspr otect
edbyUSA
whileEt hiopi
ahadast r
ongAf ri
canl eaderMenel i
kI Iwhohaddef eatedItalyin1896.These
twost atesenjoyedindependencewi t
hr elatedbenef i
tssuchassel f-
rule,exempt i
onfrom
colonialoppr essi
onandani ndependenteconomy. Thei ndependencebenef it
senjoyedby
EthiopiaandLi ber
iamotivat
edot herAfri
canst oriseupagai nstEur opeancol onism.

5.Lessonsf rom Japanesesuccesssi nce1880


Japanby1860hadst ar t
edpr ogressinginsocio-
economicdevel
opmentbasedonJapanese
nati
vecul tur
es.TheAsi ancount rywast hefi
rstmajornon-
wester
npowert oexper
iencerapi
d
developmentwi t
houtforeigninfluence.ThisJapaneseeconomicsuccesssupportedbyher
mili
taryadvancementr angabel ltoAf r
icansthatdevel
opmentispossi
bleintheabsenceof
wester ninfl
uence.Afr
icanst herefore,r
oseupagai nstcol
oni
ali
stsdemandingforanendt o
col
oni alexpl
oitat
ion

6.Inf l
uenceofbl acksintheDi asporaandt hePanAf ri
canMovement -PAM (si
nce1900)
Thei nfluenceofAf ri
candescendant sint heDiasporacont r
ibut
edt othedecol onisati
onof
Afri
ca.TheAf r
icandescendant slikeW. E.
BDuBoi s,MarcusGar veyandSyl vesterWi l
li
ams
establi
shedt hePanAf r
icanMovementai medatl i
berati
ngallblacksalloverthewor l
df r
om
whitedomi nati
onandoppr ession.Theywer eaggrievedbyt heincreasedEur opeancol onial
domi nationoft heirmotherl
andAf r
ica.ThroughthePAM,t heyemphasi sedasl oganof" Afri
ca
forAfricans",extendedfinancialandmor alassi
stancet oAfr
icanfreedom fi
ghtersandadvi sed
Afri
canst oapplymi l
it
arymeansi nordertoachieveindependence.

7.ImpactofWorldWarI(1914-18)
Theoutbr
eakandeventualendofWorl
dWarIhadahandi nthegr
owt
hofAfri
cannati
onal
ism.
Theeventsthatf
oll
owedWor ldWarIprovokednat
ional
i
sti
cfeel
i
ngsinAf
ri
ca.Fol
lowingthe
end ofthewar ,Germanyl osthercol onialpossessi
onsinAf r
ica,whichr ai
sed hopeof
i
ndependenceamongt heseterri
tori
es.In1918,LloydGeorgethePremierofBrit
ainstat
edthat
theideaofsel f-governancewasr elevanttoonl yfor
merGer mancol oni
esandoccupi ed
terr
it
ori
esinEur ope.Thi sdeniedt hef ormerGermanAf ri
cancoloniestheopportunit
ytobe
freefr
om forei
gndomi nation.Italsopar t
lyl
edt othe1919PanAfri
canCongr essinParisal
lof
whichinf
luencedAf r
icant odemandf orFreedom.

8.TheRussi anrevolution(1917)
Thei nf
luenceoftheRussi anrevolut
ionof1917l edtothegr owthofAf r
icannati
onali
sm.The
BolsheviksledbyLeni ndef eatedtheMenshevi ksofAl exanderKerenskyandest abli
shed
communi sm i
nRussi a.Lenin'scommuni stideologywasgr eatl
yopposedt ocapi
tal
ism which
hadinfluencedtheintroductionofcol oni
ali
sm inAf r
ica.Communi stRussiabecameanal lyof
Afr
icansagai nstf
oreigndomi nati
on.Communi sm spr eadt hegospelofequali
tyofallnati
ons
andencour agedrevol uti
onaryar medst r
uggleswhi chl i
berati
onmovement sl
ikeFLN,MPLA
andSWAPOadopt edagai nstEuropeancolonial
ism.

9.TheI tal
iani nvasionofEthi
opi a(1935)
TheI tali
aninvasi onofEt hi
opiai n1935i syetanot hermaj oreventt hatr ai
sedt hespi ri
tof
Afri
cancohesi onagai nstwhi
teaggr ession.Mussol iniattackedEt hiopiapar t
lyt or
evenget he
1896Adowahumi l
iat
ioninordert oext endI t al
ianimper i
alism.Thei nvasionofEt hi
opiawas
thelastmaj oract ionofEur opeancol onialism inAf r
icawhi chvi olatedt he2000year sof
Ethi
opi anindependence.Thecr isisdeepenedasenseofnat i
onalisticbel ongingandcr eated
poli
ticalawar enessamongAf r
icans.TheI talianactvi olatedEt hiopi a'ssover eignt
ywhi chfor
solonghadbeenasymbolofAf r
icansover eignty.Ther efore,theI talo-Ethiopiancr i
sisrai
sed
theissueoft her ighttosel
f-
deter minati
onel sewher einAf rica.

10.ImpactofWor ldWarI I(1939-45)


The out break and aftermat h oft he Second Wor ld Warwas a t urni
ng poi ntint he
decoloni
sat i
onofAf ri
ca.Thewarwasbet weent heAlli
edpower sofBr i
tai
n,France,Pol and
andlaterUSAandUSSR;andt heAxi spower scompr i
singmai nl
yGer many,Austri
a,Japanand
It
aly.Afri
canswer er ecruitedbyt heircolonialmasterstogoandpar ti
cipat
ei nt hewaras
soldi
ers,por t
ersandcooks.TheseAf ricansacquiredmi l
it
aryskil
lswhi chwer einstrument al
forthest r
uggleforindependence.Theex- servi
cemeni ncludedAhmedBenBel laofAl geria,
GeneralChi na(WaruhiuItote)amongot hers.Thewarmadecol onialmasterstogi veAfricans
highsoundi ngbutempt ypr omises.Thisinfl
uencedAfricanstoturnagainstcoloniali
sts.

11.I mpactoft heAt l


anticCharter(
1941)
Anot hereventt hatr ai
sednat i
onali
sti
cf eel
i
ngsamongAf r
icanswast heAt l
anticChar tedthe
char t
erwassi gnedi nAugust1941dur ingthecourseofWor l
dWarI Ibet
weent heAl l
iedcamp
l
edbyWi nst
onChur chil
l
,Primemi ni
sterofUnitedKingdom andFrankli
nRoosevel tPresi
dent
ofUSAwi thJosephSt al
inleaderofRussiaastheobserver
.Ar t
icl
eII
Iofthechar t
erst i
pul
ated
thatt hedomi nat edpeopl eandal lstatesunderoccupationhadar ightt ochoosef ora
gover nmentoft hei rown.Br i
tai
nandUSAagr eedthattimehadcomet oliberatethoseunder
foreigndomi nat i
onf r
om thebondageofoppr ession.Thechar t
ertherefore,infl
uencedt he
Africandesir
ef ori ndependence.

12.Et hiopiansuccessoverI tal


y( 1941)
Themi l
it
aryvictoryofEt hi
opiansovert heI t
ali
ansi n1941becameal essont otherestof
Africanst atesunderwhi tedomi nat
ion.TheEt hiopi
anr esist
ancet oIt
ali
anl andgrabbing,
forcedl abourar bi
traryarrest
sandpoort axati
oni nspir
edt heacti
vit
iesofAf r
icansel
sewhere
agai nstwhi t
eset tl
ers.Thel eader shi
poft heBl ackLi onsmovementempl oyedguerril
l
aand
terroristmethodsagai nsttheI t
alians,whichincl udedvi olentatt
acksonI tal
iansett
ler
sand
theirpr opert
y,investment sandi nstall
ati
ons.Thesemet hodswer eadoptedi nKenya,Angola,
Alger i
aandBr i
tishCent ralAfri
cawher ewhiteproper t
yandi nvestmentsbecamei ncr
easingly
thetarget
sofAfr
icanpatri
otsi
nthest
ruggl
eforsel
f-
rul
e.ThesuccessofEthiopi
ansi
n1941
hence,becameamotivat
ionalf
act
ori
nthestr
uggl
eagainstEur
opeandominati
on.

13.Thecont ri
but i
onoft heBr azzavi l
leconf erence( 194-4)
TheBr azzavi
ll
emeet ingof1944i nfl
uencedt hest r
uggl efori ndependenceespeci allyi
nFrench
WestAf ri
ca.Thr eat
enedbyt her isi
ngant i
-colonialsent iment sinAfrica,Charl
esdeGaul l
ethe
Frenchleaderconvenedameet i
ngofal lFrenchcol onialrepresent at
ivesinAfrica.Themeet i
ng
wasai medatdi verti
ngt heattent ionoft heAf ricancol oni alsubjectsfrom theideaofsel f
-r
ule,
andr ewardingt hem f orthei rsuppor ttoFr anceagai nstGer manyoccupat i
ondur ingthe
Second Wor ld War .The conf er ence l ed to pol iti
calconcessi onswhi ch created pol
it
ical
awarenessamongt heAf r
icans.Af ri
cansat tainedadmi ni
strati
vepost s,nat i
veassembl i
es
werei ntr
oduced;deGaul lei ncr easedAf ricanr epresent ati
oni nt heFr enchpar li
amentand
al
lowedAf ri
canst of orm pol i
ticalgr oupi ngs.Theout comesoft heBr azzavill
econf er
ence
i
nfluencedAf r
icanstodemandf ort heirindependence.

14.Ther isetopoweroft heLabourpar t


yi nBritai
n( 1945)
Thecomi ngt opoweroft heLabourpar tyinBr i
tainin1945i nfl
uencedi ndependenceagi t
ati
ons
i
nBr it
ishAf ri
ca.Shortl
yaf t
erWor l
dWarI Ielectionswer ehel dinBr i
tai
nwi ththeLabourPar t
y
ofCl ementAt lee defeati
ng t he Conservati
ve Par ty ofWi nston Chur chil
l
.The Labour
governmentunderCl ementwasl iber
al;i
ni t
iat
edpol i
ti
calreformsi nBr i
tishAf r
icancoloni
es
whichi ncludednew const it
uti
onsi .
e.theBur nsconst it
ut i
oni nTheGol dCoastandt he
Richardsconst i
tut
ioni nNi geri
a'bothin1946) ;andi ncr
easedAf ri
canr epresentat
ioninthe
LEGCO.Thesepol i
ticaldevelopmentsincreasedAf ri
canmor al
ef orindependence.

15.Formationandr oleofUni t
edNat i
onsOr gani zati
on-UNO( 1945)
Theemer genceofUNOast henewi nternat
ionalcust odi
anofwor l
dpeacewor kedinf avourof
Afr
icannat i
onalism.TheUNO r eplaced theusel essLeagueofNat i
onswhi chhad been
dominatedbyFr anceandBr itain,twoofEur opeanpower swi t
hmaj orit
ycol oniesi nAf r
ica.
Awareoft hedanger sofi mper ialism,t heUNcr eatedaDecol onizat
ionCommi tteetoover see
thetransi
ti
onf rom col oni al
ism t oindependence.Thebodyal soest abl
ishedaTr ust
eeship
Counciltotakecar eoff ormermandat edterrit
or i
esoft heLeagueandpr epar ethesef ormer
GermanandI t
ali
ancol oniesf ori ndependence.TheUNdecl aredtheyearsbet ween1950and
1960asadecadeofdecol onisat i
on.Thei nterventionoft heUni t
edNat i
onsOr ganisati
on
hurr
iedtheindependencei nTuni sia,Ghana,LibyaandMor occo.

16.I mpactoft heManchest erConf erence(1945)


Thef if
thPanAf ri
canConf er
encehel dinManchest erEnglandwasanot hereventt hatledto
theconsolidat i
onofAf ricandesi r
ef orself-r
ule.Organi
sedbyAf ri
candescendant sli
keW. E.B.
DuBoi sandGeor gePadmor e,t heconf er
encewasat t
endedbyAf r
icanslikeNkr umahoft he
Gold–Coastasoneoft hesecr et
aries,Kenyat taofKenyaasassistantsecr etar
yandNnamdi
Aziki
weofNi geri
a.Theconf erencer ecommendedt hefor
mat i
onofAf ri
canpol iti
calpart
ies,
mass-i nvolvementi nt hestrugglef orindependence;andt heuseofmi l
i
t ar
ymeansi fnon-
viol
encewasi neffect
ive.Theconf erenceinfluencedtheret
urnofAf ri
cansf rom abroadtolead
independenceagi tati
onsi ntheirr espect i
vest at
es.Kenyat
tareturnedt oKenyai n1946whi le
Nkrumahwentbackt ot heGol dCoasti n1947.

17.Theemer genceofnewsuperpower s(1945)orcoldwarpoliti


cs( 1946)
Ther i
seofUSAandt heSovi etUnion(USSR)ast otherankofsuper powersaft
erWor ldWarI I
facil
it
atedthedecol onisat
ionofAf ri
ca.Thenew super powersr eplacedFrance,Br i
tainand
Ger manyatt het opofwor ldaffair
s.USAandt heSovi etUnionexpr essedanant i
-colonial
atti
tudethroughdi sliki
ngdirectimper i
ali
sm.Theycondemnedt hecont i
nueddomi nationand
exploit
ati
onofAf ricabyEur opeans.TheUSAandt heUSSRal l
iedwi thAfri
cansbygi vi
ngt hem
fi
nancial,mili
taryand mor alsuppor t,and educati
on scholarships to ai
dt hei
rl i
beration
struggl
es.TheAf ricanbenef i
ci
ari
esi ncludedMorocco,Mozambi queandSout hAf r
ica.The
emergenceoftheSovi
etUni
onasaworl
dpowerl
edt
othespreadofsoci
ali
standcommunist
i
deaswhi chencour
agedthecol
oni
sedpeopl
etousemil
it
arism asastrategyofat
tai
ning
sover
eignequal
it
y.

18.Ur bani
sati
oninAf ricasi
nce1946
Thedevel opmentoft ownsandt hei ncr
easedset t
lementofAf ri
cansi nurbancent reswasa
step towardst he growth ofAfrican nati
onali
sm.These ur ban cent r
esi ncluded Nairobi
,
Kampal a.Accra,LagosandPr et
oria.ManyAf ri
cansflockedtot ownsi nsear chf orgreener
pasturesbutwer edisappoint
edwi ththeexpensivecostoflivi
ng,lackofempl oymentaswel l
asdi scri
minat
ionbyt hewhitesandcol oni
alagents.Alltheseconditionsfrustrat
edt heidle
Afri
cans who wer e easi l
y mobil
ised intotrade unions and polit
icalpar t
ies to oppose
colonial
ism.

19.TheindependenceofI ndi
aandPaki stan(1947)
TheattainmentofindependencebyI ndiaandPaki stanin1947af fect
edt heAf ricanstruggle
forsel
f-r
ule.TheBrit
ishgrantedindependencet ot
hesingleI ndianempi ret hroughtheI ndian
CongressPar ty(I
NC)l edbyJawahar l
alNehr u.TheIndiansef fecti
velyusednon- vi
ol ence
(Gandhii
sm)pi oneered by Mahat ma Gandhi ,which included demonst rati
ons,def iance
campaigns,stri
kesandboycot t
s.'andsabot agingtraf
fi
cflow.Af r i
cansbor rowedandef fected
thesamemet hodsagainstEuropeancol oni
alists.I
ndependentI ndiaextendedmor al
,fi
nanci al
andmi l
it
arysupportt oAfri
canst atesli
keKenya;andi ncr easedont hemember soft heUN
GeneralAssemblywhovot edinfavouroft otaldecoloni
sationoft hewor ld.

20.VictoryoftheNat i
onal i
stPartyandt heenact mentofApar theidinSout hAf rica( 1948)
Ther i
seofAf r
ikanernationali
sm andt hef ormal i
sationofApar theidinSout hAf r
icai n1948
i
nducedAf r
icansagainstwhi tedomi nation.TheNat ionali
stPartyofDr .Mal andef eatedt he
UnionistPartyofSmut swhi chhadshowni nterestinliberat
ingAfricans.Dr.Mal anwentahead
and legali
sed Apar t
heid as a politi
caladmi nistr
ative syst
em i n Sout h Af ri
ca.Apar t
heid
str
essedt hesuper iori
tyoft hewhi te( Afri
kaner )raceovernon- whites.Thi sr acialsystem
subjected Afri
canst o untold suff
eri
ng,depr i
ved t hem ofpol iti
calpar t
icipation and l and
owner shi
p.Suchat roci
tieswer edetestedbyAf r i
cansont hecont i
nentwhor oseupagai nst
minoritydominance.

21.TheCont ributionofwest erneducati


onandAf ri
canel i
tes
Ther oleofwest erneducat ionl edtothedevel opmentofAf r
icannat ionali
sm.Thi sf ormal
educationi ntr
oducedbyt heEur opeansproducedAf ri
caneducat edmasses( eli
teclass)that
i
ncludedKwameNkr umahoft heGoldCoast ,Juli
usNyer er
eofTanganyi ka,NelsonMandel aof
SouthAf ri
ca,et cetera.Theel it
eswer epoli
ti
callyawar eofthecol onialoppressiverul
eandt he
needf orther espectoft her ightsofman.Theydesi redf orchangeandt her
ef or
epr essured
col
onialgover nment sint ogr antpoli
ti
calconcessi ons( ref
orms) .Theysensi ti
sedmasses
thr
oughpr ess( newspaper s)andusedpol it
icalparti
esasamobi l
isati
ont oolagainstforeign
dominat i
on. '
allofwhi chinf l
uencedthegrowt hofAfricanpat r
iot
ism.

22.TheFor mationandt her ol


eofpol i
ti
calparties
Thef ormati
onofpol i
ticalpar t
iesinAfricaincreasedt heAf ri
candemandf orindependence.
Thesepar t
iesincludedt heAf ri
canNat i
onalCongr ess(ANC)andt hePanAfri
canistCongress
(PAC)inSout hAf r
ica,theUni tedGoldCoastConvent i
on( UGCC)andt heConventi
onPeopl e's
Part
y( CPP)oft heGol dCoast( Ghana)
,theKenyaAf r
icanNat ionalUnion(
KANU)i nKenya,the
Democr at
icPar ty(DP)andt heUgandaPeopl e'sCongr ess( UPC)i nUganda.Thesepar ti
es
wereusedasapl atformt ocondemncol oniali
sm,andmobi l
i
seAf ri
canmassest odemandf or
i
ndependence.Somepar t
iesl i
kethePAI GCofGui neaBi ssauandt heMPLAofAngol aused
mili
tarymeanst ost r
ugglef orindependence.

23.I
nfl
uenceofpr
essandmassmedi
a
Thr oughpressandmassmedi a,Afr
icansi ncreasi
nglydemandedf orindependence.Af ri
can
freedom fighter
sest abl
ishednat i
onalist
icnewspaper sl i
ket heAccr aEveni ngNewsi nt he
Gol dCoast,SekanolyainUganda,Saut iyaMwaf ri
kainKenyaandMal awiNewsi nNyasaland.'
andr adiobroadcasti
ngthroughRadi oCairo,Radi oAccraandtheAl geri
anFr eeVoice.Through
massmedi a,Afri
cansspr eadanti-
colonialpropagandabycr iti
cizingcolonialatroci
ti
esl i
ke
arbitrar
ydet ent
ionoff r
eedom f i
ghtersanduseofvi olenceagai nstAf r
icandemonst rators.
Massmedi abecamean,i nstr
umentofsensi t
isingandmobi l
isingmassest oj oi
nt hestr
uggle
forindependence.

24.ImpactofMDDandAf ri
canAr ti
stes
Theroleoft hemusi candar ti
stesledt ot hegr owt hofAf ri
cannat ional
ism.Musi chasbeena
componentofAf ricanlif
eandcul ture,throughwhi cheducat i
veandi mportantinfor mationis
del
iberatedandt ransmitt
ed.Af ri
canmusi ci
ansandar tistescomposedmot ivationalsongs
andplayswhi chexposedt heevi l
soft hecol oni
almast er si nAf r
icaandencour agedt heblack
worldtouni tetowar dsdemandi ngf orindependence.Musi cal sobecameanef fectivetoolof
mobili
singf orpoliti
calral
liesanddebat esagai nstcol oni ali
sm.I nSout hAfri
ca,LuckyDube
composedanumberofant i
-Apart
hei dsongsl i
ke" Dif
ferentcol oursonepeopl e"
,"Pr isoner"and
"Sl
ave"amongot herswhichencour agedt hebl ackst of ightagai nsttheApartheidr egi
mei n
SouthAf ri
caupt o1994wheni tcollapsed.PanAf ri
canMusi ciansl i
keBobMar leyencour aged
Afr
icanloveanduni tyagainstwhitedomi nat i
ont hr
ought heirMusi cMar l
ey'
ssongsl ike"Afri
ca
Unit
e,""Zimbabwe"and" OneLove"mot i
vat edAf ri
canef fortst owar dsunityandf r
eedom.

25.TheChi neseCommuni str evoluti


on( 1949)
Thesuccessoft heCommuni stPar tyinChinai n1949l edbyMaoZedong( TseTang)against
theKuomi ntangsuppor tedbyt heBr iti
shl edt ot hegrowt hofAf ri
cannat i
onali
sm.Like
communi stRussi a,Communi stChi na aft
ert he r
evolut
ion embarked on de-campai
gning
col
oniali
sm throughtheUNgener alassembl y.'
andwentaheadt oextentassist
ancetoAfr
ican
movement sdemandi ngf orindependencel i
keFLNofAl ger
ia,ZANUofSout hernRhodesi
aand
FRELIMO ofMozambi que.Chi naal soengagedi nsupporti
ngdevelopmentpr ogrammesof
newlyindependentAf r
icanst atesaswel lasst atesundert
akingprocessesofnat i
onbui
lding,
suchasTanzani a,GhanaandMozambi que.Theat t
it
udeofCommuni stChinatowardsAfri
ca
i
nfluencedAfri
cannat i
onalisti
cf eeli
ng.

26.Ther i
seofI ndonesi annati
onalism ( 1950and1951)
Thenat i
onali
sti
cact ivit
iesofIndonesi ansagai nsttheDut chi mper i
ali
stshadani mpacton
coloni
alAfri
ca.TheDut chhadsubj ectedt heI ndo-Chi
neset ooppr essi
ver uleandt reat
ed
Indonesi
aasanover seat err
it
ory.TheI ndonesi answer eeconomi cal
lymar gi
nalised,expl
oit
ed
andr aci
all
ydiscriminated.Thesei njusticesf orcedt heeducat edI ndonesianst odr opthe
peacefulmeansandr esort
edt omi li
tari
sm,whi chledtot heirindependenceby1951.Apar t
from moraleboost i
ngAf ri
canr esi
stancet ocol oni
alrule,Indonesiaj oi
nedt heUN gener al
assemblytocondemni mper i
ali
sm.Af r
icansbecameawar et hatindependencecoul dnotbe
possibl
eonasi l
verpl atebutthroughposi ti
veact ionagainstcolonial
i
sm.

27.TheEgyptianrevoluti
on(1952)
TheEgypt i
anrevolut
ionof1952andt heevent ualsuccessoft hefreearmyof f
icer
sledby
AbdelNassermadet hedecolonisati
onofAf r
icainevi
table.Nassersuccessf
ull
ystagedacoup
thatl
edtot hedownf al
lofapr o-westernking,Farouk.AssoonasNassercamet opower ,he
i
mmedi atel
yextendedf i
nancial
,mor alandmi l
i
taryassistancetoAfri
cansstruggl
ingforthei
r
i
ndependence.Thesei ncl
udedAl ger
iaandKenya.Hedecl aredradi
oCairoasthefreevoiceof
Afri
ca,t
hroughwhichant i
-col
onialpropagandawasspr ead.

28.Eff
ect
softheMau- Mauuprisi
nginKenya(1952-55)
TheMau-Mauupr i
singinKenyaincr
easedthedesir
ef ori
ndependenceespeci
all
yamongthe
Bri
ti
shcoloni
es.Ther evol
tcr
eatedawarenesstotheBr i
ti
shcolonialmaster
sthatAf
ri
cans
wer edet erminedt ogetr idofcol oni
ali
sm atallcost.TheBr i
ti
shbegangr antingpoli
tical
concessi onstot heircol
onies;theseincl
udedincreasedAf r
icanrepr
esentati
oni ntheLegco,
African parti
cipati
on in administr
ati
on,aswel lasconst i
tuti
onalref
orms.Thesepol i
tical
devel opmentsi nfl
uencedAf ri
canst odemandf orpol i
ti
calf r
eedomshencei nfl
uenci
ngt he
growt hf or Af ri
can national
ism.The Mau- Mau upr i
sing also hastened independence
attainmentinGhana,Tanganyi kaandUganda.

29.Vi ctoryofVietnamesenat i
onali
sm overtheFrench(1954)
TheVi etnamesewarofi ndependencehadani mpactont hegr owthofAf ri
cannat i
onalism.
Between1946and1954,t heVi et
namesewer einvol
vedi naful lscal
ewaragai nsttheFrench
colonialregi
met hathadbeenweakenedbyWor l
dWarI I.TheVi etnameseusedt hebar relof
thegunagai nsttheFr enchwi thdeterminat
iontoendf orei
gnr ule.TheVietnamesewhower e
regardedasweakhumi l
iatedt heFrenchatt hebatt
leofDi enBi enPhui nthepr esenceof
Afri
cansol di
erslikeBenBel la,whower epartoftheFrenchforces.Thedef eatoftheFrenchi n
theVietnamesej unglesinspiredBenBel l
atoleadanar medst ruggleagai
nstt heFrenchint he
Algeri
andeser t
.

30.TheAl gerianwarofi ndependence( 1954-62)


TheAl gerianl iber
ati
onwarmot i
vatedt hedecolonisat
ionofAf r
icaespecial
lyamongFr ench
colonies.Ast hefir
stwarofi ndependenceagai nsttheFrenchinAf ri
ca,
'thewart hreatened
Frenchcol oni
aladmi nistr
ationont hecont inent
.Ledbyt heFLN underBenBel la,thewar
i
nfluencedt heFr encht oi nit
iat
epol i
ticaldevelopmentsint heircol
onies.Thesei ncluded
i
ncr easedAf r
icanrepresentationinthePar i
sassembl yandt hei mmediateindependenceof
Tuni si
ain1956;andMor occoandGui neain1958.TheAl geri
anwari nfl
uencedotherAf r
icans
i
ncount r
iesl i
keMozambi queandSout hernRhodesi atousemi li
tar
ymeansi ntheirstr
uggle
forindependence.

31.TheBandungconf erence(1955)andt heNon- al


ignedmovement( 1961)
TheBandungconf erenceandt headoptionofthenon- al
ignedpoli
cyacceleratedthegrowthof
Africannationali
sm.Thi sconferencebroughttogetherlowdevelopedcount r
iesofAfri
ca,Asia,
WestI ndiesandt heCar i
bbean,ThedelegatesinBandungagr eedtohaveaf ormalcooperat
ion
throught heNon- ali
gnedmovement ,whichwasf ormali
sedi nBel
gradei n1961tAllmember s
oft heNon- al
ignedmovementcondemnedcol onial
ism andcol dwarr i
valryofthesuper
power s,"pl
edgedt owor ktogetheragainstforei
gni nfl
uence;wit
ht henon- Afr
icanmember s
promi sedtheirAf ri
cancount erpart
sfinancialandmi li
tar
yassistancei ntheirstr
ugglefor
i
ndependence.

32.Thecontribut
ionoft heindependenceofGhana( 1957)
The att
ainmentofi ndependence byGhana i n 1957 was a l andmar ki nthe growt h of
nati
onal
ism i n Afri
ca.Ghana was t he fi
rstcount ry south oft he Saharat o achi eve
i
ndependence-on r eceivi
ng the i
nstrument s ofi ndependence,Nkr umah declared," the
i
ndependenceofGhanawasmeani nglessiftheotherpar tsofAf r
icawer esti
l
lunderf oreign
dominati
on."Nkr umah's statementmot ivat
ed Af r
icans on the cont i
nentto demand f or
i
ndependence.IndependentGhanaor ganisedt hefi
rstPanAf ri
canconf erencei
nAf r
icai.e.the
1958'AllAfr
icanPeopl e'
sConf er
ence'andal soext endedassistancet ocountr
iesstruggling
fori
ndependencel i
keAlgeria.

33.InfluenceofGui neani ndependence( 1958)


Thei ndependenceofGui nea Conakryi n 1958 madet hegr owth ofAf r
ican nat i
onali
sm
i
nevitable.Throught he1958deGaul lereferendum,SekouTour eAhmedl edFrenchGui neat o
i
ndependence.Gui neahencebecamet hef i
rstFr
enchWestAf r
icancolonytoachievesel f
-rule.
Immedi atelyaftergr ant i
ngi ndependencet oGui nea,theFrenchpr eparedther estoft heir
col
oni esf orpol it
icalf reedom.I nIvoryCoastand Senegal ,t heFrench allowed maj ority
Afr
icansi nadmi ni
st rat
ionandi nt henativeassembl y.TheindependenceofGui neaConakr y
hencei
ncr
easedt
hechancesf
ori
ndependenceamongot
herFr
enchcol
oni
es.

34.TheroleoftheCommonweal thofNati
onssi nce1959
Thecont r
ibut
ionoft heCommonweal thofNat ionscannotbeunder est
imat edini nf
luencing
Afr
icanindependence.Asacooper ati
onofBr i
tishgovernmentandherf ormercol onies;the
commi t
teeengagedi nt hecompletedecolonisationoft herestofBr i
ti
shcol onies.Af r
ican
memberst at
es helped byI ndia,mounted pr essure on the Br
it
ish gover nmentt o grant
i
ndependencet other estofthei
rcoloni
esi nAf ri
ca.Thecommonweal t
hcondemnedt he
conti
nuedwhi tedomi nanceinSouthernAf r
ica,asmember -
stat
esext endedassi stancet o
Afr
icansinSouthAf ricaandSout hWestAf ri
cat odefeattheAparthei
dr egi
me;andt hosei n
Souther
nRhodesiaagai nstt
heUDI.

35.Har ol
dMacMi l
kn'sWi ndofchangespeech( 1960)
Thespeechmadebyt heBr i
ti
shpremierin1960cr eat edpol
iti
calinspirat
ioninBr i
ti
shColonial
andSout hernAfr
ica.Afterhi st
ourofal lAfricanst atesunderf oreigninfl
uence,Macmi li
an
concludedhisAfr
icanvisitinCapeTownSout hAfrica-duri
nghi saddr esstotheSout hAfri
can
parl
iament ,Macmili
an st at
ed that,"I
n Africa was a st rong wi nd ofchange t hatwas
i
rresist
ibl
e."Ther
esultoft hi
sinf
luenti
alspeechwast heincreaseint henational
isti
cstruggl
es
especiall
yinSout
hAf r
ica,SouthWestAf ri
ca(Nami bia)andSout hernRhodesi a(Zimbabwe) .

36.Thef ormationoftheOrgani zationofAf ricanUni t


y( OAU)1963
Theformat i
onoft heOrganisati
onoft heAf r
icanUni typromot edthedecol onizationprocessi n
Afr
ica.Amongt hemai naimsoft heOAUwast hecompl et
eer adicati
onofcol onial
i
sm f rom
thecont i
nent.TheOAUt herefore,est abli
shedal iberati
oncommi t
teewi thheadquar t
ersi n
Tanzania,throughwhi chmor al,f i
nancialandmi lit
arysuppor twasext endedt o Afri
cans
fi
ghti
ng agai nstcolonial
i
sm.The or ganisation also condemned t he persistentf oreign
dominationinAf r
icaandcal ledf orsanct i
onsagai nstt heApar theidsystem,t hePor tuguese
col
onialregimeandt heunil
ateraldecl arati
onofi ndependence( UDI )i
nSout hernRhodesi a.

37.EffectsoftheLisboncoup( 1974)
TheLi sboncoupofApr i
l25,1974cont ri
butedtothedecolonisat
ionofPortuguesecol oni
es.
Thecoupbr oughttopowerayoungsoci ali
stmi l
i
tarygovernmentledbyAnt oniodeSpi nola,
repl
acinganot heri
neffect
ivemi li
tarygovernmentofMar celoCaetano.DeSpi nolawasmor e
i
nterestedindevelopi
ngPor tugalandel evati
ngthecountryfrom f
inanci
alcr
isis,thankeeping
Afri
can col oni
es.Hence,upon assumi ng the Port
uguese throne,De Spi nola'
sr egi
me
i
mmedi atel
yengagedindi scussionswi ththePAIGCofBi ssau,theMPLAofAngol aandt he
FRELIMOofMozambi que.Ther esultwast heimmediateindependenceofGui neaBi ssauin
1974andAngol aandMozambi quein1975.

WORLDWARI IANDTHEGROWTHOFAFRI CANNATI ONALISM


Wor l
dWarI Iwasami li
tar
yconfrontat
ionbetweentheAxispowersl
edbyGermanyofAdolf
Hit
ler,JapanofEmperorHirohi
toandI tal
yofBenit
oMussol i
niandt
heAll
iedpowersledby
Fr
ance,Br i
tai
nandlat
erUSAandUSSR.TheWarbr okeouti n1939wit
hGermaninvasi
onof
Pol
and,andl ast
edunt
il1945whent heAxispowersweredefeat
ed.

ThewarbeganinEuropebutf i
ght
ingtookplaceal
lovertheworl
d.InAfri
ca,t
hewarwas
foughti
nNor
thAf
ri
ca,Nort
h-eastAf
ricaandt
heMalagasy(nowMadagascar
).

Europeanpower slikeFranceandBr i
tai
nr ecr
uit
edAf ri
canstheircoloni
estoserveinthewar
asf ight
ers,cooks,nur ses,dr
iver
s,storekeepers,scoutsand por ter
s.Brit
aintookabout
374,000Af r
icansservi
cemenwhi l
etheFrenchcolonialoff
icerecrui
tedover80,
000Afri
cans.

Afr
icanswhoser vedi
nt hewarincl
udedBi
ldadKaggi
a,DedanKimathiandWaruhiuIt
ote
GeneralChi
na)ofKenya,JaonaJi
nyofMal
agasy(nowMadagascar
),Leopol
dSedarSengoh
ofSenegal,MzeeMuhammad ofZanzi
bar,JeanBedelBoukassaoftheCentralAfr
ican
Republi
c,AhmedBenBel
l
aandBel
kacem Keri
m ofAl
ger
ia,Ser
geantWal
asif
rom EastAf
rica,
andetceter
a.

Nati
onal
ism amongt heAfr
icansdidnotcomeaboutunt i
lthebeginni
ngofWor l
dWarII.
Bef
orethistimecame,ther
ewasonl yalimit
edamountofAfri
cannational
ism amongt
he
el
it
esoft hecol
oni
es.Inr
eal
ity,thefor
m ofnat
ional
i
sm t
hatwaspresentattheti
mewasnot
nat
ional
i
sm atall
,i
twasanti
-coloni
ali
sm.

ImpactofWor
ldWarIIondecoloni
sationofAfri
ca:Referencequesti
ons:
a)Howdi dWorl
dWarI Ii
nfl
uencethegrowthofAf ri
cannati
onal
ism?
b)Assessthei
mpactofWor ldWarIIonthegrowt hofAfri
cannati
onali
sm
c) Towhatext
entdi
dWor ldWarIIcontri
but
etot hegrowthofAfri
cannati
onal
i
sm?

1.Wor ld WarI Icr eat ed pol


it
icalawar enessamong Af ri
cans,whi chi nf
luenced t hem to
demand f ori mmedi ateindependence.Dur ing the recruit
mentofAf ricans.Eur opean
colonialmast erscl aimedtheywer et akingthem tof i
ghtagai nstGer mani mperial
ism and
restorati
onofa" freewor ldinEur ope. "Afr
icanser vi
cemenl i
keBildadKaggi agotexposed
toi deasofwest erndemocr acy.In1945,whi l
ei nBr i
tain,Kaggi acampai gnedf orthe
LabourPar t
yagai nstt heConser vativePar ty.Uponr et
ur ni
ngt oAf ri
ca,t
heex- servicemen
ofWor l
d WarI Ior gani
sed upr i
sings agai nstEur opean col onial
ism wi t
h an ai m of
establishi
ngsi milardemocr ati
cgover nment slikei
nEur ope.

2.Afri
cansr ecruit
edt ofightintheSecondWor ldWaracqui redtraini
ngi
nmi l
it
aryskil
l
sand
guerri
l
lat acti
cs whi ch enabled t hem to st r
ugglefor independence.The Af ri
can
combat antslearnthow t ooper atesophist
icatedweaponsandconductmoder nwarfare.
Ont heirreturnt heAf ri
canex-servi
cemenofWor ldWarI Iusedsuchskill
stof i
ghtfor
i
ndependence.BenBel l
ausedt heNat i
onalLi berati
onFront( FLN)t
of i
ghtagainstthe
Frenchimper ial
ism inAl ger
ia(1954-62).InKenya,Gener alChinaandDedanKi mathiled
themau- mauupr isi
ngagainsttheBriti
sh(1952-55) .

3.Wor l
dWarI IexposedAf ri
canst otheweaknessesandconspi r
acyoft heWhi teman.
Afr
icanser vicemenwer esurpri
sedtoseethatEur
opeanscoulddieofthesamebul l
etthat
ki
ll
edt heAf ri
cans.Itshockedt hem toseeEuropeansoldiersrunawayfrom thebat tl
e
fi
elds.Af r
icanswi t
nessedt heexist
enceofslumsandadest it
uteki
ndofli
feamongsome
Europeans.The Af r
icans also came tolearnt hatEuropean col
oni
ali
sts were only
i
nterest edi ni ndependenceofEur opeancountri
esl i
kePolandbutnotAf ri
ca.Allthese
destroyedt hei nvi
si
bili
tyandsuper i
ori
tyoftheWhi t
eman,henceincr
easi
ngAf ri
canant i
-
col
oni alsent iments.

4.Consequently,themi li
tarylossessuf feredbyt hemaj orAl l
iedpower sduringandsoon
aft
ert hewarhadi mpactonAf ri
canpat r
ioti
sm.I nSouth-EastAsi a,Japanover r
unand
pushedt heBriti
shoutofMal aya,HongKong,andBur ma.Thewor stdefeatfacedbyt he
Bri
tishatthehandsc:Japanwast helossofSi ngapore.Af terthewar ,theIndonesians
defeatedtheDut chwhi letheVi etnamesehumi l
iatedtheFr enchi nthepr esenceoft hei
r
Afr
icansubjectslikeBenBel l
a,leaderoft heAl gerianr
evolutionandJeanBedelBokassa,
whol aterbecamepr esidentoft heCent ra.Af ricanRepubl ic.Thedef eatofEur opean
col
oniali
stsbyyellowpeopl eencour agedAf r
icanpeoplest oor ganisestrugglesthatwould
mar kthedecolonisat
ionofAf ri
ca.
5.TheendofWor ldWarI Iledt oi ncreasedEur opeanexpl oit
ationofr esourcesi nt heir
Afri
cancol onies.Thewarnegat ivel
yaf fect
edEur opeanpower si neconomi cter mst othe
extentthatwher eitended,col onialmast ersl
iket heFr enchandt heBr i
tishimmedi at
elyran
toAf ri
cat oseekeconomi cr emedy.Theyt argetedAf ri
canmi neralr esources,Af ri
can
humanr esource(orl abourandcashcr ops.Mor emi ningandt r
adingcompani escamet o
Afri
ca,whi l
el abourexpl oit
ation wor sened as col onial
istsi mplement ed compul sor y
growing ofcash cr ops.Heavyt axeswer ei mposed on Af ri
can nat i
vesasEur opean
coloni
aliststri
edr aisingr esourcest or econstructt heireconomi esr avaged( dest
royed)
duringthewar .Thiscont inuedEur opeanexpl oitati
oni ncreasedAf r i
cansuf f
er i
ngwhi ch
i
nfluencedt hem toexpr esst heirnationali
sm byagi tati
ngf orself-
rulet hroughpeacef ul
andar medr esist
ance.

6.Duringthecour seofWor ldWarI I,therewasr apidinfl


ux( arri
val
)ofwhi tesettl
ersinAf ri
ca
whichpr ovokedAf ri
canst of i
ghtf orindependence.Mostoft heseEur opeanset t
lerswho
arr
ivedinAf ri
cawer erunningawayf ortheirli
vesasEur opebecameunst ableandi nsecure.
Theyset tledin.Kenya,Al ger
ia,Sout her nRhodesi a( Zimbabwet oday)andSout hWest
Afri
ca( Nami biat odayandel sewher einAf rica.Theirset tl
ementinAf r
icaincreasedt he
evi
lsofcol oniali
sm whi chi ncludedi ncreasedr acism,l andgrabbing,overt axationand
compet i
tionf ort heexi stingjobst heycauseddest ruct i
onofAf ri
canCul tur
e,pover ty,
exploi
tati
onofAf ri
canl abourandt hegener alsuffer
ingofAf ri
cans.Thi sledt oAf r
ican
hatredagai nstf orei
gner s,hencecausi ngt hem tof ightf orpoli
ticalfreedom andsel f-
determination.

7.TheSecondWor ldWarl edt oeconomi cboom i nAf ri


ca.Dur ingt hewar ,manyoft he
Af r
icanr esourcesandcommodi ti
eswer ehighlydemandedf orinEur ope.Thesei ncluded
mi neralsandcashcr ops.Groundnutoi lf r
om t heSenegal,Pal m oi lfrom Nigeria,Cocoa
from t heGol dCoast( now Ghana) ,coffeef rom Ethiopi
aandI voryCoast ;uranium f rom
CongoLeopol dvi
ll
e( now DRCandcopperf rom NorthernRhodesi a( now Zambi a)f ound
theirwayt oEurope.Besi des,someEur opeani nvestorsrelocatedt heirinvestment st o
Af r
ica,whi chinfl
uencedi ncreasedgr owingofcashcr ops,expansi onofmi ni
ngact i
vi
ties
andt heemer genceofsmal lscaleindust rythatempl oyedmanyAf ri
cans.I ncoloni eslike
Kenya,Af r
icanswer eallowedt ogrowcr opsl iketeaandcof feewhi cht heywer epr eviously
deni ed.Allthesei mprovedt hesoci o-
economi cconditi
onsofAf ri
cans;f ir
st,tradeuni ons
wer ecr eatedt of i
ghtf orwor ker
s'r ights,theni tenabledpeasant st o3payf ort heir
children'
seducat ionandl ater,t
heycoul daf fordtofundpol i
ticalactivi
tiesgear edt owar ds
attainingindependence.

8.TheSecondWor ldWarl edt oi ncr easedurbanizationi nAf r


icahencei nfl
uencingthe
growthofAf ricannat i
onalism.Thi swasduet owhi t
eset tl
ers,whodevel opedtownsand
i
mpr ovedont het ransportnet wor k.Sucht ownsincludedNai robiinKenya;Suezi nEgypt,
Sali
sbury(now Har areisSout hernRhodesi a,AccraandCapeCoasti ntheGoldCoast ,
Algi
ersandSet i
finAl geriaandLagosi nNigeri
a,amongot hers.Thegr owthofur ban
centers at
tracted Af r
ican popul ations to set
tl
ei n mi ning cent er
s,towns and ports.
Afri
canswho f locked tot ownsi nl ar
genumber sshar ed ideasand exper i
encesand
suff
eredf r
om t hesamepr oblemsofunempl oyment ,discr i
minationfrom thewhitesand
highcost sofl i
vi
ng.Thecondi tionsi ntheur banar easf r
ustratedAfri
canwhoeasi ly
mobi l
i
sed and uni ted themsel ves under ant i
-colonialmovement sto strugglefor
i
ndependence.
9.Theout breakofWor l
dWarI Iledtot hel i
berati
onofEt hiopiafrom I tal
i
anoccupat ionin
1941.Musol i
nijoinedthewaront heAxi ssideledbyHi tler,whichwor senedhi sf ri
endship
withAll
iedpower sofFr anceandBr itain.TheFr enchandt heBr it
ishappr ovedt heItali
an
occupationofEt hi
opi
aexpect i
ngMussol i
nitost ayawayf rom Hi tl
er.TheAl l
iedpower s
weredisappoi ntedbyI t
alyhencedi ver t
edt hei
rsuppor ttowar dsEt hiopiat hr
oughSudan
andKenya.Consequent l
y,It
alywithdr ew hertroopsf r
om Et hi
opiat oconcent ratei nthe
SecondWor ldWar ,whichalsoenabl edEt hiopi
anst odef eatI t
aly.Thevi ctoryofEt hiopi
a
overIt
alyi nspir
edt hehopeofAf r
icansundercol onial
ism t hatEur opeanpower scanbe
defeat
ed.

10.Duringt hecour seofWor l


dWarI I
,theAtlant
icchar t
erwassignedinAugust1941bet ween
Winst onChur chil
lofBritainandFr ankl
inRoosevel tofUSA;wi thSt al
inofUSSRasan
obser ver. TheAt l
ant
icChar tercall
edf orself-det
erminat
ionofal lpeopl est hr
oughi ts
Art
icleI I
Iwhi chacknowl edgedthesovereignrightofstatesunderforeigndomi nationand
fort hecol onialpeoplet ochooseagover nmentoft heirown.Ther esoluti
onsoft he
Atl
ant icChar teronself
-governmentandsover eigntyexi
stenceofstatesunderdomi nat
ion
wereadopt edbyt heUni tedNationsChar t
erof1945. TheAt lanti
cChar terinfl
uenced
Afri
cannat ionalism t
hroughcal l
ingf orindependenceandi mpr ovedl ivel
ihoodsoft he
colonisedpeopl e.

11.TheSecondWor ldWari nfl


uencedt heBr azzavill
econf erenceof1944.Gener alChar l
esde
Gaul letheFrenchl eadercalledameet ingofr epresentati
vesofFr enchcol oniesofWest
andEquat or
ialAf ri
ca.Theai m wast ofi
ndwaysoft hankingAf r
icansforsuppor ti
ngFr ance
i
nt heSecondWor ldWarandf orst andi ngwi tht heFr enchdur i
ngt r
ialmoment swhen
Ger many occupi ed Fr ance.Att he conf erence,t he Fr ench admi nist
rators also l ai
d
strategiestodi vertAf r
icanat tentionf rom demandi ngfori ndependence.Theconf erence
proposedpol it
icalr eformsi nFr enchWestandEquat orialAf ri
ca,whichi ncluded;t he
establ i
shmentofnat ive assembl ies,i ncreasing Af ri
can r epresentat
ion int he Fr ench
parliamentand al lowing Af r
ican par t
icipation in admi nistrati
on.Thepol it
icalreforms
creat edpoli
ticalawar enessofAf ricanst odemandf orindependence,i nsteadofkeepi ng
them si l
entandnai veast heFrenchcol oni ali
ststhought .

12.Wor ldWarI Iledtot heriseofUSAandUSSRt other ankofsuperpowers,r


eplacingBr it
ain,
FranceandGer many,t hathadf ai
ledtopr otectwor ldpeace.TheUSAandt heSovi etUnion
hadanant i
-colonialatt
it
udet hustheyencour agedcol oni
alpowerstodecolonize.Thenew
super power swant edtobef r
eet opur suetheirtradinginter
estsi
nAf r
icabutcoul dnotdue
tothecol onialrestri
cti
onsest abl
ishedatt heBer l
i
nConf erencei
n1885.USAal sowant ed
tospr eadt hei deologyofcapi tali
sm whi let heUSSRwoul dspreadcommuni sm.They
therefor eprovidedl ogisti
calsuppor tt oAf r
icanl iberat
ioninform ofmor ale,finances,
weapons,andschol ar
shipsf oreducat ion.TheUSA andt heSovietUni onusedt heir
i
nfluencei nt heUN t ocallf orimmedi atei ndependenceofAf ri
cancol onies,andt hi
s
encour agedthedevel opmentofAf r
icannat i
onalism.

13.TheendofWor l
dWarI Ir
esul
tedintothef
ormati
onoftheUnit
edNat i
onsOrgani
sati
on
(UNO)in1945asthenewworl
dpeacekeepi
ngbody,r
epl
aci
ngtheLeagueofNati
ons.The
emergenceoft
heUNOgaveAf r
icanshopet
hatdecol
oni
sat
ionwaswithi
nthei
rreach.UN
providedAfri
canswi t
hapl atf
ormt otalkagainstcoloni
ali
sm byi nvi
ti
ngf reedom f
ighters
topresenttheiranti
col
onialgri
evancestot heGeneralAssembl y.I
tcreateda" Tr
usteeship
Counci l
"totakecareofmandat edTer r
it
ories.(Mandatedterri
tori
eswer ef or
merGer man
andI tal
i
ancol oni
esprevi
ouslyundertheLeagueofNat i
ons).TheUni t
edNat i
onsdeclared
theyear sbetween1950and1960asadecadeofdecol oni
sation;duri
ngt hesetenyear s,
colonialmast erswererequiredto promot epolit
icaldevelopment s(changes)int heir
coloniesaimedatprepari
ngAf ri
cansforindependence.

14.Thewarl ed tot hecomi ng t


o poweroft heLabourpar tyin Bri
tai
nt hatinfluenced
i
ndependencei mi t
at i
onsinBrit
ishAfri
ca.Short
lyaf t
erWor l
dWarI Iel
ecti
onswer eheldin
Brit
ainwitht helabourPar t
yofCl ementAt l
eedefeatingt
heConser vati
vePar t
yofWi nston
Chur chi
ll
.TheLabourgover nmentunderClementwasl i
beral
;ini
ti
atedpoli
ticalref
ormsi n
Brit
ishAf ri
ca-col
oni eswhichincludednewconst i
tuti
onsi.e.theBurnsconst i
tut
ioninThe
GoldCoastandt heRi char
dsconst i
tut
ioninNigeri
a( bot
hi n1946);andincreasedAf ri
can
representati
oni nt heLegco.Thesepol i
ti
caldevelopmentsincreasedAfri
canmor alefor
i
ndependence.

15.TheendofWor l
dWarI Iledt othecal l
i
ngoft heFi fthPanAf ri
canCongr essi nManchester
i
n1945,whi chincreasedAf ri
candesi r
ef orsel f -
rule.Theconf erencewasor gani
sedby
Af r
ica-descendant sli
keW. E.B.DuBoi sandGeor gePadmor e,andwasat tendedbymany
delegat esf r
om Af ri
calikeKwameNkr umahoft heGol dCoast( oneoft hesecretari
es)
,
JomoKenyat taofKenya( assistantsecr etary)
,KamuzuBandaofNyasal andandNnamdi
Azikiwe ofNi geri
a.The Manchest erconf erence encour aged Af ri
can nat i
onali
sm by
recommendi ng thatf r
eedom f i
ghters mustf orm pol it
icalor ganisati
ons and involve
massesi nt hest r
uggleagai nstforei
gnr ule.'andt heuseofmi li
tarymeansi fnon-vi
olence
wasi neffectiveinachievingsel f-
rul
e.Theconf erenceinfluencedt her eturnofAf ri
cans
from abr oadt oleadindependenceagi tati
ons,henceKenyat tir
et urnedt oKenyai n1946
whi l
eNkr umahwentbackt otheGol dCoasti n1947.

16.Wor l
dWarI IweakenedEur opeancol oni
alempi r
esi nAsi a,whi chaf fectedt her iseof
Afri
cannat ionali
sm.Theendoft hewarl edt othenot ablei ndependenceofI ndi aand
Pakistanin1947I ndependentI ndiaimmedi atel
yj oi
nedt heUNO andi ncreasedont he
member soft heGener alAssembl ywhovot edi nf avouroft otaldecol onisati
onoft he
wholewor ld.Indiawentaheadt oextendf i
nancial,technicalandmi l
itaryassist anceto
enhancet heAf ri
canstrugglef orindependence.I ndia'sPrimeMi ni sterJawahar lalNehru
becameapol i
ti
calcounselortomanyoft heAf ri
cannat ionalistslikeApol loMi l
tonObot e
ofUgandaandJomoKenyat t
aofKenya.ThesuccessofGandhi ism ( Non- vi
olence)i nIndi
a
i
nspiredmanyf r
eedom fightersinAf rical i
keKwameNkr umahoft heGol dCoastand
AlbertLuthuliofSouthAf ri
ca,t oempl oydef iancecampai gns,boycot t
s,demonst r
ati
ons
andst ri
kesaspar tofnati
onalistacti
vit
iesagai nstforeignrule.

17.Wor l
dWarI Iexhaust
edanddepl et
edtheresourcesofAl l
iedpowersl i
ketheBrit
ishandthe
French.Thisfol
lowedthehighinvest
mentsmadei nt hewarandt heshatter
edeconomi es
duri
ngt hewar.TheFrenchandt heBri
ti
shsufferedeconomi cchal
lengesli
keinflat
ion,l
ow
exportvolumesandunempl oymentduet opoori ndustri
alperfor
mancedur ingthecour se
ofwar .Thepostwarperiodwit
nessedlossofcol onialwilloft
heBr i
ti
shandt heFrencht o
continueadminister
ingAfri
caandi nsteadpreferr
edt oputmoreef f
ortinrest
ructur
ing
theirnati
onswhi chwereheavi l
ydestroyedbyt hewar .Thecoloni
almastersgraduall
y
withdrewfrom Afri
cahencecreati
ngtheopportuni
tyforAfr
icanst
oachievei
ndependence.

THE1941ATLANTI CCHARTERANDAFRI CANNATI ONALI SM


By1941,Wor ldWarI Ihadbecomef ier
ce.Itledtot hef i
nanci
aldecli
neoftheAl l
iedfor ces,
whosoughtf orhelpfrom t
heUSA.Ledbyt heBrit
ishPr imeMi ni
sterChur
chill
,Al
li
edal l
iance
mett heUSpr esi
dentFrankli
nRoosevel tatabat t
leshipoft heAt l
ant
icOcean.Ther esultof
theirmeetingwast heUSsuppor ttotheAlli
edpower s:RooseveltandChurchil
lhencesi gned
theAtlanti
cchar t
erinAugust1941wi thRussianleader,Stali
nast heobser
ver.Thecharterdid
notonlyinfluenceUSAt ointerveneinWor l
dWarI Ibutt hedocumenthadpr ofoundef f
ecton
coloni
alterri
tori
esespecial
l
yi nAfrca;
i

Ref
erencequesti
ons:
a)Explai
ntheinfl
uenceoftheAt
lant
icChart
eronAfri
cannati
onal
i
sm
b)Examinetheimpactofthe1941Atlant
icChar
teronthegr
owthofAf
ri
cannat
ional
i
sm

1.Thesi gningoft heAt l


anti
cchar terincreasedAf r
icanpolit
icalawar eness.Afri
cansunder
colonialdomi nat
ioncamet orealisethatindependencewasar ightbutnotaf avourfr
om
thecol oniali
st;Theawar enessofAf r
icanswascausedbyt hear ticl
esoft hechart
erwhich
statedt hatatt heendof( Wor l
dWarI I
)allnat
ionsshouldbegi venar ighttochoosethei
r
owngover nmentandpol i
ti
csf reedomst ober estoredtot hosewhohavebeenf or
cibl
y
depr i
vedoft hem.Thi sgavetheAf r
icanpeoplesomet hi
ngt olookf orwardto.Theycame
tobel i
evet hatatt heendoft hewar ,freedom from theimper i
al(colonial
)rulei
nwouldbe
giventoAf ri
caandj ustli
ketherestoft hewor l
d.

2.TheAt l
anti
cchar terconf i
rmedt hel egit
imacyofAf r
icanaspirati
onf orindependence.I t
madet heAfricanst ruggleforindependencet obei nt
er nat
ional
lyrecognised.Allalong,the
Afri
can Agi t
at i
on ( demand) f or t hei
r polit
ical rights had been consi dered as
unconsti
tut
ionalandr ebell
iousbyt hecolonialpower s.ManyAf r
icanswer et herefore
scaredofjoiningt hepol i
ti
calst r
ugglebecauset heyneverwant edt ober egardedr ebels
andt oputtheirlivesandpr ofessionst ori
sk.Hence,t hesigningoft heAt l
anticcharter
defi
nedthedesi ref orAfri
canindependence.

3.TheAt l
anti
cchar terpr oclaimed(declar
ed)therest
or at
ionofthesovereignrightandsel f
-
governmenttost at es,whi chhadbeendepr i
vedoft hem byforce.Thiswasapr omi seof
i
ndependencet omanycol oni
alterr
it
oriesbutAfri
cansi npar
ticul
ar.TheAt l
ant i
cChar t
er
showedAf ri
canst hatt heentir
ewor ldwasnotagai nstthem.Theycamet or eali
sethat
nati
onslikeAmer icawer eagainstwhatwasbeingdoneunt othem bycolonialruler
s.This
ther
eforeincreasedt heirsenseofnat i
onali
sm tof i
ghtf ort
heirindependenceaf terthe
SecondWor ldWar .

4.TheAtlant
icchart
eralsodemandedf orther espectoftheri
ghtofallpeopl
esoft hewor l
d
tochooseaf orm ofgover
nmentthatt heywant edtol i
veunder.ManyeducatedAf r
icans
i
nter
pretedthisart
icl
easanoppor tunitythatwoul dleadthem tofull
yparti
cipatei
nt he
pol
it
icalaf
fai
rsofthei
rstat
es;t
husinfluencingthedesireofAfr
icansforpol
it
icalfr
eedom.

5.Thesigningoft
heAtl
anti
cchartermadeBr i
tai
ntodeclar
ehercommit
menttor espect
democracyandt
her
ightofthecoloni
alpeopl
etosel
f-
gover
nment
.WhentheBr
it
ishPr i
me
Mini
sterWinst
onChur chi
llsi
gnedtheagreement,i
twasmadecl eartothepeopleofAfri
ca
andthewor ldatlarget hatGreatBri
tainwantedawor ldofpiece,ofsovereignt
y,of
i
ndependence.Thi
sincreasedAfri
canhopeforindependenceacr
ossBriti
shcoloni
es.

6.Italsoinfl
uencedAmer icancommi t
mentt osuppor t
ingthedecol onisat i
onpr ocessi n
Afr
ica.Amer i
caknew wher etheAf r
icanswer ecomi ngf r
om;duet ot hef actthatthey,
werebot hcoIoni sedandr uledbyaBr it
ainformanyyear s,Amer i
cangover nmentof
Rooseveltfel
tAfr i
ca'spainandwant edt odosomet hingabouti t
.Aftersi gningthechar ter
,
Rooseveltsetoutt oencour ageAfr
icanl eader
stoact i
velyleadanti-colonialstruggles.In
1943,the US- presidentmett he Mor occan sul
tan-Muhammad and mot ivated him t o
engageintheant i-col
onialcrusadeagainsttheFrench.Ther esultwaswi tnessedwhent he
sul
tanimmedi atelyspear headedthestruggleforMoroccani ndependence.

7.ThesigningoftheAt lanti
cchar t
erexposedt heWhiteman'sconspi
racy:whileaddressing
thehouseofcommoner s;Winstonclai
medt hecharterappli
edtoEuropeannat i
onsunder
Nazism Germanyi nf
luence)i ncl
udingFrancethathadbeenoccupi edbyGer manyint he
earl
yyearsofWor ldWarI I
.Thiscausedcolonialr
esentmentamongAf r
icans.TheAfrican
questi
onwas,"Ifitwasnotr i
ghtforGermanst ogovernFrenchmen,thenhowcoul ditbe
ri
ghtforEuropeanstogover nAfri
cans?"Iti
sonsuchbasi sthatAfr
icansbecamest rongly
fi
rm onagit
ati
ngf orself-
rulefrom Eur
opeancolonial
ism.

8.TheAt lant
iccharteropenedupt hegat esfort heUSAandt heSovi
etUni on( Russia)to
i
nterveneinWor l
dWarI Ii
n1941.Thedeci sionoftheset wopowerst oj ointheAl l
i
ed
power sledbyBr i
tainandFr ancewast ohelpendt hewarandensur ethecommi tmentof
Bri
tainandot hercol onialmaster
si ni mplement i
ngtheAt l
anti
cCharter.Theendoft he
SecondWor l
dWarl edt otheriseoftheUSAandt heUSSRasnewsuperpower s,replaci
ng
Bri
tain and France t hathad col onialempi res i
n Afri
ca.Theirant i
-coloni
alat tit
ude
i
nfluencedt hedecol onisat
ionprocessi nAf ri
ca.AmericanandRussi angover nment s
becamecl osealli
esofAf r
icansi npr essuri
singforthei mplementat
ionoft he1941
Charter,whichfastenedt hedecolonisati
onpr ocessinAfr
ica,

9.TheAt l
anti
cchar terl
edtotheformationoftheUnitedNat ionsOrganisation(UNO)in1945.
TheUNObecamet henewcust odi
an( keeper
)ofwor l
dpeaceandr ightsofman.Af ri
cans
peti
ti
onedt heircoloni
almasterstotheUNOf ortheirfai
luretograntt hem poli
ti
calri
ghts.
Therefor
e,thenewwor l
dpeacekeepingbodybecameapl atf
ormf orAf ri
canstruggl
efor
i
ndependence.UNOest abli
sheda"Decol oni
sati
onCommi t
tee"anda" Trusteeshi
pCouncil"
thatbecamei nstr
ument sofencouragingthedecolonisat
ionofAf r
ica.

10.TheAt l
anti
cchar t
erinfl
uencedtheadopt i
onoft heuniversaldeclar
ati
onofhumanr i
ghts
(UDHR)i n1948.Thisnewchar t
erforHumanRi ghtsadoptedmanyoft hear t
icl
esoft he
Atl
anticChart
eroni ndependenceandpol i
ticalf
reedoms.TheUDHRr e-aff
irmedt heri
ght
ofthecoloni
alpeoplet oself
-deter
minat
ionandr ightofallpeopletohavet hefreedom to
decidethei
rownpol it
icaldesti
ny.TheUDHRt herefor
ebecameani nspirat
iontoAf ri
cans
todemandf orthei
rindependence.

11.Thechart
eri
nfluencedt
heacti
vi
tiesoftheManchest
erConf
erence.Duri
ngthefi
ft
hPan
Afr
icanConf
erenceinManchest
er,thedel
egat
espassedaresol
utiondemandi
ngfort
he
i
mpl ementat
ionoft heAtl
anti
cCharterandcauti
onedt hereluct
anceofEur opeanpowers
toimplementthe1941Char t
erthathadbeenpubl i
cizedacr osstheworld.PanAfri
canist
s
quotedthesover ei
gnr i
ghttoself-
governmentofst atesunderf or
eigndomi nat
ion,as
declar
edintheAtlanti
cCharter
.Itt
herefor
einf
luencedt heact i
vi
ti
esoft hepanAfri
canist
s
i
nt hestr
uggleagainstf
orei
gndomination.

12.Consequent l
y,duri
ng the Bandung conference of1955 i nIndonesi a,the Afro-
Asian
delegat
es wer einfl
uenced byt he Atl
anti
c char tert o decl
aret hei
rsupportt o self-
determinat
ionandequallydemandedf orther espectoft hesovereignr i
ghtoft
hecol onial
peopletobef reef
rom col
onialdominati
on.LedbyI ndianPr i
meMi nist
erJawaharlalNehru,
thedelegatesatBandungadopt edthepoli
cyofnon- ali
gnmentaspar tofthei
risolat
ioni
st
str
ategyagai nstEur
opeanpower sthatsti
llmai ntainedcolonialt err
it
ori
esinAsi aand
Afri
ca.

13.TheAt l
anti
cchar teri
nfl
uencedt heact i
vit
iesofWestAf ri
canSt udent sUnion(WASU)l ed
byNnamdiAzi kiweofNi geri
a.WASUwasanassoci ati
onofal lAfricanstudentspur
suing
fur
thereducati
oni nGreatBrit
ain.Immedi atelyaft
ertheendofWor ldWarI I
,Member sof
WASU vi sit
ed t he "Bri
ti
sh House of Commons" and pr esent ed to the Briti
sh
Parl
iamentari
ansamemor andum ( document )entit
led" THEATLANTI C CHARTER AND
BRITISH WEST AFRI CA".TheseWASU member swant edsubst ant i
alpoli
ti
calref
orms,
whichwoul dleadt oindependencei nBr i
tishWestAf rica,aspr ocl ai
medi nthecharter.
TheseAfri
canst udentsconti
nuedor ganisi
ngdemonst r
ations,poli
ticaldebatesandwrit
ing
newspaperar ti
clesthrough whi ch theycondemned t he Briti
sh pol icyofr ef
usi
ng to
i
mpl ementtheAt l
anti
cChartertowhi chtheywer easignat or
y.

14.Thefailur
eoft heEuropeancoloni
almasterstoimplementtheresol
uti
onsoftheAtl
antic
chart
er infl
uenced Afri
cans tor esor
tt o mili
tary means of demanding for t
heir
i
ndependence.Af r
icansinKenyaor ganisedtheMai rMauuprisi
ngin1952.I nAlgeri
a,
poli
ti
calmovement sli
ketheFLNwer efounded,whichdecl
aredanarmedstruggl
eagainst
theFrenchcoloni
aladminist
rat
ion.

THEUNI TEDNATI ONSORGANSATI ON( UNO)ANDTHEDECOLONI SATIONOFAFRI CA


TheUni tedNati
onsOr gani
zati
on( UNO)wasf ormedinOctober1945inSanFr anci
sco,USA.I
ts
for
mat ionori
ginatedf rom t
heprincipl
esoftheAt l
anti
ccharterof1941.TheUNOwasf ormed
toreplacethedef unctLeagueofNat i
onswhichfai
ledtopreserveworl
dpeaceandr espectf
or
therightsofman.Unl iketheLeague,t heUNOwascommi t
tedt osol
vingtheconcernofbig
power sdominatingweakerst at
esi nthenameofi mperi
ali
sm.

TheUNOther
eforegotdet
erminedtodoawaywit
hi mperi
ali
sm (forei
gndominati
on)
,whi ch
hadgr
eat
lypr
omot edgr
ossviol
ati
onofhumanri
ghtsandhencecont r
ibut
edtotheoutbreak
ofWor
ldWarI
I.Therol
eoftheUNOi nt
hegr
owthofAfri
cannational
ism washenceasfoll
ows:

I
mpactoft
heUNOonAf
ri
canNat
ional
ism

Refer
enceQuest i
ons:
a)Howdi dtheformationofUNOi nspireAfri
canstruggleforindependence?
b) Explainthecont ri
buti
onsoft heUni t
edNat i
onsOr ganisat
iontothedecoloni
sat
ionof
Afr
ica
c)Assesst heroleoftheUNOi nthegr owthofAf r
icannat i
onali
sm
1.TheUni tedNationsOrganisati
oni mmedi at
elyadoptedt heresol
uti
onsofthe1941Atlant
ic
char
terandt hi
si nfl
uencedt hegr owthofAf ri
cannat ionali
sm.TheChar t
eroftheUNO
uncorporat
edmostofthear ti
clesoftheAt l
anti
cchar teronindependenceandsoverei
gn
ri
ghts.Notableoftheresoluti
onswas" Restorati
onoft heSovereignRightsandSelf-
governmenttothosewhower edepr i
vedoft hem."Maj orPowersoft heUNOcal l
edupon
for
eigngovernmentst
ogi vethecoloni
alpeoplei nAfri
caanoppor tunit
ytoclai
mf ort
heir
soverei
gnequali
tyandindependentexistencewi t
houtf or
eignmani pul
ati
ons.Thi
shence
l
egtimisedandfor
mali
sedAf ri
canaspirat
ionsforself-
rule.

2.TheUNOsetupa" Decolonisati
onCommi ttee"toensuret hatal
lcoloni
sedpeopleoft he
wor l
dwer ef r
eef r
om al lformsoff oreigndomi nation.Themaj orroleofthiscommi tt
ee
wast oat t
endt ogrievancesofpeopleandst atesthatwereunderdomi nat
ion,andmoni tor
poli
ticaldevel
opment saimedatpr epari
ngt hesecol oni
esforself-
rul
e.TheDecolonisati
on
Commi tt
eesentvi sit
ingmi ssionstoAfr i
cancol oni
esl i
keNyasaland,NorthernRhodesia,
Somal il
and and Li bya to super vi
se independence ar rangements and constit
utional
progress.Thecommi tt
eemount edpressureagai nstEuropeanpower stodismantletheir
colonialempiresinAf ri
caandAsi a

3.Consequent ly,theUni tedNat ionsOr ganisat i


onest abli
shedt he" TrusteeshipCounci l"with
the responsi bili
tyofpr eparing the mandat ed terri
tori
esf ori ndependence.Mandat ed
terri
tori
eswer et hef ormerGer manandI tali
ancol onies,andal lterrit
orieswhi chhadbeen
putundert hedef unctLeagueofNat ions." Chapt erXIoft heUNO- Char terobligedt he
Trustee-power st oputi ntoaccountt hepol iti
calinterestsoft hepeopl esandt oassi st
them int hepr ogressivedevel opmentoft heirfr
eepol i
ti
calinstituti
ons."TheCounci lwas
therefore,taskedt osuper vi
sepol it
icalandconst ituti
onalr ef
or msi nthemandat edst ates
aspar toft ransformat iont owar dssel f
-rul
e.HenceAf ri
canst atesl i
keTanganyi ka,Rwanda,
Togo,Li bya,Somal i
land and Camer oon i mmedi at
elyi ndependent .The counci lsent
commi ssionerPel tAdr iant opr eparetheLi byanindependenceconst ituti
onandi n1954,i t
attendedt ot heTANUpr oposal sforself-r
ul einTanganyi ka.Thusi ndependencewasgi ven
toLi bya( 1951) ,Somal ilandandTogo( 1960) ,Camer oonandTanganyi ka( 1961),and
Rwanda( 1962) .

4.TheUNO i ssuedt he" UniversalDeclarat


ionofHumanRi ghtsChar ter"(UDHR)i n1948,
whichinspiredAf ricanagi t
ationf ori
ndependence.TheHumanRi ghtsDecl ar
ati
onspel t
outfundament alrightsandf r
eedomsofal lpeoplesoft heworld.Ther i
ghtsandf reedoms
present
edint hear ticl
esoft heUDHRi ncl
udedf r
eedomsofspeech,associ at
ion,assembly,
press,f
airrepresent at
ionandt hesoverei
gnrighttoindependentexistence,amongot her
s.
Afri
canfreedom f i
ght ersusedt heUDHRchar tertoriseupandagi tatefortheirri
ghtsand
fr
eedomsdepr ivedoft hem byEur opeancolonialmast er
s.

5.TheUNOdecl aredt heyear


sf r
om 1950to1960asadecade( tenyears)ofdecol
onisati
on.
Oneoft heobjecti
vesoftheUNOwast otaldecoloni
sat
ionandgr anti
ngofsoverei
gntyand
i
ndependentexistencetoallpeopl
esandst atesunderf
oreigndomi nat
ion.Thebodyhence
gave dominat i
ng governmentsat i
mel ine by which they had t oi ni
ti
ate poli
tical
developmentswhi chwoul dprepareAfricansforself-
determinati
on.Therefor
e,Af r
ican
agit
ationf
orpoliti
calfr
eedomswasi nf
luencedbyt heacti
vi
t i
esoftheUnitedNati
ons.

6.TheUnit
edNati
onsOr ganisationpr ovidedAf
ri
cannational
i
stswi t
hapolit
icalpl
atf
ormt o
addr
essthei
ranti-
col
onialgrievances;seekforpoli
ti
calguidanceandpressuri
zeimperial
powerst
oendt hei
rcolonialdomi nation.I
n1955,Jul
iusNyerereofTanganyikawasgiven
anoppor
tunit
yt oaddr esstheUN Gener alAssemblyandconsequentlydemandedf or
i
mmediat
edecol oni
sationofTanganyika,whichwasr eal
isedl
aterin1961.I
n1966,t he
SWAPOwasal locat
edaper manentseati nt
heGeneralAssemblyoftheUNOtorepresent
theNami
bianpeopl e,henceKeri
naoneoft heNami biannati
onal
ist
stookuptheseat .
SuchUNeffor
tsencourageddecoloni
sationofAfr
ica.

7.The I nternationalPeacekeepi ng Body passed st r


ong condemnat oryr esoluti
ons and
i
mposedst rictembar goesandsanct i
onsagai nststubbor nforei
gnregimeswhodel ayedto
withdraw f rom t heircolonialterr
itories.Ther egimest arget
edbyt heUNO i ncludedthe
Portuguesecol onialregimesi nAngol a,Gui neaBi ssauandMozambi que,theapar thei
d
regimei nSout hAf ri
caandNami bia,andt heUDI -r
egimeofI anSmithinSout hernRhodesia
(Zimbabwe) .Thecondemnat oryr esol ut
ionst hr
eatened t hepol i
ti
calimageoff orei
gn
regimesi n Af ri
ca whi l
et hesanct ionsand embar goescaused di plomat i
c,t r
adeand
economi c set backs (disadvantages) .Wher eas strong UN- condemnat ions encouraged
nationalistupr i
singsinAf ri
ca,thedi plomat i
candeconomi csancti
onshumbl edt heforei
gn
government st oi ni
ti
atepol i
ti
calandadmi nistrati
ver eformswhi chledt oself-
ruleintheir
colonialterritori
es,

8.Consequentl
y,theUni tedNat i
onsOr gani
sat i
onpassedandemphasi sedt heobservat
ionof
Resoluti
on 1515 on i ndependence whi ch had an impactoft he gr owth ofAf rican
nati
onali
sm.Ther esol uti
onlegtimisedther i
ghtt
oi ndependentexistenceofallpeoplesof
thewor l
danddenouncedal lcasesoff orei
gndomi nationexerci
sedagai nstthecoloni al
people.Thepr ovi
sionsofResol uti
on1515wer eadopt edbyt heliberat
ioncommi t
teeof
theOAUandusedt hem t ocondemnBr i
tainforl
ookingonast hemi nori
tywhit
esdecl ared
themselves independent i n Sout hern Rhodesia ( Zimbabwe) at t he expense of
i
ndependencef ormaj orit
yAf r
icans.

9.TheUNOdi rectl
ypar ti
ci
patedint hedecol onisationprocessofAf ri
cathroughinfluencing
and obser vi
ng i ndependence discussi ons bet ween foreign governments and Af r
ican
nationali
stor ganisati
ons.TheUni t
edNat i
onsi nit
iat
edsuchr oundtabl
edi scussionst o
ensureapeacef ultr
ansit
ionfrom imper i
ali
sm t omajor i
tyrule.In1974,theUNOsenti ts
del
egat iontopr esideovertheAlvorPeaceTal ksbetweent hePor tuguesegovernmentand
Angol an,nationali
sts,whichledt ot hedecol onisati
onofAngol ai n1975.TheUNOwas
al
soi nst r
ument alinindependencedi scussionsi nRwanda,Er i
tr
ea,andmul tir
acialPeace
Talksi nSout her nRhodesia( 1978-80)Sout hAf ri
ca( 1990-94)andSudan( 2005-2011),
whichr esult
edi ntoli
berat
ionofmaj or it
yblacksf rom r
acism.

10.TheUni t
ednat ionsGener alAssembl yprovi
dedapl at
formf ortheconsol i
dati
onofAf ro-
Asiansolidari
ty.Af r
icanand Asi andelegatesalwaysf ound theoppor tunit
yt o stand
togetherand use one voi ce during t
he sessi
ons oft he Gener alAssembl y,as they
condemneddomi nati
onbywest ernpower s.Afri
cannat i
onali
stsi nt
eractedwi thother
nati
onali
stsfrom Asiaandt heAr abwor l
d.Outofthi
sinteracti
on,therewast heformat i
on
oft heAfro-Asian-Ar
absol idar
it
y.Thi ssoli
dari
tyoruni t
yenabl edt heAf ri
canst oget
supportfr
om memberst atesli
keI ndi
aandChi nawhichhel pedthem int hest r
ugglefor
i
ndependence.

11.TheUnit
edNati
onswor
kedcl
osel
ywit
handthrought
heOAUtoensur
etot
alindependence
forAf
ri
ca.Mostoft
heUNsuppor
ttot
heAfr
icandecol
oni
sat
ionpr
ocesswentthroughthe
OAU.TheUNOandt heOAUcol l
ectivelyputpr essur
eonf orei
gngover nment sinAfri
cat o
i
nitiat
epol i
ti
calr eformsi nthei
rt erri
tori
es.TheOAUusedt heUN- Gener alAssembl yto
promot etheAf r
icancausef orcompl etei ndependence.AnAf ri
candel egati
onconsi sti
ng
off or
eignmi nistersofLiber
ia,Tunisia,MadagascarandSi err
aLeonewascommi ssioned
byt heOAUt ospeakatt hemeet ingsoft heUNSecur i
tyCounci l(UNSC) ,addressi
ngt he
i
ssueofgenoci de( masski l
li
ng)i nPor tuguesecol onies,
'whi ch,att
ractedi nt
ernational
attenti
onagai nsttheatr
ociti
esofPor tuguesecol oni
ali
stsinAf r
ica,andpavedwayf orself-
rul
ei nAngola,Gui neaBissauandMozambi que.

12.The Uni ted Nat i


ons Or gani sat
ion inf
luenced Afr
ican nati
onali
sm and decol onisat
ion
processt hr
oughsendi ng obser vermi ssi
onst o monitorelecti
onsi ndi f
ferentAf ri
can
colonies.Mostoft heindependenceel ecti
onsinAf r
icawereinfl
uencedbypr essuref r
om
theUNOi nitsattemptt ocompl et
elyli
quidat
ei mperi
ali
sm andbr inganendt ocol onial
domi nati
oni nt hewor l
d.UN Obser vermi ssi
onswer ewi t
nessedt oAlgeri
ai n1962,i n
Sout hWestAf r
ica( Nami bi
a)i n1990,inEr i
tr
eain1993andSout hAf ri
caduringt heirf
irst
histori
calmul t
i-
racialelecti
oni n1994,amongot her
s.Thesuper visiongivenbyt heUnited
Nationsensur edpeacef ultransferofinstr
ument sofpowerf rom forei
gngover nment st o
natives,henceinspiringAf r
icanindependence.

13.TheUni t
edNat i
onOr ganisationr ecognisedAf ri
cannat ional
istorganisat
ions( polit
ical
parti
esandl iberati
onmovement s),thusinspir
ingi ndependenceattainment .I
n1966t he
UNGener alAssenblyagreedt or ecognisetheSout hWestAf ri
canPeopl esOr ganizati
on
(SWAPO)ast her i
ghtf
ulrepresent ati
veofNami biannat i
onalint
erests.Manynat i
onalist
organisati
onsconsequent l
ypet i
ti
onedf ortheinterventi
onoft heUNOi nf avouroft heir
nati
onalistagitat
ionsasast rategyt oseekt heinternati
onalbody'srecognit
ion.Inthedue
course,theUNOmor al
eboost edthest rugglef
orAf ricani
ndependence.

14.TheUNO ext endeddi rectsupporttot heAf ri


canstatesst ruggl i
ngforindependence.
Financialmili
taryandl ogisti
calsupportwasext endedtol iberationmovement sthrough
the UN- Commi t
tee to spear head nat i
onalistagitati
ons agai nstf orei
gn domi nati
on
especiall
yi nSout hernAf r
ica.Benefi
cialor ganisati
onsincludedt heSouthWestAf ri
can
PeoplesOr gasnisation(SWAPO)ofNami biaandt heAf r
icanNat ionalCongress(ANC)of
SouthAf ri
canconsequent l
y,theMozambi canLiberati
onFr ont( FRELI MO),theZimbabwe
Afri
canNat i
onalUni on(ZANU)soughtf orassi st
ancefrom theUN- Secur
ityCouncilduri
ng
theirquestf orsel f-rule. TheUNO hencebecameanal lyoft heAfri
canl i
berati
on
movement ,whichspedt heCol oni
sat
ionpr ocess.

15.Theor ganisat
ionpr omotedAfri
cannat ionali
sm bysuppor t
ingconsol
idat
ionofAf ri
can
i
ndependence.I tcondemnedandintervenedinci vilwarswhichbrokeoutinAfri
ca.I
n1960,
theUNOwor kedt opreser
vethei
ndependenceofaver yyoungstat
eofCongoLeopol dvi
ll
e
(Zai
re)bycondemmi ngtheKatangasecessi onistat tempt,andwentaheadt odeploy
peacekeepersint hecountr
y.TheUN- missioni ntervenedintheSudanesecivi
lwar(1955-
2005),Nigeri
ancivilwarof1967-
70i nAngol a(1975- 2000)andMozambi que(1977-
1992)

THE1944BRAZZAVI LLEFRENCHAFRI CANCONFERENCE:


Thi
swasameet i
ngofseniorFrenchcolonialoff
ici
als.GovernorsGeneralandmi l
itaryoff
icers
ofFrenchEquatori
alAfr
ica(FrenchCongo) ;Madagascar(Mal agasy)andFr enchWestAf rican
col
onies.ItwasheldbetweenJanuar yandFebr uary1944i nBrazzavil
l
et heCapi talofFrench
Equatori
alAfri
ca.Theconf er
encewasor ganisedbyGener alCharlesdeGaul let heFrench
l
eaderandpr esi
dedover(chaired)byMr .Pleventhecommi ssi
onerofcol onies.Af r
icanshad
nodelegat
estorepr
esentt
hem att
heconf
erence,butonebl
ackman,Fel
i
xEbouef
rom Fr
ench
Guyanaatt
ended.

TheBrazzavi
lleconfer
encewasai
medatthefal
lowi
ng:
a.ThankAf r
icanFrenchcol
oni
esforsuppor
ti
ngFranceagai
nstGer
manoccupat
iondur
ing-
Worl
dWarI I

b.Layst
rat
egiesofdiverti
ngAfr
icansunderFrenchr
ulef
rom t
heideaofsel
f-
rul
e.TheSecond
Worl
dWarhadcr eatedpoli
ti
calconsci
ousnessorwindofchangeprompti
ng-Af
ri
cansto
demandforindependence

c.Francewast hreat
enedbyAmer i
canant
i-
col
onialact
ivi
ti
esint
heMaghr ebregion(Nor
th
Afri
ca)especi
all
yinMorocco,hencet
heneedtodealwithAmer
icanant
i-
col
onialpol
i
cy

d.Layst
rat
egi
esofor
ient
ingAf
ri
cansi
ntomanagi
ngt
hei
rownaf
fai
rs

e.I
twast osaf
eguar
dFr
enchi
nter
est
sinAf
ri
caandpr
eser
veFr
enchcol
oni
esf
rom out
side
i
nfl
uence

f
.Topl
anf
oreconomi
cdevel
opmentofFr
enchcol
oni
es

g.DeGaullealsotar
get
edaski
ngAf
ri
cansformorewarcontribut
ion^si
nceWor
ldWarI
Iwas
notyetover,(
Thi
swasonl
ybypr
omisi
ngAfri
canspol
i
ticalchanges) ,

NOTE:
Theconfer
encewasnotai medatpr eparingAf r
icansfordecoloni
sati
onhencei t
sposi t
ive
i
mpactonAf ri
cawasbyaccident.Thefinalresol
utionatBrazzavi
ll
eclear
lyst
atedthat,"
The
worksofFrancei
nherAfri
cancol oni
eshavenoconsi der
ationofautonomy(independence)
andsel
f-
governmenti
nnearfut
ure..
."

I
mpactoft
heBr
azzavi
ll
eConf
erenceont
hedecol
oni
sat
ionofAf
ri
ca

ReferenceQuest ions
a)How di dt hecal l
ingoft heBr azzavi l
leConf erencei n1944influencet hecol l
apseofFr ench
ruleinAf ri
ca?
b)Assesst hei mpactoft he1944Br azzavi l
leConf er
enceonthedel onisationofAf ri
ca
c)Ofwhati mpactwasBr azzavi l
leConf er enceonAf ri
cannati
onal i
sm?
1.TheBr azzavil
leConf erencei ncreasedAf ri
canr epr
esentati
oni nt heFr enchPar l
iament
(Nat i
onalAssembl y)i n Par i
s.Del egatesatt heconferencer esolved t hatallcolonial
peopl esdeser vedtor epresentt hemsel vesi ntheParisAssembl yhencef rom 1945,French
Africant erri
tori
eswer eeachr equi redt osendt worepr
esent ati
vest ot heFr enchNational
Assembl y.Ther esolutionofAf r
icansr epresenti
ngthemsel vesi nt heFr enchAssembl y
wasl at erincl
udedi ntheconst i
tutionoft heFrenchFourthRepubl i
c.Af r
icanoppor tuni
tyto
representt hemselves i nt he Fr ench Par li
amentgave t hem a pl atform f orpoliti
cal
agitationsgear edtowar dsself-deter minat i
on.

2.Theconf er encel edt ot heenfranchisi


ngofAf ri
cansi nFrenchcolonialterrit
ori
es.The
French col onialadmi nistr
ator
s agr eed to gr antAf r
icans the r
ightt o vot efortheir
represent ativestotheFr enchAssembl yandl ocalparli
amentswithlesscoloni ali
nfl
uence.
Asar esult,onemi l
li
onAf ri
cansint heFrenchcol oniesgotempower edt oparti
cipatei
nt he
electi
onofr epresentat
ivesoftheirchoi celikeFelixHouphouetBoignyofI vor yCoastand
Leopol dSedarSengholofSenegal .Ther ewardingofAf ri
canswithvotingrightsprompt ed
them t o demand f ormor e poli
ticalr i
ghtsi ncludi
ng theirsovereign rightt o self
-
determi nation.
3.The conf erence pr ovided for t
he est abl i
shment of native assemblies (t
erri
tor
ial
parli
ament s)int heFrenchAfr
icancolonies.Thesenat i
veorl
ocalparl
iamentsempower ed
Afri
canst opl aylocalpoli
ti
csthr
oughel ectinglocalrepr
esent
ativest
odiscusssolut
ionsto
problemscr eated byt heFrenchcol onialsyst em.I nthesameway,Fr enchcol oni
es
witnessedpol i
ti
calgrowthasmanypol i
ticalorganisat
ionswer ecr
eatedtocompet efor
polit
icalpart
icipati
onandr epr
esentat
ioni nt heFrenchAssemblyandlocalparl
iaments.

4.Consequently,Afri
canswer egivencivilri
ghtslikefreedom ofassoci ationwhi chenabled
them tof orm masspol i
ti
calassociationst hatactivelyinvol
vedi nt hedecol oni
sati
on
process.Thesemoder npoliti
calassociati
onswer ef ormedei t
heratr egionalorcount ry
l
evel.They i ncl
uded the "Independents d'outre Mer "IOM)and t he Ressembl ement
Democr ati
queAf r
ican(RDA).TheRDAwasf ormedin1946wi threpresent ati
vebranchesin
Equatori
alandFr enchWestAf ri
caandwasver yi nstrumentalini nfluenci
ngpol it
ical
concessions (changes).Otherpar ti
es included Bl oc Democr at
ique Senegal aisXBDS)
formedin1948,Uni onSoudanai s(US),PartiDemocr ati
quedel aGui nea( PDG)f oundedin
1947.

5.TheBr azzavilleconferenceelevat ed( promoted)thest atusofAf r


icansinFrencht err
itori
es
which inspired Af ri
can nationalism.The Fr ench aut horit
iesagr eed to accord( grant)
Afri
cansi nFr enchcol oni
esequalst atusasFr enchmenandal sor ecogni
set hem asequal s
toFr enchcit izens.Theabol i
ti
onofFr enchhar shcol onialpol i
ciesandt hegrant i
ngof
Afri
cansvot ingr i
ghtsandr epresent ationintheFr enchpar li
ament ,aswel lasspr eading
Frenchci vi
li
sat ioninAf ri
ca,wer eal lstepst owardsgr antingAf ri
cansequalst atusas
Frenchmen.Thei ntenti
onofgr ant ing.Afri
cansequalst atusasFr enchmenwasai medat
di
vertingtheirat tenti
onfrom demandi ngself-
rul
ebuti nstead,itexposedt heweaknesses
ofFrenchr ul
e,causi ngAf r
icanr esistance.Outof16mi l
li
onAf r
icansinFrenchWestAf r
ica,
only1mi l
li
oncoul dvot eandoft he622seati nFr enchPar li
ament ,Afr
icanswer egi ven
only13seat s.

6.TheBr azzavil
leconfer encedenounced( call
edtoanend)Fr enchatroci
ties(badcol onial
policies)whicht heFr enchgover nmentcl aimedhadt ar
nishedtheimageofFr ance.The
conf erencecaut i
onedt hecol onialauthor i
ti
esin,French,Equatori
alandWestAf ri
cat o
reverset heharshpol iciesinor dertowi nbackAf ri
cant r
ust.Consequentl
y,thepolici
esof
forcedl abourandar bitrary(arr
est )wit
houtt ri
alwhichcharacteri
sedFrenchcoloniali
sm in
Af r
icawer eof f
ici
all
yabol i
shed.TheAf ri
canshadsuf fer
edbecauseoft hesebadpol ici
es
andt herefore,whent heywer eabol i
shed,itbecameamaj orsteptowardsrestor
ingAf ri
can
freedomsandl ateri
nf luenci
ngAf ri
canstoagi tat
eforindependence.

7.Theconf erencepassedaf i
nancialresolutiont opromoteinvest mentandsoci o-economic
developmentofFr ench WestAf r
ican col onies.Consequent ly,in 1946,t he French
governmentf ormed the "Fund forI nvestmentand soci o- economic Devel opmentof
OverseasTer ri
tori
es"(FIDES)tospear headi nvestmentproj
ect si nhercolonies.Bet ween
1946and1957,Fr ancehadi nvestedabout425mi l
li
onpoundsi nWestAf ricai ntranspor
t
(r
oads) ,educati
onandheal th.Suchdevel opment sfaci
li
tat
edt her oadtoindependencei n
Frenchcol oni
esofGui nea,Senegal,andI voryCoastamongot hers.

8.TheBr
azzavi
l
leconf
erencer
ecommendedt
heext
ensi
onofFr
enchci
vi
li
sat
iont
oFr
ench
Af r
icat hr
oughwest er
neducat i
onandFrenchlanguage.
TheFrenchgovernmenti nstruct
ed
thecol onialoff
icetoestabli
sheducat
ionali
nsti
tuti
ons:i
nFrenchcoloniesthroughwhi ch
free educat i
on would be extended to Af
ri
cans.The French civi
li
sati
on pr ogramme
facilit
atedther iseofAf r
icaneli
teswhol at
erengagedi npolit
icalacti
vi
tiesai medat
achi evi
ngself-
government.

9.TheFr enchdelegat esatt heconf er


encer esolvedt ochanget hestatusoft heFr ench
terri
tor
iesi nAf r
icaf r
om pr ovincestocol onies.Theconf erenceabol i
shedt heuseof
"overseast err
it
ories"inr egardt oFrenchcol onies.Thest atusofAf ricancoloniesas
overseast err
it
oriesorpr ovinceshaddest royedal lAfr
icanhopesofr egaini
ngt heirlost
freedomst hroughconst i
tuti
onalmeans,r ef
erri
ngt oFrenchterri
tori
esascol oni
esr estored
ar ayofhopeofAf ri
cansfinall
ybecomi ngfr
eei ndependentfrom Frenchdomi nati
on..

10.DeGaul le'sspeechi nBr azzavill


ewasofpol iti
calinfl
uencetoFr enchAfri
cahesai d,Itis
France'sdutytor aisetheAf ricanstoal evelwher etheywillbecapableofpar t
icipati
ngi n
theirram count r
y."Het hereforecommendedGover norsGener alinFrenchcol oniest o
recrui
tAf ri
cansint hedifferentadmi ni
strat
ivedepar tmentsaswel lastheci vi
lser vi
ce.
ManyAf ri
cansgotappoi nt edt oadministr
ativeof f
icesasclerksandadmi nist
rators,whi l
e
others served int he civilservice.This col oni
alar r
angementexposed Af ri
cans t o
l
eadershi pandser vicewhi chbecameast eppingstonetoagi t
ateforbiggerpolit
icalroles
i
nt hei
rr espect
ivest at
es,thusshaki ngthepillar
sofFr enchrule.

11.Itl
aidthefoundat i
onf orthef ortheDeGaul l
er ef er
endum of1958,whi chincr
easedhope
forindependencei nFr enchWestAf r
ica.Awar eoft hepoliti
calagitat
ionsacrossAf ri
ca,
GeneraldeGaul edeci dedt odet erminethef at eofFr enchr uleinAf ri
ca.Hebeganby
i
nfluenci
ngt heformat i
onoft heFeder ati
onofFr enchcoloniesofWestEquat or
ialAfr
ica.I
n
1958,deGaul l
eor ganisedapl ebisci
te( r
eferendum)i nwhi chFr enchcoloni
esofWest
Afri
cawoul ddecidetobel ecolonisedandloseFr enchsuppor t,orremainundertheFrench
Federati
onandcont inuer eceivi
ngFr enchmor al,financi
alandt echni
calsupport.Sekou
ToureledtheGui neanst ovotei nfavourofindependenceandonOct ober2,1958,Guinea'
s
wasi ndependencedecl ar
ed.Gui nea'sbrevit
yi nspiredthei ndependenceofot herFrench
coloni
esofWestAf ri
ca.

12.Theunf ulfi
ll
edpromisesmadeatt heconf erencei nspir
edr adicalacti
vi
t i
esofAf ri
cans
towar dsdemandi ngf orindependence.TheFr enchcol onialunrestscontinuedevenaf ter
the r esoluti
ons atBr azzavil
l
e.Fr ench col onialaut hori
ti
es cont i
nued harassing and
persecut ingAfr
icanpol i
ti
cianst hr
oughar restsandshoot i
ngmassesat tendi
ngpol it
ical
rall
ies.For cedlabourwasonl yabol i
shedonpaperbutmi str
eatmentofAf r
icanlabour
cont i
nuedespeci al
lyinthear myandonpl antations.Afri
canswer ehenceconvi ncedthat
Frenchr ulewasdi ct
atorialwhichincreasedt heirdet erminat
iont odemandf orpolit
ical
freedoms.

THECONTRI BUTI ONOFI NDI ATOTHEDECOLONI SATIONOFAFRI CA


Theconnect ionbet weenAf ricaandI ndiaset
sf r
om simil
arcoloni
albackgr ounds,especiall
y
wit
ht heAf r
icanBr i
ti
shcol onies:IndiaandBr i
ti
shAfri
caformedt hebiggestpar toftheBr i
ti
sh
col
oni alempi r
et hatexistedunt i
lthesecondhal fofthenineteenthcentury.India'sstr
uggle
againstcoloniali
sm oft heBr i
ti
sht ookal mostacentury(aboutninetyyear s,from 1857t o
1947).Thei nfl
uenceofI ndi aonAf ricannati
onali
sm andt hedecolonisati
onpr ocesswas
determinedbyt wogr eatnationali
sts-,fir
stMahatma:Gandhiandlat
erJawahar l
alNehr u,
Ref
erenceQuesti
ons-
a)Examinethei
mpactofI ndi
a’si
ndependenceonthedevel
opmentofAf ri
cannat
ional
ism
b)Discussthecontr
ibut
ionofIndi
atothedecoloni
sati
onofAfri
ca,
c)AssesstheroleofJawaharl
alNehruinthegrowthofAfr
icannat
ional
ism

1.Theant i-
col onialtact i
csusedbyMahat maGandhihel pedt oshapet hest rategyofanti-
colonialst rugglei nAf ri
ca.Dur i
ngt heperi
odofI ndianindependencest ruggle,Gandhiused
thepr inciplesofSat yagraha( orpassiver esistance)throughnon- vi
olentmet hods.Afri
can
nationalistsand ( f
reedom f i
ghters)like Kwame Nkr umah ofThe Gol d Coast ,Juli
us
Nyer ereofTanganyi ka,AlbertLut hul
iofSout hAf ri
caandObaf emiAwol owoofNi geri
a
adopt edt hepol i
cyofnon- violenceduringt hest r
uggleagai nstf
oreigndomi nati
on.Thenon
-violentmet hods al soknownasGandhi i
sm i nvolvedboycot tsont r
adeandcol onial
product s,st ri
kes,demonst rationsandsomet imesdi srupti
onoft raff
icflow intownsby
sitt
ingi nt hemi ddleoft her oads.Gandhihi msel fencour agedAf ri
canst oadoptt henon-
viol
encespi r
itiftheireffor
tsofst r
uggl
ingf orindependencewer etober ewar di
ng.

2.Theactivi
ti
esoft heI ndianCongressPar t
y(ICP)i nfl
uencedAf ri
cannat ionali
ststof orm
pol
iti
calmovement s.Many educat ed Afri
cans especi all
yf r
om WestAf rica began
mobili
zi
ngt hemsel vesi ntoassoci
ati
onstostrugglef orpoli
ti
calf r
eedoms.I n1920,dur i
ng
aconferenceofnat i
onal i
stsofBri
ti
shWestAf ri
cai nAccra,JosephCasel yHayf or
d,ofthe
GoldCoastl edothernat i
onali
stsfr
om Gambi a,NigeriaandSi erraLeonet o.establ
ishthe
Nati
onalCongr essofBr i
ti
shWestAf ri
ca,Thecongr esswasf ormedasapr essuregroup
fordemandi ng pol i
ticalrefor
msf rom theBr it
ish colonial
ists,
'itdemanded f ormor e
Afr
icanrepresentativesi ntheLegcovotedbyAf ri
canst hemsel ves.Polit
icalorganisati
ons
l
iketheTANUofTanganyi ka,t
heGPPofGol dCoast ,theNCNCofNi geriaandt heUNCof
Ugandawer eal lest abli
shedduet oinspir
ati
onoft heICPNkr umahhi msel fadmi redthe
I
CPt otheext entt
hatheadopt edtheICPcapast hesymbolofhi sparty,theCPP.

3.Indi
annat i
onal i
stl eaderMahat maGandhii nspir
edt hestruggleagai nstracism inSout h
Afri
ca.Thepr i
nciplesofSat yagraha( passi
ver esistance)wer ebegunbyMahat maGandhi
i
nSout hAf ri
cawher ehel ivedbef or ehewasdepor t
edbackt oIndiabyt heAf r
ikaner
l
eaders.Gandhif oughtagai nstr acialinj
ust i
cesi n South Af r
ica and deni alofequal
opportunit
iest oAf ri
cansI ndiansandcol oureds.Gandhibegant hest rategyofst rikes,
prot
estmar chi
ng,ci vilbreachofunf airl
awsanddemonst r
ations,asameansofat t
ai ni
ng
raci
aljusti
cesuchmet hodswer ef urtherpromot edbyXuma,Al bertLuthuliandcont inued
byNelsonMandel a;Wal terSisuluSt eveBikoandMbeki .Hewr otehispopul arpubli
cat i
on
"TheGr eenPamphl et"in1896whi leinSout hAf rica.Throught hisbook,Gandhiat t
acked
raci
sm andoppr essi onofnon- EuropeansPr ominentPanAf ri
canistslikeKwameNkr umah
andDuBoi spai dt ri
but etoMahat maGandhif orst arti
ngthef ightagainstracism inSout h
Afri
cat hr
oughnonvi olenceandnoncooper ati
on.

4.IndependentI ndi
apr ovidedmassi vemor alandfinancialassistancetoAfri
cannational
ists
whi chbecameusef ulinthecourseoft hest r
ugglef orfr
eedom i nAfri
ca.TheIndianPrime
Mi nist
erJawahar lalNehrucommi ttedhimsel ftot he'Afr
icancausebypr omisi
ngt hat
,he
willassistAfr
icant oachievethei
ri ndependence.Heest abli
shedan" Afri
canFund"t hr
ough
whi chmoneygr antswer eextendedt ofreedom f i
ghtersthrought heIndi
ancommuni t
yi n
ther especti
veAf r
icanst at
es.Immedi atebeneficiari
eswer et heEastAfri
cancolonieslike
Kenya.TheI ndianf i
nancialaidt oAf ri
cannat i
onalistmovement saddedabr i
ckt ot he
successst oryofAf ri
candecolonizat i
onpr ocess.
5.I
ndependentI ndiaofferededucat ionschol ar shi
pst oAf ri
canstudents,whi chi ncreasedon
thenumberofAf ri
canel i
test
hatst ruggledf orAf r
icanindependence.India' sNehr uopened
I
ndianDiversiti
esandot heri
nst i
tutionsofhi gherlearningt oAfr
icanstudent s.EastAf r
ica
wasmostbl essedwi thanumberofKenyansandUgandansat t
endingI ndi aneducat i
on.
Afri
canstudent sint
eractedwi thIndi anstudent swhi chshapedt heirpoli
ticaldevel opment.
Theyalso gotexposed t o Gandhi '
snat ionali
stact ivit
ies.Kir
unda Ki vej i
nja and John
KakongeofUgandast udiedfrom I ndia.Onhi sreturntoUganda,JohnKakongebecamea
foundi
ngnat ionali
stoft heUgandapeopl e’sCongr essandt hefirstSecr etaryGener alof
thepart
y.

6.Indi
ahaddi rectimpactonnat i
onali
sm intheGol dCoast .Inthelate1940's,Nkrumah
encouragedhispeopletoembr acetheIndi
ani ndependencemovementwhi chhadenabl ed
Indi
ans to defeatBrit
ish col
onialrule.Nkrumah cust omised Gandhii
sm as "Positi
ve
acti
on."Headopt edtheuseofnewspaper sbyest abli
shingtheAccraEveningNewsand
theCapeCoastNewsDai l
y,throughwhicht hepeopl eoftheGoldCoastde- campaigned
theexploi
tat
iveBrit
ishrul
e,Nkrumahal soborrowedt heusedofeducationcampaignsand
consti
tuti
onalmeansl i
kenoncoper at
ionwithcolonialgover
nment.

7.Thedecol onisat
ionofI ndialaidthef oundat ionforthecol lapseofBr it
ishcol onialEmpire.
IndiaandPaki stanformedt helargestsi ngleBri
tishEmpi reandt hemosti mpor tantofall
Br i
ti
shcolonialterri
tor
ies,
'hencegr antingheri ndependencei n1947wasashockt othe
whol ewor l
d.ItshowedBr i
tishcommi t
mentt odecol oni sati
oni nbot hAsi aandAf ri
ca.
"IndiaandtheBr it
ishcoloniesinAf ri
cashar edanti-
colonialsent imentsofr aciali
nequalit
y,
land grabbing and economi c exploitati
on ofnat i
ve r esour ces."India'si ndependence
thereforegavear ayofhopet oAf ricanst hatdecoloni sat ionwasi nevitable.Itwast hus
veryi mpossibl
ef ortheBrit
ishcol onialof f
icetodenyAf ricansi ndependenceaf terservi
ng
India.

8.Indi
a'sJawahar lalNehruservedasapol i
ti
calcounsel ort oAf r
icanf reedom f i
ghters.Many
Afri
cannat ional
istssoughtforpol it
icalguidancef r
om I ndiaaf terheri ndependence.Upon
granti
ngi ndependencet oIndia,theBr i
ti
shcl aimedthatAf r
icanswer epol i
tical
lyimmat ure
toreceiveindependence.Thi sf or
cedKwameNkr umahoft heGol dCoast ,AbdelNasserof
Egypt,andJomoKenyat taofKenya,t oconsul twithJawahar lalNehr ut oenhancet heir
poli
ti
caldevel opment.In1960,t heI ndi
anPr i
meMi nisterinvitedUganda' sApol l
oMi lton
Obotet oBangal oreIndiaandcoachedhi m onpol iti
call eader shi
p.Nehr umai ntai
ned
contactwi thKenyattaandt hr oughexchangi nglet
tersandi n1948heappoi ntedApaB.
PantasI ndianHi ghCommi ssionert oNairobiwhosedut iesincludedpr ovidinglegaladvice
tonationali
stsinKenya.

9.Consequent ly,Indi
ami l
it
arisedAf ri
cannat i
onali
sm.Fi r
st,Indiaprovidedmi li
taryweapons
toKenyadur ingtheMau- Mauupr isi
ng,andl aterprovidedami l
itarysolutionagai nst
Port
uguesecol oni
ali
sm.I n1962,I ndi
anPr i
meMi nisterJawahar l
alNehr udecl ar
ed a
mil
itaryattackont hePortuguesepr esencebydr ivi
ngt hem outofGoausi ngI ndiant anks
andar ti
ll
ery.Af ri
cansinGui neaBi ssauandMozambi quewer einspi r
edt odecl arewar
agai
nstPor t
uguesecol onialrulein1963and1964r espectivel
y,justlikeAngolahaddone
earl
i
eron i n 1961.Af ri
can f reedom f i
ghter
si n Sout h Afri
caand Sout hern Rhodesi a
combi nedGandhi i
sm withNehr u'
smi l
i
taryapproachdur ingt hei
rst ruggl
eagai nstwhi te
domi nati
on.
10.IndependentI ndiausedherposi ti
oni nt heUN-GeneralAssembl ytodemandf orimmedi ate
Africandecol onisation.I
ndialedagr oupofmembercount r
ieswhovot edf oranendt o
coloniali
sm t hroughoutt hewor ld.Thesemember soft heUni tedNat ionscamet obe
knownasNon- ali
gnedcount r
ies.Si ncejoini
ngt heUni tedNat i
onsOr ganisati
on,India
directedpr essureondi f
fer
entdepar tmentsofthebodyl iket heDecol onisati
onandt he
Commi tteeTr usteeshipCouncil
.I ndia'spr
essuretotheDecol onisat
ionCommi t
teeledt o
i
ndependenceofGhanawhi l
eheri nf
luenceontheTr usteeshipCounci lenabl edtheti
mel y
decol oni
sationofTanganyi kaandI t
alianSomalil
and.India'svoiceint heUni t
edNat i
ons
therefore,becameani mpor
tantinst r
umentagainstcoloniali
sm andr acism.

11.In1956,t hegover nmentofJawahar l


alNehruencour agedthecensor ship(banning)of
racistfil
msagai nsttheAf r
icanr ace.Thegover nmentor deredtheI ndianCent r
alFi l
m
Boar dtodenyli
censet oallf
il
mswhi chdespised(abused)theimageoft heAfricanperson
orr aceaspri
mi t
ive.Nehru'
sgesture( poli
cy)wasaimedatmai ntai
ninggoodr elati
onswi th
thepeopl eofAfricanconti
nent,andi denti
fyi
ngwiththem inthei
rtryi
ngmoment sast hey
struggledforindependence.Someoft hef i
l
msbannedorcensor edi nIndiaincluded,
AfricanAdvent
ure,SnowsofKi l
imanjaro,BelowtheSahar aandTheAf r
icanQueen,among
other s.

12.IndependentI ndiaal soinfluencedAf r


icannat i
onali
sm t hroughencour agingt heprinci
ple
ofNon- Ali
gnmentorposi tiveneut rali
ty.Oneoft heai msofNon- Ali
gnmentwas-t he
i
mmedi ate decolonisat i
on oft he cont i
nents ofAsi a and Af r
ica.Jawahar l
alNehr u
advocat edforposi t
iveneut rali
tyofweakernat ionsmost lyfrom Asi aandAf ri
caasast ep
towards pol it
icalfreedom and economi c strength.Non- Ali
gnmentemphasi sed non-
cooper ati
onofi t
smember swi thei t
hert heWest ernCapi tal
istorEast ernCommuni st
power s.Italsoencour agedawi dedistancebet weeni ndependentst atesandt heirformer
coloni
almast ers.Indiamast ermindedt hef i
rstconf erenceofNon- Ali
gnedst at
esint he
Indonesianci tyofBandung.Thi sconf erencehel di n1955assur edAf ri
cansofAsi an
suppor tandl aidthef oundat i
onf ortheAf ro-Asiansol i
darit
y( cooperati
on).TheBandung
conferencet hereforer epresentedt hebegi nningoft hefinalphaseofAf r
ica'sprogress
towardsi ndependence.

13.Indi
at ookadvantageofherpositi
onintheCommonweal t
hofNat i
onsOr gani
sati
ont oput
pressureonBr i
tai
nandcausehert oenf or
cetotaldecoloni
sat i
oninAf ri
ca.Soonafterher
i
ndependence,Jawahar l
alNehr ut he Indi
an Prime Mi nist
er infl
uenced the Brit
ish
governmentt owithdr
awf rom t
herestofBri
ti
shcolonialter
r i
tor
iesofAsiaandAf ri
ca.This
eventuall
yledt otheindependenceoft heBri
ti
shcol oniesi nAf r
icali
ket heGoldCoast
(Ghana),Nigeri
a,Uganda,Tanganyi
ka,KenyaandNyasaland( Mal awi)
.

14.I
ndiasol dtoAf ri
caGandhi '
spoli
cyofusi ngChr i
stianit
yagainstcolonialexploitation.
Duri
ngt heindependencest r
uggl
eofI ndia,MahatmaGandhiusedChr isti
anit
yandt he
Bi
blicalt
eachingstocondemncol oni
ali
sm andagi tateforequali
tyandl i
bertywhi cht he
Bri
ti
shcoloniali
stshaddeniedt ot
heIndians.Thesuccessoft hi
sstrat
egyi nIndiainspir ed
Afr
icanf r
eedom f i
ghterslikeKennethKaundaofNor thernRhodesi
a( Zambi a),Bi shop
Si
tholeNdabaningiofSout hernRhodesi
aandAr ch-
bishopDesmondTut uofSout hAf rica
i
ntheircampaignsagai nstwhiter
aci
sm andcol oni
ali
sm.

15.Gandhi
'spersonal
i
tyalsosetagoodexamplet
otheAfr
icannati
onal
ist
s.Hewasavery
goodleaderandwill
i
ngt osacr
if
icehi
msel
fonbehal
fofhispeopl
e,andfort
hesakeof
i
ndependence.Ast hel eaderoftheindependencemovementi nIndi
a,heinspir
edmany
Afr
icannational
iststobor r
ow hi
st r
endofl eadershi
pagai nstcoloni
alrul
e.Examplesof
Afr
icanleadersi nspir
edbyGandhi '
schar acterincl
udedKwameNkr umahoft heGold
Coast,Juli
usNyer ereofTanganyikaandNel sonMandel aofSout hAfri
caamongot her
s.
Mandela'sref
usaloff r
eedom of f
eredtohim byapar t
heiddictat
orP.W.Bothain1985was
i
nt r
uesenseofanat ionali
stshapedbyGandhi 'sdedicat
iont othenati
onalcauseofhis
people.

THEI TALIANI NVASIONANDOCCUPATI ONOFETHI OPIA(1935-41)


TheI talo-
Ethiopian confl
i
ctof1936- 41 wasawarbet ween Benito Mussoli
ni'
sItal
yand
EthiopialedbyEmper orHai l
eSelassi
e.Thewarbr okeoutonOct ober3,1935whenI t
aly
at
t ackedEt hiopi
a.Att hetimeofI t
ali
anaggression,Ethiopi
aandLi beri
awer e'
-'
theonl
ytwo
st
at esinAfricathathadsur vi
vedEuropeanimperial
ism.Thei nvasi
onofEt hi
opiabyItal
ywas
anext ensi
onoft hescr ambleandepil
ogue(conclusion)totheparti
ti
onofAf r
ica.

Et
hiopi
ahaddef eatedanear l
ierItali
anaggr essionatAdowai n1896dur i
ngt hereignof
EmperorMenelikII
.TheEt hi
opianef for
tt oholdont oher2000year sindependencewas
st
oppedi n1936whenshesuccumbed( gavein)toItal
i
andefeatandevent
ualoccupationon
May6,1936. I tal
yt her
eforeviol
at edt hepol i
ti
calvi
rgi
nit
yofEt hi
opi
abycont r
oll
ingthe
Abyssi
niancount
ryforaperiodoffiveyear s.

Ther i
seofFascistMussol
i
nithroughthe"
famousmarcht oRomeofSept
ember27-
30,1922
andl at
erestabl
ishi
ngadictator
ialr
egimein1923createdaplat
for
mf orI
tali
andesi
reto
revenget heAdowahumi l
iat
ion,andconsequent
lyr
e-establ
i
shanew RussianEmpir
eby
control
li
ngEthi
opia.

Theoppor
tuni
tycamei
n1935andwaspr
ovokedbyt
hef
oll
owi
ngf
act
ors:

Referencequest i
ons:
a)Accountf ortheIt
ali
aninvasionofEthiopi
ai n1935
b)"
Mussol iniwasprimaril
yresponsi
bleforthe1935-41It
alo-
Ethi
opiancr
isi
s."Discuss
c)Howf arwast heWhiteman'sconspir
acyr esponsi
blef
ortheIt
ali
anoccupationonEt hi
opi
a
between1935and1941?

1. Mussol
ini
'
sdesi
ret
orevi
veI
tal
i
ani
mper
ial
i
sm (
col
oni
aldomi
nat
ion)

Thei nvasionofEt hiopiawasduet oMussol ini'


sdesi retor est
oreI t
al i
andomi nati
on.The
emer genceofBeni toMussol i
nicamewi t
hhisi ncreasedambi t
ionofr estori
ngI t
ali
anpast
glor
yt hathadbeenbui l
tont heaggr essi
veactiviti
esoft hedefunct(for mer)RomanEmpi re.
"Mussol i
niadmi redandpr aisedthesuccessoft heI tal
i
anpastdur i
ngt heRomanEmpi r
eand
hencewant edt or evivesuchgl ori
esoft heRomanEmpi re.
"TheI talianDi ctat
ort heref
ore
want edtor e¬establi
shamoder nRomanEmpi r ebyext endingRomani nfluenceout si
deI t
aly,
beginningwi thEt hi
opi a.Hegavet hepeopl eofI tal
yaver yambi t
iouspl anwhi chincluded
worshipping the I t
alian state and acquisi
ti
on ofnew t err
it
ori
es through a f orcefuland
aggressiveforeignpol icy.

2. Theant i
-It
ali
anpolicyofHai l
eSel assie
Benit
oMussol i
niattackedt heEthiopianmonar chyt orevengeagainstHai l
eSel assi
e'santi
-
It
ali
anpoli
cy.Sincehisr iset opowerast heMili
taryGovernorofHar arProvince,RasTaf ar
i
adoptedadi pl
omat i
cpol icywhichi solatedIt
aly.Hecompl et
elyignoredI t
alyinEt hi
opian
for
eignrel
ati
ons.Evenaf tersigni
ngt he1928I talo-
Ethi
opianTreatyofFr i
endship,RasTaf ar
i
conti
nued i
solati
ng It
aly,whi chf rustrated Mussoli
niIn1932,Emper orSel assierecrui
ted
for
eignadvi
sersf r
om ot herEur opeanpower sexceptIt
aly.Heal soappointedeconomi cand
mil
i
taryexpertsfr
om Sweden,Fr
ance,Switzer
land,Bel
gium aswellast
heUSA.Mussoli
nit
ook
i
tpersonalhencethe1935att
ackonEt hi
opiawast oenableIt
alyhavei
nfl
uencei
nEt
hiopi
a.

3. I t
ali
anambi ti
ontorevengeagai nsttheirhumi liati
ngdef eatatAdowa
Thedesi r
ebyBeni t
oMussol i
nitoavenget hehumi li
ationsuf fer
edbyI t
alyatt heBattl
eof
AdowaAdwa)causedt hewaragai nstEt hiopia.TheI t
alianKingdom hadwi shedt ocapture
andaddAbyssi ni
atoherAf r
icancoloni alempi r
ewhi chl edtot heout br
eakoft hefir
stItal
o-
Abyssini
anwarbet ween1894and1896.TheI t
alianf or cecommandedbyGener alOreste
Barati
eriwasdef eat
edbyEt hiopi
aatt heBat tl
eofAdowaonMar ch1,1896.Thepeopl eof
It
alyhadnotf orgott
ensuchhumi li
atingdef eatthatdi dnotonl yl eaveAbyssiniaindependent
butalsokepthaunt i
ngthem foryears;Mussol iniresurrect edt
heI tali
anambiti
onofr evenging
againstAbyssiniawithenoughconf i
dencet hatanat tackagai nstEt hi
opiacouldarouset he
patri
oti
cofItal
ianstowardsremovingt heshamef ulscarofAdowa.

4.Needt oformt heUnitedItal


ianEastAf ricanEmpi re
Mussol iniattackedEthiopi
ai n1935wi t hhopeofest ablishi
ngauni tedItali
anEastAf r
ican
Empi re.Dur i
ngt hescrambleandpar t
itionofAf r
ica,Ital
yacqui redEr i
tr
eaandSomal il
and,
whichshewant edt oli
nkupbyest ablishingar ail
wayl i
ne.Bot hItal
iancol onieswer enear
Ethiopiaint heHor nofAfri
caandwer eatt hesamet i
mever yi mpover i
shedcompar edt o
Ethiopia,henceofl essimportancetoI taly.Mussol i
niwishedt oi mproveonI t
alianpositi
oni n
Afri
cabyconquer i
ngEthiopi
aandj oiningi twi thEritr
eaandI tal
ianSomal i
land.Emper orHai l
e
Selassiecamet obeanobst acl
et oMussol ini'
sdr eam empi reasheopposedt her ai
lwayl i
ne
passingt hroughEt hi
opi
a.Mussol i
nither eforef oundi tnecessar ytoannexEt hiopia,addhert o
Eri
treaandSomal i
l
and,soast oeffecti
vel yest abli
sht heUni t
edI tali
anEastAf ricanEmpi re.

5.Mussol ini'
sdet ermi nationt odisgr aceEthiopiaandendherpr i
de
Thepr ideoft heEt hiopianst ateof2000year sofself-
ruleprompt edIt
alyt oat tackEt hi
opia.By
t
h
the20 Cent ury,mostofAf r
icancont i
nenthadbeenshar edandcont rol
ledbyEur opean
power s.-Thet woi ndependentexcept ionst hesurvivedcoloniali
sm wer et heyoungRepubl icof
Liberi
aont heWestAf ricanAt l
anticCoast ,createdandsuper vi
sedbyt heUS- government
since1822,andt heAbyssi nian( Ethiopian)Empi reint heHor nofAf rica,whosesover ei
gnty
wasconf i
rmedaf terherdef eatofI talyint he1896AdowaBat tl
e.Sincet her ul
eofEmper or
Menel i
kI I
,t heEt hiopian Empi r
ewaspr oudlyisolati
ng Italyini t
sr elati
onswi th Europe
especial l
yonmat tersofdi pl
omacyandmi l
it
aryal l
iances.Mussol ini'sdesi r
et o endt he
arroganceoft heEt hiopiangover nmentanddi sgracethei ndependentEt hiopianEmpi remade
theItalo-Ethiopianwari nevitable.

6.Ther i
seoff ascistMussol i
niandhi sdesiretospreadfascism
Theemer genceofI taliandictatorBenit
oMussol iniandhisfascistideol
ogyledtot heIt
alian
i
nvasionofEt hi
opi a.BenitoMussol inidevel
opedt hepoli
ti
calideol
ogyoff asci
sm asmeanst o
hel
pr est
oret hesoci al,economi c,andcul t
uralli
feofhi scountry.Hef ormedt heNational
FascistParty( PNF)wi thanai m ofpromot i
ngmi li
tar
ydictat
orship,andthisshapedhisr i
gid
mili
tarycharact er.Hiscomi ngt opowerl edtotheaccelerati
onoff asci
sm thatpromotedt he
i
deologyofsur vivaloft hefi
t t
estandt hedomi nati
onofweakernat i
onsbypower f
ulones.The
desi
ret ospr eadf asci sm beyondI tal
ianboundar i
esmadeMussol i
nitol
ookatEt hi
opiaasa
possiblevenue.

7.Mussol ini
'sambit i
ontohavef ullcontroloverpor tMassawaandAssab
Theneedt ohavef ullcont
roloverMassawaandAssabcausedt heItal
ianat t
ackonEt hi
opi a.
PortMassawawasunderj ointcontroloft heBr i
ti
shandI talians,whomostoft heti
mesf ai
led
toagreeonpat entissuesregardingt radeont hepor t
.Thepor tcombi nedt radeact i
vit
ies
amongt hecontinentsofAfrica,AsiaandEur ope.Itexportedagr icul
tur
alpr oducts,especially
nuts,coff
eeandhi des.TheBr i
ti
shaccessedPor tMassawaandAssabf rom Sudanand
thr
oughEt hiopi
a.Mussol i
ni'
si nvasionofEt hi
opiawast hereforeto claimf ul
lcont r
olof
Et
hiopi
a,denyt
heBr
it
ishaccesst
opor
tst
her
ebyel
i
minat
ingt
hei
rint
erest
sint
hesepor
ts.

8.Ther oleoft he1934Wal walincident


Thei mmedi atecauseoft heSecondI t
akrAbyssi nianwarwast he1934Wal walincident.This
i
ncidentr esult
edf rom theongoi ngconf li
ctbet weent heKi ngdom ofI talyandt heEmpi r
eof
Ethiopia.I n1930,I talycr eatedami li
taryfortofI t
ali
anandSomal iof ficersatt heWal wal
(Wel wel)oasi sint heEt hiopiant er
rit
oryofOgadenbor deringItal
ianterritoryofSomal il
and.
Fightingoccur r
edatWal wali nDecemberi nvolvingSomal ioffi
cersint heI tal
ianf orcesand
Ethiopianar myofabout6000men.TwoI tali
anf i
ghterpl anesbombedanddest royedt he
Ethiopiancampl eadingtot hef i
nalconquestofWal wal .Mussol i
niusedt hei ncidentt omake
unreal i
sti
c demands t o Sel assie whi ch i ncluded a wr it
ten apol ogy, an i ndemni t
y
(compensat ion)ofabout20000USdol larsandadel egat i
onofEt hi
opianof f
ici
alstosal ut
et he
It
ali
anf l
agatWal wal.Hai l
eSel assierejectedthedemandsofMussol ini
,whohence,usedi tas
anexcuset oattackEt hi
opi athefoll
owi ngyear,

9.Needt ocivi
li
zeEt hi
opia
It
alyclaimedsheat tackedEthiopiaduet oaci vi
l
isationmissi
on.Mussol
inicl
aimedt hatthe
i
nvasionofEt hiopi
awasnotanaggr essi
onbutr atheritwasaimedatpr omoti
ngEur opean
ci
vil
izati
oninapr imiti
veandbar bari
cEt hi
opi
anst at
e.Hewentaheadt oat t
acktheLeagueof
Nationsforasserti
ngthathehadagr eedyheartwhichmadehi mt oi
nvadeEthi
opiaamember
ofinternat
ionalPeaceKeepi ngbody.Mussol iniquest i
onedhow theLeaguet ri
bunalcould
condemnhi mforci vi
li
singEthiopi
aabackwar danduncul tur
ednati
ont hatdeservedtobe
ci
vil
ized.

10.Theunf airnessoftheVer sail


l
esPeaceSet t
lement
Theout comesoft he1919Ver saill
espeaceset tl
ementi nfl
uencedI t
alytoattackEthi
opi
ai n
1935.Theset t
lementwasmadeataconf erenceconvenedbyt hevictorpowersofWor l
dWarI
l
edbyBr i
tai
nandFr ance.TheVer saill
esset tl
ementwasai medatf indi
ngmeansofpuni shi
ng
Germanyandheral l
iesandt orewar dt healliesofvictorpowers.Ger manwashencemadet o
l
osehercol onialpossessionsincludingt heAf r
icanterri
toryofSout hWestAf ri
ca(Namibi
a),
Rwanda–Ur undi.Togoland,Camer oonandTanganyi ka.Thesewer esharedamongt heVictor
al
ies.I
taly'
shopeofget ti
ngmor eterr
itori
esunderhercont r
olmetadeadendasshecameout
oftheconf erenceempt yhanded.Thi sl atercompel ledMussol i
nit oattackEthi
opiaasa
meansofcompensat ingforthelossatVer saill
es.

11.Mussol i
ni'sambi ti
ontodemonst rateItalianmili
tarystrength
ThedesirebyI t
alytoexhibithermi li
taryst rengthmade1935I takoEt hiopi
anwari nevit
abl e.
It
alywasr egar dedami l
it
arypowersi nceherwar sofuni fi
cationbutt heshamef uldefeatat
thehandsofEt hi
opiadur i
ngt heBattleofAdowai n1896andt hepoorper f
ormanceoft he
It
ali
anar mydur i
ngWor l
dWarIgr eatl
yaf fect edhermi l
it
arypr estige.Italyhencewant edher
mili
tary-strengt htobef el
tonceagai n.Thechancecamewi thther i
seofMussol i
nitopower .
"Mussol i
nil i
dt hedet erminati
ont or aiset hemi li
taryprestigeofI talyint heeyesofot her
power sandt hatpossibleonlyi fhewasabl etoshow t hathi sar mywasnotonl ystrong
enought opr otect'I
tal
ianboundar i
esbutal sot oconquerot hert err
itori
es."Heembar kedon
modi f
yingt hemi l
it
arysectorbymanuf act
ur ingsophisti
catedar msandammuni ti
onsaswel l
astrainingt heI t
ali
antroopsi nmoder nwar fareandmi li
tar
yt actics.HenceMussol i
niinvaded
Ethi
opiai nor dertoremonst rat
eItali
anmi l
i
tar ymighttothewhol ewor ld.

12.Mossol i
nisall
egationofEt hi opi
anPlanningtoattackErit
reaandSomal il
and
Theal l
egedintent
ionofEt hiopiat oexpelItal
yf r
om hercoloniesofEr i
tr
eaandSomal i
-land
Inf
luencedIt
alytoinvadeEt hiopia.Soonafterhiscoronati
onast heemper orofEt
hiopia,Hail
e
Selasseembar kedonmoder nisingt heEthi
opianforcesasf astast heEmpi r
e'sresources
couldallow.Mussol i
nisuspect edt here-
organisat
ionoft heEt hi
opianarmyasapl anby
Selassi
et oatt
ackt heItal
i
ancol oniesintheHor nofAf r
ica.TheItal
i
anspokesper sonhadt o
commentthatEthi
opi
awasar mi
nghertroopsinanupdat
edEuropeanmanner.Thi
sf ear
madetheIt
ali
anstoappealt
otheIt
ali
angover
nmentandMussol
i
nirespondedbyat
tacking
Ethi
opi
a.

13.Impactofeconomi ccr i
sisi
nI taly
Europeaf t
erWor ldWarIi nfl
uencedMussol init
oat tackEt hiopia.Theaf terr efl
ect sofWor ld
WarIwer eamul ti
pleofeconomi cproblemsi nEur opebet ween1929and1932,andt his
sit
uati
oncamet obeknownast heeconomi ccr i
sis.Thiseconomi csi t
uationsever el yaffect
ed
everystateinEur opebutt hecondi t
ionofI tal
ywast heunhappy.Thewari f
:ahi ghcostof
l
ivi
nginI t
alywi t
habudgetdef i
citofover12, 000mi ll
ionLi re( $228000mi ll
ion)whi chmadei t
i
mpossi bleforthegovernmentt oensurepr opereconomi cpl anning.TheI taliancur rency( Li
re)
wasdepr eciat
ed,unemploymenthadgr eatl
yi ncr
easedduet ocol lapseofi ndustries,andmany
It
ali
answer eret
renchedfrom theirjobswhi l
ewagesoft hosewhoempl oyedwer ecutdown.
It
alyhadanadver sebalanceoft radeasheri mpor tvolumescompar edt ot heexpor ts.Such
pooreconomi cat mospheremadeMussol i
nit olookatt hevirginr esourcesofEt hiopiaast he
onlyhopet hatwouldstabil
iseIt
aly'
scollapsingeconomyhencet heI tal
ianinvasionofEt hiopia.

14.Theunf airItali
anshar eatBer l
i
n
TheBer l
inConf erenceof1884- 85hadanef fectontheout breakofI talyEthi
opi
anconf l
ict.The
Conferencewasconvenedi nGer many,or ganisedbyBi smar ckt heGer manChancel lor.At
Berl
in,Africawaspar ti
ti
onedlikeapi eceofcakeamongt heEur opeancol onialpower s.Ital
y
paidthepr iceofent eringthecolonialracemuchl aterthanot herpower sbyacquir
ingt hesemi
-ar
idterr
itor i
esofLi bya,Erit
reaandSomal il
and.Herjoini
ngt hecol onialbusi
nessl atewasdue
tolackofmi li
taryandi ndustri
alr esourceslikeotherpower s.TheI tali
andissatisfacti
onat
Berl
ininfluencedherat temptt oconquerAbyssi ni
awhi chf ailedby1896.Wi t
hsuchunf ai
r
shareatBer l
in,Ital
ykeptal i
veherdr eam ofcontroll
i
ngEt hiopia,andt heoppor t
unitycamei n
1934-35dur i
ngt het i
meofDi ctatorMussol

15.Theweaknessoft heLeagueofNa
Theweaknessoft heLeagueofNat i
onscont r
ibutedt otheoutbreakoftheI t
alo-Et
hiopianwas
of1935.TheLeaguewasf ormedon1920asani nt
ernati
onalpeacekeepi ngbody.Themaj or
aim wastodiscouragef ur
theraggressionsofonest ateovertheother.Int hechar t
eroft he
League,i
twasst at
edt hatnocount r
ywast oattackanot hermemberwi thoutast rongr eason
andifso,thei
ssuewoul dbeami cablysettl
ed.TheLeaguehoweverpr ovidedf orfr
eeent ryand
exi
thencegi vi
ngI t
alyanoppor t
unitytowi thdraw from theleague.Byt het i
meofI t
ali
an
aggressi
ononEthiopia,I
tal
ywasnol ongeramemberoft heLeague.

16.Japaneseoccupat i
onofManchur i
a
Infl
uenceofJapanesei nvasionoft heChi neseindustri
alprovinceofManchur iamadeI tal
yt o
attackEt hi
opiai n1935.I nSept ember1931,t heJapaneseKwant ungar myi nvadedand
occupi edManchur i
a,whosel argeagricult
uralsectorturnedheri ntothefoodbasketoft heFar
East.Japanwasheavi l
yaf fectedbyt heeconomi ccr isi
shencel ookedatManchur iaasa
terri
toryt oresettl
epartofherunempl oyedpopul aceandi nvesthercapi tal
,asour ceofr aw
mat er i
alsforherindustri
es,anewmar kettoexpandherf oreigntradeandasour ceofweal th
duet oi tsti
mberr esourcesandmi neral
s.Themaj orPower soft heLeagueshowedanegat ive
reactionwhenChi nacalledforsuppor tandi nst
eadagr eedt hatManchur i
awasofmi l
i
taryand
strategicimpor t
ancet oJapant hatalsohadar esponsibil
it
yt opr ot
ectthelivesandpr operty
ofJapanesei nt heprovince.Mussol i
nifoundagr eatexcuset oinvadeEthiopiawellknowing
thatt hepr i
nci
pleofcollecti
vesecur i
tywasneveruphel dbyt heleague.

17.Impactofthe1934StresaFront(
Anglo-
Frenchconspi
racy)
TheStresaFrontandt heI t
alo-
Angl
o-Fr enchall
iancegaveMussol i
nimor al
etoi nvade
Ethi
opi
a.TheSt r
esaFrontwasanagr eementmadedur i
ngat r
ipart
it
econfer
enceinasmal l
I
tali
antownofSt r
esa.I
twassi gnedonApri
l14,1934betweenFr enchPr
imeMi ni
sterPier
re
Laval,Bri
tishPrimeMi nisterRamsayMacDonal d,andI tal
ianPrimeMi nisterBenitoMussol i
ni.
Thet hreestatesrepr esentedatStresa,Fr ance,Bri
tainandI t
alysignedt het r
eatyasanal li
ance
again?!Ger manr ear mamentpl an,whi cht hreat
enedpeaceandsecur i
tyi nEur ope.Mussolini
discussed withBr itishdel egat
eshi spl ansofmaki ng I t
aly'great,r espected and feared'
throught heInvasionandconquestofAbyssi ni
aandul ti
mat el
ycr eat
eanal l
-powerfulI
tali
an
Empi reinEastAf rica.Beni toMussol inibeli
evedt hatthesigningoft he" Str
esaFr ont"would
meanBr i
tainandFr ancewoul dnoti nterf
erei ntheItal
o-Ethi
opiancr i
sis.Thisencour agedhi m
toorganiseami l
it
ar yinvasiononEt hiopiain1935.

18.TheweaknessofEt hi
opi
anarmy
Therefusalt
osellmil
itar
yhardwaretoEthiopiaconvi
ncedIt
alytoattackheri
n1935.Br i
tai
n
andFrancerefusedtosellweaponst oEthiopi
aatat imewhenI talywasdeployi
ngt r
oops
al
ong the Ethi
opian bor
derwi t
h Somali-
land.Even though Selassi
e had embarked on
modernisi
ngtheEthi
opianar
my,Et hi
opi
acoul dnotbui
ldaformidablefor
cewit
houtacquiri
ng
modernweapons

Thearmsembar go(rest
ri
cti
ononthesaleofammuni
ti
ons)toItal
yandEt
hiopi
afavouredthe
for
mer( I
tal
y)whomanuf act
uredherownarmsandammuni t
ions.Thi
sbi
aseddishonestyof
theEuropeanpowersgavecouragetoI
tal
ytoatt
ackEt
hiopi
a,asshewasawareofEt hiopi
an
mili
tar
yweakness.

1. Needf orterr
itori
estoreset tl
eItal
iandesper atepopul at
ion
Thedesi r
ebyI tal
yt oacqui
renewt err
itoriesf orhersurpluspopul ati
onledtot hei nvasi
onof
Ethiopi
ain1935.I tal
ywasinneedofcol oni est or
esettl
ehundr edsofthousandsofherpeopl e
whower elackingwor kint hei
rf atherland,Mussol i
niwasconcer nedthatItalianswer eno
l
ongerabl etomi grateabr
oadonaccountoft heli
mitati
onsimposedoni mmigrat i
onbyot her
European count r i
es.Hecl aimed t hatI tal i
answer ehungr yf orland becauset heywer e
abundant,productiveandcreative.TheEt hiopianhighlandshadgoodandf avour ablecli
mat i
c
conditi
onswi thf ert
il
earablesoi l
sconduci veforItali
anset tl
ementandagr icultur
e.Such
i
nfluencedI t
alytoi nvadeinor dertor ealiseeconomi cact ivit
iesandempowert heItal
ian
economy.

2.Desi retoexploitEthi
opia
TheconquestofAbyssi niawoul dputt hecount r
y'seconomi cr esourcesi ntoI t
ali
anhands.
Mussol iniwaseagert ot akeupcont roloft heal lmi ner alresourcesi nt hemount ainous
countryofAbyssi na.TheI tal
iandesi r
eforr awmat erialsforheri ndustri
esandmar ketforher
fi
nishedgoodal somadei tnecessar yfort heinvasionandoccupat i
onofEt hiopia.Thehi gh
Ethiopianplateauwasconduci veforcoffee,tea,nutsandt obaccogr owing.Et hiopiawasal so
famousf orexporti
ngani malhi desduet oal argerper centageofherpopul ati
onengagi ngin
pastoralism.Mussol i
niconfir
medI t
ali
andesi r
et oexpl oi
tEt hi
opiabycl aimingt hatErit
reaand
Somal il
and lacked the economi cpotentialthatot herEur opean power senj oyed int hei
r
colonies.

3. Suppor tfrom German'sHi tl


er
Germansuppor ttoMussol i
niinhisconquestofAbyssi ni
amadet hewarbet weenI t
alyand
Ethiopiani nevi
table.In1934,Mussol i
niandt hegr eatpower sofFr anceandBr it
ainopposed
Hitl
er’sambi t
iousdesi r
et oviolat
etheVer sail
lesset t
lementandannexAust ri
at oGer many.
Aust r
ianswer ealsoGer mansbutatVer sail
les,thevictorpower sofWor ldWarIdeci dedt o
l
eaveAust ri
ai ndependentbecauset hest atesmendi d notwantt o cr
eateast r
ong and
power fulGer many,whi chwoul dbeasour ceofdangert opeaceandsecur it
yinEur ope.
Mussol iniwasdr awnt oHitl
erdur i
ngtheItalo-Et hiopianconfl
ict,whichconvincedhimt hat
Germanywasabet terfri
endt hanFranceandBr it
ain.Wher easthebi gpowersoft hewor ld
opposedMussol i
niforplanninganat t
ackonEt hiopiaandi mposedeconomi csanctionson
I
taly,Hitlerstoodwi thMussoliniandsupportedhimt ooccupyEt hiopia.
4. I mpactoft heHoar e-LavalPact
TheHoar e- LavalPactwasasecr etproposalmadet oBeni toMussol i
niinDecember1935by
Brit
ishFor eignSecr etarySamuelHoar eandFr enchPr i
meMi nisterPierreLavalt oendt he
SecondI talo-Abyssi ni
anWar .HoareandLavalof f
eredt opartiti
onAbyssi niat oenablethe
It
ali
andi ctatorachi evehi sgoaloft urni
ngAbyssi ni
ai ntoanI tali
ancol ony.Thi ssupportto
Mussoliniwasai medatpr eventi
nghi mf r
om all
yi ngwi thHitl
er.Byt hispact ,I
talywouldgain
thebestpar tsoft hepr ovincesofOgadenandTi gray,wit
heconomi ci nfl
uenceal loverthe
southernr egionofAbyssi nia.EmperorSelassiewast oretai
ncont r
oloveronl ythepartsof
thenort
h.Mussol inihadagr eedtot hepactbecausehewant edt oendt heAbyssi ni
anwar
whichhadcont inuedduet odeterminednational
isticresist
anceoft heEt hiopians.Eventhough
theHoar eLavalPl anwasnotsuccessf ul
,i
tassur edMussol i
niofAngl o-Frenchbacking,which
encouragedhi mtohavef ullcont
rolofEthi
opia(Abyssi nia)
.

Pleasenote:
TheHoar e-
LavalPactonl
yconf
ir
medI t
ali
anoccupat
ionofEthi
opi
a,butnottheoutbr
eakof
thewar.Itwassignedi
nDecember1935Jtwomonthsaft
erthewarhadbrokenout
.

Impactoft
heItal
oEthi
opianwar
Refer
encequesti
ons-
a)AssesstheimpactoftheItal
o-Et
hiopi
anwarof1935-
41
b)Howdi dtheIt
ali
aninvasi
onofEthiopi
ain1935aff
ectt
hepeopl
eofEt
hiopi
a?

Negativeef fects
1.Et hiopianr esist
ancewascr ushedastheI t
ali
antroopsf i
nal
lycaptur
edt heEthi
opi
an
capitalwhi chendedt he2000year sofEthi
opianindependence.ByJanuar y1936,t
he
peopl eofEt hi
opiahadbeendeci si
vel
ydef
eated;however,theEthiopi
anarmymanagedt o
resisttheI t
ali
anattackforaboutafewmoremont hsbutfinall
ygaveinbyMay1936when
theI tal
ianar mycommandedmyGener alPiet
roBadogl i
oent eredtheEthi
opiancapi
tal
,
Addi sAbaba.

2.Consequent l
y,t
headvancementofI tal
iantroopst oAddisAbabal edt otheabdi cationand
fl
ightofEmper orHai leSel assiet o exi
l
ei n London t hrough Dji
bout i.Emper orHai l
e
Selassiehadreturnedt oAddi sAbabai nApr i
l
,thef i
rstt
imesi ncetheout br eakoft hewar .
Selassiefl
edintoexi l
eonMay2,1936t oescapepossi bl
ecapt ur
ebyt heI tal
iani nvadi
ng
tr
oops,andt osolici
tforext ernalsupportandi nternat
ionalsympat hyt hatwoul denabl e
hi
m r egain his Ethiopian throne.Hisf ami ly and severalofhi s closestassoci at
es
accompani ed him.The l oss oft he empi r
icalthrone byEmper orSel assiel ed toa
l
eader shi
pvacuum i nEthiopiathatdealtafi
nalbl owt ot
heEt hiopi
anf or
ces.

3.TheI tali
aninvasionofEt hiopiawasasi gnofhumi l
iati
ont otheEthi
opianmonar ch.Itwas
asi gnofnakedaggr essiononani nternat
ionall
yr ecogni sedsoverei
gnst ate.Theonce
Afri
cansymbolofdi gnit
yandf reedom nowf ellt
ot heI tali
anaggressors.Theoccupat i
on
ofEt hiopi
aexposedt hemi li
taryweaknessoft heimper ialregimeofHai l
eSelassie,whose
economi c constrai
nts could notsust ainthe r esist
ance agai nstItal
y.The Et hiopi
an
reputationbui l
tbyEmper orMenel ikIIdecli
nedwi thItaliansuccessoverI t
alyin1936.I t
wasasoundi ngsuccesst oBeni toMussol i
niwhoi nspiredt heItal
i
anrevengeoft heAdowa
(Adwa)def eatof1896.

4.Thewarledtolossofli
vesandsubsequentdest
ructi
onofpr oper
ty.Theuseofpoi sonous
gasandaeri
albombinglef
tthevil
lagesabl
azewhereEthiopi
anssuf f
eredheavycasualt
ies.
Manyoft hevict
imswer einnocentwomenandchi ldren.Soldi
ers,eli
tes,peasant
sand
pr
iest
sal
soper
ishedi
ntheI
tal
o-Et
hiopi
anwar
.

5.Theconf li
ctcausedandexposeddi visionsamongEt hiopians.Thegri
evancesthatwer e
heldagainsttheAmhar i
ct ri
be( Selassie'
sorigi
n)byot hert ri
besli
ketheGall
a,Sidonaand
Somal iduetot hetri
balt endencieshel dbyt heEmper or'sgovernmentmadet heother
tri
best osupportIt
ali
anf orcesagai nstt heEthi
opiannat i
onalarmy.Suchgr ossdisuni
ty
i
nfluencedtheGallatofightt heAmhar ic,andtheI
talianst obribet
heEthi
opianstoidenti
fy
theoper at
ionareasoft heEt hiopianar my.TheEt hiopianar myoffi
ci
alsofGal laori
gin
alwaysledtheirf
orcesintoI tal
ianambushes.

6.Theconfl
i
ctusheredinapol i
ti
calcr i
si
st hatcontr
ibutedtot
her
efugeecr
isisi
nthehor
nof
Afri
caandtheemer genceofi nternall
ydi spl
acedpeopl ei
nEt
hiopi
a.Thisref
ugeecri
sis
expl
odedtothenei ghbouri
ngstat esofKenya,Sudan,Somal i
aandEr i
treawheremany
Ethi
opi
anssoughtforasylum asItalyoccupiedEthiopia.

7.Ondef eat
ingEt hiopi
a,t heI t
aliansest abli
shedt hei
rimperialrul
e.TheI tal
ianoccupat ion
broughtEmper orHai l
eSel assieandt heRoyalI mperi
alHouseofEt hiopiat oexper ience
dir
ectEur opeanr ulewhi chot herAf ricaleadershadalreadyexperiencedaboutf i
ft
yyear s
before.TheEt hiopiandef eatofI tal
yatAdwamadet hecount r
ysurvivecolonialdomi nation
andexpl oitat
ionwhi chot herAf ri
cancount ri
eshadf acedfrom thesecondhal foft he19th
century.Heri ndependencewor kedtocreateasenseofpeaceandpr osperityofEthi opian
peoplewi thinthebor dersoft heirowncount r
y.However ,f
ollowi
ngt heItal
ianoccupat ion
(1936-41)Et hiopiansexper i
encedl andgr abbing,for
cedl abourandar bi
traryruleofa
Europeancol onialmast er.

8.They int
roduced har
sh and exploit
ati
ve administ
rat
ive pol
icies l
ike f
orced l
abour,
excessi
ve Coit
ion,ar
bit
rary ar
rest
s and executi
on ofEt hi
opians opposed t
oI t
ali
an
l
eadershi
p.Allt
hesedepr
ivedAfri
cansinEthi
opiaofthei
rfr
eedom.

9.Consequently,theItal
i
ani nvasi
onofEt hi
opi aledtot heint
roductionoff
asci sm forwhich
Ethiopiabecameavi cti
m.Mussol ini
'
si nvasionofEt hi
opiawasai medatspr eadinghis
fascisti
deologybeyondI t
alianboundar i
es.Thei deologyemphasi sedsur
vivalofthef i
tt
est
andt hedomi nanceofweakernat ionsbypower f
ulones.Ethiopiat
husexperiencedmi l
it
ary
dict
at or
shi
pandt heuncompr omisingchar acteroffascistI
tali
ans.

10.TheItalo-
Ethiopi
ancrisisexposedt heweaknessanddoubl est
andar
dsoft heLeagueof
Nat
ions,whi chinevi
tablyl edtoitscoll
apse.Lateron,t
heUnitedNationsOrganisat
ion
emergedt orolltheboatofpeace,secur i
tyandjusti
ceintheworl
d.Ethiopi
arecei
vedan
i
nvi
tationtothenewi nternati
onalworl
dpeacekeepingbody.

11.Thesuccessfuloccupati
onofEt hi
opiabyI t
alyin1936pr omptedHit
lerofGer manyto
i
nvadePolandwhi chwasaspar kli
ngf act
orintheoutbr
eakofWor l
dWarI I.Thethr
eat
posedbytheaxisalli
anceandther ef
usalofGermantowi t
hdrawf r
om Polandmadet he
al
li
edall
ianceledbyFr anceandBr it
aintodeclar
ewaronGer many,eventual
lymaking
WorldWarIIi
nevi
table.

Posit
ive
12.Thebri
efI
tal
i
ancol
oni
aloccupat
ionofEt
hiopi
awi
tnessedsoci
o-economi
cdevel
opment
s
i
nthecountr
y.Hospi t
als,school
sandroadswer
esetup!Whi
l
eIt
ali
anset
tl
ementl
edt
o
gr
owthoftowns,henceurbanisat
ion.

13.TheI t
alo-
Ethiopi
ancr i
sisledtothefor
mati
onofaguerr
il
lamovementknownast he"Bl
ack
Lions”undert hel eadershi
pofRasI mru(Immir
u).Thi
sEthiopi
anliberati
onmovement
stoodagainstet hnicdiffer
encesinEthi
opi
aandensuredasuccessf ulstruggl
eagai
nst
It
aly.The"BlackLions"movementmadeamaj orcont
ri
butor
yfactort
hatl edtothedef
eat
ofItal
yin1941.

14.Thewarinspi
redt
hef or
mat i
onofacommi t
teeofUnioni
n1937.Thiswasasteptowards
promoti
ngunit
yamongover100t r
ibesofEthiopi
a,aswellasendi
ngthedi
vi
sionswit
hin
theEt
hiopi
anarmythatfoughtagai
nstI
tal
ianaggressi
on.

15.TheI t
ali
aninvasi onofEt hi
opialedtoint
ernati
onalrecogniti
onofEmper orHaileSel
assi
e
andEt hi
opiaagai nstItal
y.Ethi
opiaandHai l
eSelassiebecamepopul arallovertheworl
d
ast heinternationalcommuni t
ycondemned t heI tal
ian naked aggression agai
nstan
i
nternati
onall
yr ecognisedindependentst
ateofEt hi
opia.Maj orPowersoft heLeagueli
ke
Bri
tainchanneledt i
eirsupporttoenabl
etherestor
ationofEt hiopi
ansovereignt
y.

16.Theendofwari n1941pr ovidedtheoppor tunit


yforther e-
organisat
ionoft heEt hi
opian
mili
tary.Hai l
e Selassi
er eali
sed the need f ora strong moder n mi l
i
taryf or
ce hence
encour aged trai
ning of many mi li
tar
y of fi
cersi n moder n war f
aret echnology.I n
coll
abor ati
onwi t
hcountriesi n.Europe,Selassiesentmili
tarycadrestomi l
it
aryschool sin
FranceandEngl and,TheEmper oral
soi nt
roducedmoder nmi li
taryschoolsinEt hi
opiaso
thatmor emili
tarygeneralscoul dbet r
ained.Thisgreatmovet owar dsthemi li
tarywas
mot i
vat edbytheEthiopi
andef eattoIt
alyin1936.

17.Foll
owingt hei ncr
easedinternat
ionalpopul
arit
yofEt hi
opia,theAfr
icanst ategotthe
i
nvitat
ionasaf oundermemberoft heUni
tedNationsOrgani
sati
on(UNO) .Af
terWorl
dWar
II
,in1945,Et hiopi
awasi nvit
edasoneoft hefoundermember softheUni tedNat
ions
organi
zation.Thisdidnotonlymaket heEthi
opianempiremor epopul
ar,butalsoamajor
contri
butortointer
nati
onalpeaceandsecurit
y.

18.Itl
edt ot heri
seoftheEt hiopi
anPat ri
oticChur chandt heincreasei
nitspar t
ici
pationint he
rat
ionalaf fai
rsofEt hi
opia.Thepar ticipat
ionoft heEt hiopi
anPat ri
oticChur chi nt he
str
uggl eagai nstt
heI t
ali
anaggr essorswaspar amounti nt herestorati
onofEt hiopian
sovereignty'
.TheChur ch mobi hzed t heEt hiopian OrthodoxChr i
sti
anst o di
ef ortheir
country.In1938,BishopPedr oswaspubl i
call
yexecut edforrefusi
ngtobr oadcastagai nst
thepat r
iots.TheIt
ali
ansal soki l
l
ed380monksi ntheanci entmonasteryofDebr aLi monas
aft
erar mswer ediscoveredt her ethisactofmur deront heChur chof fi
cialswasa
mot i
vationfactori
nt heEthiopianr esi
stanceagai nsttheItali
anaggression.

19.TheItal
o-Ethi
opiancrisi
selevatedthepopular
it
yofEthiopi
aamongBl acksi nAfricaand
thewor l
dover .Thewarst rengthenedblackuni
tyandco-operat
iont
owar dssuppor t
ing
Ethi
opiaagainstIt
ali
anoccupation.TheBl
acksrecogni
zedEthi
opiaast
hel astcathedralof
Afri
canfreedom andthuswer epr of
oundl
yshakenbythedestr
ucti
onofacount rythathad
beenapr oudsymbolofAf ri
canindependenceandblackachievementamidstt
heeraof
col
onial
i
sm.Pr otestspreadfrom LagosinNi ger
iat
oNew Yor kinUSAandLondoni n
Engl
and.Alloverthewor l
dblackswereprotesti
ngagainstMussoli
ni'
snakedaggr
essi
on
agai
nstavirgi
nEthiopi
athathadstoodasasymbolofbl ackfr
eedom ofdi
gnit
y.

20.Thewari nfl
uencedt heco-operat
ionofEt hiopiawi t
hEr i
treaagainstItali
animper i
ali
sm.
Thesuccessf ulIt
ali
anoccupationofEthiopiain1936waspar tl
yfavouredbysuppor tfrom
Erit
reaHowever ,thegoodspiri
toft heIt
ali
ancol onialgover nmentinEritreachangedsoon
afterItal
i
an conquestofEt hiopi
a.Mussol ini'
sadmi nistr
ation str
essed ther aci
aland
polit
icalsuperiori
ty oft he It
ali
an peopl ei nt he Er itr
ea,Et hi
opia and Somal i
land.
Segregati
onbecamet hehar dandf astr ul
e,andAf ricansi nt hethreecount ri
eswer e
reducedtot helowestclassofsocietyintheirownhomel and.TheEr i
tr
eanshencewor ked
closelywiththeEthi
opianstoendItali
animper ial
ism.

21.Thewarawakenedr acialconsciousnessoftheEt hiopianpeopl ethatt heyareAf r


icansand
thatEt hiopiai spartoft heAf ri
cancont i
nent.Forl ongtime,Et hiopianrulerspr ef
err
ed
seeingt hemsel vesaspar toftheMi ddleEastrathert hanAf ri
ca.Thewi despreadsuppor t
givenbyAf r
icansandbl ackst oEmper orSelassieandt heEt hiopianpeopl edur i
ngthe
It
alianoccupat i
onmadet hem todevelopasenseofbel ongingtoAf ricaandnott heMi ddle
East .Af t
erEt hiopi
ar egaininghersover ei
gnf reedom f rom Italianaggr ession,Emper or
HaileSel assiebecamest rongl
yact i
veintheAf r
icanaf fairsasoneoft hegr eatestPan
Africanistsandel derstatesmenofpost -col
onialAfrica.Nosur priset hatHail
eSel assi
egot
activel
yi nvol
vedi ntheliberati
onofAf ri
caandest ablishmentofuni t
yont hecont i
nent.

REACTI ONSOFTHEBLACKSTOTHEI TALI


ANI NVASI ONOFETHI OPIA:
Theweaknessoft heLeagueofNat i
onsexposedt heAf ri
canst otheWhit
eman'sconspi racy
i
.e.thattheEuropeanswer er eadyt oworktogetheranddomi natethebl
acks.Et
hiopiabei ng
oneoft heonlytwosur vi
vi
ngAf r
icanstatestor etainherindependenceandinter nati
onal
equali
ty,the Ital
ianinvasi
onwasdi sr
espectandbr eakageoft heEthi
opi
ansovereignty.This
i
nf l
uenced the ent i
reblackwor ldto comet oget herto opposeand demonst ratetheir
discontentmentagainstEur opeans.

Theblackshencereactedtot
heI
tal
iani
nvasionofEthi
opiat
hroughthefoll
owi
ng!
Ref
erenceQuestions:
a) HowdidtheBl ackwor
ldr
espondtotheIt
ali
aninvasi
onofEthiopi
ain1935?

b)Exami
net
her
eact
ionsofAf
ri
canst
otheout
breakoft
heI
tal
o-Et
hiopi
awarof1935-
41)

1.PanAf ri
cani
stsli
keMar cusGarveyimmedi at
el yspokeoutt ocondemnt hei nvasi
onof
Ethi
opiabyIt
ali
andict
atorMussoli
ni.Accordi
ngt oMarcusGar vey,Et
hiopiawaspar toft
he
greatAfri
canracethatwasgoi ngtohel pAfricansgetridofcol onial
ismthus,Ital
yhad
commi t
tedanakedaggressionagai
nstaninternati
onall
yrecognizedindependentcountr
y.

2.InWestAfr
ica,t
henat
ionali
sti
cnewspaper
scal
l
edf
ort
hemassupr
isi
ngtoprotestagai
nst
theIt
ali
aninvasi
onofEt hi
opia.Thi
swasmeanttoshow amassprotestbyAf ri
cans
agai
nstEur
opeanhumili
ati
on.

3.I
nNew Yorkabout20,
000bl
ackswenttothest
reet
st odemonst
rateagai
nsttheItal
i
an
r
apeofEthi
opi
a.Thiswasanindi
cati
onthatbl
acksintheDi
aspora(abr
oad)sti
llhada
st
rongdevot
iont
owar
dst
hei
rlandofor
igi
n.

4.JomoKenyat t
ainamont hl
yLabourPublicat
ionwrot
eanarticle"Handof
fAbyssini
a".His
art
icl
ewasasai medatcondemni ngtheItal
i
aninvasi
onofEt hiopi
a,t
heonl
ysymboland
oasisofAfr
icanindependence.Kenyatt
acomment edthathisweaponagainsttheItal
ian
nakedpract
iceagainstEt
hiopi
awasonl ythepenandpaper.

5.Consequent
ly,JomoKenyattaalsovowednevert ocutoffhi
sbeardunt
ilAbyssi
niawas
fr
eeagain. Thiswasai medatper suadi
ngot herAf
ri
canstoinvol
veinsupporti
ngthe
Ethi
opi
ancausef orr
esi
stanceagai
nsttheIt
ali
anoccupat
ion.

6.Uponnewsoft heI t
ali
aninvasion,KwameNkr umah,walkedt hest
reet
sofLondonwi th
angrytear
srunningdownhi scheeks.The" badnews"ofI tal
iannvi
aolat
ionofEthiopi
an
soverei
gn i
ndependence t
herefore sti
mulated the Pan Afr
ican i
denti
ty ofNkrumah.
Accordi
ngtoNkrumah,atthathecoul dnotevent rustt
hespacearoundhim.Itf
eltl
ikeas
i
fthewholeofLondonhaddecl aredwaronhim.

7.WalaceJohnsonofSierr
aLeoneandNnamdiAzi kiweofNamibiaproducedaverydynamic
andexplosi
vear t
icl
einthepr ess,"
HasAfri
caaGod?"Wi ththispubli
cati
on,t
heset wo
devotedAfr
icansweretr
yingtoquesti
onthewisdom ofI
tal
ianclai
mt ospreadChri
sti
anit
y
andwesterncivi
li
zati
oninEthi
opia,butbyuseofpoisonousgasandweaponsofhuman
destr
ucti
on.

8.I
nWestAf r
icaandNi ger
iainparti
cul
ar,t
heAbyssi
nianAssociat
ionwasf ormedtosupport
theEthiopi
acause.Theassoci at
ionworkedtocondemnt heI tal
i
anaggr essi
onagainst
Ethi
opiaandpr essuri
zedBrit
aintofavourEt
hiopi
ansoverei
gntyagai nsttheambiti
onsof
Mussolini
.Itt
ri
edr ecr
uit
ingvol
unteerstogoandfi
ghtonEthiopi
ansi de

9.Consequentl
y,theEthiopi
anDefenceFundwasputi nplaceinNiger
iato helpraise
l
ogist
ical
,seri
alandfinanci
alassi
stancefort
heliberat
ionofEthi
opi
a.Theseresour
ces
wouldlaterbeinst
rumentalinstr
engtheni
ngEthi
opiancounterwaragai
nstMussolini'
s
men.

10.WestAfri
cansunderBr it
ishrul
eheldameetingi
nLagost odebat
eBr it
ishposi
ti
oni
nthe
I
tal
oEthiopianwar.Dur i
ngtheLagosmeeti
nginNiger
ia,aresol
uti
onwaspassedasking
t
heBrit
ishtostoppur sui
ngherappeasementpol
i
cytowardsMussoliniandcondemnI
tal
y
f
oroccupyingEthi
opia.

11.Afr
icansunderBri
ti
shcolonial
ism t
hreat
enedtoboycottconsumpti
onofBri
ti
shandSyri
an
goodsandt oabandonwor ki
ngingovernmentandBriti
shfir
msasawayofshowi ngt
hei
r
di
scontentt
oBr i
ti
shsi
lencedur i
ngtheIt
ali
anoccupat
ionofEt hi
opi
a.Theyi
nter
pret
edi
tas
aquietmoveremoteEuropeanr ul
einEthi
opia.

12.I
n Br i
tai
n,Geor ge Padmore,Danquah,Rasmar k and Jomo Kenyat
ta or
ganised t
he
I
nternati
onalAfri
canFriendsofEthi
opia(I.
A.F.
E)todemonstrat
et hei
rsuppor
tt owar
ds
Hail
eSelassieandthecommunityinatl
arge.
13.The Jamai ca,a prot
estwas or ganised by cult
uralnationali
sts cal
l
ing t
hemselves
"Rastaf
arians"demonstrat
edinsupportoft heAfr
icanpersonalit
yandshowt hei
rconcern
forEthiopia,TheRastafar
ianssangpr aisesofHaileSelassie"theBlackMessiah!
"The
l
eaderoft heRastaf
ari
andemost rat
orswasl at
erar r
estedf orsell
ingHail
eSelassie'
s
photographs.

14.In 1937,an Int


ernat
ionalAf ri
can Ser
vice Bureau was establi
shed toinit
iat
e Afri
can
commi tmentagai
nstcoloniali
sm.Thiswasnotonl ytoresistI
tal
i
anoccupationofEthi
opia,
butatl ar
get oopposeEur opeanconquestofAf r
icawi thanew det er
minati
on.Jomo
Kenyatt
aofKenya,KwameNkr umahoftheGol dCoast ,andHastingsBandaofNyasaland
wereamongt hemember s.

15.Onr eachi
ngLondonaf t
erfleei
ngEt hi
opi
a,Agr oupofbl
acksgather
edtor ecei
veHai l
e
Sel
assieatWat er
loorail
wayst ati
on.Kenyat
ta,oneofthi
sblackconti
ngentembr aced
Sel
assie,whichwasasignofAf r
icanmoral
eandunityoft
heAfri
canpeopleagainstthe
I
tal
ianinvasi
onofEthi
opia.

16.From WestIndies,adescendantofaf ormerslaveknownasGr if


fi
nswasveryaggri
eved
fol
lowingtheIt
aliani
nvasionandoccupat i
onofEthiopi
a.Gri
ff
insreact
edbydroppi
nghis
namewi t
himmedi ateeffect,andadoptedthenameof" HasMakonnen",toshow his
attachmentt
owar dsEthi
opiansduri
ngtheirt
ri
almoment s.

REASONSWI FYITALYDEFEATEDETHI OPIAIN1936


Refer
encequesti
ons:
a)Di scusst
hefact
orsthatl
edtotheEthi
opiandef
eatbyIt
alyi
n1936
b)Accountfort
hemi l
i
tarysuccessoft
heItali
ansagai
nstt
heEthi
opi
ansbet
ween1935and
1936

Manyfact orscont ri
butedt ot heEthiopianl ossofher2000year sofi ndependenceand
i
ncl
uded
1.Mussol initookal otmor etimet omakepr eparat
ionsf oranat t
ackonAbyssi ni
a.Fir
st,he
adopt edar earmamentpol icybyr ecrui
tingandt rai
ningaver ylargear myofmor ethan
500000men.Heest abl
ishedami l
it
aryindustrytomanuf actur
emoder nammuni ti
ons.In
1932,hesentahi ghrankingItal
ianof fi
cialtospyonEt hiopiaandr eportonapossi bl
e
chanceofsuccessi ncaseofanI tali
anat t
ack.Ther eportgivenbyt heItal
ianspying
offi
ci
ali ndicatedthatthepol i
ti
calsituati
oni nAbyssiniawer eappal l
ing( ter
ri
ble)henceit
wouldnotbeadi f
f i
cul
ttaskifItalyorganizedami l
i
taryat t
ackont hisst at
e.From 1934,
Mussol ini
'sgovernmentspentar easonableamountofI t
ali
anmoneyst ocauseconf li
cts
andr ebelli
onsamongt heEt hi
opianpeopl einpreparati
onf orthewar .Thecl ashatWal wal
betweent hear miesofAbyssi niaandI talywaspar tofMussol ini
’spl ant oinvadeand
conquerEt hiopia.

2.Ethi
opiansweregrosslydi sunit
edwhi chenabl
edt heItal
i
anst ot akeadvantageofthem.
Thepeoplewer emost l
ydi videdalongt ri
balandr eli
giouslines.Ethi
opiahasavar i
etyof
ethi
nicrel
igi
ousandl inguisticgroups.Thepopul ationcompr isesmor ethan100t ribes
withtheAmhar aTigr
e,Or omo( Gal
la)andSomal iast hemaj ori
ty.Over70languagesar e
spokeninEthi
opia.Suidivisi
onswer ealsoexperiencedwi t
hinthear my.Thear myoff
icers
fr
om t heNorther
nPr ovincel i
keTi greanprovincel ookedatof f
icer
sf r
om t heSouthern
provi
ncesofHar arandWol lowithsuspi ci
on.TheGal l
awar riorsf orexamplewant edthe
wart oendsofastthattheyalwaysledt hemainEt hi
opianarmyt owardsItal
i
anambushes.
TheI t
ali
anshencegotabet teropportunit
yifacil
i
tatemor edivisionsamongEt hi
opi
ans,by
bri
bingmanynon- Amhar asandi nf
luencingthem t odesertandj oi
nI t
ali
anarmy,justli
ke
Gus,whi l
eothershelpedI t
ali
ant r
oopst oidenti
fytheoper ationar easoft heEthiopi
an
army.

3.Themi li
tarysuper iori
tyoft heI tali
ansoverEt hiopiawasagr eatasseti nt hedefeatand
occupat i
onofEt hiopia.TheI talianshadal lsortsofmi li
taryhar dwarel ikepower fulbombs
aerialphot ogr
aphsandawel lor ganisedandt rai
nedar myofmor et han200000t roops.
The peopl
eofAbyssi niacoul dnotst andt heI tali
anf orcewho wer ethoroughly
mechani sedandf ullyequi ppedi never yway.TheAbyssi nianar mywasf ul
lofvolunteer
fi
ght er
s.I thadver yfew pr ofessi onalsol di
erswhoei therhadout dat edt acti
csorhad
forgottent hem si ncet her eignofMenel ikII.Abyssi nianshadpr act i
call
ynomoder n
weaponsofwar far e.Fort hef ewt hatwer eavai l
able,somewer ef aul
ty.TheEt hi
opianshad
onlyeleven( IDfight erplanes,t hree( 3)ofwhi chcoul dnotl eavet hegr oundandone( 1)of
them hadbeengi vent ot heEt hi opianRedCr ossSoci ety.Thenat i
onalf orceshadonl y371
bombs,13ant i
-aircraftgunsandmostoft heirrifl
escoul dnotf ir
e.Thi senabl edtheItal
ian
armi estoweakenEt hiopiant roops,penet ratefartherint othehi l
lyEt hiopiancountryand
occupyt hecapi tal,Addi sAbaba.

4.Consequent ly,t he gener alweakness;oft he Ethi


opi an f or
ces enabled the Ital
ian
occupat i
onEt hiopia.TheEt hiopi
anar mycompr i
sedat otalofabout1, 000,000buta
maxi mum of100, 000coul dfighteffecti
vel
yagainsttheinvadi ngItal
i
antroops.Maj ori
tyof
thef i
ghterswer evol unt
eerswi t
ht r
aditi
onalfi
ghti
ngski ll
s.Someoft hefi
ght er
swho
volunteeredt oj oint heforcesonl ybecauset heywantedf oodandmoney.Mostoft he
Ethiopiansol dierst hatfoughtt heItali
anwereei t
hersi ckorol d.Atenthoft hem wer e
women,anot herat ent
hwer epriestswhohadnost rongcommi tmenttot henat i
onal
causesagai nstMussol i
ni'
smen.

5.TheweaknessoftheLeagueofNat ionswasadi sadvant


agetoEthiopi
a.TheLeaguecould
notcondemnt heItal
i
anact i
onnorcoul dsheint er
venebysendingf orcestocheckthe
It
ali
anaggressi
on.ThislefttheEthiopi
ansatthemer cyofItal
i
ans.TheLeaguef ail
edto
eff
ectsancti
onsonI t
alyasthebigpower s(Bri
tainandFrance)usedt heorgani
sat
ionto
achi
evetheirownneeds.Theyr ecognizedtheItal
ianoccupati
onofEt hi
opi
asimplyto
appeaseMussoli
ni.

6.TheWhi teman'
sconspi
racyl
edtothedef
eatofEthi
opiasuchconspir
acymadeBrit
ainand
Francenottorespectt
hesancti
onsimposedonItal
ybyt heLeague.Theywentaheadto
effectthearmsembargo,whichwasabanonsal eofmi l
i
taryequipmentt
oI t
alyand
Ethiopi
awhichsolel
yaffect
edEthi
opiatotheadvant
ageofI tal
ywhomanuf act
uredher
ownweapons.

7.Thepoorf inancialstatusofEt hiopi


aatt het imeoft hewarmadet hedef eatofthe
Ethiopianarmyi nevi
table.TheEthiopi
animper ialgovernmentofEmper orSel
assiewasso
poort hati
tcouldnotmai ntai
nanar myi nthef i
ghtingfieldforl
ong.I
twasalsoexpensive
totransportfi
ght i
ngmenf rom di
stantpartsoft heempi retothear
easwherefighti
ngtook
place.Thegover nmenthar dl
ypr ovi
dedl ogisti
calsuppor ttothesol
dierstoensurethat
theyputupat oughresistanceagainsttheItali
aninvaders.
8.Theinvasioncameatat i
mewhenEmper orHail
eSelassiewasunpopul arathome.Hewas
alwaysfacedwi t
halotofopposi
ti
onespeci
all
yfrom t
heGal la.Ther
ewer eevenrebell
i
ons
insomepr ovi
ncesl
i
keint heNor
th.Thi
smadet heresistanceagainsttheIt
ali
aninvasi
on
veryweak.

9.Thepoorl i
vingcondi t
ionsoftheEt hiopi
anpeopleledt otheItal
i
anvict
ory.Therewere
poorhousingf acil
i
ties,low wagesf orworkers,unemploymentandmal nutr
it
ionwhich
madet her
esistanceevenweaker .Thisisoneoft hereasonsthatmadetheEthiopi
ansto
l
osef ai
thint heEmper or’
sgovernmentandt huscouldnotgi vepopul
arsupporttothe
nati
onalcause

10.TheItal
i
ansr ecei
vedassi
stancefrom Somali
aandEr it
rea,t
hetwoI
tal
i
ancol
onel
sthat
nei
ghbored Ethi
opi
a.Thisenforced t
heItali
anfight
ersand gavet
hem mor
alewhich
enabl
edthem toovercomet
heEt hi
opi
anresist
ance.

11.ThefleeingofEmper orHail
eSelassietoexil
eleftEthiopi
awi t
houtaleadertodir ectany
remaini
ngmor al
eoft heEt hi
opianfight
ers.Iftheemper orhadnotf led,maybet he
Ethi
opianscouldhaveputacommendabl eresi
stanceagainsttheIt
ali
ant roops.Instead
theEthiopi
anforceshadtofl
eethebat t
lef
rontwhileotherssurr
ender
edt otheItal
ianar my
whichgavewayt ot heI
tal
iansuccess.

12.Lackofacommonst rategyamongstEt hiopi


ansl edtot hei
rfail
ure.TheEt hi
opiantop
l
eader sfail
edtoagreeonanef fecti
vestrategyinorganizingacount erwaragainstthe
It
alians.Whilet
heEmperorpr ef
erredtheuseofguer ri
l
lat act
icsandt imel
yr et
reats,t
he
provinci
algover
norswantedamor econvent i
onalwarappr oach.Thi
smadet heEthiopi
an
forcestolackpr
operdi
rection,makingthei
rdef eati
nevi
table.

Duetotheabovef act
ors,theI
tal
i
anscouldleavenost onesunturned.Theyturnedt hei
rtables
agai
nstEt hiopiansi nrevengeoft heAdowahumi l
i
at i
onof1896andwer edet erminedt o
occupyEthiopia.Thedef eatofEt
hiopi
ahencebecamei nevi
tablemainlyduetot hedisunit
yof
Ethi
opi
ans,coupl edwitht heWhiteman'
sconspiracyandwor stofalltheEthiopianmi l
i
tary
weakness.

THELEAGUEOFNATI ONSAND I TSFAI LURETO PREVENTTHEI TALI


AN I
NVASI ON OF
ETHIOPI A
TheLeagueofNat ionswasawor ldpeacekeepi
ngbodyest abli
shedin1920f ol
lowingt he
proposalatt heVer sail
l
espeacesettl
ementof1919.Itsformat i
onfoll
owedthesuggest i
onby
thePr esidentoft heUSA,Woodr ow Wil
sonf oraninternat
ionall
yrecogni
sedpeacekeepi ng
bodychar gedwi thover seei
ngint
ernat
ionalpeaceandsecurity,andtoensuret
hatr esol
ut i
on
ofmi sunder standi
ngbet weenandamongst ateswasthroughnegot i
ati
onandarbit
rati
ont han
aggression.

Ethi
opiawasnotaf oundermemberoft heLeagueofNationsbutregi
steredi
tsmember shi
p
fouryearslater.UpontheItal
i
anthreatofinvasi
on,Sel
assiecr
iedoutt othepeacekeepi
ng
bodytci nt
ervenebefor
et hewarer
upted;theLeaguehowevergaveadeafear ,t
husshowing
i
neffi
ciency
Thef
ail
ureoft
heLeaguet
opr
eventt
heI
tal
oEt
hiopi
anwarwasduet
othef
oll
owi
ng:

Refer
encequesti
ons:
a)Whydi dtheLeagueofNat ionalal
ltoavertthewarbet weenI tal
yandEt hi
opiabetween
1935and1941?
b)TowhatextentdidtheLeagueofNat i
onscauset heI
tal
ianinvasionofEt hi
opiain1935?
1.Thel eagueshowedani mpotentresponsetowardsthef ir
sti nt
ernat
ionaltension.This
pr
ecedentoccurred when Japan at t
acked and occupied the Chinese industri
ali
zed
pr
ovinceofManchuria.Theunreal
i
sticweaknessesoftheLeaguet owardsanaggr ession
byanon-Eur
opeanpowerpr omptedItal
ytoattackEthi
opiaexpectingnor eact
ionfrom the
worl
dpeacekeepingbody.

2.TheLeaguef ai
l
edt oeff
ectresolut
ionsofthe1932Genevadi sar
mamentconf erence.The
resol
uti
onswer eaimedatdi sar
mingGer manyandI tal
y,thetwopower st hatt
hreatened
Europeanstabi
li
ty.Thetwopower swerenottomanuf actureori
mpor tar
ms;however ,t
he
verytwopowersf ai
ledtomeett hedemandsoft heconferencebuttheLeaguel ookedon
astheyaccumulatedarms,whichgaveItal
ymili
taryconfi
dencetoatt
ackEt hiopi
a.

3.TheLeagueofNat i
onsal sovi
olatedtheGenevapr otocol
,whi chhadbeeni mposedonthe
twobell
igerentcountr
ies;Ethi
opiaandI tal
y.ThetwoNat ionswer enott
oi mportarmsand
nomemberst atewouldconnivewi theitherofthetwoi ntradeitemsrel
atedt oarmsand
ammuni t
ions.However ,thesanct i
onsonI t
alywereviolated;weeksafter,i
temslikeoi
l
,
steeland coalf ound theirwayt oI talyfrom Bri
tain and France.Thesei temswere
i
mpor t
antforItal
ianarmsmanuf actur
ingindustr
y.

4.Thedeat hofMr .Briandt heFrenchf or


eignmi nist
eri n1932robbedtheLeagueofa
resol
utepolicymaker.Briandwasamaj orpoli
ticalactorwhoadvocatedforapol i
cyof
settl
ementofallconf
lict
sbet weenmemberst atesoft heLeagueonl
ybypeacefulmeans.
Thusaf terhisdeath uni ver
salpeacer emai
nedonl yadr eam asmenl ikeMussolini
suddenlywokeupt othecr udereal
it
iesofaggressionl i
kethecaseoft
heItali
aninvasi
on
ofEthiopiai
n1935.

5.Theweaknessoft heLeagueofNat i
onswasf urt
herwi t
nessedwhenshef ai
ledtorest
rai
n
aggr
essivenati
onsfrom re-
arming.I
tal
yspentyearsr eorgani
zi
ngandr ear
minghermi l
i
tar
y
i
n preparat
ion foran invasi
on on Ital
y.Had t he League implemented heraims of
di
sarmament ,maybetheI t
ali
anaggressi
ononEt hiopiacouldhavebeenaverted.

6.Themi lit
arystrengthofItal
yalsoscaredt
heLeagueofNat i
onsfrom int
erveningtoprevent
the crisi
s.Italyhad manuf act
ured and boughtadvanced and sophi sti
cat
ed mili
tary
hardwar esuchaspl anes,machinesgunsandbombs.Tosayt hatItalywasmi li
tari
ly
strongerisnott osuggestt hatt
heLeagueofNat i
onswasmi li
tari
l
yweak;butt heLeague
fearedmi l
it
aryi nt
erventi
onbecausethecostintermsofbloodandr esour ceswouldhave
drainedtheinternati
onalbody.

7.The League al
so fai
led t
o aver
tthe warbecause I
tal
ywas expanding hercol
onial
possessi
onjustasothermembershaddone.Bri
tai
nandFr ancetheMaj
orPowersofthe
Leaguehadacqui r
ed,coloni
esinasi mil
armanner.Theyt her
efor
elackedthemor al
obl
igati
ont ostopIt
alyf
rom acquir
ingmoreter
ri
tor
iesi
nAf
ri
camor
eso-
toi
nvadean
i
nternat
ional
lyr
ecogni
sedsover
eignofEt
hiopi
a.

8.Thenegligenceont hepartoft heMaj orPower soft heLeaguealsor enderedt hebody


i
ncapableofst oppingt heinvasiononEt hiopi
a,Br i
tai
nandFr anceneglectedEthiopiaasa
weakpoort hi
rdwor ldcount r
ywi t
houti nter
nationalsigni
fi
cance.Theyt houghtt hatthe
i
nvasion wouldt ake a mat terofdays.They al so did notanticipateinternati
onal
condemnationofI t
al y.Tot heirsurpr
iset heent i
reBl ackWorldcondemnedt henaked
aggressi
onont hef reeland(Et hi
opia)l
efttoAf r
icaamidstaseaofcol oniali
sm.

9.Racism int heLeaguel edtotheEt hi


opi
anoccupationbyI t
alybetween1935and1941.
Europeanmember soft heLeagueshowedver yhighlevelsofr acism infavourofItal
y
againstEthiopia.Theytooseemedt ohaveshar edMussolini'
sargumentagainstEthi
opia
thatthepeopl eofEt hiopi
awer ebarbar
ic,backwar
dandpr acti
cedsl aver
y;andsot hey
neededadoseofEur opeancivi
li
zati
on. Hencepr omptingMussol i
nitogoaheadand
i
nvadeEt hiopia.

10.Theappeasementpol i
cyoft hemaj orpowersoftheLeagueofNat i
onstowardsMussolini
i
.e.FranceandBrit
ainexpressedthewhi t
eman'
sconspiracy,whi
chinsteadweakenedthe
effect
ivenessoft
heleague.Theyt urnedabli
ndeyetowardstheEthi
opiancri
sisi
norderto
discourageMussoli
nit
odisor gani
zeEur ope.

11.TheLeagueofNat ionslackedtheservi
cesofbigpower sthatcouldhavest r
engthenedher
standagainsttheItal
ianaggression.TheLeaguehadapr inci
pleoff r
eeentryandexi t
,
whichprompt edGermanyandI tal
yt owit
hdrawfrom thebodyi n1934.Russi ahadj oi
ned
theLeaguein1934butl efti
n1939.TheUSAont heotherhandmai nt
ainedherisolat
ionso
shedidnotj oi
n.Thisdeniedtheleagueofideasandser vicesofthesebi gpowers,which
couldhaveavoidedthecrisi
s.

12.Memberst ateswer edisuni


ted,suspi
ci
ousandhadmi str
ustagainsteachot heraft
er
WorldWarI.Thismadet heLeaguet ol
ackspiri
tualuni
tyandcorpor
ationthatwouldhave
pr
omptedsuccessf uluni
tyinthebody.Thus,whenI t
alyat
tackedEt
hiopia,nopowerwas
wi
ll
ingtocallfori
nter
venti
on.

13.MembersoftheLeaguewerei
ndeepeconomiccri
sisafterthegreateconomicdepressi
on
of1929andther
eforecoul
dnotmeetthebudgetoft heLeagueef fecti
vel
y.Hence,when
thewarst
art
ed,t
heLeagueofNati
onsgotnomeani ngfulassist
ancef r
om memberst at
es
astheywor
ked-resol
vi
ngthei
rowneconomies.

14.Anothercontr
ibuti
onoft
heLeaguet owar
dsthedefeatofEthiopiabyIt
alywasthatal
most
al
lmemberst at
esincl
udi
ngFr anceandBr i
tai
nr ecogni
sedt heIt
ali
angovernmentin
Ethi
opia.TheBr i
ti
shhadconfi
rmedt heI
tal
i
anoccupat i
onofEt hiopi
athroughtheHoar
e-
Lavalpactof1935alt
houghtheycondemnedIt
alyatthebeginning.

REASONSWHYTHEETHI OPIANSDEFEATEDITALYIN1941
ThedefeatofEthi
opi
ansbytheIt
ali
ansi
n1936di dnotpushAfr
icanr
esi
stancet
osi
l
ence.
Afr
icansinEthi
opi
are-or
gani
zedunderaprominentl
i
berat
ionmovementcall
edt
he"
Black
Li
ons”l edbyadevot edRasImru.Toget
herwit
hthedefeat
edEthi
opi
anf
orces,theystaged
counterattacksagainstI
tal
y.I
n1941,t
heEthi
opi
answereablet
othr
owouttheIt
aliansdueto
1foll
owi ngfact s:
or

Ref
erencequest ions:
a)Accountf orthedef eatofItalybyEthiopiain1941
b)Towhatext entdi dt heout breakofWor l
dWarI Iin1939i nfluencet he1941Ethiopia
victoryoverItaly?
1.Thef ormat i
onofaguer ri
ll
agr oup( t
heBl ackLions)thatcompr i
sedgr aduatesmai
nlywith
:
moder npol i
ticalanddemocr aticconceptst heleadersoft hemovementheadedbyI mr u
wer ei ntheEt hi
opianr esistancet oItali
anaggr ession.The" BlackLions"movement
mobi li
zedt hemasses,pr ovidedpr agmat ic(st
rong)l eadershipandensur edsol
idarit
y
amongstt heEt hi
opians.Theguer r
il
latacticsemployedbyt he"Bl ackLions"humbl
edt he
Ital
iansin1941.

2.TheEt hi
opiansthr
oughti
relesspatri
otsli
keRasImruforgedunityofpurposeagainstt
he
I
tali
ans.Acommi t
teeofuni onwassetupi n1937tor econci
letheantagonisti
cgroups.
TheEt hiopi
anshenceforgott heircul
tur
alandethni
cdi ffer
encesandf oughtundera
generalcause.Thi
smadet heresist
ancepopul
aramongstallgroupsofEthi
opianmasses.

3.TheEthi
opianPat ri
oticChurchpl ayedasi gnifi
cantroleinthedefeatoft heItal
i
ans.The
Churchmobi l
izedt heEt hi
opianOr thodoxChr isti
anst odief ortheircountr
y.In1938,
Bi
shopPedr oswaspubl ical
lyexecut edforrefusingtobroadcastagainstthepatr
iots.The
I
tali
ansal
soki l
led38Cmonksi ntheancientmonast eryofDebraLimonasaf terarmswer e
di
scover
edt here.Thisactc:mur deront heChur choffi
cial
swasamot i
vati
onfactorinthe
Ethi
opi
anresistanceagainsttheItali
anaggr essi
on.

4.TheEthiopi answer ehaunt edandmot i


vatedbyt heGr azianimassacr eof1937.Mar shal
Grazi
ani,t he Itali
an viceroy( Gover nor)had announced t he di str
ibution ofessenti
al
commodi t
iest othepoorEt hi
opiansi nt hecity.Unfor
tunately,someoft hemember soft
he
"Bl
ackLi ons"wer ehi
dingi nthecr owdandt hr ewgrenadest oGr aziani,whichinjur
edhim
sever
ely.TheI tal
iantroopsr et
aliatedbyf iri
ngi ndi
scri
mi natelyatt hecr owdandcausing
chaosint heci ty.Thechaosspr eadi nthecount rymakingt heincidentoneoft hemajor
event
si ncol onialhi
storythattarnishedt heIt
alianimageont heinternationalscene.

5.TheI t
ali
anscarri
edoutoppressi
veandexploit
ati
vepoli
ciesagainsttheEt hi
opi
ans.They
force-
Ethi
opianstooff
erlabouratpubli
cworksli
keroads,hospi
tals,andschools;for
ced
them togr ow cashcropsandi mposedheavytaxesinEt hi
opia.Allt heseincr
eased
gri
evancesinEthi
opiaandattr
actedmasssupportt
otheanti-
It
ali
anupr i
sing.

6.TheItali
anar mywasbrut
alandbarbari
cwhi chcostI
tal
i
anadmi nist
rati
ondear
ly.Thearm;,
burntEthi
opianhutsandhouses,r
apedEthiopianwomeni ncl
udingthosewhosurrender
ed
executed,andburi
edcivi
l
iansinmassgr aves.Thismadet heIt
ali
anleader
shi
punpopul ar
everfrom Ethi
opi
answhohadsympat hi
sedwi ththeI
tal
ianadminist
rati
on.

7.Theinvasi
onrecei
vedstrongcondemnati
onfrom Afr
icanst
atesandpol
i
ticalleader
s.
Nat
ional
ist
sli
keNkrumah,Kenyat
ta,Wal
l
aceJohnsonandNnamdiAzi
ki
weusedt hepress
andot herassoci
ati
onstodemandI t
ali
anwithdr
awalfrom Et
hiopi
a.Theysentfi
nancial
assist
ance and otherlogi
sti
cs t
o Ethiopi
a patr
iot
s.There acti
vi
ti
es att
ract
ed the
Int
ernati
onalcommunit
ytoisol
ateI
tal
y.

8.Thechangeofmi ndbyt heBri


ti
shfavour
edEthiopi
anLi ber
ati
on.TheBr it
ishsoonaft
er
I
talyjoi
nedWor l
dWarI Iont hesideoftheaxisall
iance,sentassist
ancet oEthi
opi
ans
through t
he neighbour
ing stat
es ofKenya and Sudan.Thi s Br
it
ish suppor
tboosted
Ethiopi
anresi
stanceagainstI
tal
y.

9.Consequently,theI
t al
i
aninvolvementinWor l
dWarI Ial
ongsidetheaxi salli
anceweakened
theholdont oEt hi
opia.I
talywasoccupi edi
nt hewarwi t
hlessconcent r
ati
ononEt hi
opia.
Shewentaheadt owi t
hdraw manyofot hert r
oopsf r
om Et hiopi
a.TheBr i
tishbegan
viewingIt
alyasanenemyt hatdeservedtobedef eated.Apartfrom raidi
ngI tal
i
anSomal i
-
landandEr i
trea,theBr i
ti
shext endedassistancet oEt hi
opia,whichst rengthenedher
resist
ance.

10.ThestealthreturnofEmper orHail
eSel assietoEthi
opiapl ayedasigni
fi
cantpartonthe
si
deaEt hi
opia.ThroughSudan,Hai l
eSel assi
ecrossedi nt
oEt hi
opi
ai nJanuar
y1941t o
str
engthenEt hiopi
anr esi
stanceagainstItali
anaggression.Theref
ore,thepresenceof
EmperorSel assnboost edtheEthiopiancampt hatf oughtwi t
hdeterminat
ionuntilt
he
It
ali
answer ethrownout .

I
MPACTOFTHEI TALO-ETHI
OPIANCRISI
SONTHEGROWTHOFAFRI CANNATI ONALI
SM
PANAFRICANISM
Thewarhadar esoundi
ngimpactoncol
oni
alAf
ri
caandt
hebl
ackr
acei
notherpart
softhe
worl
ddi
scussedbelow

Ref
erencequestions
a) How di dt heIt
ali
anat
tackonEt
hiopi
a(1935-
41)i
nfl
uencet
hegr
owt
hofAf
ri
can
nat
ional
ism?

b)Assessthei
mpactoft
he(
1935-
41)I
tal
o-Et
hiopi
anwaront
hegr
owt
hofAf
ri
can
nat
ional
i
sm

1.It
alo-
Ethi
opi
anwarst rengt
henedbl
ackuni
tyandsolidar
it
yallovert
heworldagai
nstwhit
e
dominati
on.Blackmenwor ldwi
dewereprof
oundlyshakenbythedest
ruct
ionofacountr
y
thathadbeenapr oudsymbolofAfr
icani
ndependenceandblackachi
evementamidstt
he
eraofcol
onial
i
sm.

2.Thecrisiscausedpoliti
calawarenessanddeepenedthecauseofAfr
icannati
onal
ist
sto
str
ugglef ori
ndependence.Af ri
canscametoknow thatthewhitesweredeter
minedto
completelyconquertheAfricanconti
nentmer
cil
essl
yandtheref
oreAfr
icanshadacause
tode-
campai gncolonialr
uleinAfri
ca.

3.TheItali
aninvasi
onofEt hi
opiaexposedt heWhiteman'sconspir
acy.Afri
cansbecame
unhappywitht heBrit
ishandt heFrenchwhor eluct
antlyfail
edtopreventItal
yf r
om
att
ackingEthi
opia. Consequentl
y,Afr
icanresi
stanceincreasedinBrit
ishandFr ench
col
oniesinAfr
icathr
oughappli
edboycottsanddemonstrat
ions.
4.Consequent l
y,theEt hiopianreacti
ontoI tal
ianrulebecameal essont otherestofAf ri
can
statesunderwhi tedomi nati
on.TheEt hiopianr esistancetoI t
ali
anl andgrabbing,forced
labourar bi
tr
aryar r
est sandpoort axationi nspiredt heactivi
ti
esofAf ri
canselsewher e
againstwhiteorders.Themet hodsusedbyEt hiopiansagainsttheI tali
ans,whichincluded
viol
entattacksonI talali
ansettler
sandt heirinstal
lationswerewi tnessedi nKenya,Angol a,
Algeria and Brit
ish Cent r
alAf ri
ca wher e whi te pr oper
ty and i nvestment s became
increasi
nglythetarget sofAfricanpatr
iotsint hest r
uggleforself-
rule.

5.Theinvasion,hadprofoundrevolut
ionaryi
mpactonAf r
icannat ional
ist
s'Nkrumahoft he
GoldCoastonr eadi
ngaheadi ngonanewspaperst andpr oclaimingar eport"Mussoli
ni
i
nvadesEt hiopi
a"hel amented"Thatmoment ,i
twasasi ft hewhol eofLondonhad
decl
aredwaronme…mynat i
onali
sm surgedtot hefore."JomoKenyat taont heother
handvowednevert ocutof fthebear dunti
lEthiopi
awasf reeagain.Al lthesewer e
expr
essionsofat t
achmenttowardsAf r
icaandhatr
edagai nstforeigndomi nat
ion.

6.Thecr i
sissparkedoffhosti
lepressattacksagai
nstcoloni
alrul
emost l
yinWestAf r
ica.
Wallace.JohnsonofSier
raLeoneandNnamdiAzi ki
weofNi ger
iaproducedadynami cand
explosi
vearti
cleinthepr
ess"HasAf r
icaaGod?"Thet wowerequest i
oni
ngthewisdom of
spreadingChristi
ani
tybyuseofpoisonousgas.JomoKenyat tawr oteanart
icl
e"Hands
offAbyssinia"Thesear t
icl
esinspi
redAf ri
canselsewhereinAfri
cat oagit
atef orthe
l
iberati
onofAf ri
ca.

7.Thewarmi lit
ari
sedAf r
icannati
onalism.Itchangedt hemi ndsofAf r
icanswhohadopt ed
forpeacef
ulmeansoft r
ansferofpowerf rom coloni
alrul
e.TheAf ri
cansbeganadopti
nga
simil
armili
taryapproach,asthe"BlackLions"whi chtheyt houghtwast heonlyl
anguage
thecoloni
alroaster
swoul dunderstand.Casest udiesarethemaumauupr i
singi
nKenya
(1952-
55)andt heFLNwari nAlgeri
a( 1954-62).

8.TheI t
alo-
Ethi
opiancri
si
swasoneoft hemajoreventst hatledt otheseat i
ngoft he
Manchesterconf er
ence i
n 1945.The f i
ft
h Pan Af r
ican confer
ence atManchest er
recogni
sedthemeansempl oyedbyEthiopi
ansagainstItal
yanddemandedf ortheret
urn
ofAfri
cansfrom abr
oadtoleadindependencest
rugglesinthei
rrespect
ivecountri
es.

9.Thecr i
sisprovi
dedapl atf
ormforAf r
icanst oairouttheirgri
evancesagainstt
heevil
sof
coloniali
sm.Emper orSelassi
eatt heLeaguegener alassemblystatedthattheEthi
opi
an
resistancetoI tali
anr ulewasacaseofdef endingt hecauseofal lpeoplethatwere
threatenedwi t
hf orei
gndomi nati
on.Thispubl i
ci
sedt hecrisi
sforthesakeofAfri
cansand
attractedint
ernationalsympathytotheAf r
icancausef ori
ndependence.

10.TheItal
i
ani nvasi
onofEthi
opi
aledtot
her i
seoftheRast
afar
iansect
,ablackcul
tur
al
nat
ional
istmovementinJamai
ca.Themovementr
eject
edChri
sti
ani
tyoft
hewhiter
ace;
hadthevisi
onf orworl
dwideBlackl
iberat
ionandregardedEthiopiaasthelastcat
hedralof
Afr
icancoll
ectivesecuri
tyandt helastpieceofl andlef
tf orAf r
icans.Themovement
l
ookedurgentlyforaradi
calcureofthesicknessofcoloni
ali
sm inAf ri
ca.TheRastaf
ar i
an
movementt herefor
emili
tar
isedthePanAf ri
canmovementi ni tsattempttoseekAfrican
fr
eedom andindependence.

11.Thewarmar kedthecoll
apseoft heLeagueofNat i
onsanddeal
tafinalnai
li
nthecoffi
nof
i
nternati
onalcollecti
vesecuri
ty,paving wayf orthef or
mati
on oft heUnit
ed Nati
ons
Organisati
onlaterin1945.TheUNO adopt edachar t
erthatemphasisedequali
tyofal
l
nati
ons and t he sover
eign r
ightstoi ndependence ofstat
es underoppressi
on and
domination.

12.Consequently,t
heItal
o-Et
hiopi
anwari nfl
uencedtheoutbreakofWor l
dWarI I(1939-
45)
whichhadani mpactofAf ri
canNat i
onali
sm.HavingseenI tal
ysuccessful
l
yoccupying
Ethi
opia,Hi
tlerl
edGermanyt oinvadePolandin1939,whichwasaspar kl
ingfact
orinthe
outbreakofWor ldWarI I
.Wor l
dWarI IproducedAfr
icanex-servi
cemenwhousedt he
mili
taryski
l
lsacquir
edfrom thewartofightagai
nstcol
onial
ism.

13.The crisi
si nfl
uenced bl
ack prot
estsi n Amer
ica.About20000 blacks and col
oured
Amer i
canst ooktot hest
reetsinCit
iesli
keNew Yorktodemonstr
ateagai nstt
heItal
ian
rapeofEthiopiaandshowt hei
rsupportandsympathyt
oallAf
ri
canstatesthatwereunder
Europeansdomi nati
on.

14.TheItal
ianinvasi
onoftheEthi
opianmonarchyi
nfl
uencedtheacti
vi
ti
esoftheWestAfri
can
StudentsUnion(WASU)inLondon.Member sofWASUor ganisedanEt
hiopi
ancommi t
tee
consist
ingofJ.B.Danquah,Asomali
,JomoKenyatt
a,andfivemembersfrom WestI
ndies.
TheAf ricanmember slaterbecameleadersoftheindependencemovement sintheir
respect
ivecountr
ies.

THECAREEROFHAI LESELASSI E(1930-1974)


HisImperi
almajest
yEmper orHail
eSelassi
e,theli
onofJudahwasbor nonJul y23,1892to
RasMakonnen,acousinbrothertoEmperorMenelikI
I.Hewasbor nintheprovi
nceofHarar
andwast he225thactivesuccessoroftheSolomonicdynast
yoft hedescendantsofKing
SolomonandQueenMakeda( QueenofShebah) .Hewentt oschoolatanear l
yageoff i
ve
yearsandby1899,hehadstart
edlearni
ngFrenchandEngl
ish.

HaileSelassiewasamanofr emarkabl
ement alabil
it
iesandexcept i
onalt
alent
.Thi
sbrought
hi
mt oast atel
yappoi
ntatanear l
yageoff our
teenyear sasgover norofareteinHarar
provincewher ehewasbor n.Attheageof24,hebecamet heregentofthereal
m( empir
e)
becameRa;Taf ari
.Healsobecamet hecrownpr inceort henextNegusNegastor" Kingof
Kings"afterwhil
eEmpressZewditu(Zaudi
tu)
,thedaught erofMeneli
kI I
.

HisrealnamesarehoweverRasTafariDj
ii
zmatchMakonnen.Hewascr ownedemper oror
November2,1930wi t
hthemostpompousst yl
eandgai nedthetit
leofHisImperi
alMajesty
EmperorHaileSel
assi
e,meani
ngthe"Poweroft heTr
inity.
"Otherti
tl
esadoptedbyEmper or
Sel
assieincl
uded"
KingofKi
ngs"and,
"Theconqueri
ngLionofJudah."
ACHI EVEMENTSOFEMPERORHAI LESELASSI E
Emper orSelassi
ewasdeposedf rom hist hronei n1936whenEt hiopi
asuccumbedt oItal
ian
defeat.However,in1941acombi nedf orceofI ndians,Et hi
opiansandBr iti
shforcesoft he
King;Afri
canRi f
le( KAR)t hatEthiopiansdef eatedt heItali
ani mperi
aladmi ni
str
ation.This
enabledHaileSelassietoregainhist hr
one.Hewasbest owedt heti
tleof"TheLionoft hetr
ibe
ofJudah"upon hi sr eturnt o Ethiopia.Emper orHai le Selassie scored a numberof
achievementsdur ing hisreign;hence,t he Ethiopiansr eferr
ed to him asa man and a
moder ni
zer.Hisachievementsincludedt hefollowing:

Ref
er encequest ions:
a)Assesst heachi evement sofEmper orHaileSel assieinEthiopia
b)Howsuccessf ulwasEmper orHai l
eSelassi e'
sr ei
gnbet ween1941and1974?
c) Exami net hechangesi ntroducedbyEmper orHaileSelassieinEthi
opiafr
om 1941
1.I mmedi atelyafterhi scor onation,Emper orSelassieintroducedaconstit
uti
onaldecreethat
tr
ansformedEt hiopiai ntoaconst i
tut
ionalmonar chy.Thedecr eebecamet hecountr
y's
fi
rstwr i
ttenconst itut
ioni nmor et han2000year s.Theconst it
uti
oncombi nedbotht he
country'
scust omsandt hecul turesoft hemoder ncivil
i
sedandeducat ednat i
ons.The
princi
palai m oft heconst it
utionwast obringt ogetherthepeopleofEthi
opiaasonef amily,
unitedandcont rolledbyonel aw,andgover nedbyoneEmper or
.Hail
eSelassiewasal so
hopefulthenew const it
utionwoul dcreateal ongper iodofpeaceandpr osper
it
yi nhis
empi r
eaf teraser i
esofwar sandr ai
dsamongdi ff
erenttri
bes.

2.I
n1955,t heemper orrevi
sedtheconsti
tut
ionthatcreatedanationalassembl ycomprisi
ng
two secti
ons,t heupperandl owerchamber s.Theupperchambercompr i
sedmai nly
member soft heRoyalImperi
alFamil
yandcloseassoci at
esoftheEmper orSelassi
e;while
thelowerchambercamet obeknownast hepeopl e'
spar l
i
ament .Therevisedconsti
tuti
on
recogni
sedvot i
ngrightsoftheEthi
opi
anpeopl e,whichenabledthem tovot efordeputi
es
(repr
esentat
ives)oft helowerchambert hrought hesecr etball
ot.Thismoder nmove
towardspoli
t i
calempower mentofthegrassrootsmasseswasanexpr essionofgr eater
democracy.

3.Emper orSelassiesuccessf ull


yest ablishednat i
onaluni tyi nEt hi
opia.HavingaUni t
ed
Ethi
opianKingdom wasSel assie'sfirstmaj orachi evementashebel i
evedthatt hepower
ofunitywouldbepr otectedbyi nter
est swhi chbi ndEt hiopiansper manentl
yt oget
her.He
wast heref
oreabl etodowhatot herGr eatEthiopianEmper or
sl i
keMenel i
kI I
,Tewodros
andYohannesI V,onlydreamtabout ,"Auni fi
edEt hiopia."Thest ruggl
et ocreateaunifi
ed
moder nstat
ewasbegunbyEmper orMenel ikII
.ThoughEmper orMenelikdi
dnotl i
velong
enought oseehi seffort
sbearf rui
ts,Hai leSelassier ecognisedhi m byunvei
linghisst
atue
duri
nghiscor onati
on( crowning)ceremoni es.

4.Hemadeagr eatcontr
ibutiont ohiscount rybyensur ingthet ot
alaboli
ti
onofsl aver yand
feudali
sm i nt he Ethi
opian empi re.Sl averyand Feudal ism had been st rong age- old
economi cinstit
uti
onsencour agedbyt hepr eviousemper ors.Amongt hewarshef oughti n
Ethiopiai nhi searlyyearsasar egentandl aterasEmper orwer emost l
yagai nstt he
Ethiopianpr ovinci
algover nor swhoopposedt heEmper or'smovet opr ovi
der ightsand
freedomst ot hepoorcommuni ti
esi nEt hiopiat hatwer evicti
msofoppr essionduet o
slaveryandf eudali
sm.Heal soest abl
ishedadepar tmentandaschoolf orfreedsl avest o
rehabil
itatethem from theinf eri
ori
tycompl exofensl avement .
5.Haile Selassi
e made ef fortsto moder ni
se the educati
on syst em ofEt hiopi
a.He
establ
ishedschoolsandcol legesi
nAddi sAbabaandot herprovincialci
ti
esoft heempire.
HesentEt hi
opianstudentst ouni
ver
sit
iesinEngland,Egypt,France,andSyr i
a.Thiswas
ai
medatensur i
ngmoder nplanni
ngofeducat i
oni nthecount r
y.Emper orSel assi
eal
so
upgraded" TafariMakonnenSecondar ySchool"thathef oundedi n1925,i ntoamoder n
educationfaci
lit
y.Herecruit
edFrenchandEnglishteacher
sasi nstructor
si ntheschool.

6.Consequently,theambi t
ionforhi
ghereducat i
onenabl edtheemper ortoestabli
shHai l
e
Selassie IUniversi
ty.He even all
owed a sect i
on ofhi s palace in Addis Ababa to
accommodat esomeoft heimport
antdepar t
ment soft heuniversi
ty.Forei
gnpr of
essors
andexpat ri
ateswer erecrui
tedfr
om Fr ance,Belgium,Brit
ainandSwedent oupl i
ftthe
standardsofuni ver
sityeducat
ioninthecountry.Thiswasasi gnenought oshow t hat
Emper orSel
assiewasnotaconser vati
vemonar chicall
eader.

7.Emper orSelassiemoder nisedt hehealt


hsectoroftheEthiopianmonarchy.Heupgraded
theBetSayda,Hospi t
alhef oundedearli
erin1924i nt
oamoder nheal thyf
acil
i
ty.The
Emper orsetupmor ehospi t
alsinAddisAbabaandi notherprovi
nci
alci
t i
esoftheempire.
Het r
ainedEt hiopi
ant echnocrats(expert
s)inthefi
eldofmoder nmedici
ne,whichwasa
qui
ckr adicalmovei nthef i
eldofhealth.Allt
hiswasduet ohisdesi
reforimprovedheal
th
servi
cesforhi speople.

8.Emper orHai
leSelassi emoder ni
sedtheEt hi
opianmili
tary.Thepr ocessofmoder nisingt he
army began i n 1932,i mmedi at
ely afterthe defeatoft he Goj j
am rebelli
on.The
moder ni
sati
onoft hear mywentonasf astast heEt hiopi
anf i
nancesal l
owed.Sel assie
recr
uited mili
tar
yexper t
sf rom Russia,Belgium and Sweden t ot rai
n Et
hiopian ar my
offi
cersinmoder nwar far
et echnology.TheFr enchand Ger manswer eempl oyed t o
developtheEt hi
opi anairforce.Emper orHaileSelassiesentmi li
tarycadr
est omi li
tary
schoolsinEgypt ,Fr anceandEngl and.TheEmper oral sointroducedmoder nmi li
tary
schoolstotrai
nEt hiopianmili
tar
ygener al
sinmoder nmi l
itar
yintell
igence.

9.Theemper orwascr edi


tedforhavingal iberalatt
it
udet owardsrel
i
gion.Hehadabelief
thatrel
i
gion was a per sonalmat terthatbel onged to allpeoples ofEthi
opi
a.To
demonstr
at ethi
s,Emper orSelassi
emadei mper i
aldomi nat
ionstot heChur
chandthe
Mosquealike.Dur
inghisregime,hesuppor t
edt heEthi
opianChurchtobecomecomplet
ely
i
ndependentfrom t
hecont r
oloftheAlexandrianPatri
archChurch.

10.Emper orHail
eSel assiehadgreatloveforar t
.Hedevot edmostofhismoneyandt imeon
cult
uraldevelopmentespecial
lyinAmhar a.Het r
iedt osuppor
ttheestablishedofcultural
center
si nAddi sAbabaandot herprovinces.Selassi
ewasext remel
yf ondofcl assical
musicandr eadingsi nthefi
eldofphi l
osophy,hi storyandregi
on;li
ttl
ewondert hathe
supportedthei ntegrati
onofhi st
ory,rel
igionandMDD i ntheeducationcur r
iculum of
Ethi
opia.
11.Selassi
ealsoemer gedasamoder ni
zerinthepri
ntingfiel
d.Hemadeef fort
st ot r
ansform
theBerhanennaSalam,or" LightandPeace,"Pri
nti
ngPr essint
oamoder nprinti
ngpr ess.
Hef oundedPressi n1923dur i
nghisdaysasar egentt oEmpr essZawditu.Thepr ess
pri
ntedanAmhar icnewspaperwi t
ht hetit
leof" BerhanennaSal am."Thenewspaper
publi
shedarti
clespopulari
singthecauseofrefor
mi ngandmoder nisi
ngEthiopia.Asteady
fl
owofl i
ter
atur
e,reli
gious,andeducati
onalbooksinAmhar icwerepubli
shed.

12.The emper ori ntroduced moder n politi


calstructur
es in Ethi
opia wher
e moder n and
i
mpor t
antmi ni
stri
esl i
kefinance,internalandf orei
gnaffair
s,healt
handcommuni cati
on
wereestablished.Acounci lofmi nisterswasal sosetupt ost r
engthenadmini
str
ationof
theempire.Hai l
eSel assi
eputupaf ormi dabl
ecivilser
viceinEthi
opia.Al
lthesepolit
ical
devel
opment selevatedhi
mt ot heposi t
ionofamoder ni
ser.

13.Hail
eSelassi
eintr
oducedaschoolofaer ati
on(pil
oting)wher
eEt hi
opi
atrai
nedherown
pi
lot
s,air
craf
tengineer
sandoperators.By1971,ofallcommerci
alair
li
nesontheAfr
ican
cont
inent
,theEt
hiopiaai
rl
inewasful
lyoffi
cer
edandr anbyAfri
cans.

14.The emper orintroduced a f i


ve-yeardevelopmentplan in which he involved for
eign
technocrat
st oassistEthiopi
ai nherdevelopmentprograms.Theset echnocrats(expert
s)
from Europeancount ri
esl i
keFr ance,Sweden,Belgi
um,andBr i
tai
n,aswel lasf rom the
USAwer eanexampl eofacar dinal(ver
yimportant
)relati
onshi
p,theemper orhadwi th
Europe.Ther ef
ore,t he ancientempi re ofEthi
opia shif
ted to modernityand over al
l
progress.

15.Hehadakeeni nter
esti
nallki
ndsofsportsalt
houghwithaper sonalbi
asi
ntennis,
horsebackri
dingandhunti
ng.Hefaci
l
itat
edspor
tssuchthatduri
nghisregi
me,Et
hiopi
a
producedout
standi
ngsport
smenandwomeni ncl
udingt
helegendar
yAbebeasuccessful
l
ongdi st
ancerunner.

16.Hai
leSelassi
eisr
emember edforhisatt i
tudeandcar efortheunfor
tunat
eandunprivi
l
eged.
Hardl
yadaycouldpasswi thouthi
m vi si
tinghospital
s,orphanagesandinst
it
uti
onsofthe
di
sabled.Heputsomeofhi searningsi nt hedisposalf und,whi
chwaschar gedwith
pl
anningandadmini
ster
inginsti
tut
ionsoft hepoorandthesi ck.

17.EmperorHail
eSelassi
ehadl ovef ornature.Despiteofhisagi
ngli
fe,t
heEmperorfound
ti
met orestwi
thhispett
iesthatincludedHor ses,dogsandbir
ds.Hekeptaboutt
hirt
een
l
ionsinhisAddisAbabapal ace,t oget
herwi thmanyhor sesandparrot
s.Thiswasan
i
ndicat
ionofmoderncarefornatureduringhisprivat
eli
fe.

18.Dur
inghi
sregi
me,theemperorsucceededinsecur
ingandmai
ntai
ningt
heEt
hiopi
anseat
i
ntheLeagueofNati
ons.Sel
assiehadr egi
ster
edEthi
opi
aasamemberoftheleaguein
1924,duringhisreignasar egentt ot heEt
hiopiant hrone.Thi senabledEt hi
opiatointeract
wit
hmaj orEur opeanpower sl i
keFr anceandBr i
tainatt hesamel evel.I
tenabl edEthiopia
toparti
cipateininfl
uenti
aldeci si
onsatt heinternationallevel.Bei
ngpar toft heLeagueof
Nationsalsopr ovedthatSel assi
ehadgr eatdesi r
ef orpr omot eEthiopianf orei
gnaf f
airs
(r
elati
ons).TheLeaguepr ovidedhi m wi t
haval uabl eplatformi nhisef f
or t
st odefendhi s
countryagainstthefasci
st-
Itali
anat tackwhichgr eatlythreatenedEthiopianindependence.

19.Asasi gnofconcerntohumani t
y,theleaderofEthi
opiasupportedtheopeningupofthe
Ethi
opianbranchoftheRedCr oss.Theemper orwasi mpressedbyt hesupportgi
venby
theRedCr osstot
hevicti
msoft heItal
ianaggressi
onandoccupat i
onofEthiopi
abetween
1935and1941.Het her
eforegavet hebodyper manentpr
emi sesinEthi
opiatoconti
nue
withthei
rhumanit
ari
anwor ktowardsEthiopi
anpeople.

20.Hisinter
nationalpopul
ari
tyledtothei
nvit
ati
onofEt hi
opiaasoneoft hef oundermembers
oftheUni tedNat ionsorgani
zati
onin1945.Thi smadet heEthiopianempi renotonly
popularbutalsoamaj orcontr
ibut
ortoint
ernat
ionalpeaceandsecur i
ty.Hencebecauseof
Emper orHai l
eSelassi
e,hiscountrybecamepar tofthedeterminingpower sofmoder n
worl
daf fai
rs.

21.HaileSelassi
epr omot edPanAfricani
sm,throughemphasisingcontinentaluni
tyinAfri
ca.
Hisconst r
ucti
vei nf
luencewasseenwhenhewor kedwithNkrumahofGhanaandNasser
ofEgyptt oreconcil
et heCasabl
ancaandMonr oviagr
oupings,l
eadingtot heformat
ionof
theOr gani
sati
onofAf ri
canUnit
y( OAU).TheOAUChar t
erwassi gnedi nAddisAbabaon
May25,1963undert hechairofHai l
eSelassie.Thi
swasamaj orst ept owar
dsbringi
ng
togetherdif
ferentpeoplesofAfr
ica.

22.Consequent
ly,EmperorHail
eSelassi
eproudlyshelt
eredthepermanentheadquar
ter
sof
theOAUi nAddisAbaba.Thiswasamemor abl
esymboloft hemodernconceptofPan
Afri
cani
sm thatcal
ledf
orunityontheAf
ricanconti
nent.Thi
smovebyt heemperormade
Ethi
opiabecomet hecenterofAfri
canpolit
ics,r
eplaci
ngAccraofGhanaandCai r
oof
Egypt.

23.Asamoder nnationali
st,Emper orSelassi
est oodfir
m behindthecausef orcompl ete
freedom ont heAf ri
cancont i
nent.Hewor kedclosel
ywithotherAfri
canst atesment o
ensur etotaldecol
onisationoft heAfri
cancont i
nentfr
om Eur
opeandomi nance.Hesharply
crit
icisedtheUni l
ateralDecl ar
ati
onofI ndependence(UDI)i
nZi mbabweandcondemned
theBr iti
shgovernmentf orf ail
i
ngt oi
nterfer
eandst optheRhodesi
anrebell
ionthatdenied
Af r
icansf r
eedom intheirland.

24.Hail
eSelassiest
rongl
ysuppor
tedpeacef
ulset t
lementofi
nter
stateconfl
ictsi
nAfri
ca.He
advocat
edf orpeacetal
ksandini
ti
atedseveralpeacemissi
onst osett
ledisput
esonthe
conti
nent
.Heusedhi sgoodoffi
cetomedi at
ei ntheSudancivi
lwarleadingtotheAddi
s
AbabaPeace
Tr
eatysignedin1972betweent
heSudanesegover
nmentandtheAnyanyaMovement
.The
Emperoralsomedi
atedi
nthebor
derdi
sput
ebetweenSudanandEgypt
,amongot
her
s.

WeaknessofEmper orHail
eSel
assi
e
1.MuchasHai leSelassi
ewasregardedamoder
nizer
,hedi
dnotl
ivet
otheexpectati
onsof
someEt hiopiansmanyt hi
ngswentwrongandmanyfact
orsf
ail
edhim dur
inghisnat
ion
buil
dingforinstance,

2.The1955-revi
sedconst
it
utiondi
dnotfull
ydemocrati
seEt
hiopi
a.Theconsti
tut
iongavethe
emperorabsolutepowerswhi chtur
nedhi mi nt
o adespot( di
ctat
or)
.Evenwhent he
par
li
amentexi st
ed,itspressurewasunnoticed.Theemper orneverall
owed poli
ti
cal
pl
ural
ism asitwoul
dsubjecthi
mt ocr
it
ici
sm.

3.Becausetheemper orcamef rom t


heAmhar atr
ibe,thetri
bedominatedalltheaffai
rsof
Ethi
opia.TheEthiopi
anmasseswer eexpectedtospeakAmhar i
casanat i
onallanguage
duri
ngHai l
eSelassie'
sreign.Suchexhi
bit
ionoft ri
bal
ism wasalsoexper i
encedi nthe
poli
ti
caloffi
ces where nepoti
sm became a formulaf orst
atel
yappoi ntments.Many
Amhar asmaint
ainedsensi
tiveposi
ti
onsi
ntheEmper or'
sgover
nment .

4.Theemper ormadeOr t
hodoxChri
stiani
tyastat
erel
igi
on.Muchofhi sr
eli
giousatt
ri
butes
weredirectedt otheOrthodoxChurch.Thi
sannoyedtheMuslim communit
yespeciall
yin
the Eri
trean province.The Muslims ral
li
ed behi
nd revol
uti
onist
sto br i
ng abouta
fundament alchangeinEthi
opiaby1974.

5.Duri
ngtheeraofEmper orSel
assi
e,Et
hiopi
aremai nedbackward.Theindustr
ialsectorwas
dimi
nishi
ng.Alotofunemploymentexi
stedandEt hiopi
ansexperi
encedpoorst andardsof
l
ivi
ng.Thiswaspar t
ial
l
yduet otheforei
gndomi nationi
ntheeconomi cactivit
ies.Bythe
ti
meofhisoverthr
ow,themajormeansoft r
anspor ti
nEthi
opi
awasbyhor ses.

6.Consequentl
y,t he emperorempl oyed f
orei
gner
s as his governmentadviser
s.He
appoint
edaSwi ssforlegalissues,anEngl
ishadvi
serf
ori
nternalaffai
rsandaSwedefor
for
eignaffai
rs.Healso,hadanAmer i
canwhogavehimfinancialadvi
ce.Thi
swasi nno
doubtpromotionofneo¬colonial
ism.

7.Theemperorputhisefforttoi
mproveinfr
ast
ruct
ureonahardrock.Thi
swasbecauset he
roadsandrai
lwayl i
nesr emai
nedinadequat
ewhileafew t
hatwer eexist
inghadbroken
down.Manyar easint hecountr
ysideaswel lassomet ownsr emainedremote,not
connect
edori naccessi
ble.Thi
swasoner easonwhyEthiopiaremainedeconomicall
y
backward.

8.Therewasgrossvi
olat
ionofhumanright
sdur i
ngEmperorSelassi
e'
srei
gn.TheEt
hiopi
ans
weredepr
ivedoffr
eedom ofworshi
p,ofspeech,f
reedom ofAssembl
yandofAssociat
ion.
This meantthatthe per
iod Ethi
opia was underHai
l
e Sel
assi
e was domi
nat
ed by
undemocrat
icpol
ici
esandpoli
ti
calanarchy.

9.TheEmper orfai
l
edtorefor
mt helandtenuresystem.Thelandproblem r
emainedconstant
andaf f
ectedmanyoftheEthiopianpeasants.Themost l
yaff
ectedpeoplewer eresi
dents
ofSouthernEthi
opi
awhower elandl
essandst ayedundercruellandowner
st hatcharged
them heavylanddues.Theref
ore,Ethi
opiasufferedfr
om feudali
sm andserfdom dur i
ng
Selassi
e'srei
gn.

10.Between 1972 and 1974,droughtand f amine befellEthiopia and affect


ed manyof
Ethi
opianmasses.Amongt hevi cti
msoft hesecat astr
opheswer et heTi gr
e,Oromo,
Somaliandt heEri
tr
eancommuni ty.Thegover nmentofEmper orSelassiehoweverdid
l
it
tletorescuethesi
tuati
on.Closeto200,000massesl osttheirl
ives.Thiswasoneoft he
unreal
ist
ictr
eat
mentsbyHai l
eSelassie'
sgovernmentt hatledtoitsoverthrow.

11.Pol
iti
cali
nstabili
ti
esi nEthi
opiaatthetimewer eatt
ributedtoHail
eSel assi
e'sgover
nment.
Theemper orrefusedt orecogni
set heinternalsel
f-governmentofEr i
treaandtheOgaden
cl
aim bySomal iresident
s.Thesecont inuouslyinvolvedt heEthi
opiancommuni t
yinwar
wit
h Erit
rea and t he Somal i
ar especti
vely.Many Et hiopi
ans suff
er ed due tothese
i
nstabi
li
ti
es,whi chledtounpopulari
tyoft heEmper or.

12.TheEmper orwasrel
uctanttoimproveont heconditi
onsofthearmy.Thesoldierswere
subj
ectedtopoorpayment s,poorl
ivi
ngcondit
ions,andnepotism dur
ingt
hepr ocessof
promoti
on.Raisedgr
ievancesinthearmy,whi
chpr omptedyoungarmygeneral
slikeHai
le
Mengistut
oplotacoupin1974.

13.The Et hi
opian soci
ety by 1970 was facing an economi c cri
sis charact
eri
sed by
unemployment ,scarci
tyofessenti
als commodi t
ies,economi c stagnat
ion and acute
i
nflat
ion.ThisleftmanyEthiopi
anst
arvi
ng;thewor kersr
eceivedlowpayment swhil
et he
fr
eshgr aduatescoul
dhardlybepost
ed.Thisprompt edmanyEt hi
opiansespecial
lyyouths
togoonst ri
ke,henceexposingt
heweaknessoftheemper orashewasagei ng.

14.EmperorSelassi
ef ail
edt ocurbdownt hehighlevel
sofi l
l
iter
acy.Bythetimehewas
over
thr
ownt heil
li
teracyrat
ewas90- 95%,thehighesti
nAfr
ica.Manyoftheil
l
iter
ateswer
e
unemployed.Thi
sincreasedtheunpopulari
tyoftheemper
or.

15.Biti
ngpovertyclaimedmaj ori
tyoftheEthi
opi
anpopulat
ion.Manyofthem couldnotaf
ford
toeducatet heirchil
dren,cl
oththem orshel
tert
hem.Itwashar dforanEt hi
opi
anduring
HaileSelassie'
sr egi
met omeett hedail
ynecessi
ti
esofl i
fe,t
her
efore,leadi
ngtopoor
standar
dsofl ivi
ng.
16.Ther
ewast oomuchl abourexploi
tat
ioninEthiopi
aduringtheregimeofHail
eSel
assie.
Thewor ki
ngcondit
ionswer ever
ypoorint hecountrychar
acter
isedbyl
it
tl
epaybecause
thegovernmentofSel assiehad notr egul
ated ajustwage.Thewor kerswerealso
expl
oit
edthroughheavytaxati
on.

17.Corr
upti
on and economic mismanagementr ui
ned the governmentofEmper orHai l
e
Sel
assi
e.Manyofhi sgovernmentoffi
cial
ssquanderedpubl icresourcestosati
sfythei
r
sel
fi
shinter
est
s.Theyhadlit
tl
econcernt otheprobl
emsoft hemasses.Theemper ordid
notattemptto convictthe corr
uptgover nmentof f
ici
als,whi ch cal
led f
ormi l
itar
y
i
nter
venti
on.

THEDOWNFALLOFEMPERORHAI LESELASSIE
I
n1974,theEthiopi
anmonar chywasousted(overt
hrown)byagroupofyoungarmyoffi
cers.
Earl
i
eronin1960,Ethi
opiaexperi
encedanabortedcoupforwhi
choneofthecouporganisers
was Hail
e Sel
assie'
s son.The 1960 coup was unsuccessf
uldue tot he hi
gh mil
itary
i
ntel
li
genceoftheemperor.

ByDecember1973,t hesituati
oni nEthiopiawasappal li
ng.Manyofthemasseswer esuffering
15thedr oughtandf aminecat astr
opheswer ewor sening.Theagei
ngemper or(at81year s)
wasadvisedtost epdownbuther efused.InFebr uary1974,agroupofuncompr omisedyoung
armyoffi
cersledbyMengi stuHai l
eMar i
am stagedupanar myupr
isi
ng( mutiny)wheret hey
tookoverthear myleadership.Thej unioroffi
cersestablishedaprovi
sionalmi l
it
aryadvisory
counci
l(Dergue)toassisttheageingemper ori
nmanagi ngthecount
ry'
saf f
air
s.

TheDer guegraduall
yweakenedthepower softheemper orandbySeptember1974,Hai l
e
Sel
assiewasi nsi
gnifi
canti
ngoverni
ngEthiopi
a.Consequentl
y,membersoftheDerguewho
i
ncluded Haile Mengist
u Mari
am,At naf
u Abate and Aman Andom st aged a coup on
September'.1974thatfi
nal
l
yledtothedownfal
lofHail
eSelassi
e'
sregi
me.

Uponhisoverthr
ow,t
heEmperorwastakenf
rom hi
spalacei
nAddi
sAbabaanddet ai
nedinan
excl
usi
vepr i
sonwherehewastort
uredandmist
reat
ed.Hediedayearl
aterundermyst
eri
ous
ci
rcumstances.

CAUSESOFTHE1974ETHI
OPI
ANCOUP(
REVOLUTI
ON)

Referencequestions
a)Accountforthedownf al
lofEmper orHaileSelassiein1974
b)Discussthefactorswhichledtothecollapseoft heEthi
opi
anmonar chyi
n1974
c)Towhatext entdidEmper orHail
eSelassiecontri
butetohisowndownf al
l
?
d)Exami nethefactor
sfortherisetopoweroft heDer guemil
itar
yjunt
a
e)Accountforther i
setopowerofMengi stuHai l
eMar iam

1.Thedr oughtandfaminecat ast


ropheswor senedthesituationinEthiopiaresul
ti
ngt ot he
downf al
lofHail
eSelassi
e.Fami nebrokeoutin1972af teral ongdrought,whichhadst ate
earl
ierin1971.Duetoincreasedstarvati
on,closet
o200000peasant speri
shedespeci all
y
theGal l
a,Shoa,Woll
o,Somal i
aandt heEr i
tr
eans.LaterfloodsinvadedSout hernEthiopia
andsweptawaypeopl e'
shouses,gar densandpr operty.Thewor stpartwast hat,the
governmentofSelasssshowedanegat i
veresponse,whichdi scr
edit
edt heemper or.

2.Incr
easedgri
evancesi
nthear myr
esul
ti
ngfr
om theappal
l
ingcondi
ti
onsmadethe1974
coupinevi
tabl
e.Theof f
ici
alsint
hear myexper
iencedmeagr
epayments,poorl
ivi
ng
condi
ti
onsint ermsofhousingandsanitar
y,anddiscr
imi
nat
iondur
ingtheprocessof
promoti
on.Allt
hegr
ievancesi
nfl
uencedt
heyoungar
mygeneral
stotur
nthetabl
esagainst
theemperorrgover
nment .

3.Thedictat
orshipofEmperorSel
assiecausedhi
sdownf al
l.Thedespot
ism ofSelassiewas
i
ncreasedaf t
erthe1955-revi
sedconstit
uti
onwhi chgavet heimperialhouseabsol ute
powers.Theemper orhencefor
thturnedint
oadi ctat
or.Theparli
amentwasdomi nated
anditsexi
stencewasneverrecogni
zed.Democracywasabol i
shedandt heemper orcould
notall
owpol i
ti
calpl
ural
i
sm asthiswouldsubj
ectbri
nghimt otoomuchcr i
ti
cism.

4.Becausehewascomi ngfr
om theAmhar i
ct ri
be,theemperorledt hesmalltri
beto
domi natethesocio-economicandpoli
ticalaff
air
sofEt hi
opi
a.Mostoft helucr
ati
veand
i
nfluentialpost
si ngovernmentweregivent opeopleofAmharicori
ginandmember sof
theroyalf amil
y.Thisform ofnepot
ism andt ri
bali
sm for
cedtheunprivi
l
egedclansand
tri
best oyearnforchange.

5.Consequently,ther
ewasi ncreaseddomi nati
onofAmhar i
ccul t
ureswhichforcedother
groupsopposet heemper or
'sgover nment.Thenon- Amharicwer eexpect
edt ospeak
Amhar i
clanguage&nat ionallanguageduringSel
assie'sregime.OtherAmhariccul
tures
wereal soforceduntotheot hergr oupssuchthattheOr omo,Sidonaandt heEri
trean
societ
ysuppor t
edtheoverthr
owt hegovernmentofEmper orHaileSel
assi
e.

6.HemadeChr isti
ani
tyastaterel
i
gionwit
ht heOr t
hodoxChur chdominati
ngEthiopi
awhich
caused the 1974 coup.Much oft he reli
gious attr
ibutes were di
rect
ed towards t
he
OrthodoxChur ch.Thi
sannoyedt hefew Mosl emsi nEt hiopi
aespeciall
yint heEri
tr
ean
provi
nce.Someoft hem ral
li
edbehindther evol
utionari
est obri
ngaboutaf undamental
change.

7.Theeconomi cbackwar dnessofEthi


opiamadet hedownfallofHai l
eSel
assi
einevit
able.
By1974,Et hi
opiawasoneoft hemostpr i
miti
vecount
ri
esinAf ri
ca.Thei
nfr
astr
uct
urewas
i
nadequat e and t he f ew avail
able roads and rai
lways had st ar
ted coll
apsing.
Industr
iali
sati
on was ver yl ow;agr i
cult
ure was decl
ini
ng wi th pr
esence of poor
communi cat
ion syst
ems.Dur ing t
het i
meofEmper orSel assi
e,themajormeansof
transportwasbyhor ses.

8.Consequentl
y,theeconomicpr obl
emsi nEthi
opiaaffect
edt hepopularit
yofEmper or
Sel
assie.Therewasgr ossunempl oymentperhapsduet olow l
evel
sofi ndust
ri
ali
zat
ion
andt hecoll
apsingagri
cult
uralsect or
.Themassesexper i
encedscarcityofessential
commodi t
iesand acuteinfl
ation. Alltheseincr
eased thesuffer
ing ofmassesand
worsenedthestandar
dsofli
ving.
9.Emper orSelassieadoptedapoorf or
eignpol i
cyt hatl
edt ohisdownf all
.Hecr eatedan
unfavourablerelat
ionshi
p with USA,whi ch l
ed to economic expl
oit
at i
on ofEt hiopia.
Ethi
opiawasoneoft heleadi
ngcof f
eepr oducersinAfri
cabutallhercoffeewentt oUSAi n
exchangef orAmer i
canindustr
ialpr
oduct s.Consequentl
y,theUSgover nmentdet er
mi ned
thepriceofEthiopi
ancof f
ee.Suchtermsoft r
ademadeEt hi
opi
acompl etelydependenton
Amer i
ca.TheyoungMar xi
starmyof fi
cer srej
ectedsuchpol i
cyar i
dhencest agedupa
coupin1974.

10.Consequentl
y,EmperorHaileSel
assieemployedf orei
gnersashisgover
nmentadvi sors,
whichcostthepopulari
tyofhi
sgovernment.Heappoi ntedaSwissasalegaladvi
sorand
Engli
shforint
ernalaff
air
s,anAmericanforfinancialadviceamongother
s.Togetherwith
theconti
nuedrelat
ionshi
pwithZi
onistIsr
ael,theemper orwasregar
dedbytheEt hi
opian
massesasanagentofneo- col
oni
ali
sm andZi onism.

11.Thei ncreased poli


ti
calinstabil
i
tiesin Et
hiopi
acaused thedownfalloft heEthiopi
an
monar chy.Theemper or'
sgovernmentf ai
l
edt osolvethearmedconfli
ctintheOgaden
provi
nce.Consequent l
y,thepersist
entEri
treancri
sissi
nce1961strai
nedt heEthiopi
an
armyt hatwasal readyconcernedwi thpoorwelfar
e.Thiscal
ledf
ormi l
itar
yint
erventi
on
fr
om theyoungMar xistoffi
cer
s.

12.Theincreasedviolat
ionofhumanr i
ght
sbyHaileSelassi
e'
sgover nmentl
edtothecoll
apse
oftheEt hi
opianmonar chy.Thepeopleweredepri
vedoff reedom ofworshi
p,fr
eedom of
associ
ationandofassembl y.Thi
smeantthatEthi
opiansduringtheti
meofHai l
eSelassi
e
weresuf fer
ingliket herestoft heAfri
cansduringcoloniali
sm.Theemper orhadput
Ethi
opiainthestateofconf usi
onandanarchy.

13.Fail
urebyt heemper ort
orefor
mt helandt enuresyst
em madehi sdownfal
li
nevi
table.The
Ethi
opianmassesespeci al
lyofthesout hernregi
oneitherhadnolandortheywereunder
thecontrolofl
andlordswhochargedt hem highlanddues.Thepoorlandpoli
cyi
nEt hiopi
a
wasal soperpetuatedbyfeudali
sm andser fdom.Alltheseincr
easedtheunpopulari
tyof
theageingemper oramongthepeasant s.

14.Thehighrateofill
it
eracycausedthedownf al
lofEmper orHail
eSelassi
e.Ethiopi
aatthe
ti
meexperiencedthehighestrat
eofill
it
eracyonthecont i
nentofabout90-95percentof
hertot
alpopulat
ion.Thefeweducatedwer econcentr
atedinurbanareasespecial
l
yAddis
Ababa.Thisleftthevill
ageswithalmostnoonet ointr
oduceanychanges.Thehi gh
i
ll
it
eracywasoneoft heexplanat
ionsoftheunemploymentlevel
sinthecountry.

15.Consequent l
y,theemer gencyoftheeli
teclassinEthi
opi
aledtot heoverthrowofHai le
Selassie'sGovernment.By1955,t henumberofwest erneducatedpeoplewasst eadi
ly
i
ncr easingi
nt hecountry.Theeli
teswerecharact
eri
sedbyimpatience,andthedesirefor
radicalchanges.Theel i
teclasswasgr eat
lyopposedtoHai l
eSel assi
e'
sl ow paceof
change,andt hisledt
othe1974r evol
uti
on.
16.Cor
rupti
onandeconomi cmi smanagementt hatcharact
eri
sedt hegover nmentofHai l
e
Sel
assiemadehi sdownf allinevit
able.Thegover nmentofficialsandt her oyalfamil
y
embarked on expl
oit
ing and wast ing Et
hiopi
an resour
ces f orsel f
-sati
sf action.Hail
e
Sel
assieensuredthatal otofr esourceswer echanneledfori mperialf unctions.The
emperor'
stendencyofbanki ngal otofmoneyi nf orei
gnfinanci ali
nstitutionsl i
kethe
Swi
ssbanki nGenevamadet heemper orunpopul
ar,causi
ngthe1974r evolut i
on.

17.Pover t
ythatclai
medmaj ori
tyoftheEt hi
opi
anpopul ati
onl edt o mil
itar
yi nt
ervent
ion
throughacoup.TheEt hi
opianpeasantscoul
dhar dl
yeducatet hei
rchil
dren,feedthem or
cloththem.Thiswaswor senedbyt hepoorwor ki
ngconditi
onsi nthecount rythatwere
alsoexperi
encedinthear my.Thef ai
lur
ebyt hegover nmentt oaddresst heeconomi c
problemsofthepeasantsl
edt othedownfal
loftheEthi
opianmonar chy.

18.Theover t
hrowofHai leSelassiewasalsoaresultofambiti
ousint
erestsofyoungsocial
i
st
offi
cer
s,At nafu,Mengi st
uandAndom.Thesemi li
tar
ywant edtotestpower ,ref
ormthe
mili
tar
yandest abl
ishasoci al
i
ststatei
nEthi
opia.Theydetestedaconservati
veandmean
HaileSelassiewhodespi tehisageinglif
ehadr ef
used,tostepdown.Theyf ormedthe
provi
ncialmili
taryadvisorycounci
l(Der
gue)i
nFebr uary1974,whi
chl at
ertookoverpower
fr
om SelassieinSept ember1974.

19.Thei nfl
uenceoftheear l
iersuccessf
ulcoupsi nAfri
cal edtothedownf al
lofEmper or
Sel
assie.Theovert hr
ow ofHai l
eSel assi
ewast heref
ore,ademonst rat
ionef f
ect .The
coups thathad an i mpacton Et hi
opiaincl
uded the 1965 coups i
n Algerial ed by
Boumedi enneagai
nstBenBel la,andCongol edbyMobut uagai
nstKasavubu,the1966
coupsi nNiger
iae.g.theJanuarycoupofI gbooffi
cersledbyNzeogwuagai nstTaf awa
BalewaandGhanal edbyKotokaagainstNkrumah,the1971coupi nUgandal edbyAmi n
againstOboteandtheGhanaiancoupof1972l edbyAcheampongagai nstKofiBusia.

THEAFTERMATHOFHAI LESELASSI E'SDOWNFALL


The1974coupi nEt hi
opiathatl edtot heover t
hrow ofHai l
eSel assiewasf ol
l
owedbya
revoluti
on.TheDer guei mmedi at
el yest
ablishedami l
it
arygovernmentaf tert
he44year sof
Selassie'
srule.TheDer guewashowevermar redwithpowerst ruggleswhi chsawt heearl
ier
Derguel eadersli
keBant eandAt nafubeingassassi nat
ed.Consequent ly,theoverambiti
ous
Mengi stuMar i
am alsosel ecti
vel
yel i
minatedAndom ast rongri
valt otheDer gueleader
ship.
Thisl eftMengi stu Mar i
am wi t
h no ser ious compet i
torand t heref
or e,he became the
undisputedchairpersonoft heDerguein1977.

EFFECTSOFTHE1974REVOLUTION
Refer
encequest
ions
a)Examinetheimpactoft
hedownf
allofEmper
orSel
assi
e

b)Expl
aint
heef
fect
soft
he1974r
evol
uti
onar
ycoupi
nEt
hiopi
a

c)Assesst
heachi
evement
soft
heDer
guebet
ween1974and1991

d)Towhatext
entdi
dMengi
stuHail
eMari
am achieveinEt
hiopi
afrom 1977t
o1991
1.Ther
evol
uti
onledtot
hedownfal
lofHai
leSelassi
eandt heabr
uptendoftheSol
omoni
c
dynasty.Thi
salsobroughttoanendari
stocr
aticmonarchi
sm undertheAmhara.Et
hiopi
a
recei
vedami li
tar
yregi
meknownast heDergue( thePr
ovi
sionalMi
li
taryAdvi
sor
yCouncil
),
whichat t
emptedtoaddressthepr
obl
emsofEt hiopi
a.

2.The new mi l
i
tar
yr egi
me underHaile Mengist
u adapted soci
ali
stpol
ici
es aimed at
i
mpr ovi
ngtheeconomicandsoci
alcondi
tionsinEthi
opi
a.Allsect
orswer
enat i
onal
izedby
thegovernmentandputunderstat
econt rol
.Thegovernmentt henembarkedonst at
e
planni
ngwhichgaveherthemandatetotakeful
lcontr
oloftheeconomyforthebenefi
tof
masses.

3.The l
and t
enure syst
em was reformed.The Dergue pr
omot ed a l
and pr
ogr
am that
benef
it
edmanyhouseholds.Thi
swasi mport
antinthesouthernpar
tofthecount
rywhere
cl
oseto700000peasanthouseholdsbenefi
tedfrom t
hisgovernmentgestur
e.I
nMar ch
1977,alandreform decr
eewaspassedwher eal lagri
cult
urall
andwasnat i
onal
ized
wit
houtcompensati
onandthenredist
ri
but
edtothepeasants.

4.Mengistuandt heDergueemphasi sedinf


rastruct
uredevelopment.Thepolicyincl
uded
i
mpr ovi
ngont hebuil
dingstruct
ures,r
oadsar i
dbridges,aswellasextendi
ngr oadsand
rai
lwayslines.Thisimprovedont heEthi
opiant r
ansportandcommuni cat
ionsystems,
encouragedagr i
cul
tur
eandr edeemedthecountryofbackwardness.

5.Therewasi mprovementintheprovi
sionofsocialser
vicesforinstancemedicalservi
ces
wereimprovedandextendedt otheruralar
easfreeofcharge.Thepeasant swereableto
recei
veadequatemedi cati
on.Thegover nmentofMengi st
uest abli
shedmor ehospital
s
andhealthcent
ersineveryprovi
nceasawayofi mprovi
ngont hehealthcondi
ti
onsforthe
people.

6.Il
l
iteracy campai
gns were carri
ed-
outfoll
owing the downfallofHai l
e Sel
assie.The
campai gnswereorgani
sedthroughl
ocalassoci
ati
onsatt hegrassr
ootsalt
houghthiswas
sti
lldoneinAmharic.I
ll
i
ter
acyr at
eswereconsequentl
yreducedfrom about95%to50%.

7.Themi li
tar
yregi
mei ni
ti
atedt heest
ablishmentofwor kerscommitt
eesandor ganizati
ons
purposelytoimproveont heconditi
onsoft heworkers.Thi
salsoledtothecr eationof
tr
ade–uni ons. Asaresult,planst
or egulat
eami ni
mum andj ustwageforworker swere
adoptedbyt hegovernment .Thesoci al
istpoli
cyadopt edbyMengistureducedl abour
exploi
tat
ion.

8.Themi li
tar
ygovernmentledbyMengi stuadopt edahousi ngpoli
cyaimedatf indi
ng
sol
utiontothepoorhousi
ngfaci
l
iti
esofthepoorpeasants.I
n1975,allur
banhouseswere
nati
onali
zedandrentwastobecoll
ect
edbypubl icaut
hor
ityestabl
i
shedbygovernmenton
one'
searnings.Ur
bandwell
erswereal
sor est
ri
ctedtoowningonehouse.

9.Mengi st
uandt heDer
gueintr
oducedapr ogr
essivet
axati
onsyst
em ai
medatimprovi
ngon
thefi
scalpoli
cyi nEt
hiopi
a.Pollt
axwasr educedinfavourofl
owincomeearner
switha
newt axpayasyouear n'i
ntr
oduced.Thenewf i
scalpol
icywasaimedatr
educi
ngthegap
betweent her
ichandthepoor.

10.Ethni
csm (t
ribali
sm)thatwascommoni ntheoldregi
mewasweakened.TheDer gue
emphasized equali
tyofallnational
sand cul
tur
esofEt hiopi
a,Off
ici
alrecogni
ti
on to
publi
cat
ioninallwaspromoted.Thishel
pedi
nensuri
ngunit
yinthecount
ry.

11.ThegovernmentofMengi sturecogni
zed ther ight
sofEr itr
eans.TheEr it
reanswere
all
owedtopr act
iceIsl
am,abandonAmhar i
candEngl ishfortheirlocall
anguagesand
aboveall
,Mengistur
ecognizedt
hei nt
ernalself-
governmentofErit
rea.Thisbr
oughthope
totheCoast
alRedSeapr ovi
nceandcontributedtoacease-f
ireforsomet i
me.
12.Ther ewasimpr ovementinAgri
cult
ureandthisledtoincreasedagr i
cul
turalproducti
on.An
i
ncr ease i
n cof f
ee export
ati
on was reali
sed,leadi
ng t oincr eased nationalear ni
ngs.
Growi ngoftea.Tobaccoandnut swasalsoencouragedt odiversifytheagricult
uralsect
or.
Statef ar
mswer esetupt opr ovi
demor eempl oymentt ot hepeasant s.Al lthesewere
at
t aineddespit
et hesever
edroughtthatper
sist
eduntil1978.

13.Thegover nmentofMengi stuembarkedonmassi ndustri


alisat
ion.Manyindustri
eswere
sett oi ncrease on industri
aloutputand reduce on consumpt i
on off or
eign goods.
Industr
iali
sationalsoimprovedont hewelf
areofpeoplet hroughemployment.Byt heend
of1976,t hemi ni
stryofnru.3tr
ycontrol
l
edthegreat
estpar tofmanufactur
ingindustr
iesi
n
Ethiopi
a.

14.Mengistupromotedt our
ism duri
nghi sr
eign.Thetouri
stindust
ryboomedduet ocult
ural
pi
eti
esofEt hi
opia,thesceni
cbeaut y,hi
stor
icalsi
ghtsandt her
ichhi
storyofthecountry.
Manyf or
eigntouri
stswereattr
acted,whichledtoanincr
easeingovernmentrevenues.

15.Unliket hegover
nmentofHai l
eSel assie,theDergueextendedhumani tar
ianaidtot he
unpr i
vi
legedandt hepoor.Thegover nmentofMengi stuallowedf orei
gninvest
orsand
humani tar
ianworker
stooperatei
nt hecount r
yandassi
stgover nmenttoaidtheEthi
opian
refugeesint hef
amine-
ravagedar
eas.Thi swasasi gnofcar ebyt hegovernmentforthe
disadvantagedasMengi st
uusedt her evenuescoll
ect
edf r
om t ouri
sm tocaterforthei
r
wel f
are.

16.TheDergueunderMengist
upromotedar esettl
ement(repat
ri
ation)progr
am intheareas
str
uckbyfamineanddrought
,andlaterf
loods.In1976,theprogram ensuredr
epatr
iati
on
ofabout660000peopl
ef r
om theareasaffect
edbydr ought
,toar easwithfer
ti
lesoil
sin
thenor
thandtheeast
.

WEAKNESSES( SHORTCOMI NGS)OFMENGI STUANDTHEDERGUE


Muchast hepoliti
cal,socialandeconomi cpoliciesoftheDer guereformedEt hi
opia,the
regi
me underMengi stuf aced sever
alproblems.Mengi stuf ai
l
ed to solve manyoft he
probl
emshence,theDer guecouldnotkeepst anding.In1991,aft
eralongper i
odoff i
ghting,
MelesZenawiandt heEt hiopianPeoples'Revol
ut i
onaryDemocr at
icFrontwithassistance
from t
heEri
tr
eanpopul arLiber
ati
onFrontofIsayasAf ewerki
,capt
uredpowerandcausedt he
coll
apseoftheDergue.Theweaknessoft hemi li
tarygovernmentunderMengi stuMar i
am
i
ncludedt
hefoll
owing:

Ref
erence
a)Accountf orthecollapseoftheDer gueby1991
b)'
Mengi stuHaileMar i
am waspr i
mar il
yresponsi
bleforhi
sowndownf al
l'Discuss
1.Att hebeginni
ng,theDer guewasf acedwi t
hethnicconf
li
cts.Ethni
cgr oupsl i
ket heOromo
andSi donawant edt odominatetheEt hi
opianaff
air
sattheexpenseofot hergroups.Thi
s
causedci vilunrestinthecount ry.Thegover nmentofMengi st
uhadi nit
iall
yfail
edto
cont ai
nthesituati
onleadingtoincreasedsuspi
cionandmi st
rustintheEt hiopiansoci
ety.

2.Consequentl
y,theDer guewasf acedwithhosti
li
ti
esf rom theformerr uli
ngcl assand
sympathi
zersofHaileSelassi
e.Theylat
erformedtheEt hiopi
anDemocr aticUnion(EDU)
andcooperatedwit
ht heanti
-Marxi
stSudanesegovernmentofGener alNimi er
i.Menist
u’s
gover
nmental mostfail
edtosil
encetheEDUwhol aterjoinedtherebelforcesagainsthis
gover
nment .

3.ThegovernmentofMengi stuwasfacedwithconstantErit
reansecessi
onistr
ebel
li
onat
thesameti
me,Mengi st
u'sregi
mewasengagedi naf ul
l
-scalewarwithSomali
aoverthe
Ogadenterr
it
oryunt
il1978.Thesemil
it
aryconf
ront
ationsstrai
nedtheDerguegover
nment
andt
heEt
hiopi
aneconomyatl
arge.

4.I
nternall
y,t
herewereincreasedpoli
ti
calinstabi
l
iti
esinEthiopiat hatthegover
nmentof
Mengistufai
ledtocontai
n.TheTigrePeople'sLi
berati
onFront( TPLF)inthenort
hjoi
ned
handswi thotherminorethnicgroupst oform ami li
tar
yal l
iancei nthenameoft he
Ethi
opianPeople’
sRevoluti
onaryDemocr at
icFrontunderMel esZenawi .Consequent
ly,
thi
smi l
it
aryall
i
ancecausedthedownfallofMengistuandtheDer gue.

5.Thelandpolicythatwasr efor
medbyMengi st
udi dnotbenefitallEthiopians.Whileonly
700000householdswer ebenef i
ci
ari
es,majori
tyoftheEt hi
opi
ansespeci all
yinthesout h
werenotrescuedfrom thecustomaryform ofl
andowner shi
pthataf f
ectedt hem sever
ely.
'
theyvsubjectedtof eudal
ism andserfdom.Thei nconsist
entlandpol icyoft heDergue
ther
efor
ereducedt hepopulari
tyoft
heDer gueespeci
all
yinthesout hernregion.

6.Thenat i
onal
isat
ionpoli
cyonl andledtof amine.Thepol i
cycauseddecl i
nei nagr
icul
tural
producti
onleadi
ngt oseverefoodshortage.Foll
owingthenat i
onal i
sation,thegovernment
putmuchemphasi sonst at
ef ar
mst hatpr omotedlar gecapital-
intensivefarmingwith
i
nteresti
ncashcr opsast hepeasantsectorwasi gnored.Ethiopiansembar kedoncoffee
andcottonproducti
onattheexpenseoff oodcr ops,whichledtost arvati
on.

7.Therewer erebell
ionsorganizedbyeli
teswhower enoti mpr essedbythesociali
stpolicies
ofmengi stu'
sgover nment.Duet othisoppositi
on,thegover nmentt r
ansferr
edstudent s,
teacher
sandot hereducatedgroupstor ur
alareasundert hegui seofcar
ryingoutli
ter acy
campaigns,however ,inst
eadofsi l
encingthem,t heeducat edmassesbeganpol i
ti
cisi ng
thepeasant swi t
hanai m ofprepari
nggr oundfort hei
rr ecrui
tmentagainstMengi st u'
s
government .

8.Mengist
uf ail
edtocont ai
ninter
naldi
vi
sionswithintheDer gue.Therewer eideol
ogical
conf
li
ctsbetweenmember swhosympathi
sedwithsocial
ism andthoseagainstthepoli
cy.
Powerstrugglescont
inuedeati
nguptheDergue,whichforcedMengi st
utoar r
estandki l
l
hi
srival
si ntheDergue:theDerguememberssel ect
ivel
yeliminat
edwer e,Bante,Atnaf
u
Abat
eandamonAndomn.

9.Consequently,Mengistu Hail
e Mar iam became a mil
it
arydictat
orwho replaced t he
ari
stocratedict
ator
shipofSel assi
e.Heabol i
shedtheparl
iamentevenwhenitwasnon-
functi
onalandalsobannedt heactivi
tiesofopposi
ti
onpol
it
ici
ans.Mengi
sturul
edEt hiopia
throughdecrees.Thedespoticpoli
ciesoftheDerguepr
eparedgroundsf
orthedownf allof
Mengi st
u.

10.Nati
onali
sati
onofl andledtodi
spl
acementofpeople.Thedispl
acementgr
osslyaffect
ed
thepoorEthi
opi anpeasantsint
hesouth.Int
heprocess,f
amili
esspl
itwhi
chalsolowered
agri
cul
tur
alpr oductionbyabout30%.I
nt heduecourse,manypeopledi
edduet olackof
scur
vyandpr oteins.

11.General
l
y,the famine catastr
ophe conti
nued:even when t he Dergue t
ri
ed to gi
ve
humanit
ari
anassist
ancet otheaffectedmasses,st
arvat
ionandsuffer
ingconti
nuedupto
1978.Thehumani t
arianassist
ancewasnotenought osati
sfytheexpectat
ionsofthe
masses,andt
histestedthepopulari
tyofMengist
u.

12.Ther evol
uti
onarygover
nmentofMengi stufai
ledinhereffort
st oimproveont hel abour
conditi
ons.The minimum wage r emained on paperwhi l
ej ob regi
strat
ion was not
i
mpl ementedtoensurejobsecur
it
y.Thehi ghlevel
sofinf
lati
onf r
ozethewor ker
s'wages,
str
ikeswer ebannedandt r
adeunionleaderswer eimpri
soned.Themi li
tarygovernment
washencedi scr
edit
ed.
13.Povert
ywasnotwi pedoutofEt hi
opia.Manyoft hemassesr emainedunemployed,
suff
eredfrom economicconst
rai
ntsandsur
vivedongover
nmenthandouts.Byt
heti
meof
theovert
hrowofMengi st
uandDergue,t
heeconomicsit
uat
ioni
nEthiopi
awasappal
li
ng.

14.Mengistu embarked on intensi


ve mil
i
tar
isat
ion atthe expense ofothergover
nment
depart
ment s.Megami li
tarydealswiththeSovietUnionandCubamadeMengi stuto
spendal otofEt hi
opianr esourcesoncommuni start
il
lerywhil
eot hersect
orsofthe
Ethi
opiansociet
ywereunderf unded.

15.Wi t
ht heaboveweaknessest hatcharacter
isedt her
egimeofMengi stuandt hejunta
(mili
taryr egime),the Der
gue could notcontinue i
n power.The Et hi
opian People'
s
RevolutionaryDemocrati
cFrontMelesZenawiopenedupaguer ri
ll
awaragai nstMengistu,
whichl aterl
edtot hedownfal
loft
heDer guein1991.Atransi
ti
onalgovernmentwasputi n
placeledbyMel esZenawi.

16.Af
termakinganewconst it
uti
on,Ethi
opi
aret
urnedtoci
vi
li
anrul
eelect
ionswereheldand
meleszenawiover
whelmingl
yemergedasthewinner
.Hebecamethefi
rstexecut
ivepr
ime
mi
nisterofEt
hiopi
ain1995,aposit
ionheunt
ilhi
sdeat
h.

EGYPTI ANREVOLUTI ON(1952- 70)


Egyptwaspar toftheanci
entOt t
oman(Turki
sh)Empire;however,by1882theBrit
ishhad
occupiedEgypt.TheBri
ti
shconquestofEgyptwasai medatcontrol
l
ingandsecur
ingtheSuez
Canal,inordertocoll
ectfundsandpayt heEur opeanf
inanci
ersoft heSuezproj
ect.Egypt
becameof f
icial
lyaBri
ti
shprotectorat
edur
ingWor l
dWarI.

In1922,theBri
ti
shgr antedEgyptaPseudo(t
heoret
ical
)independence.Pract
ical
ly,t
heBriti
sh
conti
nuedcontroll
ingtheeconomyofEgyptandsi gnif
icantl
y,theSuezCanal .TheEgyptian
monar chyremained solel
ydependentont heBr i
ti
shf orprotect
ion,and formi l
it
aryand
economi cai
d.KingFar oukwhosucceededhisfat
herFuadi n1936ensuredt hecontinui
tyof
thestatusquoofBr i
ti
shinfl
uencei
ntheEgypti
anmonarchicalaf
fair
s).

Thel eadershi
pofKi ngFar oukwaschar acteri
sedbycor r
upti
onandeconomi candsoci al
hardshipswi t
har emar kablegapbet weent herichandt hepoor.Duri
ngWor l
dWarI I
,King
Faroukallowedt heGer mans( ofAxispower s)toestabl
ishthei
rmili
tar
ycampoft he(
Afr
ika
corps)int heNor t
hernpor t-
cityofAl exandria,atat i
mewhent heBrit
ish(ofAll
i
edpowers)
wereoper ati
ngami li
tarybasef ort
heireighthbattal
ionintheCanalZone.Thiswasoneofthe
reasonst hatpr ompt edt hef ormationoft heFr eeOffi
cersMovement( orSoci
etyofFree
Offi
cers)undert hear chi
tectureofayoungmi l
it
aryoffi
cer,AbdelGamalNasserandAnwar
Sadat.Sadatjoinedt heGer manAf r
ikaCor psbutwascapt uredbytheBri
tish.

GamalAbdelNasserhadt heambi t
iont ooverthr
owt hemonar chicalsystem andestabli
shan
ArabRepubli
cwithoutinfluenceoft heBr i
ti
sh.Thef reearmyof ficer
s’becamest rongerand
commi t
tedaft
erthedef eatofacol l
ectiveArabr esi
stanceagainstthenewl ycreatedIsrael
i
Nati
oninthePalesti
niancr i
sisof1948- 49.Thesur vi
vi
ngf r
eearmyof f
icersofthePalesti
nian
warblamedKingFaroukf orsupplyi
ngt hem withinadequateessential
sandi nf
eri
orarms.

Thef r
eear myof f
icer
supon'r
etur
nfr
om Palesti
neestabl
i
shedaspecialcommi
tt
ee(the
revol
uti
onarycommandcouncil
)wit
hNasserAbdel
,AnwarSadatandMohammadNegui
bas
theinf
luent
ialf
igur
es.

Ther evol
uti
onarycommandcounci lsight
edmanysoci o-economi c,poli
ti
calandr el
igious
probl
emsdur ingthereignofFarouk,whichforcedthem toor gani
zeacoupde' tat
.Thef ree
armyof fi
cer
sset1954ast heyearforthecoupbutt helocalintell
i
gencenet workofki ng
Faroukacquir
edinformationonaplannedmili
tarycoupbyasect ionoft hearmyandar r
anged
toarrestt
hecouppl ott
ers.Inor
dertopre-
emptt heproposedar r
estovertreasoncharges,the
f
reeoff
icer
sst agedtheircoupont heni
ghtofJul
y22,1952.Thecoupwasbl
oodl
essand
f
acedaf eeble(weakr esi
stance.Thecoupwasnotonlyaimedatover
thr
owi
ngapuppet
monar
chbutspeci fi
cal
lytodoawaywi thBr
it
ishdomi
nati
onthathaddefi
l
edtheEgypt
ian
I
slami
cnationformanyyears.

ThecausesoftheEgypt
ianr
evol
uti
onar
ycoupwer
epol
it
ical
,soci
alandeconomi
cand
i
ncl
udedthef
oll
owing.

Ref
erenceQuest
ions'
a) Accountforthedownf
alloft
heEgypt
ianmonar
chyi
n1952

b)"
The1952Egypt
iancoupwasi
nevi
tabl
e."Di
scuss

c) Towhatext
entdi
dKi
ngFar
oukcont
ri
but
etot
hecol
lapseoft
heEgypt
ianmonar
chy?

d)How farwer
etheweaknessesoft
heEgypt
ianmonar
chyr
esponsi
blef
ort
he1952
coup?

e) Assesst
her
oleoft
hesoci
etyoff
reeof
fi
cer
sint
he1952Egypt
iancoup

f
) Exami
net
hecont
ri
but
ionofGamalNassert
otheout
breakoft
heEgypt
ianr
evol
uti
on

g)"
Pol
it
icalf
act
orswer
eresponsi
blef
ort
hedownf
allofKi
ngFar
ouk.
"Di
scuss

h) "
TheBrit
ishcol
oni
all
egacywaspr
imar
il
yresponsi
blef
ort
he1952coupi
nEgypt
."
Di
scuss

Pol
it
icalf
actors:
1.Thechar acterandpersonali
tyofki
ngFar oukmadet he1952r evolut i
onarycoupinevi
tabl
e
Farouk'sl eadershi
p was f ul
lof despot i
sm and aut ocracy.Far ouk was never a
constit
uti
onalki ng and his word was absolute.He interfered di rect
lyinleadershi
p
appointment stot he senate,and even att he gr
assroots.He deni ed t
he Egypti
ans
democr ati
cr i
ghtsli
kefreedom ofexpressi
on.'hecensoredmai ls( postsandtel
egraphs),
he censor ed the press and banned polit
icalopposition act ivit
ies.Thisi ncr
eased
oppositi
onagai nstt
hekingevenwi t
hinthearmy,causingthe1952coup.

2.Thekingwasgener al
lyaweakl eader.Duet olackofpol iti
calchari
sma,thekingcoul dnot
standtohiswor dtoimplementgover nmentpol i
cies.Forei
gnersespeciall
ytheBr i
ti
shand
Turkswer esoinfluenti
alinhispol i
ti
caldecisions.Hehar dl
ydi danyt
hingtopr eventhis
forei
gncompat ri
otsf r
om exploiti
ngt hemasses.Accor dingt othemember soft hefree
offi
cers’movement ,t
heki nglackedmut ualrespectf orhisaut hor
it
y.Hisleadershipwas
dogmaandhet houghtt hathist hr
onewasunt ouchable.Nasserhenceor ganiseda
revol
utiontooust(overt
hrow)thepuppetki ng.

3.Thegovernmentofki ngFar oukwascor rupt:apar tfrom embezzl i


nggovernmentf unds,
therewasal otofbri
beryeveninthecourtsofl aw.Br iberyinmostcasesputt hepol i
tical
sit
uati
onbeyondi maginat
ion.Acquiri
ngaj obi nt heci vi
lservi
cewasi mpossi
bleunl ess
onedugdeepi ntothei
rpockets.Thecour tsofl aw wer er unthroughbuyingjust
ice,as
thoseaccusedcouldnotsurvivewit
houtpayingcour toffi
cial
sthroughthebackdoor .This
mademanypeasant st ogiveinthelitt
letheyhadf orfearofbei ngdetai
ned.Theonl y
answertosuchi nj
usti
cesaccordi
ngtoNasserwasar evol
ut i
on.

4.TheEgypti
ancol
onialhistoryi
nfluencedt
he1952revol
uti
on.Egypthadlong-
term coloni
alj
dominat
ionbythePer sians,Greeks,Tur
ksandlatert
heBr i
ti
sh.Formuchoft heper i
od,
Egypt
waspartofthevastTur kishEmpi r
easamer eprovi
ncebeforetheBri
tishforceful
ly
occupi
ed herin 1882. Allthesepr ocessesofchanging f
oreign aut
hor
it
yaggri
eved
Egypti
answhodespi sedthe1922i ndependenceasnotgenui ne.Theycondemnedthe
conti
nued expl
oit
ati
on bytheBr i
ti
sh. The1962 mi li
tarycoup washenceai med at
achi
evingagenuinei
ndependencei
nEgypt .

5.Consequent lythecontinueddomi nationandpr i


vi
legesenj oyedbyt heBr it
ishinEgypt
alarmedt herevol
uti
onar i
es.TheBr iti
shi nf
luencedpolit
icaldecisi
onsoft hegover nment
ofkingFar oukandhel dposi t
ionsofi nf
luenceint hearmy.Theycont roll
edt heEgypt i
an
forei
gnpol icyandwor stofal l
,theBr i
ti
shhadashar ei ntheSudanesegover nmentyet
Sudanwasmeantt obef ul
lycontroll
edbyEgypt .TheBr iti
shexploitedEgyptt hrough
encour agi
ngcashcr oppr oducti
onatt heexpenseoff oodcr ops.Theyinsteadpromot ed
smal l
-scal
ei ndustr
ies in Egyptas a way ofcr eating mar ketfort heirindust r
ial
commodi t
ies.ThisBri
tishneo- col
onialinfl
uenceint heEgypt iansocietyinfl
uencedt he
mi l
it
arytoef f
ectacoup.

6.Equallyso,thecont inuedcontroloftheSuezCanalbyt hef orei


gner
smadet hedownfal
lof
kingFarouki nevitable.TheSuezCanalpr ojectwasoneoft hemaj orsourcesofEgypt
ian
revenueandbei ngi nt hehandsoft heBrit
ishandt heFr enchledtoi ncomerepat
ri
ati
on:
Egyptcouldonl ygetasmal lshareoft hecanalrevenues.Nat i
onal
i
stsl i
keNasserdesi
red
tonational
izet heSuezCanali nor dert
omaket hegovernmentofEgypthavef ul
lcontr
olof
theSuezCanalr evenues. Thi swashowever ,possibleifkingFar oukwasoutoft he
Egyptianpolit
icalscene.

7.Thegr ievancesi nt heEgypt i


anar myi nfluencedt hefreear myof fi
cerst oorgani
zea
mili
tarycoupi n1952.Thear myf acedmanyunf avour
ablecondi t
ions:itwasoneoft he
weakestofal lsectorsinEgypt .Thear myof fi
cersexperi
encedirregulari
ti
esi nmil
it
aryand
foodsuppl i
es,poorhousi ngam meagerpay.Thear mywasi l
l-
tr
ainedandi l
lequi
ppedwi t
h
i
nferiorweapons,whi chther evolutionari
escl ai
medl edtot heirdefeatint hePalest
ini
an
war.Ther ewasal ot.offavourit
ism i nthepr omot i
ontothear myr ankswher et
heBr i
ti
sh
andt hekinghadgr eatinfl
uence.Tomakesaber swor se,theBr i
ti
shenj oyedpri
vil
egesin
theEgypt i
anar my.Thi sforcedt hear mytot urn1^ 3againstthegover nmenti norderto
changet hesituat
ion.

8.Theweaknessoft heWAFDpar t
ycausedgr ievancesamongt hemasses.Thepar tywas
dominatedbyt hewealthf amili
esandf ail
edt or epresentthegr i
evancesoft hemaj orit
y
peasants and the smallbour geoisi
e( mi ddle class).The par ty and it
s government
especial
l
yunderPr imeMi nisterNahasPashaf ailedt oreducethegapbet weenther ich
andt hepoor,andcol l
aboratedwi thKingFar oukt opr omot eBriti
shinter
estsinEgypt .
Member soft heWAFDpar t
yenj oyedal uxur i
ousl ife,ownedl argechunksofl andand
enj
oyedmanyot herpr
ivi
leges.Thisannoyedpoorpeasant swhocondemnedt heactivit
ies
ofWAFDmember sandhencesuppor tedt her evolutionar
iesagainstkingFaroukandt he
WAFDpar t
ygovernment.

9.TheAr ab- Israel iconfl


ict(Pal esti
nianwar )of1948- 49wasoneoft heimmedi atecausesof
theEgypt i
anr evoluti
on.Si ncet heproclamat i
onoft heIsrael inat
ionin1948,theAr abwor l
d
i
mmedi atelywentt owarwi tht heZionistnat i
on.TheAr abcount r
ieswer enothappyt hat
Palestinian l and had t o be di vi
ded t o accommodat et he Jewst hatwer e previously
scatteredal lovert hewor ld.Aj ointArabf orcewasest ablishedandl edbyEgyptt ofight
alongside Pal esti
ne. However ,Israelsuppor ted by USA and Br it
ain defeated and
humi l
iatedt heAr absi n1949.Thef reear myof ficer
sbl amedt heAr abdef eatonki ng
Farouk's gover nmentt hatgave t he Egyptian armyi nf eriorweapons and i nadequat e
essent i
als.Oneof f
icer,Col onelAhmedAbdulAzi z,"Thesol di
ersshoul dremembert he
realbat tl
ei sathome. "
10.Theuni lat
eralviol
ati
onoft he1936Angl o-Egyptiantreatycausedt he1952coupt hat
over t
hr ew Ki ng Far
ouk.The uni later
alviolation (r
ebell
ion)was an ant i
-Bri
ti
sh poli
cy
adopt edbyNahast hepr i
memi nisterofEgypt :Nahasai medatf orcingt heBri
ti
shoutof
theSuezCanalzonei nor dertoappeaset hemasseswhoconst antl
ydemandedf orthe
withdr awaloft heBriti
shfrom Egypt .Thisfor cefulat
temptagainstt heBr i
ti
shmadet hem
tor etaliatebyassaul t
ingIsmailiaonJanuar y25,1952.TheBr it
ishassaul tlef
tabout49
policeof fi
cersdead,thewat ersuppl ydestroyedandsomeshel tersoft heinhabi
tantsof
thet ownwer eshatt
ered.Thistragedywasbl amedonki ngFar oukandNahas’gover nment
andcausedt hear mytooverthrowagover nment .

11.Wor ldWarIIhadahandi nthe1952r evoluti


on.Dur ingthecour seoft hewar ,ki
ngFar ouk
bl
under edbyal l
owingtheGer manAf r
ikacor pst oestabli
sht heirmili
tar
ybasei nnorthern
EgyptcommandedbyGener alRommel .Atthesame- ti
me,t heBr i
ti
shhadusedt heirlong
presenceinEgyptt oestablishtheirbasef ort hei
reighthbattali
oni ntheSuezCanalzone
maki ngEgypt ,awart heat r
esi ncetheBr i
tishbelongedt ot heal l
i
edf orceswhi l
et he
Germanyl edtheaxisall
iance.Theendoft hewarl edtoincreasedspendi ngandcor r
upt i
on
byKi ngFarouk,whi chincreasedsuf f
eringoft hefell
as(peasant s).Thepr esenceoft he
Brit
ishandt heGer mansi nEgyptdur i
ngWor ldWarI Iledtot her i
seoft hesocietyoffree
offi
cerswhoor gani
sedt hecoupofJul y1952.AnwarSadatoneoft hefreeoffi
cershad
parti
cipat
edi nthewaront hesideofGer many.

12.Theemer gencyofambi ti
ousAbdelGamalNasserwasat urningpoi
ntinEgyptatthet i
me
Nasser'
sper sonal
ityandhisambitionsforpowerandr ef
ormsmadehi mt oorgani zethe
coupinJuly1952.Her esent
edexploit
ationofpeasant s,whichdevel
opedhisnat i
onali
sm
asa19ol d.Suchanear l
yage,heusedt oorganizedemonst rati
onsagai
nsttheBr i
ti
shand
Egypti
anmonar chy.Heabandoned hi sacademi cpur suitforlaw tojoi
nt hemi l
it
ary
academyi n1937.Ast een,hehadsi ghtedthatFarouk'sgover nmentwasineffecti
veand
corr
uptandwonder edwhowoul dchangesuchl eadership.

a) BorninAlexandr
iaonJanuar y15,1918toanobl
efamil
y,Nasserwasdynamicthatdur
ing
schoolt
imeheal waysidenti
fiedhimsel
fwi
ththepoorst
udentswhoenli
ghtenhim onthe
poorcondit
ionstheyexper
ienced.

b)In1942,t
heBr i
ti
shtroopsr oundedupki ngFarouk'
spal
aceandinf
luencedFarouiappoi
nt
NahasMust afaPashaasPr emi er
,whichangerednati
onal
i
stsli
keNassert hefollowi
ng
yeari
n1943,Nasserattainedar ankofcaptai
n.Hestar
tedmaki
ngsecretpreparat
ionsand
mobili
sat
ionstof ormt hef r
eeof fi
cer
s’movementwhi chwouldlaterstageacoupt o
overt
hrowkingFarouk.

c) Consequentl
y,the Br
it
ish i
nfl
uenced ki
ng Far
ouk to dismiss Nahas Pasha fr
om
pr
emiership.Thedi
smi
ssalofNahasannoyedNasserandinfl
uencedhimtocrit
ici
sethe
ki
ng,l
eadingtohisi
mpri
sonment.

d)Whileinprison,Nasserwr otear
ti
cl
esincl
udingonethr
oughwhi chhewonder ed,"where
Egypti
annat ional
ism anddesti
nyoftheEgypti
answerehiding.
"Oncomi ngoutofpr i
son
Nasseridentifi
edhimselfwit
hthesuff
eri
ngmassesinthepeasantr
y,poli
ce,t
hear myand
othersectors.Thi
senabl edhimtogainsupportwhenhef ormedthef r
eeofmovement
al
ongsideSadatandNegui b.Thi
smovementdidmucht oeffectafundamentalchangein
EgyptinJuly1952.

13.Theformati
onandt her
oleofthefreeoffi
cers’movement.Themovementwasest abl
i
shed
i
n1942dur i
ngWor ldWarIIasasignofdi ssati
sfact
ionamongsomeoft heEgypti
anarmy
off
icer
sli
keNasserandSadat .Nasserhadt hedesir
eforafundamentalchange,mobil
ised
asmal ll
oyalsect
ioninthear myandl ai
ddownst rat
egi
esofoverthrowingkingFarouk.
Lat
erin1952,t hefreeoff
icer
sest abl
i
shedar evolut
ionarycounci
ltooustkingFarouk
whom theyblamedforpoli
ti
calincompetenceandper petuat
ionofBri
ti
shneo-
coloni
ali
sm.
Thefreeoff
icers’movementstagedcoupont heni ghtofJuly22,1952whichbroughtan
endtomonar chi
sm i
nEgypt.

14.Thedecl i
ningpositi
onofEgyptinArabpol i
ticsmadet hedownf allofki
ngFar ouki nevit
able.
Dur i
ngther ei
gnofkingFarouk,Egyptwasi nactiveinArabaff
airs.Thecontinuedpr esence
oft heBrit
ishint heSuezCanalzonel edEgyptt oIpseherposi t
ionofinfluencei nthe
MiddleTheBr it
ishtookchargeoft her egi onandpr e-det
ermi nedtheEgypt ianf orei
gn
policyasameanst osafeguardBrit
ishint erestsandtoencour ageJewi shinfl
uencei nthe
MiddleEastatt heexpenseofEgypt .Thecl imaxcamewi ththedef eatofacol lecti
veAr ab
force(wit
hEgypt )inthe1948-49Pal est
iniancr i
sis.Ki
ngFaroukwasbl amedf orpr ovi
ding
hisarmywi thinfer
iorweaponsandr eluctant l
ysendinghissoldiersthenecessar ylogisti
cs
whi l
einPalesti
ne.

Socialfactors:
15.Theki ngpr acti
cednepot i
sm ashef avouredonlyhi srel
atives,member soft
her oyalfami l
y
andf r
iends.Thef att
yandl ucrat
ivejobsespeci all
yi nhi sgovernmentwentonl yt ohi s
relati
vesandmember soft heWAFD par ty.Suchnepot ism wasal sowitnessedi nt he
all
ocat i
onofposi t
ionofi nfl
uencei nthear my,'intheear l
yJuly,1952premi erMust afa
Nahaspr oposedt heappoi nt
mentofNegui bast hemi nisterofwaranddef ensebutki ng
Far oukrejectedtheproposal,appoint
edhi srel
ativetothepostandwentaheadt odismi ss
Nahasf r
om t hepremiershi
p.Hence,ittookt hearmyt oor ganizeacoupinordertor everse
thisnepot i
sm.

16.Consequent l
y,therewaspr ovi
sionofi nadequat esocialser vi
cesdur ingt her ei
gnofki ng
Farouk.Thef ew socialinfr
astructuresavailabl
ewer epoorandcoul dnotpr ovi
dequal it
y
servi
ces f orbet t
ersoci alwel f
are oft he Egypt ian society.The avai l
able educat i
on
i
nst i
tutionswer ebasedont heBr i
tisheducationsyst em withEngl ishasamedi um of
teaching.Theheal thcenterswer eal sofewconcent ratedi nurbanar easlikeIsmai l
ia,Cai
ro
andAl exadr
ia.Themi l
it
arycoupwast hereforeai medatsol vingt hesoci o-
economi c
problemsi nEgypt .Itshouldbenot edthatduet opoorheal thservices,theEgypt iansdied
ofcommondi seasesl i
keBilharzi
a,Mal ari
a,andet cetera.

17.Thesocialstrat
if
icati
on( cl
assdi ff
erences)inEgyptcausedgr ievancesamongt hemasses.
Thesocialpyrami dwasdomi natedbypeasant sandasmal lbour geoi
sieatthebot tom;on
topwasasmal lsect i
onoft hemember soft her oyalfami l
ywhi leinthemi ddlewere
forei
gners especiall
yt he Briti
sh and t he Turks.These soci alinequali
ti
es wer e so
pronouncedasmember soft her oyalfamil
yandf orei
gnersdomi natedthepol i
ticalpost
s
withanupperhandi ntheeconomi cact i
vi
ti
es.Ther oyalfamilyandf oreignersowned
between65%and82%oft hearablelandandenj oyedprivi
legessuchast axexempt i
ons.
Thisinf
luencedr evolut
ionari
eslikeNassert ostageacoupi nor dertodestroyt hesocial
i
nequalit
iesinEgypt .

18.Theemer gencyandi nfluenceoft heMusl i


m brotherhoodinEgypti nf
luencedt heover
throw ofki ngFar ouk.TheMusl i
m brot
her hoodemer gedby1927undert hei nf
luenceof
HassanAlBanna( aqual if
iedel ementar
yt eacher)whoemphasi zedt herevivalofEgyptto
an I sl
ami ct heocratic nation.Member s oft he Musl im br
other hood intensi
fi
ed thei
r
activit
iesbet ween1946and1951especi allycondemni ngmoraldecadencet hatinvol
ved
womani zi
ngandgambl ingi ncasi noswher eki
ngFar oukwasagr eatpar t
ici
pant.The
brother hoodpr ovokedt hear r
estandmur derofsomemember si ncludi
ngAlBannawho
wasassassi natedin1949.Thepr i
nci
plesoft heMusl i
m brotherhoodevenaf t
erthe
assassi nationofitsleadersi nfl
uencedther evol
utionar
iestoorganizeacoupi n1952.
19.The appal i
ng social-
economi c conditi
ons duri
ng Farouk’
sr egime made hi s downf al
l
i
nevitable.Thepeasant s(Fell
ahin)wer eexposedt ounfairtaxati
on,forcedlabourand
worstofal ltheyexperiencedacut eunempl oymentandabjectpoverty.Thekingcoul ddo
nothing tor escue the peasantsf r
om t hi
s unt
old si
tuat
ion.Consequent l
y,the fellas
continuedsuf f
eringast heroyalfamily,thewafdist
sandf orei
gnersenjoyedgoodl i
fe.In
thi
scase,nat i
onali
stslikeNasseremer gedwi t
hsociali
stideasaimedati mprovingt he
socio-economicsi t
uati
oni nEgypt.

20.Ther el
igi
ousandcul tur
alconfli
ctsinEgyptf avour edt heover thr
ow ofki ngFarouk.The
existenceoft heBr iti
shwhopr omot edwest ernculturesandspr eadChristi
anit
ythreatened
theexi stenceofI slam andAr abi
ccul t
uralpract
ices.Ther ewer eestabli
shedi ndustri
es
thatpr oducedal coholandmanyr ecr eat
ioncenters.Allt hesewer econtrarytotheIslamic
andAr abicprinciples,whereChr i
stianitycompetedf avour abl
ywi t
ht heI sl
amicr el
igi
on.
Thissoci o-cult
uralsetbackwasbl amedonki ngFar oukandhencemadehi sdownf all
emi nent.

21.Thef amineout br
eakincr
easedt heanti-
FaroukresentmentinEgypt .Foll
owingt heendof
WorldWarI I
,thefel
lahi
nfoundt hemsel vesi
napr j
ecari
dussi t
uat
iont hatdidnotenable
them tosustainthei
rfamil
i
eswi thfood.Thiswasar esultofl
ackofenoughcul t
ivabl
eland,
whil
et hoset hathadsmal lpiecesofl andsoldt hem tolargelandowner s.KingFarouk
couldhardlydoanythingtosolvethefoodcr i
sis,yetthegovernmentpol i
cyfavouredcash
cropintensi
vef ar
mingforexport.

22.KingFar oukignoredt hest


atusofwomeni nEgypt.TheEgyptianwomenwer epol i
ti
cal
ly
marginalized,hadnopol i
ti
calpart
icipati
onnordidtheyenj
oyl eadershi
presponsibi
li
ti
es.
Hardlycoul d young women acqui r
eeducat i
on and afew who di d onl
yat tai
n basic
education.Themostsever et r
eatmentofwomenbyFar ouk'sregimewast hedeath
penaltyonwomenf orsexi
mmor al
ity.Iti
sfort
hisreasont
hatwomensuppor tedthecoup
againstIcingFarouk.

Economi c
23.KingFaroukwasext r
emelyext r
avagantandl i
vedal avishli
fe.Hespentmuchoft he
moneyf rom t
heEgypt
iantreasuryonsat i
sfyi
nghisdesires,whichincl
udedpornography,
prosti
tut
ionandwomanizing.Notonl ydidhespendmuchofhi stimeinl ei
sur
e,king
Faroukwasapr omi
nentgambl erandhar dl
yadaycoul dpasswi thouthi
m visi
ti
ngcasinos.
I
twasmuchofhi smanneri
sm t hatinf
luencedthefreearmyof fi
cerstoorgani
zeacoupi n
1952.

24.Thel ow l evel
sofi ndust
ri
ali
zat i
oncausedeconomi cproblemst hatmadet heEgypt ian
revol
utioni nevi
table.TheEgypt i
anindust
rialsectorwasl ar
gelycontr
oll
edbyt heBr i
tish
whoi nsteadpr omot edsmal l
-scalei
ndustri
esatt heexpenseoflarge-
scal
emanuf acturing
i
ndust r
ies.TheBr i
tishneverpr omotedindustri
alproduct
ionasawayofcr eati
ngmar ket
forthei
ri ndustri
alcommodi t
ies.Lackofindustri
aldevel
opmenti nEgyptledtoscar ci
tyof
essentialcommodi t i
es,causedunempl oymentandl owlevelsofdevel
opment .

25.Thehighlevel
sofinfl
ationcausedt hedownfal
loftheregi
meofKi ngFarouk.KingFarouk
andtheWAFDgover nmentf ai
ledtosol vetheeconomicinstabil
it
y,whichwasl ar
gelya
resul
tofeconomi cmismanagement ,hi
ghcorrupt
ionandforeigncontroloftheEgypt i
an
economy.Thepricesofessenti
algoodswer eunstabl
eandr el
ativel
yhighforthepeasants
toaff
ord.TheEgypti
ancur r
encyalmostlostval
ueandwasdomi natedbytheBr i
tishpound.
Thisj
usti
fi
edtheneedf orarevolut
ion.

26.Thepersi
stentunemploymentl
evel
sledt
othe1952Egypti
ancoup.Thepeasantsandthe
middl
eclasscit
izenswereaff
ect
edbytheacut
eunemploymentt
hatgrossl
yresul
tedfr
om
thepoorl andtenur
esystem,favouri
ti
sm ofKingFaroukandcontinuedforei
gndominati
on
oftheEgypt i
aneconomy.Ther evol
uti
onari
esclaimedthatthecoupwasnotj ustaresult
ofpolit
icalambiti
onsbutalsothedesireforsocio-
economicref
ormst hatcoul
dempower
thegrassrootsEgypti
anpopulati
on.

27.Theexistenceofmonocul tur
ei nEgyptinfl
uencedthedesir
ef orarevol
uti
on.Egyptl ar
gely
concentr
at edongr owingandexpor ti
ngcottonagainstotheragricul
tur
aloppor t
uniti
es.
Thisrest
rictedtheagri
cult
uralacti
vi
tiesintheend,whichaff
ectedthecontrary'
srevenues.
Ont hecont rar
y,t
hegovernmentpol icyemphasisedcashcroppr oducti
onatt heexpense
offoodpr oducti
on.Thisagricul
turalpoli
cyinEgyptwasi nfl
uencedbyt heBrit
ishbut
causedsuf feri
ngofmasses.

28.Thepoorl andt enuresyst em promotedbyFar ouk'


sgover nmentpr eparedfert
ilegr
ounds
forhisdownf al
l.Thekingdi ct
atedthelandpoli
cywherehedi stri
but
edl andtomember sof
ther oyalfamilyand t heWaf d partymember s,who enj oyed al i
on'sshar ewitht he
prevail
ing unfairlandt enuresystem.By1945,t hepeasant sfoundt hemselvesinabject
povertyduetol ackofcul ti
vat
ableland.By1952,65%oft hear abl
elandwasownedbyonl y
6% oft helandlordsmai nlyfr
om t heroyalf
ami l
y.Thel andlordssubj ect
edt heFell
ahin
(peasants)tofeudali
sm andser fdom.Thisinf
luencedthem t osupportthecoupi n1952.

CourseoftheEgypti
anr evol
uti
on
Trevol
uti
onwasi nsi
mpl eter
msabl oodl
essrevol
uti
ont
hatstar
tedwit
hacoupont henightof
July22-
23,1952.Ont heeveoft hecoup,t
heBr i
ti
shhadprovokedEgypt
iansi
nDecember
1951whent heybull
dozedEgypt i
anmud-bri
ckhousestopavewayforthenewwat er
wayf or
Bri
ti
sharmyinstal
lat
ion.

OnJanuary25,1952,t
heBr
iti
shattackedt
heEgyptianpol
icebar
racksi
nIsmail
i
aaf t
erthe
pol
i
ceoffi
cer
srefusedt
osur
render
.Over50Egypt
ianswerekil
l
edandabout100wounded.

January26,commonl yknownas" blackSaturday,


"anEgyptianmobst ar
tedbur
ningCairo,
targeti
ng Br
it
ish inst
all
ati
ons such as shops,shelt
ers and hot
els.Thi
s was a pl
anned
discipl
i
nedaction.

Ser
iousandmor evi
olentri
otsbrokeoutinCairoandotherprovincialci
ti
esi
nJunesuppor
ted
bythefreearmyoffi
cers.Theriot
swer esti
lldi
rect
edtoforeigners.Morehouseswer
eburnt
andpropert
yloot
ed.Theseriot
swer edest
ructi
vetoFar
ouk'sgover nment.

Ami
dstsuchconf
usion,thef
reear
myoffi
cer
sfel
titconveni
enttotakeover.OnJul
y22,1952,
abl
oodl
esscoupoccurredwit
h34-
year
-ol
dGamalNasserast hear
chitect
.

Thef reearmyoffi
cersbegunbyt akingalmostal
lcor nersofCair
o:Farouktr
iedtoseekUS
i
nterventi
on butin vain.Itis bel
i
eved thatthe revoluti
on was f
inanced byUS central
i
ntel
ligenceagency(CIA)toatuneof12mi l
li
ondol
lars.From thi
smoney,aCairotowerknown
astheCI Amonument orRoosevel
tErect
ionwasestabli
shedonZamal ekIsl
and.

Faroukwasforcedtoabdicate(r
esi
gn)onJul
y26,afterthefr
eearmyof f
icer
soccupiedthe
cit
yofAlexandriawheretheKingwasonsummerhol idayathispal
aceofMunt azahand
for
cedhimtosignan' actofabdi
cat
ion'
bef
oreboar
dinghisyacht'
Mahroussa'wi
thhi
sf amil
y
andheadedtoItal
y.

Therevolut
ionari
esenthr
onedFarouk'
ssonFaudI IashissuccessorandwhenEgyptwas
decl
aredar epubl
ici
n1953,GeneralNegui
b,chai
rmanoftherevol
uti
onarycommandcouncil
(RCC)becamepr esi
dentwhi
leNasserbecamedeputypr
emierandmi ni
sterofi
nter
nalaf
fai
rs
andremainedintheshadowunt
il1954.
Foll
owingr evol
uti
onarymisunderstandi
ngs,betweenNegui bandNasseri nNovember1954,
thelat
tertookoverbot haspr esidentandpr i
memi ni
ster(Executi
vepresident
).Negui
bwas
conservati
veandbel i
evedinci
vil
iangovernancewhileNasserbelievedt
hatt hebenef
it
softhe
revol
utioncouldonlybeissuedthroughradicalmeans,wit
ht hearmyholdingamaj orposi
ti
on
i
nt heEgyptianaff
air
s.

Historyhasitthatearl
yon,inOctober
;Nassersurvi
vedanatt
emptedassassi
nat
ion,whichhe
bl
amedonNegui b.Heaccusedhim ofconspi
racyandinthefol
l
owingmonth,hemanagedt o
di
smi sshi m.Hence,Nasserbecameundisput
edlythechai
rmanoftheRCCandover al
lleader
ofther epubl
icofEgypt.

FACTORSTHATLEDTOTHESUCCESSOFTHEEGYPTI AN( COUP)REVOLUTI ON


Ref
er enceQuest i
ons:
a)Accountf orthesuccessoft he1952Egypt i
ancoup
b)Exami net hef actorsfort hesuccessoft heFreeAr myOf f
icersi novert
hrowingofKi ng
Farouk
1.Ti ecar efulplanni ngbyt her evol
utionarycommandcounci lenabl edthesuccessoft he
Egypt i
anr evolutionarycoup.Fort hreeyears,fol
lowingt heirreturnfrom the( 1948-
49)
Palestinewar ,thef r
eear myof f
icerslaiddownaf r
amewor konhow t oover thr
ow the
Egypt i
anmonar chyandr i
dEgyptofBr i
tishmil
it
arypresence.Li t
tlewonderthatevenaf t
er
theircoup pl ans ofover t
hrowin Farouk in 1954 wer ei ntercept
ed orexposed,t he
revoluti
onar i
eswer equicktochanget heirpl
anandi nsteadpl ottedasuccessf ulcoupin
July1952.

2.Ther evolutionarychar acterofNasserenabl edthesuccessoft hef reearmyof fi


cers
agai nstt heEgypt i
anmonar chy.Nasser ,at34year s,wast heyoungestoft hemember sof
ther evolutionarycommandcounci l
.Aher ooft hePal esti
nianwar ,Nasserwasdeepl y
opposedt ot hei ncompet entandcor ruptionofFar ouk'sgovernmentwhom hebl amedf or
thePal estiniandef eat.Nasserwasit acticalandpat i
entof f
icer,secretivebynatureand
drivenbyf i
erceper sonalambi tions.Nasserwast hebr ai
nbehi ndthef ormat i
onofthefree
officer '
smovement( SocietyofFr eeof fi
cers)andhi stheoryandor ganisat
ionbrought
victor ytot her evolut
ionaries.ItwasNassert hatl
edt heat t
ackont hear myheadquarters
wher eFar ouk'sar mygener alswer econf i
nedi nameet ing.

3.Thecont ri
butionoft heFr eeAr myOf f
icers( Soci
etyofFr eeOf fi
cers)bl essedt he1952
Egyptiancoup.Compr isingnotmor ethan100meni nall,thefreear myof fi
cerswer e
organisedi ntocellsoff our( 4)orf i
ve(5)member sunknownt oeachot her .Thesecar ried
outunder groundoper ations.Thef r
eear myof fi
cersannouncedt heirexistence,mobi li
sed
popular i
tyanddenouncedFar ouk’sregi
met hroughleafl
ets.Thesoci et
yofof fi
cersclear l
y
speltoutt heai msoft her evoluti
on i.
e.t o win Egypt'
si ndependence;l iquidati
on of
feudalism.'format i
onofapower fulpopularar myneedt oest abli
shsoci alequal i
tyanda
healt
hydomest icl
ife.Thef reear myof f
icerslaunchedsuccessf ulexpediti
ons( attacks)on
ther adiost ation,telegraphof f
ices,policepost s,armyandgover nmentheadquar ters
beforet hecoupwasdecl ar
edont heJuly23,1952.

4.The appoi
ntmentofGener alNeguib Mohammed as chai rman oft he r
evol
uti
onary
commandcouncil(RCC)addedval ueandi mport
ancetothecoup,henceitssuccess.
GeneralNegui
b was a di
stingui
shed 54-year
-ol
d her
o ofthe Pal
esti
nian warwhose
reput
ablef
igur
einbot
hthear myandnat i
onatlargewasusedbythefreearmyoffi
cerst
o
att
ractrespectandsuppor
tfort
hecoup.Theannouncementoft hear
myseizur
e(take
over)ofpowerwasmadebyGener alNegui
binar
adiobroadcastat7am ont
hemorning
ofJuly23,1952.

5.Theweaknessoft heEgypti
anmonar chorweakchar acterofKi ngFaroukenabledt he
successoft he1952coup.I nJul
y1952,whi l
eenj oyi
nghishabi t
ualgamblingsessi
onsi n
Alexandr
ia,KingFaroukrecei
vedanur gentcallf
r om Pri
meMi ni
sterHussei
nSi r
rywarning
hi
m ofapl annedcoupbyasmal lgroupofdi ssident(r
ebelli
ous)offi
cersinthear my.
Faroukonlyreferr
edtothecoupplotters,Nasserandhi sfr
iendsas' Abunchofpimps'and
didnottaket hemat terseri
ous/suchar rogantandweaknat ureofthemonar ch(king)
couldnotsaf eguardFarouk'
sgovernmentevenaf t
ertheinformationonapl annedcoup
l
eaked.

6.Theabsenceofki ngFaroukf rom Cairobecameagr eatopport


unityt othef reear my
offi
cers.Inordert oescapet heheatandhubbub( noi
se)ofCai r
o,Faroukhadcampedwi t
h
hi
sf ami l
yandhousehol dst affatt hel
uxuriousMunt azahpalaceont hebeachf rontat
Alexandria.Theki nghadpl annedt ospendt heenti
resummeri nAl exandri
a,whi chwas
about125mi lesf arawayf rom Cai r
o.FaroukleftCair
oami dstmassr i
ots,assassinati
ons
andpol it
icalviolencebyt heMuskrbr other
hoodandanangr ycit
ymob.Thi senabl edthe
l
eader shi
p oft hef r
eear myof f
icerstot ab advantageoft hesi tuati
oni nCai ro and
overthrowt heEgypt i
anmonar chy.

7.Thecoupoccur redatat i
mewhenKi ngFaroukandtheEgypt ianmonar chywer eunpopul ar
Faroukwasar rogant,ext
ravagantandspentl avi
shl
yfr om theEgypt i
ant r
easury.Hewas
thelar
gestlandholderinEgypt,hadfourl
uxuri
ouspalaces,aridownedt woyachts,thi
rteen
pri
vatejet
s,afleetoftwohundr edcarsandahugecol lecti
onofpor nographicmat eri
als.A
prominentgabblerandwomani ser
,Faroukenjoyedapr ett
yexpensi velif
eatt heexpense
ofthesufferi
ngandl andlessfell
ahs.Hewast heenvyofal lEgypt
iansandt her
eforehad
nosympat hyfrom massest hatwouldhavesavedhi st hrone.Theunpopul arit
yonKi ng
Faroukhenceledt othesuccessofhisowndownf al
l
.

8.Theat t
ackandcapt ureofthearmyheadquar t
ersmadet hesuccessoft hecoupinevitable.
Onlear ni
ngofameet i
nghel dbyFar ouk'sarmygener al
satt hear myheadquar ters,the
soci
etyf reeoff
icer
sdeci dedt oat t
ackt hebuil
dingwhi l
et hegener al
swer einside.The
generalshadassembl edt oprepareapl anofactionagai nstapot enti
alcoupbyt hef ree
armyof f
icer
s.Nassardescr i
bed theexpedi t
ion (att
ack)on t hear mybui l
ding asan
opportunityt
hatsavedt herevol
utionari
estimeandt roubl
east heytookFarouk'
sgener als
al
together,thanhuntingt hem from theirhomesonebyone.Theat tackont hear my
headquartersandr oundingupofFar ouk'
sgener alwast hereforeaheavybl ow t ot he
Egypti
anmonar chy.

9.Theexistenceofaf eebl
eandweakr oyalguar
denabl edthecollapseoft heEgypt i
an
monarchyhencet hesuccessoft he1952coup.Wi thi
ngovernment ,Faroukhadcreated
i
nsecuri
tyduetoper sist
entreshuf
fl
eofPrimeMinister
sandt hecabinets.Actual
l
yont he
morni
ngaf t
errecei
vingt el
ephonecal
lwar ni
nghi m ofapl annedcoupd’ état
,Farouk
i
mmedi atelyappoint
edanewPri
meMi ni
sterandi
nst
all
edhisbrotheri
nlawasmi ni
sterof
wartoroundupt hemil
i
tar
yconspir
ator
s(couppl
ott
ers)-butthi
swast ool
atetoprevent
hi
sover t
hrow.Evendur i
ngtheatt
ackonhi spal
aceatMunt azah,hi
ssecuri
tywast oo
weaktopr eventt
hecaptur
eofFar
ouk.

10.Isol
ationoftheEgypt i
anarmygener al
sfrom therevolut
ionarypreparationskeptt hecoup
planssecretformostofthet i
mehencecont r
ibuti
ngtoitssuccess.Thef reearmyof fi
cer
s
usuall
ymetatni ghti
nwhathadbeenFar ouk'syachthouseonani sl
andi ntheNi l
ehence
keeping theirident
it
ieshidden.Ther evoluti
onarycommand counci ldi d notrealany
detai
ledplant oallmembersofthesocietyoff r
eeoffi
cers.Communi cat iontot hemasses
andwi t
hinthemovementwast hr
oughaser i
esofunder groundleaflets( ci
rcular
s).Thi
s
kepttheent i
reEgypti
anarmyr ommandi gnorantofanyrevoluti
onaryplans.

11.Thesei zure(capture)ofcommuni cat


ioncent resandpol i
cepostsensur edt hesuccessof
therevoluti
onar i
es.Byt heearlyhoursofJul y23,1952,t hefr
eear myof ficer
shadt aken
controlofther adi
ost ati
on,tel
egraphof fi
ces,policepostsandgover nmentbui ldi
ngs.The
captureoft hepol i
cepost shelpedt hefreear myof fi
cerstopr event(det er
)apossi bl
e
counter-r
evoluti
on,whi l
ethecapt ureofther adiostat
ionandtelegraphof f
icesensuredt he
spreadofr evoluti
onarypr opaganda.Negui b,theappointedchairmanoft herevolut
ionary
commandcounci l(RCC)usedt hecapt ur
edr adi
ostation(RadioCai r
o)t oannouncet he
armysei zureofpower .

12.Theel iminati
onoft heBr i
ti
shenabl edthef r
eear myof fi
cerstot akeovergover nment
control.Ther evoluti
onarycommandcounci ldeployedanar moured( equippedmi l
it
ary)
convoyt obl ockt hehighwayf rom theSuezCanalzonesoast opreventBr it
ishtr
oops
from inter
veningonbehal fD£Far ouk'
sgovernment .TheSuezCanalzonewasaBr i
tish
mi l
i
tarybasewi t
habout80, 000soldi
ers.Thebl ockadeont heSuezhi ghwayandt he
cutti
ngofcommuni cationl
inesbetweent heSuezcityandCai r
oenabledt hecoupplotters
toexecut e(carryout)thei
rcouppl anwithnostrongr esi
stancefr
om t he(Brit
ish)al
li
esof
theEgypt i
anmonar chy.

13.Thecommon gr ievancesi ntheEgypt ian societyatt het i


met hemili
tarycoup was
organised,i
nspir
edt hesuccessoft hesoci etyoffreeof ficers.Themajor
it
yoft hefell
ahs
had beenaf fected byabj ectpover t
y,lackofcul t
ivatablel and,unemployment,acute
i
nflat
ionandwer emost l
ytiredoft heimmor al,corruptanddespot i
cnatureofFar ouk'
s
governmentandt heconti
nuedpr esenceoft heBr i
ti
shinEgypt .Thenewsoft he1952July
coupwasgr eetedwi thamasswel comeandpopul arsuppor t
.

14.Theabdi cati
on(resi
gnati
on)ofFar oukdealtaf inalblow tot heEgypti
anmonar chyand
broughtt oanendt he140-year
-ol
dTur kishdynast yandt heendt ofor
eignr ulei
nEgypt
si
ncet hePersi
aninvasi
on.Farouk'
sabdi cat
ionfollowedadi scussi
onwi thintheRCCon
whet hertoeli
minateFar
oukt hr
oughexecut i
onort oexil
ehi m.NeguibandNasserchose
tospar ehisli
febutsendhimt oexi l
e.Hencethef reear myof fi
cerssurr
oundedFar ouk'
s
palaceofMunt azahandmadehi mt osignan' actofabdi cati
on'onJuly26,1952bef or
e
boardinghisyachtknownas" Mahroussa"wit
hhi sfamily,andheadedt oIt
al y.
15.Thecoupagai nstkingFaroukwasf i
nancedbytheUScent ralint ell
i
genceagency( CIA).
Ther evol
uti
onarycommandcounci lofthesocietyoff r
eeof f
icer sr ecei
vedafinancial
grantfrom theCIAt oat uneof12mi l
li
ondoll
arst oenabl
eef fectiveorgani
sat
ionand
planni
ng.Farouktr
iedtoseekUSinter
venti
onbutitwast ool
atef orhi sgover
nmenttobe
savedast heAmeri
canshadal r
eadyconspir
edwi
tht hecoupplotter s.

EFFECTSOFTHEEGYPTI ANCOUPOF1952( ACHI EVEMENTSOFTHEREVOLUTI ON)


Note:
Theimpactoft heEgypti
anrevolut
ion(coup)i
sattri
butedtoNasser;ther
efor
ewi thoutNasser
therevol
uti
oncoul dnothaveachi evedtremendously.Manyofthescor esoft her evol
uti
on
wereduringther ei
gnofNasserast hechair
manoft heRCCandheadoft her evoluti
onar
y
government.Theafter
mathoft he1952Egyptiancoup,lar
gel
yexplainthecareerandsuccess
ofAbdelGamalNasserupt o1970.

The Egypti
an r
evol
uti
on had both achi
evement
s and weaknesses.I
twas t
her
efor
ea
combinat
ionoft
ri
umphanddisaster
:

Ref
erenceQuestions:
a)Assesst heimpactoft he1952r evol
uti
ononEgypt
b)Towhatext entdidthe1952coupaf fectt
heEgyptians?
c)Exami netheachievementsoft he1952Egyptianrevoluti
on
d)Howsuccessf ulwast herevolut
ionar
ygovernmentofNasser( 1954-
70)
?
e)Ofwhati mpor t
ancewasGamalNassert otheEgyptiansociet
y?
f)Howf arwast hemi l
it
aryregimeofNassersuccessf ulinEgypt
?

Pol
it
icalreforms
1.Politi
calleader
shipi
nEgyptianwasrefor
med.Aftertheabdi
cat
ionofki
ngFar
ouk,ki
ngshi
p
inEgyptdecl i
ned.A republi
canfor
m ofgovernmentwasest abl
i
shedin1953wi t
ha
republicanconsti
tut
ionandNaguibasthefi
rstpr
esident
.

2.Consequently,amoder at
er epubl
i
canconst i
tuti
onwasestabl
ishedin1953basedont he
i
nterest
soft hemasses.Thi sconstit
uti
onwhi chwasreformedi n195Bwasai medat
enhanci
ngt hei mplementat
ionofthesocio-economi
candpol i
ti
calrevolut
ionar
yrefor
ms;
theconsti
tutionprovi
dedforaNationalAssemblytobeel
ectedeveryafter5years.

3.Inthesamecase,t hemasseswereenf
ranchi
sed(gi
ventheri
ghttovot
e)t
odet
ermine
l
eadershipatthegrassroot
s.Thi
swaspar tofthepoli
ti
calr
ight
s,whi
chthemasses
cravedforbutwer
emissi
ngduri
ngFar
ouk'
sregi
me.

4.Egyptacquir
edagenui neindependence.Thisfol
lowedthecompleteelimi
nati
onoft he
Bri
ti
shinfl
uencefrom t
heEgyptianpoli
cymakingandt hei
rfi
nalwi
thdrawalf
rom theSuez
Canalzone afterNassernat ionali
zed the Canalin 1955.Therefor
et he Egypt
ian
i
ndependencegrantedtot
hem byt heBri
ti
shin1922becamemeaningful.

5.Ther evol
utionledtotheri
seofr adi
calNassert
othetopofEgypt
ianpol
it
ics.Thisfol
l
owed
ar evolut
ionarymi sunder
standi
ngbet weenNasserandNagui bwhichwasf oll
owedby
Nasserdi smi ssi
ng Naguibi n 1954.Consequentl
y,Nasserbecame the head ofthe
revolut
ionarycouncilandtheexecuti
vepresi
dentofEgypt
.

6.Unli
keFarouk,thefr
eearmyoffi
cersrestoredEgypti
aninfl
uencetotheepit
omeofArab
poli
ti
cs.NassertheEgypt
ianleaderstoodupt oopposetheAr ableani
ngtotheWest
(capi
tal
i
stWor l
d)thr
oughadopti
ngthepr o-
Brit
ishBaghdadpactof1955whicht
heBr
it
ish
wantedtouseagainstt
heSovi
etint
erestsintheMiddleEast
.
7.Therevol
uti
onariesest abli
shedi ndependentgover
nmentar ms,apoli
ti
calachi
evement
whi
chhadf ail
edt hemonar chicalgovernmentofFarouk.Forinst
ance,t
heparl
iamentand
j
udi
ciar
ywer elef
ti ndependentfrom theexecut
ivei
nter
ference.

8.Ther evol
uti
onarygover
nmentcarr
iedoutmi li
taryreforms.Thiswast hr
oughsecuri
nga
mil
itarydealfr
om theSovi
etUniontot r
ainandr ealt
iest heEgypt
iannat
ionalar
my.Asa
consequence,thear
mywasstrengthenedandpr ofessionali
sed.

Economi
cref
orms

9.Agrari
an( l
and)r eformswer einsti
tut
edwhi chgavepeasants(fel
lahin)landowner
ship
ri
ghts.Forstancet hemili
tar
ygovernmentpassedadecr eeinSeptember1952wher ethe
governmentconf iscatedalmost185,000acr esoflandandr edistr
ibutedthem t
ot he
Fel
lahs.Thisalsoledt ot
heabolit
ionofFeudali
sm andSerf
dom.

10.Thef reeoffi
cer
sgover nmentexpandedt hevol
umeofcul t
ivat
ableland.Thiswasby
recl
aimingover1,038,
000acresofdesertl
andbyuseofvibrati
onsyst
em (Gezir
ascheme)
.
Thisincreasedagri
cul
turalpr
oduct
ivi
tyandsol
vedthepr
oblem offoodscarci
ty.

11.Consequentl
ymonocul tur
einEgyptwassolved.thr
oughdi ver
sif
icat
ionofagri
cul
ture.The
1
governmenti
ntroducedsugarbitesandcoff
eet oad oncot t
onwhi chhadbeent heonly
cash crop. Food pr oducti
on was boosted by rice and wheatgrowing.Thi s was
i
mpl ementedthrougha5-yeardevel
opmentplanofI960"1965.

12.Ahydr oel
ect
ri
cpowerdam wasconstruct
edi
e.theAswanhi ghdam wasconstr
uctedto
provi
de abundanthydroel
ect
ri
c power.Thi
s would expand Egypt
ian manufact
uri
ng
i
ndustryandf ordomest
icusee.g.by1970powergenerat
ionhadincreasedby12f ol
d
(12ti
mes).

13.The revol
uti
onary governmentembarked on rapidindustr
ial
ization.By mi d 1960s,
i
ndustri
es produci
ng steel,ir
on,cement,f er
ti
li
zers and petroleum pr oducts were
est
abli
shed.Egyptcouldthenmanufact
ureherownr ef
ri
gerat
ors,bicycles,t
elevi
sionset
s,
medici
nesetceter
a,fordomesti
cconsumpti
onandexpor t
.

14.Inf
luencedbysocial
ism,Nasseradoptedanat i
onali
zati
onpolicywher eallt
hemaj or
meansofpr oduct
ionli
keindust
ri
es,mines,tr
ansportandcommer ci
alvent
uresuchas
banks,wereputunderstatecontr
ol.Thi
sboost edeconomicgr owthwithgovernment
ensuri
ngeff
ecti
veeconomicdeci
si
on-makingandpoli
cyimplementati
on.

15.Equal
lysot herevol
uti
onari
essecuredtheSuezCanalfr
om Br i
ti
shandFr enchcontr
ol.
Renovat
ionsweremadet oensurethatby1964ther
evenuesfrom theCanalofabout77
mil
li
onEgypt i
anpoundscont r
ibut
edover19% ofthenationalrevenues.Thi
sboosted
Egypt
iansocio-
economicdevel
opment.

16.Taxr ef
ormswer einsti
tut
edbythemi l
i
tar
ygovernmentofAbdelNasser .Aprogressive
taxat
ionsyst em wasadopt edandimplementedtoreplacether egressi
ve(unr
ealist
ic)
taxesimposedbyt heoldregimeofki
ngFaroukwherethewealthenjoyedtaxexemptions.
Thenewt axati
onpolicywasaimedateconomicequit
yandr el
ievi
ngt hepeasant
soft he
taxburden.

17.Consequentl
y,Nasser
'sgover
nmentt r
iedt
omi ni
misethegapbet weent herichandthe
poor.Proper
tyoftheweal
thespeci
all
ymembersoftheformerroyalf
ami l
y,for
merWAFD-
governmentmember saswellasforei
gner
s,wasconfi
scatedandnationali
sed.However
,
pr
ivat
eownershiponsmallscalewasal l
owed.Thegover
nmentregul
atedtheannual
i
ncomesperindi
vi
dualat5,
000Egypt
ianpoundsasameansofmini
misi
ngcorr
upti
onand
embezzl
ement.

18.Thegover nmentest abli


shedst ateco-operat
ivestof aci
l
itateeconomicall
ychall
enged
peasant
s.Thr oughthesef armers'co-
operati
ves,therevol
utionar
ygovernmentadvanced
far
mi mplement sli
keferti
li
zers,i
mproved,seeds,agr
icul
tur
almachi ner
yandsi mpl
eloans.
The co-operati
ves helped peasantsin servi
ces li
ke pestcont rol
,irr
igat
ion,st
orage,
marketi
ngandt ransport.

Socialref
or ms
19.Educat i
onr ef
ormswer ecarri
edoutt oer
adicat
eignoranceandi ll
iteracyi nEgypt.The
mi l
it
arygover nment"Egypt
iani
sed"t heEducati
on system t o enti
relyel iminat
eBr it
ish
i
nf l
uencef r
om theEgypti
aneducat i
onsystem.Allpri
vat
eschool swer enat ional
i
sed,and
new onesest abl
i
shed,thegover nmentincr
easedexpendi tureoneducat ionfrom one
mi l
li
onBr it
ishPoundt o20mi l
l
ionpounds.Enr ol
lmentinschool si ncreasedf rom 1.9
mi l
li
oni n1952t o3.5mi ll
i
onby1961andt hi
swasat tr
ibutedt othef reecompul sory
universalpr
imaryeducat
ion(UPE);hi
ghereducati
onwasconsi der
edtoo.

20.Thest atusofwomenwasi mprovedi nthesocio-economicandpoli


ti
calarenas.Many
mor efemalestudent
swer eenrol
ledinschool sandinsti
tut
ionsofhi
gherlearni
ngsuch
thatby1962,26%oft heuni
versi
tystudentswerefemale.Manywomenwer eempl oyedin
thecivilser
viceandi ntheindustr
ialsector
.Nasser '
sgovernmentappoi
ntedt hefir
st
womanmi ni
steri
n1962andby1964,t heparli
amenthadeightfemal
emember s.

21.Healthrefor
mswer ealso i
nsti
tut
ed byNasser'
smi l
it
arygovernment.MoreEgyptian
medicalstaf
fwastrai
nedsuchthatby1960thenumberofdoct or
sinEgypthaddoubled
about10,000.Heal
thycent
resweresetupi nruralar
eas.Duet othesemodernhealth
refor
ms,severecasesofmal nutr
it
ion,bi
l
harzi
a,malari
a,dysenter
yandeyedi seases
greatl
ydecli
ned.

22.Nasser'
srevolutionar
ygover nmentencour agedcult
uralreforms.Ef for
tswer emadet o
eli
minat
ewest erninfl
uencei nEgyptbyenact i
nglawsthatabolishedalli
mmor alpr
acti
ces
l
ikegambl i
ng,al cohol
ism and pr ostit
uti
on.Theschoolsyl labiwer ealso madeAr ab
ori
entedwithf ew cour sesinEnglishandFr ench.I
slam wasr e-est
abli
shedasast ate
rel
igi
on,toreduceofChr i
sti
aninfluenceinEgypt.Arabi
cdr amaandsongsi ntheat
res
becamethemaj orsourceofentert
ai nment.

23.Ahousi ngschemewasest abli


shedforl
owincomeear nersi
nthemajorurbancent
resli
ke
Cair
o,Ismai l
i
aandAlexandri
a.Thiswaspar
toftherel
iefprogr
am fort
hefell
ahi
ninsti
tut
ed
byther evol
uti
onar
ygovernmentofNasser .Worker
sandpeasant sear
ningabout300
Egypti
anpoundsannuallybenefi
tedmorefr
om thi
shousi ngpr
ogram.

24.Att
emptswer emadet oeli
minatesocialinequali
ti
esfrom theEgypti
ansociety.Thi
sledt
o
soci
alharmoni sat
ionwhichhadbeenl acki
ngi ntheoldregime.Thegover nmentmoveto
amendthel andowner shi
ppolicyandensur ethattheempl oymentprocedurewasbased
onmer i
tocracy,wasal ltoensuresoci alequali
ty.Ther oyalfami
lyandal lothersoci
al
cl
assi
fi
cationsandt herel
atedpri
vi
legeswer eout l
awed.

25.Wor ki
ngconditi
onsbot hi nprivateandstatedepar
t ment
swer egener
all
yimpr oved.Job
securi
tywasenhancedbyt her evol
uti
onarygover
nmentt hroughanew economi cpoli
cy
thatgaveworkersaquar tersharesinthecompanyt heyworkedfor
.Theacti
vit
iesoft r
ade
unionsor(workers'associati
ons)wereencouragedtosuperviseempl
oymentref or
msl i
ke
reduci
ngofwor ki
nghour st oabout48hoursaweek.
Thenegat i
veimpactoft hecoup( weaknessesoftheEgyptianrevolut
ion)
Short
comi ngsofNasser )
1.Nasseri nfluencedther evolut
ionari
est obanacti
vi
tiesofpol i
ti
calparti
esliket heWaf d
part
yaswel lasl i
beralassociati
onsl i
ketheLiber
alConstitut
ional
istOrganisation.The
Arab Sociali
stPar t
yf ormed by Nasserwas t he only partyleftin oper at
ion.The
governmentpol i
cyofbanni ngpolit
icalpar
ti
eswasintendedtoel i
minatepossiblepolit
ical
oppositi
on.

2.Theonepar tysystem i
nit
iatedin1961byNassert hr
oughhi sArabSoci
ali
stPartymade
hi
m adi ct
ator.Fr
om thenon,Egyptbecameaoneman' scount
ryasal
lpol
iti
caldecisions
weremadebyNasserwi thoutconsult
ati
onsf r
om othermember softher evoluti
onary
commandcounci lorevent heparl
iament.Nasser'
sdictat
orshi
prepl
acedthearistocrati
c
despot
ism oftheoldmonar chi
calr
egime.Thi
sundermi nedther
evol
uti
on

3.Consequently,therevolut
ionarygover
nmentofNasserinit
iat
ed poli
ti
calsuppr
essi
on.
Oppositi
onpol i
ti
ci
ansespeci al
lymembersoft
hedef
unctWaf dpar
ty,theex-
monarchi
cal
conservat
ivesandl i
beralpol i
ti
ci
answereonmanyoccasionsimprisonedoncasesof
poli
ti
calsabotage.

4.Therevol
uti
onar
ygover nmentfr
ustrateddemocr at
icgover
nanceinEgypt.From t
heperiod
whenNassertookoverast heEgyptianleader
,therewerenogenuineelect
ionsheldi
nt he
countr
y.Theopposit
ionleaderswer escaredofst andi
ngagainstNasser.Thisther
efore
kepthi
mi npowerundisput
edlyunt
ilhisdeathin1970.

5.Nasserunderminedt hepr i
nci
plesofnon-ali
gnmentorposi ti
veneut r
ali
tywhenhedeci ded
toestabl
ishdiplomat icrel
ati
onswi t
ht hecommuni stSovietUni on.Nassercouldhave
i
ntendedto-56hi sr
el ati
onswiththeUSSRt odestroytheBaghdadPactcr eatedbyBri
tain,
butthi
sendedupdr awi ngEgypttowardsthecommuni stinf
luence.Ital
somadeEgyptt o
acti
vel
yinvolveinthesuperpowerpol it
ics,cont
rarytot hedemandsoft heNon-al
i
gned
movement .

6.There was massive mil


i
tary expendi
tur
e which drai
ned gover
nmentt reasury.Other
depart
mentslike educat
ion and healt
ht hough essent
ial
,were notgi ven as much
consi
derat
ionasthearmy.Thegover nmentofNasserall
ocatedal
otofstateresourcesto
thearmyt oenabletherecrui
tmentofmanysol di
ersaswel lasprocurementofl arge
quanti
ti
esofmili
tar
yhardware.

7.InJanuar y1953,undert heinfl


uenceofNasserast hemi ni
sterofi nter
nalaff
airs,the
Muslim brother
hoodwasbannedbyt herevolut
ionarygovernment.Thiscouldhavebeena
steptor educet heinfl
uenceofthebr ot
herhoodi nEgyptianpolit
ics;butthemoveonl y
pavedwayf ortheriseofIsl
amicfundament al
i
sm whi choveremphasi sedI sl
amicpurity.
Isl
amicf undament ali
sm caused terr
ori
sm and pol iti
calinstabi
lit
yi ncl
uding poli
ti
cal
assassi
nat i
onslikethemurderofAnwarSadat( i
n1983)t hesuccessorofNasser .

8.Therevol
uti
onari
esf ail
edtomai nt
aintheUnitedArabRepubli
c(UAR),whichcoll
apsedin
1961,onl
yafterthreeyearsintoitsformati
on.TheUARwasaf ederat
ionofEgyptand
Syri
a.Nasser
'spoli
ticalambit
ionsintheMi ddleEastcausedEgypt
iandomi nat
ioninthe
UAR attheexpenseofSyr i
a.Thi sled t
o Syri
an complai
ntscausing herto secede
(br
eakaway)fr
om thisArabfederat
ion.

9.Even though Nasseropposed for


eign dominati
on in Afri
ca and theMi ddleEast,he
howeverembar ked on spreadi
ng Egyptian i
mperial
i
sm.I nthe Mi ddle East,Nasser
supportedtheYemenci vilwarof1962- 67,andalsoalli
edwi thther i
ghtwi ngpart
yof
LebanonagainsttheLebanongover
nment .Thi
scausedcivilunr
estsintheregion.
10.Nasserest abl
i
shedCai
roasal i
beralci
tyforbothAfri
cansandArabs.TheArabcit
yof
Cair
ot hisbecamea"nocit
y"duetotheincreasednumberofpeopl
epoweringi
nwithout
rest
ri
ction. Crimeandimmoral
it
yi nCairowasal soblamedonamul ti
pleofpeople
fl
ockingthecity.

11.TheEgypti
aneconomygr adual
lybecamesuffocatedduet ohighlevel
sofbureaucracy.
Ther
ewasi neffi
ciencyandcorrupt
ioninther
evoluti
onarygover nmentasaresultofthe
sl
ow paceindeci sionmakingcausedbysuchbur eaucracy.Thismeansthatf i
nancial
wast
age and t he high"level
s ofembezzlementwhi ch wer e common during the
monarchi
caldayswer enotcomplet
elyer
ased.

12.Theaggr essi
vef oreignpol i
cyofNassercausedEgypti
anconf l
i
ctwithI
srael
.Hisnegati
ve
att
itudetowardst heexistenceoftheIsr
aelist
ateworsenedthepoli
ti
csoftheMi ddl
eEast.
In1956.Nassercl osedt heGulfofAquabaandt hisbecamet hesparkl
ingfactori
nthe
outbreakoftheSuezCanalconf l
ict
.Muchast heSuezCanalwarenabledEgyptt ocl
aim
ful
lcontroloftheCanal ,i
twasatt hesamet i
meverydestruct
iveontheEgypti
anside.

13.Theindustr
ial
i
zati
onpol i
cyadoptedbytherevol
uti
onarygovernmentdidnotyieldthe
requi
redeff
ects.Theindustri
alsect
orpr
oducedbelow capaci
tytotheextentthatthe
i
ndustri
alpr
oductstosustai
ntherapi
dgr
owingpopul
ati
onaswellasint
ernat
ionalmarket
.

14.Consequentl
y,Egyptfai
l
edt openetr
atetheexternalmarketyetsheconti
nuedtoheavil
y
i
mpor t
sitemslikefoodstuf
fs.Thebalanceoftradegapbecamever yunfavour
abl
e,thus
worseni
ngEgypt ’
sbalanceofpaymentgap.Thecount ry'
sexpenditur
eduringNasser'
s
regi
mewasmor eonimpor t
syettheexport
sbroughtfewerincomes.

15.ThegovernmentofNasserfail
edtof ul
lyexploitanddevelopthemini
ngindustr
y.Oiland
coaldeposi
tsintheSi
naideser tpr
ovincewer enotexpl oit
edtotherequi
redlevel
.This
l
imit
edthegovernment
'ssourceofrevenue,forcinghert
or el
yofhugeext
ernall
oans.

16.Bylate1950 and ear ly1960's,t


hegovernmentofNasserembar ked on heavyloan
acqui
si
tion.Nasseracquir
edl oansfrom Amer
icatohelpinsuppl
ementi
ngfoodsuppl y.
Howeverfinancingthi
sdebtwasver yhar
dwithhighi
nter
estchar
gesof4%.Thisexternal
borr
owingwor senedEgypt
'sdebtburden.

17.ThegovernmentofNasserwasf acedwiththecaseofrapidpopul
ati
ongrowt hatarateof
3% perannum.Thegover nmentadoptedt hepoli
cyoff amil
yplanni
ngbuti thadl i
ttl
e
i
mpactduet othetradi
ti
onali
stMuslim vi
ewt hatchi
ldr
enaregift
sfrom All
ah.Thef ai
l
ure
ofthegovernment
'spopulati
oncontr
olpolicyaff
ectedstat
eexpendit
ureinsustai
ningthe
Egypt
ianneeds.

18.Thel andpoli
cydidnotbenefi
tmaj or
ityofthemasses.Manyoft hefel
l
asremained
l
andless.By1970,onl
y17%oft hecult
ivat
abl
elandhadbeenre-
dist
ri
but
edwit
honly8%
(250,
000)peasantf
amil
iesasbenef
ici
ari
es.

19.Theincomegapbet weent herichandt hepoorwasonl ycont


rolledi ntheshort-
run,but
l
ater
,itdeeplywidened.Thistimei twerethesupporter
soft herevol ut
ionar
ygovernment
andmember softheAr abSocialistPar
tythatbecameweal thi
erthanmaj or
ityEgypti
ans.
Theydomi natedtheEgyptianeconomyandal linfl
uent
ialposi
tionsi ngovernment .They
wereal sothebenefi
ciari
esoft henew land(agrari
an)ownershippol i
cy.Thefailur
eof
Nasser'
sgover nmenttocont r
olt heeverincr
easinggrossunempl oymentint hecountry
madet heincomegapevenwor se.

20.Theeducat
ionref
ormsint
roducedlat
erbecamei nef
fecti
ve.Thecompulsor
yuniversal
pri
mar
yeducati
onimpl
ementedbytherevol
uti
onar
ygovernmentenr
oll
edpupil
sby3f ol
ds
(3t
imes).Thenumberofchil
drenjoi
ningschoolwasover whelmi
ngforcingthegover
nment
tonational
isepr
ivateschool
sduet oscar cit
yofeducat i
onfacil
i
ties.Thegovernment
nati
onali
sati
onpoli
cyhoweverfai
ledtosol vethecongesti
oninschools,becauseEgyptat
thesamet i
mehadshortageofteachi
ngst aff.Thi
saff
ectedtheant
i-
il
lit
eracycampaigns.

21.Theemer genceofhi ghi nfl


at i
onaryrateint herevoluti
onaryper
iodaf f
ectedeconomic
growthinEgypt.Thi
shighi nflat
ionwasduegover nmentf ai
l
uretoensureadequatesuppl
y
ofessentialcommodi tiesespeci al
lyf oodst
uffs.Instead,thegovernmentr esor
ted t
o
massiveimportati
onf oodst uff
ssuchaswheatandmeatf r
om USA.Thescar cit
yof
essenti
alcommodi ti
esst rainedgover nmentexpendi tur
et otheextentofconver t
inga
percent
ageofthegoldr eserve.

22.ThegovernmentofNassergener
all
ydidlitt
letoovercometheenormousunemployment
probl
em inEgypt
.Thiswasduet otheincreasi
ngpopulati
onof3% perannum.About
1,
000,000peopl
ewer eborninEgyptever
yyear .Thehighpopul
ati
ongrowthrat
ehardly
matchedthei
neff
ect
ivelandandi
ndustr
ial
isati
onpoli
ciesi
nthecount
ry.

23.Revol
uti
onaryEgyptfai
ledinherendeavour
st oli
ber
at ePalesti
nef r
om Isr
aelii
mperial
i
sm.
Thisl
edt oPalest
ini
anl ossoff ai
thinEgyptespeciall
yaf t
erIsraelannexedtheJordan
Westbank,theSyri
anGol anHeights,t
heEgypti
anSinaiprovinceandt heEastbankoft he
SuezCanal.Thi
slossoft err
it
ori
eswassufferedbytheAr abal l
i
edf or
cesinasi x-
daywar
l
edbyNasseragainstIsraeli
n1967.

24.Consequent
ly,af
tert
heEgypti
anl
ossoft heEastbankoftheSuezCanalt
oIsr
aeli
n1967,
I
sraelwentaheadtocloset
heCanalforal
mostadecade.Theresul
twastheEgypt
ianl
oss
ofannualr
evenuesofabout19%oftheEgypt
ianannualbudget
.

NASSER'SFOREIGNPOLICY
Nasser'
sfor
eignpol
i
cywasai medatasserti
ngt
heposi
ti
onofEgypt
iandomi
nat
ioni
nAf
ri
ca,
t
heMi ddl
eEastandthei
nter
nati
onalscene.

I
nAf r
ica,Nassergoti
nvolvedi
nAfr
icanstr
uggl
eforself
-r
uleandunit
y,whi
lei
ntheMi
ddle
East,therevol
uti
onar
yleaderai
medatrest
ori
ngtheposi
ti
onofEgyptatthet
opoft
heaf
fai
rs
oftheAr abWorld.

NasserascendedtotheEgypt
ianthroneinNovember1954af t
err
emovi ngNaguibfrom the
l
eadershipoftheRCC.MohammadNegui bsuppor
tedtheideaofel
iminati
ngthear myfrom
t
hepol it
icsofEgypt
,andt herestorat
ionofpoli
ti
calpartydemocr
acy.Upont aki
ngover
l
eadershipofthecommandcouncil,Nasseri
mmedi at
elydoubl
edasPr esi
dentandmi ni
ster
f
orinter
nalaff
air
s.

Inal
l
,Nasser'
sfor
eignpol
i
cywoul
dembar
konput
ti
ngEgyptatt
hecent
reoft
heAr
abWor
ld
andAfr
ica,

Ref
erenceQuesti
ons:
a)Describethenat
ureofNasser
'sforeignpoli
cybetween1954and1970.
b)Discussthefeat
uresoft
heforei
gnpol icyofNasser
c) HowsuccessfulwasNasser'
sforeignpoli
cyby1970?

1.Inf
luencedbytheEgypt i
angeogr aphicall
ocati
on( atthecent
re)oftheArabworld,Nasser
embar kedonapanAr abistpol
icywitnessedbyincreasingonthebudgetoft
heAr ableague.
Thisconsoli
datedEgyptast helargestcontr
ibutortothebudgetoftheArableague.Inthe
end,thisact
ionbyNasserr educedt heeconomi cinfl
uenceofIraqandSaudiArabiainthe
MiddleEast.
2.Nasseropposedt heexi st
enceoft heIsraelistatei ntheMi ddl
eEast.Heembar kedon
mil
itaryrefor
msbyi ncreasi
ngr ecruit
menti ntot heEgypt i
anar myandacquir
ingal otof
sophisti
catedar
msandammuni t
ionsespeci al
lyf r
om t heSovietUni
on.Consequentl
y,he
depl
oyed mor e sol
dier
si nthe Pal esti
nian-I
sraeliwar .This made Egyptthe largest
contri
butorofAr
abtroopsf i
ght
ingagai nstthenewst ateofIsr
aeli
.

3.Asar evol
utionaryleader
,Nasseropposedt heBaghdadpactof1955.TheBaghdadpact
wasanant i
-Sovietpoli
cyini
ti
atedbyBrit
ainandtheIslamicstat
esofTurkey,I
raq,I
ranand
Paki
stan.Accor di
ngt oNasser ,t
hisBaghdadagreementsi gnedi nI
raqwoul dincr
ease
Westerndomi nationand neo-col
onial
i
sm int heMi ddleEastt hanfi
ghti
ng communist
i
nfl
uenceinther egion.

4.Nasser '
sgovernmentwassympat heti
ctocommuni sm (soci
ali
sm).Thiscameaf terNasser
adopt edandimpl ement
edsocialistpoli
ci
esi nEgypt .Nasserwentaheadt oconcr et
ise
rel
ationsbetweenEgyptandtheSovi etUnion.Ther esul
tofthi
ssovietconnect
ionwast he
armsdealwher et heUSSEr e-
enf or
cedthemi li
tarysectorofEgypt .LatertheRussi an
governmentpl edged economic ai dto Nassert o enabl
e him constructt he Aswan
Engineeri
ngproject.

5.ThegovernmentofNasserr
ecogni
sedtheChi nesecommunistgover
nmentatPekingas
thetr
ueregi
meofChinainst
eadofthepro-westnati
onal
i
stgover
nmentlocat
edinTaiwan.
Thisatt
it
udeofNasserworsenedrelat
ionsbetweenEgyptandt heWesternpowersof
Bri
tai
nandFrance.

6.Nasser'
santi-
imperi
ali
statt
it
udei nfl
uencedhimt oexpeltheBrit
ishandtheFrenchfr
om
theSuezCanalregi
on.Thiswast hroughnati
onali
singtheSuezCanalpr
edominant
lyowned
andcontrol
l
edbyaf orei
gncompanydomi natedbyt heFr
enchandtheBri
ti
sh.Thi
sannoyed
Franceand Brit
ainwho enjoyed gr eateconomicbenefit
sf r
om theCanal.Int heend
rel
ati
onsbetweenNasserandt hetwopower sworsened.

7.NasserorganisedtheFedayeencommandos,at er
r ori
stgroupofPal
esti
nianr efugeesand
somef ew Egyptiansint heGazast rip.Nasserai dedtheFedayeengr oupt oconduct
ter
ror
istr
aidsont heIsr
aelist
ate.Thi
sgest urebyNasserwasai medatexpr essingEgypti
an
supportt
oPal est
ineagainstI
srael.I
sraelwouldlaterrespondbyorgani
singat tacksonthe
Egypti
anSinaiPeninsul
atocausepol i
ticalunr
estsanddest abi
li
seNasser
'sgover nment.

8.ThedesirebyNassertoconfi
rm PanAr abism inf
luencedhimt oengageSyri
ai ntothe
creati
onoft
heUnitedAr
abRepubli
cinFebr uary1958.Nasserhowever,fai
l
edt
osust ai
nthe
UnitedArabRepubli
c(UAR)whichl ast
edunt i
l1961whenSyr i
asecededinpr otestof
Egypti
andominat
ionint
hepol
it
icalandeconomi caffair
softhefeder
ation.

9.In1955,Nasserrepresent
edEgyptatt heBandungConf erenceinI ndonesiawhi chlater
madeEgyptaf oundermemberoft heNonAl i
gnedMovement( NAM)l aunchedinBel gr
ade
i
n1961.Hewentaheadt oplayanimportantrolei
ndevelopingt heconceptof" posi
ti
ve
neut
rali
ty"asathi
rdblocopposedtothesuperpowerpol
i
tics,westerncolonial
ism andneo-
col
onial
ism i
nfl
uenceintheArabworl
dandAf r
ica

10.Int helate1950's,Nasserengagedi neconomicrelati


onswit
ht heUSA.Ther esul
twas
Egypt ianacquisi
ti
onofAmer icanloanstobuysurplusAmer i
canwheat,r
iceandmeatt o
suppl ementf ood pr
ovisi
onst otheEgypt i
ans.Intheear l
y1960'sNasserengaged in
financialnegoti
ati
onswiththeUS-governmentt
oacqui r
edebtfi
nanci
ngoftheaccumulat
ed
loansacqui redbyEgypt

11.NasserengagedintheYemenCi
vilWar(1962-67)thr
oughgi
vi
ngmi l
i
tarysupportt
othe
YemenRepublicansagai
nstI
mam'
sgovernment.Thisdi
dnotonl
ycutoffr
elat
ionsbet
ween
EgyptandYemenbutal
soweakenedco-
oper
ati
onwi
thSaudiAr
abi
athatsuppor
tedI
mam'
s
government
.

12.InabidtoliberatePal
esti
nefrom Isr
aelii
mperial
ism,NasserengagedI sr
aeli
na6-daywar
in1967.Thewarhowever ,hadanadver seeff
ectwhichmadePal esti
netolosefai
thint
he
Egypt
ianliberationmissi
on.Israelconsequent
ly,occupiedtheWestbankofJor dan,t
he
GolanHeight s,theSuezEastbankandt heSinaiprovince,causingterr
it
ori
all
osstothe
Araball
iesinvolvedinwar
.

13.Nasser'
sgovernmentr
eformedreligi
ousl ear
ninginrelationt oest
ablishi
ngf
acul
ti
esof
practi
calsci
encesatAl
-AzharUniversi
ty.Thef acul
ti
esi ncludedaf acult
yofsci
ence,of
engineer
ingandofmedici
ne.Thi
suni versi
tyexpansi
onpr omotedAl-
Azharasanoasi sof
graduateeducat
ionf
ortheIsl
amicwor ld.ManyMusl im studentswer enowsenttoEgypt
thanEurope.

14.Nasserplayedamaj orrolei
nelevati
ngtheposi t
ionofEgypti
nAfr
ica.Hecommi tt
edEgypt
tomor alandf i
nanci
alsupportoftheAfri
canliberat
ionmovementi
nt he1950'sand1960'
s.
ThismovebyNasserwasai medatj usti
fyi
ngEgypt i
ansuppor
ttopanAf r
icani
sm asmuch
astopanAr abism.Egypti
annotableassi
stancewast otheMau-Maui nKenyaandtheFLN
inAlgeri
a.

15.I
npost-col
oni
alAfr
icaNasserensur
edaconsol i
datedposi
ti
onofEgyptinAfri
canaffai
rs.
Egyptbecamethefi
rstcountr
ytoleadt hest
ruggl
eagainstwestneo-
coloni
ali
nfl
uencein
Afr
icabefor
ebeingj
oinedbyGhanaafterheri
ndependenceandther
iseofNkrumah.

16.Nasserembar
kedonover throwingt heconservati
veregi
mesi ntheArabworldthatwere
mostlyl
eani
ngtowardscapital
istinf
luence.HeassistedCol.MuamarGadhafitoover
throw
ki
ngI dr
isofLi
byain1969,influencedt heoverthr
ow ofkingFaisalI
IinSaudiArabi
a,and
NuriSai
dthepr
imemi ni
sterofIraqamongot her
s.

17.In1953,Nasserledther
evolut
ionarygover
nmentofEgypti nt
odiscussi
onswi t
hBr i
tai
n
overthestat
usofSudan.Herecognisedthesover
eignr
ightofSudantoindependenceand
infl
uencedBri
tai
ntodecol
oni
sethecountryinearl
y1956.Consequent
ly,t
henewsover ei
gn
stateofSudankepti
ngoodter
mswi t
hEgypt.

18.NasserledEgyptintobecomi nganact
ivememberoftheCasablancaideologi
calgr
oup
whichri
valedtheMonr oviagr
ouponmatter
sofAfri
canuni
ty.TheCasabl
ancagr oupst
ood
forastrongpolit
icalunionofAfri
canst
atesagai
nstaloosefeder
ati
onpr oposedbythe
Monroviagroup.

IMPACTOFTHEEGYPTI AN REVOLUTION ON THEGROWTH OFAFRI CAN NATI


ONALISM
(PANAFRICANI SM)
TheEgyptianrevol
uti
onhadbot hdirectedandindi
rectinf
luenceonthegrowthofAfr
ican
nati
onal
ism andPanAf ri
cani
sm.Thisi mpactwasmai nl
yreali
sedaft
erGamalNassertook
overasEgypti
anleaderi
n1954.

Refer
enceQuesti
ons;
a)Di scusst
heimpactoftheEgyptianr
evolut
iononAf r
ica
b)Exami nether
oleofNasserinthedecoloni
sationofAfri
ca
c)Howf ardi
dthe1952revol
uti
oni nEgyptcontr
ibutet
ot hegr
owt
hofPanAf
ri
cani
sm?

1.Thesuccessoft heEgyptianrevol
uti
onthreatenedwhi t
esettler
sinthesett
lercol
oniesli
ke
SouthAfri
ca,Kenya,Al
geriaandSothernRhodesi a.Theanti-
Brit
ishpol
i
cyofNasserandt he
act
ivi
tiesofEgyptagai nsttheBr i
ti
shi nst
allat
ions,propert
yandbusi nessesinf
luenced
si
mi l
aract
ivi
ti
esagainstwhitesinotherpart
sofAf rica.
2.Consequent l
y,thesoci
alistandnat ionali
sati
onpol ici
esofNasserhadani mpactont he
col
oni alregimesinAf r
ica.TheBr it
ishandt heFr enchwer escar edthatt heidealsof
soci
alism couldpenetr
atet heirAf
ri
cancol onialterr
itori
es.Nasser'
srel
ationshipwiththe
SovietUnionscaredtheFr enchandt heBrit
ishtoor ganisepoli
ti
caldevel
opment s(ref
orms)
i
nt hei rcoloni
es.Theyi ncr eased Afr
ican representati
on in parl
i
ament,gave Af ri
cans
positi
onsi ngovernmentandal sor ef
ormedt het axati
onpol i
ciesamongot hers.Such
poli
ciesinfl
uencedAfri
canst odemandf ori
ndependence.

3.The successoft he Egypti


an revol
uti
on l
ed tothe breakdown oft he Anglo-Egypti
an
condominium overSudan.Nasseracceptedtheneedf orr
ecogniti
onoft heSudaneser i
ght
toself
-det
erminati
on.Nasser '
sconsentoftheSudanesei ndependencecausedt heBr i
ti
sh
toorgani
senationalel
ectionsthatenabl
edtheSudanesetoachieveindependencein1956.

4.Ther evol
uti
onaryEgyptofNasserpr oceeded to gr
antmat eri
al,fi
nanci
aland mi l
itar
y
supporttoAfri
cannati
onali
stmovement sintheMaghr ebregi
onandsub- SaharanAfri
can.
Suchassistanceincl
udedfinanci
algrants,weaponryandmor alsupport.Thi
si nt
ensifi
ed
nati
onali
stactivi
ti
esagainstEuropean coloni
aldomi nat
ion forinst
ancei n Kenya and
Alger
ia.

5.Egyptpr
ovidededucat i
onoppor
tunit
iestoAfri
canstudentsthroughf reescholar
ships.Thi
s
movebyNassert oopenupEgypt ianeducationaldoorst oAf ri
canst udentsproduced
Afri
canpolit
icalgraduateswhor et
urnedt otheirrespect
ivest atesandpar t
ici
patedin
i
ndependencest r
uggles.Manyofthestudent
swhoat t
endededucat i
oninEgyptwer efrom
theMaghrebr egi
onandEastAfri
ca.

6.Nasserparti
cularl
ygaveconsi der
ableassi st
ancetotheAlgeri
anrevol
uti
onarymovements
l
ike Nati
onalLi berat
ion Front( FLN)ofAl geri
at hatfoughtagainstFrench col
onial
dominat
ion.Thisassistanceinvol
vedarms,i deol
ogy,str
ategi
esmili
taryt
rai
ning,aswel
las
housi
ngtheAl geri
anpr ovisi
onalr
evolut
ionarygovernment.TheEgypti
ansupporttoAl
geri
a
wasveryinstr
ument alinthecoll
apseofFr enchcoloni
ali
sm i
nAlgeri
aby1962.

7.Nasser'
spanAr abism i
nfl
uencedhi mt osupportTunisi
aatt heti
mewhent heTunisi
ans
werereadytogovernthemselves.Af
terTunisi
anindependenceof1956,Nasserwentahead
to suppor
tTunisiato att
ackt heFr enchNavalbaseatBi zert
ain1961,whi chledt o
completeel
iminat
ionofFrenchinfl
uencefrom Tuni
sia.

8.Nasserand Egypti nspi


red mili
tantnationali
sm i n Afr
ica.The adopti
on ofa mi l
i
tary
appr oachbyNasserdur i
ngthe1956SuezCanalconf li
ctandthesubsequentsuccessover
thei mperi
alaggr
essivepower sofIsrael
,Brit
ainandFr anceinfl
uencedAfri
canselsewhere
tor esorttomili
tar
ism againstEuropeancol oniali
sts.Thiswast hecaseinAngol aand
Bissau,whil
etheFLNconsol idat
edt heAl
ger i
anar medst r
uggleagai
nsttheFr
ench.

9.Consequently,Nasserpr ovided f
reemi l
it
aryt rai
ning t
o young nati
onali
stsfrom other
Afr
ican states.Manymi li
tantnational
i
stsf r
om Sout h Afri
ca,Algeri
a and some f r
om
Portuguese colonies trained from Egyptian mi l
itar
y academies beforej oini
ng the
i
ndependencest r
uggles.AhmedBenBel l
aofAl geri
aandAmi lcarCabralofguineaBissau
werebenef i
ciar
iesofthismi li
tar
yprogram.

10.Ther adi
calnat ional
i
stcharacterofNasserbr idgedthegapbet weent heAr abNor th
Afri
cansaridt heNegr osAfri
canssout hoftheSahara.Inhisownwor ds,Nasserst at
ed,
"Arabscannoti nanywayst andasi def r
om thest r
uggleofAf ricansagai nstwhites
becauseAr abst hemselvesareinAf ri
ca.
"Thisdi
sprovedtheclaim byt heEur opeansthat
theyhadcomet osuppr essslavetradeandslaveryencouragedbyt heAr abs.Nasser '
s
inf
luencethereforedrewNor t
hAf ri
caandsubSahar anAfri
cat oget
heri nspirit,wher
et he
Nort
h Afri
can st
ates began t
o act
ivel
y assi
stbl
ack Af
ri
cans i
nthei
rst
ruggl
efor
i
ndependence.

11.Revoluti
onaryEgyptbecameaspi ri
tualhomef orfugitiveAfricans.Afri
canpol i
ti
ciansand
fr
eedom f ight
erswhower eper secutedbyt hecol oniali
stssoughtandenj oyedpolit
ical
asylum inEgypt.TheseAf r
icansincludedBenKheddaofAl geriaandI gnat
iusMusaaziof
Uganda.The pol iti
calsaf e haven in Egyptboost ed theirnat ional
ist
icf eel
ings and
determinati
ontoachieveindependencei nthei
rrespectivestates.

12.Egyptall
owedAf ri
canpoli
ti
calor
gani
sat
ionstoestablishexter
nalbaseswi t
hint
hecountry.
TheFr ontLiberati
onNat i
onal
e(FLN)ofAl geri
aest abli
shedagover nmentinexi
le,the
Provi
sionalRevolut
ionar
yGovernmentofAlgeri
a(GPRA)wi thheadquarter
sinEgyptunder
BenKhedda.I gnatiusMusaaziofUgandaest abl
ishedanof f
iceoft heUgandaNat i
onal
Congress(UNOi nCairo.

13.Nassert
he leaderofr evol
uti
onary Egyptcondemned r acistr egi
mes in Afri
ca.He
demanded t
heBr i
t i
sh t
o dissol
vet heCent ralAfr
ican Feder
ation (CAP)
.Hei dent
if
ied
himsel
fwit
hthebl acksinSouthAf r
icaagainsttheaparthei
dsyst em,anddenouncedt he
UDIGover
nmentofI anSmi t
hinSouthernRhodesiainfavourofZimbabwemaj or
ityrul
e.

14.EgyptpromotedAf r
icancul turethrought heuseofcul t
uralshows.Nasseropenedup
li
brari
esofAfri
cansection,whi chincreasedi nt
eresti
nAfri
canstudi
esandencouragedthe
studyofAfri
canlanguageslikeKi swahili,Hausaalongsi
dethecommonAr abi
clanguagein
Egypt.Hesetupasoci et
yf orAf ri
cancul t
uretosearchintotheAfr
icanpast
.Allthese
helpedtofast
enAfri
canuni tyandcul turalrevi
val
.

15.Revolut
ionar
yEgyptpromotedapr opagandabaseagai nstEuropeandominancyi nAfri
ca.
Nasserencouragedanti
-col
oni
alactivi
ti
esandcr usadebyof fer
ingRadioCairoast hefr
ee
voiceofAf ri
ca.RadioCair
oi nf
luencedt hest r
uggleforAf ri
canindependencet hr
ough
broadcasti
ngrevol
uti
onaryi
deasinAf r
icanlanguagessuchasHausa,Ki swahil
i,Arabi
cand
Europeanlanguagesli
keEngli
shandFr ench.Egyptdedicat
edt heKiswahi
liservi
cetothe
Kenyancausedur i
ngtheMau-Mauupr i
sing.

16.AttheBandungconf erenceof1955,Nasserpl ayedani mportantrolei


ndevelopi
ngt he
poli
cyofposi t
iveneutr
alit
y( non-
ali
gnment).Thi
spr i
ncipl
ewasadopt edbytheNon-Aligned
Movement( NAM)wi thNasserasoneoft hef oundi
ngf ather
s.Egyptencouragedother
Afr
icanst at
est ofi
ghtagai nstforei
gndomi nati
onandi nfl
uencedAsi anstat
estosupport
thest r
ugglef orAfri
cani ndependence,whi chgaveAf ri
cansawi debaset ochal
lenge
col
oniali
sm.Nasserencour agedindependentAfri
canleaderstoadoptnon-ali
gnmentpoli
cy
againstthecoldwarofthesuperpower s.

17.Thesuccessoft he1952coupi nEgyptagai


nstFarouki nspi
redtheoverthr
owofpuppet
andneo-colonialleader
sinAf ri
ca.Onascendingt opoweri n1954,Nassersuppor ted
ColonelMuammarGaddaf it
ost ageaLibyancoupagai nstthepuppetkingIndr
isin1969.
Thiswasasi gnthatNasserdenouncedandfoughtagainstneo-col
oni
alinfl
uenceinAf
ri
ca.

18.Revoluti
onaryNasserl edEgypttocondemnsecessi
onism i
nAf
rica.Nassert
heleaderof
Egyptsuppor ted Pat
rice Lumumba of Congo againstthe 1960 Katanga rebel
li
on
(secessionistwar)ledbyMoi seTshombe.Egyptalsocondemnedt he1967-70Bi af
ra
secessionistwar( upr
ising)oftheIboledbyOjukwuOdumwegwuagai nsttheNigeri
an
FederalGover nmentofYakubuGowon.

19.Nasseri
nspir
edleader
sofbot
hindependentAf
ri
canstat
esandnati
onal
i
stmovement
sto
adoptsocial
i
sm.Thosewhoadopt edt hesoci
ali
sti
deologyat
tr
act
edsupportf
rom t
he
communiststates,not
abl
yKwameNkr umahofGhana,AhmedSekouTour eofgui
nea
Conakr
yandJul
i
usNyer
ereofTanzani
a.

THESUEZCANALAFFAI R
Nationalizati
onoftheSuezCanalCompany
The Suez Canali s a sea l evelwat erway thatgoes t hr
ough Egypt ,connecti
ng the
Medi t
erraneanandt heRedseas.Thecanalwasconst r
uctedduringt herei
gnofSai dPasha.It
all
owswat ertr
ansportationbetweenEur opeandAsi awithoutnavi gati
ngar oundAfr
ica.The
canalislocat edbet
weenPor tSaidinthenor t
handt othesouthisPor tTewf i
qattheSuezcity.
Itis193. 3km 120mi les)long,24met resdeepandabout205met r
eswi de.Sincethe
constructionwor kont heSuezCanalwasf inal
isedi
nNovember1869,cont r
over
syer upt
ed
amongt hekeyshar eholdersnamel yEgypt,Unit
edKingdom andFr ance.

Theconst r
uctionoft hecanalwaspr oposedbyt heFr enchdipl
omatt o Cai
ro,Engineer
Ferdi
nandMar ieDeLesseps.Heestabl
ishedtheSuezCanalCompanywhi chwasl i
censedby
SaidPashat oconstr
uctthecanalandoperat
eitforaperi
odof99year saft
erit
scompl eti
on.
WithEgyptr et
aini
ng22% shar esinthecompanyandt her emai
ningsharesownedbyt he
Frenchandt heBri
ti
sh,const
ructi
onworkont hecanalbeganonApr il251859andt hecanal
wasof f
ici
all
yopenedonNovember17,1869.

I
n 1875,f ol
l
owing exter
naldebts accumulat
ed by t he governmentofSaid Pasha,his
predecessorIsmaelPashawasforcedtosellof
falltheEgypti
anshar esi
nthecanaltotheUK
governmentofPr emierBenjami
nDi sr
aeliforf
ourmi ll
i
onpounds.TheBr i
ti
shsharesinthe
SuezCanalCompanyi ncreasedt
o44%,t houghFrancemaintainedthemajor
it
yshares.

TheSuezCanalwasl at
ertobet hemosti mportantwaterwayasi tli
nkedEuropewit
ht he
Mi ddl
eEastoilfiel
ds,aswel lastheFarEastAsia.TheBrit
ishoccupi
edEgyptin1882andone
oft her
easonsf orestabl
ishingcontrolovert
heNilestat
ewast ocontrolt
heCanalandcoll
ect
revenuestorefundtheEur opeanf i
nancier
softheSuezproject
.

Ont heeveofi tsnati


onalisation,theSuezCanalwasusedbyover120000shi psayearf rom
about45nat ions,carr
yingmai nl
yoi lt
oEuropeinvolumesofmor et han35mi l
l
iontons.On
July26,1956,whi l
eaddr essingacr owdinthemainsquareinAlexandri
at omar kthefourth
anniversary of Far ouk's abdi cation,Nasser stunned the wor d: he announced t
l he
nati
onal i
sati
onoft heSuezCanalCompany,anEgypt i
anregi
ster
edcompanyownedbyt he
FrenchandBr i
ti
shshar eholders.Thecompanyhadr anthecanalsince1869andi tstenure
(contract)wasduet ocont i
nueunt il1968.I
nhiswordsNasserdeclared,"Todayinthename
oft hepeopl e,Iam t akingovert hecompany.Tonight,ourEgyptianCanalwi l
lber anby
Egyptians."Het henplacedt hecanalundert heSuezCanalAuthorit
yoft heAr abRepubli
cof
Egypt.

Causesofthenational
izati
onoft heSuezCanalCompany
Refer
enceQuesti
ons:
a)Accountforthenationalizat
ionoftheSuezCanali
n1956
b)Exami nethefactor
st hatinf
luencedNassert
otakeovercont
roloft
heSuezCanal

1.Thewi thdrawaloftheBr it
ishf rom theSuezCanalzonef oll
owingt he1954Angl o-Egypti
an
treatyi nfl
uencedNassert onat i
onalisethecompany.Wi t
ht heunf airbenefi
tst oEgypt
from t hecanal ,Must afaNahasPasha' sgovernmentr ej
ectedt he1936Angl o-Egypti
an
treatyandt r
iedtounilateral
lydr i
veoutt heBri
ti
shi n1951.Thet reatyhadgi ventheBr i
ti
sh
totalcont rolovertheSuezCanalf oraper i
odof20year s.Af t
ert hefalloftheEgypt i
an
monar chyi n1952,ther evoluti
onar ygovernmentsincet henwasengagedi nnegot i
ati
ons
wi t
ht heBr it
ishgovernmentovert heSuezCanal .Theout comeoft hesenegotiat
ionswas
the1954t reatyinwhi chBr i
taincommi t
tedtowi thdrawingf r
om t heSuezCanalzone
beforet heendof1956.ByJune18,1956,( theBr it
ishwhohadbeenanobst acleto
Nasser'
s ambi
ti
ons)had complet
ely wit
hdr
awn fr
om the CanalZone,f
orci
ng t
he
gover
nmentofNassert
oputi
tunderstat
econtr
olonJul
y26,1956.

2.Nasserwasi nf
luencedbycommuni sm t onational
isetheSuezCanali n1956.By1955,
rel
ati
onsbet weenEgyptandt heWesti .
e.Franceandt heUKhaddecl ined.Thepol ici
esof
Nasserhadt hreatenedwest erninterestsintheMi ddleEast.Thisfollowedthe' i
ntimacy'
betweenI sraelandt heWest ernpower sofFr anceandt heUnitedKingdom yetI sraelwas
anar chr
ivaltot heAr abWor ld.Thi
si soner easonwhyFr anceandBr itai
nrefusedt osell
armst oEgypt ,forci
ngNassert ot urnt othecommuni stpower sf orsolace.Anar ms
agreementwassi gnedbet weenEgypt ,theUSSR,andCzechosl ovakia.Egyptr ecei
ved
fi
ghterpl anes,bomber s,andt ankspai df ori nexchangewi thEgypt i
ancotton.Such
communi stsat i
sfacti
oni nf
luencedNassert onat i
onali
sethecanal.

3.Theabr uptwithdr
awalofAngl o-AmericanfinancialoffertoNasserestimat edat66mi l
l
ion
pounds( 70mi l
li
ondol
lars)forfi
nancingt heAswanpr ojectmadethenat ionali
sationofthe
SuezCanalCompanyi nevit
able.Thewi thdrawaloft hisexpectedfundcamei nJuly1956,
asAmer i
cablamedNasserofbei ngpro-SovietUnionandest abli
shingdiplomat icti
eswith
RedChi na(theCommuni stPeopl e'
sRepubl i
cofChi na).TheUKgover nmentofAnt hony
EdencondemnedNasserofbei ngant i
-westernandi nsteadpromotedRussi aninfl
uencein
the-Middl
e East.The revoluti
onar yleaderr esponded byannounci ng the gover nment
takeoveroftheSuezCanalCompanyonJul y26,1956.

4.Consequent ly,t
henat ional
isat
ionoft heSuezCanalbyNasserf oll
owedhi sambi t
ionto
establi
sht heAswanEngi neeri
ngpr oject.TheAswanpr oj
ectwasNasser '
spr i
mer eason
fornationali
singthecanal,ashest ateditclear
lythathewoul dusefundsf r
om thecanalto
constructadam i nAswanasoneoft helargestengineeri
ngpr oj
ectsintheworld.Thedam
wouldr egulatetheflowoft heNilethroughoutt heyear,r
eleaseami ll
ionacresoflandfor
recl
amat ion,provideasour ceofi rr
igati
onandgener ateelectr
ici
tytoenhancei ndustr
ial
developmenti nEgypt .

5.TheSuezCanalwasst rat
egicall
ylocat
edandi tscontr
olwouldconfir
mt hespr eadof
"Nasser
ism"int heArabworld.Thecanalwasast rai
ghtpat
htotheMi ddleEastoilfi
elds
ofthePer si
anGul f
.Italsoactedasawayst ationforMusli
m Pil
gri
mst ravel
li
ngt oand
from Mecca.Thenat i
onali
sati
onandcont rolofthecanalwouldenabl
et hefulf
il
lmentof
Nasser'
sregionalambit
ionsast hechampionofAr abunit
yandAfri
canli
berati
on,andlater
spreadtheideol
ogyof"Neutrali
sm"andNon- al
ignment.

6.Theant i-
imper ial
istatt
it
udeofNasserl edtot henationali
sati
onoft heSuezCanal .The
revolut
ionaryl eaderwant edt oconsol i
dateEgypt i
ani ndependencebyt otall
yuprooting
i
mper i
ali
nfluencef rom Egypt.Event houghthe1954Angl o-Egypti
anagreementl edtot he
fi
nalwi t
hdrawaloft heBri
tishfrom theCanalZone,i tprovi
dedf orthecontinuedexistence
oftheBr it
isht echnocratst ostayforanot hersevenyear stoguar dBri
tishi nt
erest
s.The
Brit
ishalsor et ai
nedt he44% shar esi nt heSuezCanalCompanyj ustl i
ket heFr ench
maj ori
tyshar eholders.Nassercl ai
med f ort heEgypt iancont r
oloft hecanalwi l
lf ul
l
compensat iont otheshareholders.
7.Nassernational
isedthecanalasast rat
egyofincreasi
nghispopulari
tyathomeandt he
restoftheAr abwor l
d.Thenational
isati
onpolicycameatt heti
meofNasser '
soffi
cial
assumptionofpowerast hethr
ee-yeartr
ansit
ionperi
odundertherevolut
ionarycommand
council(RCC)ended.Consequent l
y,enchantment,excit
ementand pr aisesofNasser
begansoonashepr oclai
medthenat i
onali
sat
ionofthecanalandspreadf rom Al
exandri
a
tootherpartsofEgyptandtheArabwor l
d.

8.The 1955 Baghdad pacti nfl


uenced the nati
onalisati
on oft he Suez Canal
.Nasser
underminedt heBagdadpact ,whichwasani ni
ti
ativebyt heBri
ti
shgover nmenttoextend
theircapital
i
sti nf
luenceintheAr abworl
d.Hevi ewedt hepactasadi sr
upt
ionofAr ab
soli
darit
yandamovebyt heUnitedKingdom toconsol i
dateBri
ti
sheconomi cimperi
ali
sm
i
nt heMi ddleEastt heEgypt i
ancont r
olovertheSuezCanalwoul denableNassert o
establi
shanAr abdefencepactasopposedt otheWest erncont
roll
edMi ddl
eEastdefence
-pactemphasi sedatBaghdad.

9.I
nar el
atedcontext,putt
ingt
heSuezCanalCompanyunderEgypt iancontrolwasoneof
thethroughwhichNasserwoul dconsol
idat
ehi srul
e.NasseroptedtousetheSuezCanal
tocreatemoreempl oymentt
ooveronemi l
li
onEgypt i
ansintheSuezr egi
on,rai
semore
governmentfundsandt ocutofft
herevolut
ionarygover
nmentfrom thefeat
uresoftheol
d
regi
me.Theol dr egimeofkingFaroukhadper petuat
edforei
gndomi nanceintheSuez
Canal.

10.Nasserwasi nfluencedbyt heNon-al


ignmentideologyandneut r
ali
sm.Hehadear l
i
eron
part
icipatedi nt heApril1955BandungConf erencethatledt otheemer genceoft he
pri
ncipleofneut rali
sm.Nasserprefer
redtodelinkfrom Westernconnect
ionsarguingthat
i
nternationalcont r
oloverthecanalwouldi
nfri
nge( abuse)Egypti
ansoverei
gnty.TheNon-
al
ignedpr i
ncipl
esi nfl
uencedNasser'sforei
gnpol icythatmadehi mt onationali
set he
canalinor dertoavoidorinvol
vementinthecoldwar .

Eff
ectsofthenationali
sati
onoft
heSuezCanalCompany
Refer
enceQuestions:
a) Assesstheef f
ectsoft
henat
ional
isat
ionoft
heSuezCanalCompany

b)Ofwhatsi
gni
fi
cancewast
henat
ional
i
zat
ionoft
heSuezCanal
?

1.Thenational
isat
ionofthecanali
ncreasedthepopular
it
yofNasserinEgyptandt heMi ddl
e
East
.TheEgypt iansgreet
editveryemotional
lyandthr
oughouttheArabwor ld,t
housands
ofmassesent er
edt hestr
eetsshouti
ngslogansofsupportforNasser.Thi
sincreasedthe
fameofNasserandmadet heUSambassadorHenr yA.Byroadetost at
e,"Icannotover
emphasi set
hepopul ar
it
yofthecanalnat i
onali
sat
ionwit
hinEgypt,evenamongNasser '
s
enemies."

2.Thesuccessfulnati
onali
sati
onoft hecanalpromotedNasserasapanAr abi
stleader.
ThroughouttheArabwor l
d,Nasserbecameast r
ongfi
gur
ei npromoti
ngArabinterest
s
againstwest
erninfl
uence.Thenati
onali
sat
ionwasNasser'
sl ar
gestpanArabtri
umphat
thet i
meandsoonhi sportr
ait
swer etobef oundinthetentsofYemen,thesouksof
Marrakeshandtheposhvill
asofSyr
ia.
3.Thepol icyofnationali
singtheSuezCanalCompanywor senedrel
ati
onsbetweenNasser
andt hewest .Pol i
ti
ciansandpubl i
copinionfrom bothFranceandBrit
aindemandedt he
str
ongestasi nur
est oforcethe'upstar
t'dict
atorofEgyptbeforehepar al
ysedallthei
r
i
nterestsint hemiddleEast
.AnthonyEden,t hebedr i
ddenPr emi
eroftheUKbecamever y
muchanger edbyNassermoveont hecanalandwi shedhim murder
ed;whiletheFrench
Premi erGuyMol l
etcompar edhimt o"Hit
ler.
"

4.Consequent l
y,t
henational
i
sationoft heSuezCanalexposedtheAnglo-
Frenchconspiracy.
Nasserpr omisedful
lcompensat iontokeysharehol
dersinthecanalcompanyi .
e.Brit
ain
andFr ance,andensuredsteadyf l
owoft raf
fi
c,t
hetwoEur opeanpowersinsteadpurreda
mili
taryinter
venti
on.Thepol i
ticalchief
sf r
om thetwopower si.e.Si
rAnt honyEdenof
Bri
tainandGuyMol l
etofFrancepr eparedforamili
tar
yshowdownwi t
hEgypt ,pl
ott
ingt o
causeNasser '
sdownfall

5.Consequently,foll
owing the nati
onali
sati
on oft
he Suez CanalCompany,t he Bri
ti
sh
i
nter
estsandi nf
luenceintheMi ddl
eEastwereputatstake.TheUKwasatr i
skoflosi
ng
heroilresourcesint heMiddleEastandhershortestr
outet otheFarEastwasaswel l
hi
ndered.TheSuezCanalwast hewor l
d'
smostimport
anti nt
ernat
ionalwat
erwayofthe
ti
meandt hemostval uabl
etotheBr i
ti
sh.

6.Theeventt hreatenedinter
nati
onalhar monyandl edt otheinter
ventionoft heUni t
ed
Nat i
onsSecur i
tyCouncil(UNSC) .InearlyOctober1956,ameetingwashel dbyt heUNSC
ont hemat teroft henati
onali
sationoft heSuezCanal .Theseati
ngdelegatesadopt eda
resolut
ionrecogni zi
ngEgypt'
srightt ocontr
olthecanalaslongastraff
icpassaget hr
ough
i
tf orforei
gnshi pswasnott hreat ened.Thi
sr esol
uti
onwasencour agedbyEi senhower'
s
(USA)admi nistr
ation.

7.SoonaftertheSuezCanalhadbeenputunderEgypt iancontrol
,anincreasedbutsteady
fl
owoft r
affi
cthroughthecanalwasr eali
sed.Thisconf i
rmedtotheAmer i
canwishofthe
canalunderEgyptiancontrolwit
houthamper ingthetraffi
c.UnderEgyptianmanagement,
tr
affi
cont hecanalincr
easedf r
om anaver age42shi psdailyt
obet ween45and50shi ps.
Nasserimprovedont hecanalbywi deninganddeepeni ngit
.Thisenabledthewaterwayto
al
lowpassageofl argevesselsofabout60000t onsfrom theli
mitof20300t ons.

8.Fol
lowing the nati
onali
sati
on ofthe canal,revenues and benefi
tsincreased forthe
Egypt
ian t
o enj oy.Nasser'
sreformson t he canaldi d notonlyprovi
de empl oyment
opport
unit
iestoEgyptianthecanalboost
edt henationali
ncomesoft heEgypti
antreasury.
ThegovernmentofNasserwasnowabl etocollectbetween50and77mi l
liondol
larsper
annum.

9.Theeventincr
easedAr ab-I
srael
iri
valry.Nasserondecl
ari
ngEgypti
ansol econtrolofthe
canalcompany,hewentaheadt obl ockthepassageofI
srael
itr
aff
icbyclosi
ngt heGulfof
Aquabathesuffocatedtraff
icont heRedSeaandconsequent lyaff
ectedIsraelandher
tr
adingact
ivi
ti
eswithEurope.

10.Consequently,t heeventl edt o(di


vergent)mixedr eacti
onsofmaj orNATOpower si.
e.the
USAFr anceandBr it
ain.LikeFr anceandBr i
tain,theUSAr egardedNasserasamenacebut
didnotsharet heAngl o-Frenchent husi
asm forwar ;i
nstead,theUS- governmentpreferr
ed
economi cpr essur esonEgyptasanopt i
on.TheUSA' sadmi ni
strati
onofEi senhower
condemnedapossi bleat tackonEgyptbyFr anceandBr itainanddemandedt hatthe
disputesurroundi ngt henat ional
isati
onoft heSuezCanalber esolvedbyanegot iat
ed
settl
ement,cl aimingt hatt heywoul donlyappl yiftr
affi
ct hrought hecanalwashal t
ed
(aff
ected).
11.The nat i
onal i
sation policy ofNasserovert he Suez CanalCompany i nevi
tabl
yl ed
to"t
ri
parti
teaggr ession"onEgypt( i.
e.theSuezwar ).Whil
enegotiati
onswi thEgyptwer e
underway,Edenoft heUKandMol letofFranceengagedi nasecr etconspiracytoinvade
Egypttoget herwi thIsraelandcapture(sei
ze)thecanal.Hence,ont heOct ober29,1956,
I
sraeliforcescr ossedi ntoSinaiandr acedtowardst hecanal
.OnOct ober31,anAngl o-
Frenchattackl aunchedonEgyptai medatdest royi
ngNasser '
sregimei ncl
udingdropping
ofleafl
etsur gi
ngEgypt i
anstooverthrowNasser.ThissparkedofftheSuezwar .

12.Thenational
i
sati
onoft heSuezCanalCompanymar kedtheendoff orei
gndomi nat
ionin
EgyptNasserwentahead t o putallBrit
ish and French investments,proper
ty and
enter
pri
sestotal
i
ngto15, 000underEgypti
angovernmentcont rol.Theseincl
udedbanks,
i
nsurancecomp;businesses,et
ceter
a.Newl awswer epassedr equir
ingsuchcompani es,
banksandcommer cialventur
estober egi
steredwithmaj or
it
yshar esandmanagement
takenupbyEgypti
ans.

13.Egypti
anindependencebecamemeani ngfulf
oll
owi ngt heNasser '
snationali
sati
onofthe
SuezeCanal .Thisbecameinevitabl
east heBri
tishfinall
ywi t
hdrew fr
om t heSuezCanal
zone,withtheremainingBri
tishtechnocratsseenof flast.Thisther
eforemar kedtheend
ofBrit
ishimperialambit
ionsinther egi
on.TheBr i
ti
shmi li
tarybaseintheSuezhadbeen
thelar
gestexternalbasi
sinthewor l
dandhadgi venBr i
tai
nanupperhandi nt heaff
air
sof
notonlyEgyptbutalsotheMi ddl
eEast .

14.Egypti
ancontrolofthecanali
ntensi
fi
edt herel
ati
onshi
pbetweenNasserandt heSovi
et
Union.InOctober1958,Nasserconcludedadealwi t
htheSovietUnion,whi
chassured
NasserofSovietfi
nancetoenabl
ehimt okick-
star
ttheAswandam project
.Bytheendof
thedecade,SovietEgypt
ianshadgainedmoment um andhadspr eadtotherestofthe
Arabwor l
d,

THESUEZCANALWAR( TRIPARTITEAGGRESSI ON)


Rightf r
om theti
meoft her evol
uti
on,Nasser'
sdomest i
candforei
gnpol i
ciesweregeared
towar dsweakeni
ngEgypt i
aneconomi cdependenceont hewest
.Foll
owingthenati
onali
sat
ion
ofthecanalonJul y26,1956,Nasserdecl ar
edt hathewouldbuildtheAswanengi neer
ing
projectwit
hcanalrevenuesandwoul dmakei mperial
i
stschokei
ntheirext
remeanger.

Exploiti
ngthe1954Angl o-Egyptianagr eementsi gnedOct ober19,theBrit
ishplottedanat tack
onEgypt .The1954t reatyhadapr ovisiont hatal l
owedt heBrit
ishandt heFr enchtouse
mili
taryi nt
erventionont hecanali npr otecti
onoft heirinter
ests.Thishowever ,woul dbe
commendedi ncaseoft hreatoft hei nterestsoft heSovi etUnioninEgypt .Hencef or
tht he
Bri
tishandt heFr enchnegot i
atedapl anwi thIsrael,whi chwoul dresultinther etur
noft he
Suezt ot heBr it
ishandt heFr ench,t heover thr
ow oft heNasserr egi
meandr estorat
ionof
European,Chr i
sti
anandJewi shpr operty.Theydeci dedt ousesubst anti
alIsraelelement s
operatingint heEgyptaf terconvincingI sraeloft het hreatNasserposedt ot heirconti
nued
exi
st ence.

Isr
aelitroopsi nvaded the Egypt i
an possessionsi n Gaza and the Sinaion Oct ober29.
Followi
ngt heIsrael
iinvasionoft heSinai,Bri
tai
nandFr anceissuedanul ti
matum tosepar ate
thecombat ant
si .
e.EgyptandI srael
.Egyptwasaskedt owi t
hdraw herf or
ceswestoft he
canal,which-Nasserr ejected.Accordingly,f
oll
owingthet er
msoft hecanaltreatyofOct ober
1954,Br i
ti
shandt heFr encht r
oopsl aunchedownat tackinthecanalzoneonOct ober31,
using acombi ned forceofai rst ri
kes,navalbombar dmentsand par achutedr ops.They
bombedst r
ipstodest r
oyNasser 'sairforce,l
andingtr
oopsatpor tSaidianddr oppingleafl
ets
onCai rourgingtheEgypt ianstoover t
hrowNasser 'sregime.Thistheref
ore,result
edi ntothe
tri
parti
teaggressiononEgypt .
Thet r
ipar
ti
teaggressi
onmot ivatedNasser'
sdeter
minati
ontodefendEgypt
iansover
eignt
y
eventhoughBr i
ti
shPrimeMi nist
erAnthonyEdenbeli
eveditwoul
dtakeashortti
mebef or
e
Nasserdefeated.Theref
ore,theSuezwar( t
ri
part
it
eaggressi
on)whichoccur
redbetween
OctoberandNovember1956wasanaggr essi
vewaront hepar
tofIsr
ael
,Bri
tai
nandFrance
butawarofliberat
iononEgypt.

Causes
Refer
encequesti
ons
a) Accountf
ort
het
ri
par
ti
teaggr
essi
ononEgypti
n1956

b)Exami
net
hecausesoft
he1956SuezCanalcr
isi
s.

c) Di
scusst
hecausesandef
fect
soft
heSuezwar
.

d)Towhatext
entdi
dAbdelNassercont
ri
but
etot
heSuezwarof1956?

e) "West
ernimperial
ism waspr
imar
il
yresponsi
blef
ort
he t
ri
par
ti
te aggr
essi
on on
Egypt
."Di
scuss

1.Theunilat
eralnat i
onalisati
onoftheSuezCanall edtot heSuezwar .OnJul y26,1956
Nassernati
onalizedt heSuezCanalCompanybutwi thcompensat iontoshar ehol
ders.He
ai
medatcompl etel
yer adicati
ngBr
it
ishinf
luenceintheSuezr egi
onanddel inkingEgypti
an
economicdependenceont hewest.Nasserwentaheadt onat ional
i
seal lt hepropert
y
bel
ongingtotheFr enchandt heBri
tishbutsparedthoseoft heJews.Fr anceandBr i
tai
n
werehoweverfrustratedbyNasser’smovehencesuppor tedIsraeltoat
tackEgypt .

2.Consequent ly,theant
i-
Bri
tishfeeli
ngsinEgypti nfl
uencedNassert oputt heEgyptianCanal
undergover nmentcont r
ol.TheEgypt i
anleaderr ef
erredtoBr i
ti
shinfluenceandt hatofthe
Frenchasasi gnofneocol oni
ali
sm inthesover ei
gnst ateofEgypt .Theexistenceoft he
Brit
ishinEgyptwasal soat hr
eatt oEgypt i
anpol i
ticalandeconomi cambitionsint he
Middl eEast.Thewaront hecanalwast hereforear esultofNasser'sambiti
onst ototall
y
eradicatetheBr i
ti
shinfl
uencei nt heNi l
est ateandmaket hei ndependenceofEgypt
meani ngful
.

3.ThedesirebyNassert ospr eadhispanArabistpoli


cymadet heSuezwari nevi
table.
Nasserhadt heambiti
onofuni t
ingtheArabstatesandachievi
ngindependenceforal l
Arabcountr
iesi
ncludi
ngPalesti
nethatwasunderI
srael
iimper
iali
sm.Thiswasagainstthe
Zi
onistswhower earchr
ival
soft heArabworl
d.Itwasundert hi
sbackgroundthatIsr
ael
at
tackedEgypt.

4.Egyptsupportedter
roristactivi
ti
esonI sraelthatcausedt heSuezwar .Nasserr ecr
uit
ed,
trainedandarmedt he" Fedayeen"commandoscompr isingPalesti
nianref
ugeesi nGaza
aswel lasEgypti
anvolunteers.Between1954and1955,t heFedayeencarri
edoutr ai
dson
Israelfr
om Egypt
.ThismadeI sr
aeltoretali
atebyattackingtheEgyptianofSinaiandGaza
strip.

5.Thecrisiswasmot ivat
edbytheimperi
ali
sti
cinter
est
sofI sraeli
ntheCanalZoneandt he
MiddleEast .I
sraelhadthedesi
retohavemonopolyovertheMi ddl
eEastaffair
s,toaccess
Afri
cat hr
ought heSuezCanalandt oconsoli
datehercontinuedexist
enceint heMiddle
East.Alltheseconf l
ict
edwitht
heEgyptianpoli
cyintheMi ddleEastandlaidgroundsfor
thewar.

6.Egypt
ianl
eani
ngt
owar
dst
heeast
ernbl
ocl
edt
otheSuezCanalwar
.Nasseracqui
red
fundsfrom t
heSovietUnionfort
heconst r
ucti
onoftheNil
ehighdam atAswanandmade
anar msdealwithUSSRandCzechosl ovaki
a.Tomakemat ter
swor se,Nasserexchanged
visi
tswi t
hthesovi entUnionleader
s.Al ltheseanger
ed Bri
tai
nwho engaged i nt he
tri
part
it
eaggressi
ononEgypt .

7.Consequent l
y,therecogniti
onoft hecommuni stgovernanceatPekingbyNasserast he
off
ici
algover nmentofChi naagainsttheprefer
redTaiwangover nmentrecogni
sedbythe
capit
ali
stwor ldledtot heSuezwar .ThismovebyNasserannoyedt heUSAandt heUK
whowi thdrewpr omised66mi ll
ionpoundsmeantf ortheconst r
ucti
onoft heAswanhigh
dam.The wi t
hdrawaloft he Anglo-
Amer i
can promised funds prompted Nasserto
nati
onalisethecanal,pavi
ngwayf ortheSuezwar .

8.Theabr ogationoft he1936Angl o-Egypti


ant r
eatymadet heSuezCanalcr isisi nevit
abl e.
Thetreat ystipul
at edthattheBr i
tishwi t
hdrawfrom thecanalregi
oncompl etely,andst op
i
nfl
uenci ngt hepol i
ti
calandeconomi caff
air
sofEgyptby1956;i .
e.withi
nt went yyear s.
Thecont inuedBr iti
shst aywit
houtsi gnsofvacatingtheNil
estateofEgyptwasi nterpreted
byNasserasani ntendedBr i
ti
shpol icytoconti
nueexploit
inghisnati
on.Nassert herefore
nat
ionalizedBr it
ishpr opert
yleadingt othetri
part
iteaggr
essiononEgypt.

9.Theant i-
imperi
alistpoli
cyofNasserwasat hreattotheFrenchandt heBr i
ti
shint hei
r
respecti
ve colonies.Nasser '
s supportofAf ri
can nati
onali
sm,which was wi tnessed
throughoutthel i
berat
ionprocessofAf r
icascaredthecoloni
almasters.Nasserextended
mat eri
alormor alsupportt
ot heFront
edeLiberati
onNat i
onal
e(FLN)inAlgeri
aagainstthe
Frenchandt heMau- MauinKenyaagai nsttheBrit
ish.Thetwocoloni
alpower stheref
ore
plottedtodest
royNassert hroughtheSuezwar .

10.Thewi t
hdrawaloft he66milli
onpoundst hathadbeenpr omi sedt oNasserbyt heUKand
theUSgover nment smadet heSuezCanalcr i
sisinevit
able.Thef inanci
alassistancewas
theenableNassert oconstructtheAswan,Engi neeringPr ojecttogeneratehydr oelect
ric
powerandr eservelandforagr icult
ure.Thewi t
hdrawaloft hi
sf i
nancialandt echnical
assi
stance forced Nassert o nationali
se t
he SuezCanalCompanyand t o seek f or
assi
stancefrom theeaster
nbl oc.Allthesewereacont ri
butiont otheoutbreakoft heSuez
Canalcri
si
s.

11.Thecl osureoft heGulfofAqababyNasserl edtot het r


ipart
it
eaggr essi
ononEgypt .
Closingt heGulfofAqababl ockedIsr
aeliti
eswit
hEur opeandsuf f
ocatedt heRedSea
traf
fi
c,henceaf fect
ingI
sraelandhereconomy.Inr esponse,theZionist
sopt edtoset
tl
e
thisaccountwi t
hEgyptt hr
oughami li
tar
yconfr
ontati
on.Thechancesur f
acedin1956
whenI sraeli
nvadedtheSi
naiandr api
dreachedt
heSuezCanal .

12.Theviol
ati
onoft heAngl e-
Frenchultimat um causedthewaront heSuezCanal.The
ul
ti
matum wasawar ni
ngonEgyptt ost ayinaradiusoftenmil
esawayfrom t
hecanalas
asteptowardsprevent
ingaconf ront
ationbetweenI sr
aelandEgypt
.Nasserr
eject
edthe
ul
ti
matum,f or
cingtheAnglo-Frenchf orcestodecl ar
ewaronEgypt ,andimmedi at
ely
l
aunchedanattackonOctober31,1956

13.Thestrat
egiclocati
onoftheSuezCanalcausedthewar .ToEgyptandIsr
ael
,thecontrolof
thecanalwoul dmaket hem cont
rolthei
reconomi csupr emacyintheMiddleEast.The
canalwasapassageofI sl
amicpilgr
imstoMecca,whi chiswhyNasserneverwant edit
underwesterncontrol
.OnthepartofBrit
ainandFrance,thecanalwastheshor t
estroute
totheoilproducingcountr
iesofthePersi
anGul f
;thus,thestruggl
etocontrolthecanal
causedtheSuezwar .

14.Nasserwasopposedt
othe1955Baghdadpacti
nit
iat
edbyBr
it
ain,hencecausi
nga
disagreementwi ththeUnitedKi ngdom.TheBaghdadpactwasani ni
ti
ati
veoft heUni t
ed
Kingdom aimed atconsol idati
ng Br i
ti
shi mper i
alinfl
uencei ntheMi ddleEastatt he
expenseoft hei nter
estsoft hesovi et
Union.Nasserde- campaignedthisBri
tishpolicyby
i
nf l
uencingtheover t
hrowoft heAr abregimest hatwerepr o-
westandhadsuppor tedthe
:
Baghdadpact forexampleMur hesSai dPr i
meMi nist
erofI r
aq,KingFaisalI IofSaudi
Arabia;aswellasi nf
luenci
ngki ngHussei nofJor dantodismisshisBri
ti
shjointarmychi ef
ofstaff.Al
ltheseannoyedt heBr it
ishwhomast ermindedt hetr
ipar
ti
teaggression.

15.Consequentl
y,thethreatoft hei nter
est sont heSovietUni onintheMi ddleEastcont r
ibuted
totheSuezCanalconf l
ict
.TheUSSRequal lywant edtodest r
oyt heBaghdadpactandwas
nothappywi t
ht heAr abst at
est hatsignedt heant i
-SovietpactinBaghdad( I
raq)in1955.
TheseArabcount r
iesincludedTur key,Iraq,SaudiAr abiaandI ran.TheUSSRt herefore,
ext
endedintensivefinancialandmi li
taryassistancet oNasser,whi channoyedt hewest ern
powerssincetheywer eagai nstcommuni stinter
estsi ntheArabr egion.Thewestl edby
Bri
tai
nimposedf i
nancialandt radesanct ionsonEgypt ;worseneddi plomaticr
elat
ionswi th
Nasserhence,pavingwayt heconf l
i
ct.

16.ThethreatonBr it
ishinter
est sintheMi ddleEastandt heMedi t
erraneanSeat r
ademade
thetr
ipart
it
eaggr essioninevitabl
e.Foll
owi ngthewithdrawaloftheeconomi cassistance
toNasserbyt heUSAandt heUK,Nasserdi dnotonl
ynat i
onal
isetheSuezCanalbutwent
aheadt oputallt
heAngl o-Frenchpropertyunderstat
econt rol
.TheBr it
ishf
earedthatthey
coul
dl osetheirsharesi
nt heSuezCanal .Forthi
sreasont her
efore,theBri
ti
shdecidedt o
getbackatNasserandover t
hrowhisgover nmenthencet heSuezwar .

17.Thef ormationoftheFreeUsersAssociat
ionontheSuezCanalcausedt heSuezwar.The
FreeUser sAssociati
onwasi ni
tiat
edbyNassert ocontroltr
aff
icontheSuezCanal.The
associati
ononmanyoccasi onsr efusedt
oguaranteefreepassageofAnglo-
Frenchships
forci
ng- Bri
taintoint
erpr
etthisasadel i
berat
emovebyNassert osuff
ocatetheBri
tish
tradeactivi
tiesi
nt heMedit
erraneanSea.Inresponse,Brit
ainsuppor
tedIsr
aeltoattack
theEgypt i
anSinaipeni
nsul
a.

18.Thei mmediatecauseoft heSuezwarwast heIsr


aeliatt
ackontheEgyptiant
erri
tori
esin
theGazaandSi nai
.Br i
tai
nandFr anceconvincedIsr
aelthatherconti
nuedexi
stencewas
fragil
ewiththeact i
vit
iesofNasseri ntheAr abworl
d.Fol l
owi
ngt heatt
ackont heSinai
,
Nasserwasdet erminedtopr otectthesoverei
gnexistenceofEgypt,nowondert hathe
refusedtorespecttheAngl o-
Frenchulti
matum,leadi
ngt otheAnglo-
Frenchat
tackont he
Egyptiant
erri
tor
ies,hencethet r
ipart
it
eaggressi
on.

I
MPACTOFTHESUEZCANALCONFLI CT
TheSuezCanalwarhadf
ar-
reachi
ngconsequencesonEgypt
,Af
ri
ca,t
heAr
abwor
ldand
Eur
ope

Refer
enceQuest
ions:
a)Assesst
heconsequencesofthe1956tr
ipar
ti
teaggr
essi
on
b)HowdidtheSuezwaraffectt
heEgypti
ans?

Positi
veef f
ects:
1.Thewarest abl
ishedNasserasoneofthepr agmaticleader
softheNon-al
ignedmovement
Nasserbecamet heambassadorofNon- alignmentasheadvocat edf orthepol
icyof
positi
ve neut r
alit
yin Africa and t
he Mi ddle East.The Non-al
ignment movement
represented the voi
ce oft he oppressed agai nstcoloni
aldominati
on and forei
gn
aggression.

2.Thevi
ctor
yofNasseroverBr
it
ainandFr
ance(
tri
par
ti
tepower
s)boost
edhi
sper
sonal
overni
ghtasthefat
herofthepanArabwor l
d.Asar
esul
t,hi
spor
trai
tsappear
edi
npublic
pl
acesf rom Morocco t
o Muscat.Theref
ore,t
heSuezwarbuiltNasser'
ssuccessf
ul
defenseofi
ndependenceandsover
eignt
y.

3.Afterthewar ,Nasserimmediatel
ynat
ionali
sedallt
her emai
ningenterpri
ses,i
nvestments
andi nstal
l
ationsbelongi
ngt otheFr
enchandt heBr i
ti
sh.Hencefort
h,theBr i
ti
shandt he
FrenchvacatedEgypti mmediatel
yandthismarkedtheendoft helongBriti
shinfl
uencein
thi
sNi lestat
eofNor thAf
rica.

4.TheSuezcr i
si
sconfirmedthevictor
yofNasserathomepolit
icallyanddi
plomati
cal
l
y.It
boostedhi
spopulari
tyanddemonst r
atedanewsenseofnati
onalisti
ccommitmentwher
e
theEgypti
ansincl
udi
ngpoli
ticalopposi
ti
ongroupsal
lral
l
iedbehindNasserforanati
onal
cause.

5.Aft
ert hewar,Egyptgai nedful
lcontr
oloft hecanalawayfrom f
oreigner
s.Thi
scontrol
boostedEgypti
anr evenuesf r
om thecanal,whichalmostdoubl
ed.By1964,Egyptwas
col
lecti
ng77mi ll
iondol lar
sf r
om thecanalperannum.Thecont r
oloft hecanalal
so
contr
ibutedt
othefullindependenceofEgypt.

6.Consequently,Nasserembarkedont heAswanhi ghpr


ojectontheNileRi
ver
:Thedam was
ai
medatr egulati
ngtheflow oftheNi l
e,sparelandforagricul
tur
eofaboutonemi ll
i
on
hect
arsandgener ati
nghydroelect
ri
c power . The compl et
ion ofthe dam faci
l
itated
i
ndustr
ial
devel opmentinEgypt.

7.ThesuccessofNasserintheSuezwarwasamaj orfact
ori
nt hecreat
ionoftheUnion
bet
weenEgyptandSyri
a.Thisuni
onwasestabl
ishedastheUni
tedArabicRepubl
ic;i
twas
ai
medatcr eat
ingAr
abunit
yandsoli
dar
it
yintheMiddl
eEast.

8.TheendoftheSuezwarf aci
li
tatedandconsoli
datedacommuni stal
li
ancebet
weenEgypt
andthecommuni stworl
d.Moremi l
it
aryandtechnicalt
reat
iesweresignedbetweenEgypt
andtheSovietUnionandlat
er,Russianfi
nanci
alassist
ancef l
ewi nt
oEgypttoenabl
et he
const
ruct
ionoftheAswanhighpr oj
ect.

9.Theresul
tofthewarencouragedNassert osupportt heovert
hrow oftheconservati
ve
monarchi
calAr
abgovernments.Theseincl
udedKingIdri
sofLibyawhowasover t
hrowni n
l
969.Manyoft heseArableaderst hatwhereovert
hrownwer epro-westandther ef
ore
suppor
ted1955Baghdadpact
.

10.ThewarmadeCai roashoppi ngcentr


eandameet i
ngpl aceforAfr
icannationali
sts.
Poli
ti
calparti
esorl i
berati
onmovement sandt heirleader
swer eattr
actedt oCairofor
poli
ti
calreasons.Thesepol it
icalor
gani
zati
onsincl
udedt heUgandaNat ionalCongress
(UNC)andi t
sLeaderIgnatiusKangaveMusaaziandtheNat i
onalLi
ber
ationFront(FLN)of
Alger
iaunderthei
rrepresentat
iveBenKdedda.

11.Theendoft heSuezwari ntensi


fi
edt heEgyptiansuppor
ttotheli
ber
ati
onmovement sin
Afr
icaagainstcoloni
ali
sm.Inpar t
icular
,Egyptextendedmassivefi
nanci
al,mi
l
itar
yand
moralSupporttotheFronteLiber
ationNationale(
FLN)ofAlger
ia.ThismadetheBr i
ti
sh
andFrenchtolosethei
rcol
oniesinAf r
ica.

12.Consequentl
y,thewarfacil
i
tat
edpolit
icaldevel
opment sinFr
anco-phonestat
es.TheSuer
conf
li
ctweakenedt heFrenchcoloni
alempi r
easi tbroughttotheFrenchthr
onealiberal
l
eader,GeneralCharl
esdeGaul l
ein1958.Char lesfavoredthedecoloni
zati
onofFrench
col
onialAf
ri
cabyor gani
zingarefer
endum forAfri
canstodeterminethei
rdest
iny.

13.Thewarwasoneoft
heevent
saf
terWor
ldWarI
Ithatbr
oughtt
oget
hert
het
wosuper
powerstoget
her.USAandUSSRshar edacommonf or
eignpolicyontheSuerwarwhere
theybothdenouncedt
hetri
par
ti
teaggressi
onEgyptandr ecognizedt
hecust
odianshi
pof
Egyptovert
heSuerCanal
.

Negat
iveef
fect
s

14.TheSuerwarcausedmassdest
ruct
ionofl
i
feandpr
oper
tyespeci
all
yont
hesideofEgypt
.
About300mostofwhom Egypt i
answerekil
ledi
nthebattl
e,whil
evastquant
it
iesof
equi
pmentweredestr
oyed.

15.Thewardemol i
shedthesoundingcit
iesofEgypt.Themostaff
ect
edwer ethesuerci
ty
andAlexandr
ia. Thi
swascausedbyt heBr i
ti
shandtheFrenchfi
ghterplaneswhose
moti
vewast ocauseNasserseverecasual
ti
es.TheEgypt
ianai
rfor
ceinit
iat
edbyNasser
wasalsoshat
tered.

16.Consequent
ly,Egyptwasforcedt
owithdrawfr
om t
herestoftheSi
naiandGazar
egi
onby
theUnit
edNat ionsSecuri
tyCounci
l. TheSecur
it
yCouncilwentaheadtoimmediat
ely
depl
oyapeacef orcetoover
seesecur
ityandst
abi
li
tyi
nthearea.

17.Egyptalsolostt
err
it
ori
estoIsrael
.Thesei ncl
udedSharm Shai
kinSouthernSinaiwhi
ch
wasoneofEgypt ’smili
tar
yposts.Mor eterri
tor
ieswer
elostbyEgyptfollowingthesi
x
dayswarof1967,whichwasal mostanextensi
onoftheSuezwar.Afterthesixdayswar,
I
sraelannexedal
loftheEgypt
ianSinait
err
it
oryupt ot
heEastBankoft
heSuezCanal .

18.Thewarhadnegativeeconomici
mplicat
ionsofEgyptandIsr
ael
.Egyptl
ostrevenuesf
rom
thecanalsincet
hewat erwaydidnotoperateduri
ngt hewar.OnthesideofI sr
ael
,her
watert
raff
icwassuffocat
edduri
ngthewar .

19.Thewardamagedt hepresti
geandi nf
luenceofBr
itainandFr anceintheMiddl
eEast
whichaff
ect
edthei
reconomicint
erests.Ongaini
ngfullcont
roloftheSuezCanal
,Nasser
confi
scat
edallt
her
emainingAngl
oFr enchasset
sinEgypt.

GHANAIANNATI ONALISM
THEREVOLUTI ONINGHANAFROM THEGOLDCOSTTOGHANA
Ref
erencequesti
ons:
a) Accountfortheear
lyi
ndependenceofGhana

b)Exami
net
hef
act
orst
hatf
aci
l
itat
ethei
ndependenceofGhana

c) Di
scusst
hef
act
orf
ort
her
iseofnat
ional
i
sm i
ntheGol
dCoast
.

1.TheGhanaianr evol
uti
onr eferst
ot remendouschangesregist
eredbythenational
sinthe
GoldCostduri
ngt hestruggleforindependenceandnati
onbuildi
ngthereaf
ter
.Ghanawas
i
nit
ial
lyaBr i
ti
shcol onyoft heGoldCoast . Shewasfir
stAf ri
cancountr
ysout hofthe
Sahar
at oachieveindependenceonMar ch6,1957underthenameofanci entempireof
Ghana.Thest ruggleforindependenceoft heGoldCoastwaspossibleowingt oaseri
es
ofpol
iti
cal
,socialandeconomi cfactors.

2.Theinfluenceoft hehistori
caltr
aditi
onalr
esist
ance(anti
-coloni
almovement s)int heGol d
Coastledt ot heindependencest ruggl
e.Sincethei
ntroductionofBri
ti
shr ul
eint hemi ddle
oftheni neteenthcentur y,t
hemassesi nt heGoldCoastst agedher
oicresistanceagai nst
theBriti
sh.The1852pol lt
axordinanceimposedbytheBr iti
shwasopposedandr ej
ect ed
i
nt heeast ernpartsoft hecoast(Akuapem,Akyem andKr obo);andi
nt hecentralregion.In
1870's,therewasanar medr esi
stancebyt heFant
econf ederat
iongovernment( ofmai nly
Akanspeakers)whi chwasgearedtowar dspushi
ngforapoli
cyofself-
det
ermination.The
ot
herearl
yr esist
ancewasbyt hepeopleofAsanteagainsttheBrit
ishatt
emptt otake
awaytheirtradit
ionalgoldenstool.Thought heear
li
erresi
stanceswerecr ushed,they
i
nspi
redearl
yact ivi
tiesoft
heindependencemovementinl
ed1930byDanquah.

3.Thehomogenousnat ureoft hepeopl eoft heGol dCoastpr omot ednat i


onalunit
yand
favour edi ndependencemovement .Thepeopl eoft heGol dCoastwer enotexposedt o
sever etroubleandhat redduet othecommonhi storyandculture.Theywer eproudoftheir
ancest ryint heoldempi reofGhanaofwhi chkeptt heirnati
onali
sm act ive.Themajor i
ty
(about60%)wer eAkanspeaker swhohadspr eadt heircult
uralinfluencet onon-Akans
suchast heKwawu,EweandGa.Thi screatedast r
ongsenseofnat ionali
sm,whichwas
witnessedasear l
yast he1930s.I nthecourseoft hest r
uggleforindependence,casesof
ethniccl asheswer eabsenti ntheGoldCoastast her ewasnomaj oret hnicgrouptoclaim
theepi t
omeoft hest r
ugglef orindependenceTr aditi
onalrulerssuchasNanaKobi na
Nket siaofEsi kaduinWest ernregiongreatlysuppor t
edt heCPPl edbyNkr umahoft he
East ernr egionandhewasal waysar r
estedalongot herpol i
ti
ciansf ort hei
rpolit
ical
agitati
onsagai nstt
heBr i
ti
shcol oni
algovernment.

4.Economically, the Gol d Coast was pr ogressive wi t


h devel oped socio-economi c
i
nfrast
ructurest hatf avoredi ndependencest ruggle.Ther oadandr ai
lwaysystemswer e
welldevelopedwhi l
et hecol onyenj oyedinternati
onalt radel i
nkst hroughwaterhar bours
l
ikeAccra.Thecol onyhadawel l-
developedr oadnet wor kthatwasoper ati
ngasear l
yas
1910.Ther oadsi ncludedAccr aKyebi ,Kumase- YejrSal aga-Tamal eandNsawanvCape-
Coast-
Sekondi among ot hers. Ther ai
l
roadnet wor kwast hefirsttobedevel opedand
by1945,Kumasi ,theCent ralProvince,Tarkwa,Pr estea;Takor oaseandKade( i
nt he
Easter
nRegi on)wer eallconnect edbyr ai
l.Thought heBr i
tishgover nmentdevelopedt he
tr
ansportsyst ems t o expl oitthe economi c pot ential
s oft he colony,and f acil
i
tate
administ
ration,t hey i nstead f acil
itat
ed nat i
onal i
st mobi l
isat
ions andnationaluni t
y
necessaryfort hestrugglef orindependence.

5.Consequentl
y,therelat
iveeconomicstatusoft heGol dCoastcont ri
butedt ot heearl
y
i
ndependenceoft heWestAf ri
cancountr
y.Thecount r
yenjoyedhi ghincomepercapi t
a
fr
om thecocoapr oductionf
rom whichtheGol dCoastwast heleadingpr oducerinthe
wholewor l
d.Apartfr
om cocoaandpalm oi lfar
mi ng,theeconomywaspr ogressingwit
h
majoractivi
ti
esintimberandmi ningofgol d,diamonds,manganeseandbauxi te.Thi
s
materi
ali
sm benefit
edt henati
vesandgavet hem aneconomi cpowert of i
nancethe
i
ndependencest r
uggle.Theeconomicsuccessoft heGoldCoastt husar ousedamong
nati
onal
s a st r
ong sense ofst r
uggl
ef orsel f-
determi
nation thatl ed tot he earl
y
i
ndependence.

6.Thewi despr eadwest er


neducationintheGol dCoastl edt otheearlyi
ndependence.By
1946,thecountryhadal argenumberofelit
eswhoi ncludedlawyers,t
eachers,j
ournali
sts,
andbusi nesspersons.Thisupcomingmi ddl
ecl asshadr ecei
vedadvancedpr ofessi
onal
tr
aini
ngandcompr isedinfl
uenti
alfi
guresLikeDr .KwameNkr umah,Dr.J. B.Danquah,
ErnestAr ko Adjei
and Wi l
li
am OforiAttaamong ot hers.Despit
et hei
rhigh education
quali
fi
cations,theywer edeniedseniorposi
tionsoft rustandr esponsi
bil
it
ywhi l
et hose
empl oyed wer e paid sal
aries far
below thei
rEuropean counter
par t
s.Thi s system of
discri
mi nationembi tter
ed( angered)Afri
caneducatedpat r
iot
swhower econvincedt hat
giventhei rqualifi
cati
ons,theywer einnowayi nfer
iortotheeducatedwhi tes.Thef ormal
educat i
ont hushel pedtouni tepeopl
eofdiffer
entethnicgr
oupsandconsci ouslyequi pped
them toappr eciat
et hepolit
icalandsocioeconomici nj
ust
icesofcolonial
ism.Theyst ood
fortheirr ights,becamesympat heti
ct othemassesandgoti nvolvedi nmobi li
zat i
on
againstt hecolonialsystem.

7.Consequent ly,thef ormat i


onandr ol
eofpol iti
calpar t
iescont ri
butedtot hestr
uggles
agai nstBr i
ti
shr uleint
heGol dCoast .Therewer evariouspol it
icalparti
esinthecount r
ybut
att hef orefr
ontwer etheUGCCandt heCPP.TheUni tedGol dCoastConvent ion(
UGCC)
wasf ormedi nAugust1947byt heupperal l
iesledbypr ominentSekondibusi ness
personneloft heCent ralProvinceGeor geGr ant,Dr.Joseph. B.Danquah,Er nestArkoAdj ei
,
Edwar dAkuf oAddoamongot her
.However ,theConvent ionPeopl esParty( CPP)formed
byDr .KwameNkr umahi n1949l aterhijackedt hedomi nanti nfl
uenceoft heUGCC.The
partiest ransformedpassi vegr i
evancesi nt oact i
veagi tati
ons.Theypr omot edpolit
ical
awar eness through associ ati
ng wi th masses al lovert he count r
y,openi ng up party
branchesi nmanydi st
r i
cts,aswel lassettinguppol iti
calmachi nerytorevoluti
onar
isethe
struggl eforself-gover
nment .

8.The1948r i
otsint heGol dCoastexpr essedt hatt hemasseswer eripeforindependence.
OnFebr uary28,1948,agr oupofex- servi
cemenofWor l
dWarI Imar chedtoAccr at o
presentapet i
ti
onoft hei
rgr i
evancest ot hegover norSirGer aldCr easy.ABr i
tishpol i
ce
officersupermt endentLar rayf i
redatt hemar chi ngcr owdt odi sperseitbutki l
ledabout
threeoft hem incl udingSer geantAdjet eythel eaderoft heex- servicemen.Thi si ncident
spar kedoffmor evi olenceinotherPrincipaltownsl i
keKumasiandt heCapeCoast ,duri
ng,
whi chEuropeanandSyr i
anshopswer el ooted,wi t
hovert welveot herdeathsr ecor ded.
Thecol onialgovernmentr espondedbydet ainingwi t
houtt r
ialmanypeopl eincl
udi ngsi xof
theUGCC l eaders( Dr.KwameNkr umah,Dr .J. B.Danquah,Er nestAr koAdj ei,Edwar d
Akuf oAddo,Obet sebi -
Lampt eyandWi l
liam Of oriAt t
a)foral l
egedlyst i
rr
ingther iots.The
arrestoftheUGCCl eaderswor senedt hesituat ionthani tsolvedandhencehar denedt he
anti-col
onialsentiment s.

9.Ther oleoft heex- ser


vicemenofWor ldWarI Iwasequal lyr esponsi bl
ef ort heGhanai an
strugglef orindependence.TheGol dCoasthadoverf if
tythousand( 50,000)ex- ser vicemen
who by1946 had r eturned home.The condi ti
ons upon t heirr eturnf rust rated and
embi tteredt hem wi thgreatunempl oymentcausedbyr etrenchmentf r
om t hecol onial
army.Many oft he promi ses made by t he Br i
ti
sh col oni algover nmentdur ing the
recruitmentoft heGhanai anst oservei nt heSecondWor ldWarwer enotf ulfil
led.The
Ghanai anr ecruit
swer epr omisedbet terwelfar eaft
ert hewar ,joboppor tunit
iesandgood
wages.Theywi tnessedt hest ruggleforindependencei nI ndiaandBur nawher emostof
them wentt of ightandwi thpol i
ti
calanddemocr ati
cexper iencef r
om t hewar .Theex-
servicemencondemnedt heinferi
ortreatmentgi vent otheGhanai ansandcr iticizedt heir
positionassubor dinatesoft he' whit
ecol onialmast ers'
.Theyspr eadt hepr opagandaof
democr acyandf undament alri
ghts,i
ncludingt heri
ghtt osel f
-det er
mi nat i
on.
10.Consequent l
y,t heaf t
ermat hofWor ldWarI Iaf fectedt heGol dCoastnegat i
velyand
causedt hei
rdesi ref orindependence.Dur i
ngt hewar ,theBr it
ishcolonialgovernmentof
the Gol d Coastpai dl ess at tention tot he nor malsuppl ies to supportt he colonial
popul ation.Thecol onyt hussuf feredagener alscar cityofbasi cgoodsespeci all
yt hose
i
mpor tedover seas.Thi sr aisedt hepr icesofsuchgoods,causi nginfl
ati
onandeconomi c
hardshi pst ot heor dinarypeopl e.Thecol onialgover nmenti nit
iat
edt hequot asyst em,
whi chdr ovet hel ocalimpor tersoutofbusi ness.Thi sunf avourabl
eeconomi ccli
mat ealso
affectedschooll eavers,maj orit
yofwhom wer eunabl et oacquireempl oyment. The
unempl oymentpr oblem waswor sened byt her etrenchmentofex- servi
cemenoft he
SecondWor l
dWarwhohadr eturnedwi thexper ienceofwest erndemocr acy.Theaf t
er
effectsoft heSecondWor l
dWart herefore,furni
shedGhanai annat i
onalism andpr epared
groundf orpaidsal ari
esat tainment .

11.Impactofswol l
enshootdi seaseintheGoldCoastar ousednat ional i
sm oft hemasses
againstBr i
tishcol oniali
sm. Theswol l
enshootdi seaseat tackedanddest r
oyedcocoa
treesatanal armi ngr ateint helate1940s.Thepr omptedt hecol onialgovernmentt o
mi t
ateacampai gnagai nstthecocoadiseaset hroughapol i
cyofcut t
ingdownal linfected
cocoat reeinor dertosavet hecocoaindustr
y.Ami dstpoliti
calmi str
ustsandt ension,the
country’spopul ation 65% ofwhom wer e cocoa f armersi nterpreted the government
campai gnagai nstt heswol l
enshootdiseaseasadel i
beratemor et or uintheGhar naian
peasant sandi nsteadboosi ndustr
yinotherBr i
tisht r
opicalcol oni
es.Thei rarugmentwas
thatifaper soni ssickwi thanysortofdisease,at t
empt sar emadet ocur ebutnotki l
lhi
m.
Itisont hisgroundt hatal lfarmersopenlyrall
iedbehi ndt hest ruggleagai nsttheBr it
ish
colonialgovernment .

12.Thecont inuedBr it
ishexpl oitati
onl edt ot heear lyi ndependenceatt heGol dCoast .The
Brit
ishmi l
kedt hecount r
ythr oughmonopol iesovermar keti
ngGhanai anf armer sproduce
(cocoa,palm oilandt i
mber )andmi ni
ng( gold,diamonds,manganeseandbauxi te)
.They
offeredlow pr i
cest othef armersandpocket edabnor malpr of
it
si nt hepr ocess.The
Ghanai anfarmer shadnocont roloverpr icesoft hei rproduceevenwhent heyownedt he
plantati
ons.Instead,priceswer edeter minedbyEur opeanbuyi ngagenci eswhof i
xedpr i
ces
atwi ll
,oft
enf arbelow t hepr evail
ingwor ldpr ice.Thi swasal sowi t
nessedi nt hemi neral
business especi al
ly gol d and manganese.Thenat ives of ten organi
sed st rikes and
demonst rati
ons agai nstt his expl oit
ation oft he Br iti
sh but were unsuccessf ul
.This
i
ncr easedtheireconomi cgrievancesandhencepr eferredi mmedi at
eindependence.

13.Impactoft heNat i
onalCongr essofBr itish WestAf ri
ca led t ot hest r
ugglef ort he
i
ndependence oft he Gol d Coast .The congr esswasf ounded i n 1920 bya l eading
Ghanai anpat ri
ot,JosephE.Casel yHayf br dwi thamaj orai m ofest abli
shingani nter-
terri
tori
alfronttof ightf orsel f-r
ulefortheBr it
ishWestAf r
icancol onies( i.
e.TheGambi a,
TheGol dCoast ,Ni ger i
aandSi er
raLeone) .Thecongr essdemandedt hathal foft he
member soft hel egi slativecounci lineachcol onybeAf r
icans,el ected tor epresent
peopl e'
sdemands. 'andt hatt hecol onial
ist sshoul dst opi nterfer
ingi nt hesel ecti
onof
tradi
tionalruler
s.Itagi t
at edf oracl earsepar ati
onoft hej udici
ar yfr
om t hepol it
icalarm of
thegover norandt hatqual if
iedWestAf ricansbegi vent hesameoppor tuni
tyast heir
Europeancount erpar ts.Thedemandsoft hecongr esswer enotachi evedimmedi atel
y,but
ct
f heyi nfl
uenced t hecol onialconcessi onsf rom the1920s,whi chl aterenabl ed the
attai
nmentofGhanai ani ndependence.
14.Theact i
vit
iesoft heyout hmovement sinspirednati
onal i
sm int heGol dCoast .Therewas
TheGol dCoastYout hConfer encefor medi n1930,whosemember si ncludedJ.B.Danquah,
J.
C.de,Gr aft
-Johnson,Dr .Nanka- Bruce and MissRubyQuar tey-Papaf i
o.The Yout h
Conferencel ar
gelyfoughtf orpol i
ti
calandeconomi cr eformsandt her emovalofal lfor
ms
ofdiscri
mi nati
oni npublicempl oymentandi nsocietygener al
ly.Theot herwast heWest
Afri
canYout hLeaguei ntr
oducedi nt hecount r
yin1934,andwhosemaj oracti
vist
swer e
non-Ghanaians,I .
T.A.Wal laceJohnsonf r
om SierraLeoneandNnamdiAzi kiwef r
om
Nigeri
a.TheYout hLeaguewasmor er adi
calandr evoluti
onar y;i tdemandedf orful
l
poli
ti
calindependencef ort hepeopl eandgai nedpopul arit
yt hroughi tsnewspaper ,the
Afri
can Mor ning Post t hat publ ished ant i
-i
mper i
ali
st ar t
icles. Though t he youth
movement shadbeenweakenedbef or eWor l
dWarI I,thei
ract i
viti
eshadwel lpreparedthe
mindsoft heGhanai anstot akeupar msf ortheoverthrowoft hecol onialsystem.

15.Theconst i
tutionalchangesbyt heBr iti
shcol onialgovernmentaf terWor ldWarI Iprovoked
theGhanai an desi r
ef ori ndependence.Fol lowing continuousdemandsbyt heyout h
movement sandot hernat i
onalistmovement s,Gover norSi r.AlanBur nsinitiatedanew
const ituti
oni n1946.TheBur nsconst i
tutionr educedt heof f
icialandnomi natedmember s
oft hel egisl
at i
veassembl yt otwel ve( 12)anddoubl edtheel ectedmember s( allAf ri
cans)
toei ght een( 18).Fr om t heei ghteen,seat sf ort heAf ri
cans,t hirteenwer egi vent ot he
tradit
ionalchi efswhower eregar dedcol oni alagent s,hencegi vingt hem ast rongervoi ce
i
nt hel egcoatt heexpenseofmasses.Thenew const i
tutional sogaveGover norBur ns
reservedpower st or ej
ectanydeci sionbyt hemaj ori
tyint hel egcoi nt heinter estoft he
coloni aladmi nistr
ation.I talsor ejectedacal lbynat ionali
stsf oruni versalsuf frageasa
meanst ocreat east rongvoi cef ort hepeopl ei nt heassembl y.Failurebyt heBur ns
const ituti
ont omeett heaspi rati
onoft heGhanai ansi nspiredt hem t oagi tatef orsel f
-
determi nati
on.Event he1951const it
ut i
onr ecommendedbyt heCousseycommi ssi
onwas
crit
icisedbyt heGPPandt heex- servicemenasi tfavouredchi efsandel it
istgr oupst hat
wer e pr o-colonialadmi nistr
ation ar id hence,coul d notbe t r
ust ed as champi ons of
i
ndependence.

16.Thei nfl
uenceoft he1945PanAf r
icanCongr essatManchest ermot i
vatedtheGhanai an
demandf orindependence.PanAf ricani
sm wasi ntroducedi nWestAf ri
caear l
ierthan
otherAf ricanr egions.Theact ivi
ti
esofNkr umahandDanquahdur ingt hest rugglefor
Ghanaiani ndependencewer einspiredbypanAf ri
canism.Dr .KwameNkr umahmett he
panAf ricanistsf i
rsti ntheUSAbef or ewor
kingwi tht hem l aterint heUni tedKi ngdom
duri
ngt he1945Manchest erConference.Nkrumahengagedwi thGeor gePadmor eandDr
Will
iam Edwar dBur dghart(
W.E.B)DuBoi si
nManchest ertoor ganizeasuccessf ulPan
Afri
canCongr ess.( NkrumahandDuBoi swor kedassecr etariest otheconf erence) .The
conference demanded f or i
mmedi at
e African i
ndependence,condemned col onial
exploit
ationi nAf rica,andagitatedf ormassmobi l
isationt hroughpol i
ti
calpar ti
es.The
spir
itofpanAf r
icanism enabl
edNkr umahandDanquaht oincreaset heirpolit
icalact i
vi
ti
es
gearedt owar dsindependence.

17.Thei ndependenceat
tai
nedbyfor
merBri
ti
shcolonialdependent
soutsideAfri
cainspi
red
thepeopl eoftheGol
dCoastt
oengagei
nthestruggleagainstBr
it
ishcoloni
aloppr
essi
on.
I
r el
and,Indi
aandPakist
anwerefr
eedfr
om Br
it
ishcol oni
ali
sm soonafterWorldWarII
.In
parti
culartheacqui
sit
ionofi ndependencebyI ndiaincitededucat
edAf r
icansint heGol d
Coastt oconcludet
hattheBr it
ishhadacknowl edgedi ndependencerightsoft hecol onial
people.TheGhanaiannationali
stsadoptedthet echniquesusedbyI ndianst odemandf or
theiri
ndependence,li
keGandhi i
sm.Nkr umahadopt edt heuseofdemonst rat
ionsand
boycottst opushforpoliti
calr ef
orms.Hef ormedt heConventionPeopl e'sPar t
yand
adoptedt hecapoft heIndianNat ionalCongressast heCPPsymbolandt hecat ching
coloursforthefl
ag.

18.Theimpactoft heMau- Mauupr isi


nginKenya( 1952- 55)t
hreatenedthecol oni
aliststo
i
nit
iatefastpolit
icalrefor
ms,whi chaccelerat edthei ndependenceoft heGol dCoast .The
LabourPartygover nmenti nBr i
tainl
earntal essonf rom Kenyannat i
onali
sm thatAf ri
cans
werereadyt odeviseallmeansofachi evi
ngt heirpoliti
calri
ghts.TheBrit
ishgovernmenti n
Londoncondi t
ionedGover norSi rCharl
esAr den- Clarket oeff
ectchangesi nt
heGol dCoast
ai
medatpr eventi
ngt heviolentscenariosimi lartothati nKenya.Thecol oni
algovernment
i
ncreased cooper ati
on with Nkr umah'si nter nalaut onomousadmi ni
strat
ion to hasten
poli
ti
calandsoci o-economicr ef
or msnecessar yforindependence.

19.Thei nfl
uenceofur bani sati
on accel erated t hei ndependenceoft heGol d Coast .The
massesi nthecount r
ysidef r
om vi l
l
agesl ikeKwawu,Denkyi ra,Beyin,Konongo,Odaa,and
Nsuta,mi grated,inlargenumber sandset tledinur bancentressuchasKumase,Cape
Coast,Accr a,Takol adiand Xot oko.These commer ci
alcent res wer e expandi ng
tr
emendousl yduet othesuccessoft hecocoaandmi ni
ngindustri
es,developmentoft he
tr
anspor tandcommuni cationnet wor ksandi mpor t-exportbusiness(dominat edbypeopl e
fr
om Syr i
a,Lebanonand Eur ope).TheAf ri
canur banset t
lerswer efrustrated byt he
unfavourablet radepolicy,hi ghcostofl ivi
ng,poorsoci alclimate,unempl oyment ,poor
housingf acil
it
iesanddi scriminati
onbyf oreigners.Manyoft hem anxiousl
yopposedt he
coloni
algover nmentandi tsf avori
tism pol icyoft hewhi tes.Theywer eeasi lymobi l
ized
i
ntopr acti
calmovement sinor dertor esistcol oni
alism.

20.Thedi st
ingui shedr oleofKwameNkr umahf acil
itatedthest r
ugglef ortheindependenceof
GoldCoast .Amanwi t
hahumbl eandpar entagebackgr ound,Nkr umahr eturnedhomei n
November1947andaccept edt hepostofSecr etaryGener aloft heUGCC.Hehadspent
twel veyear sabr oad;t enyear sintheUSAwher ehewasexposedt oi deasofpol it
ical
science,economi csandMar xi
sm,andt woyear sint heUKwher ehest udiedl aw,polit
ical
economyandsoci ali
sm andpl ayedal eadingr olei ntheWASUandPanAf ri
canact i
viti
es
l
iket heManchest ercongr ess.Endowedwi thvi sion,cour ageandyout hfuldynami sm,
Nkr umahst oodf ort heLiber ationofhi scount rymenf rom coloni aldomi nati
on.Thr ough
hischar ismat i
cper sonali
ty,consi derable-organisat i
onabi l
it
yandt hepowerofspeech,he
wasabl etopopul ar i
zethest ruggleamongstt hewor kers,civi
lser vants,shopkeeper sand
thej oblessschooll eavers.Heusedst r
ikesandboycot tstopar alyset hecol onialsystem.
Hisdi ssatisfactionwi ththeUGCCpr ompt edhi mt obr eakawayandf ormt heCPPonJune
12,1949,TheCPPwasamasspol i
ti
calpar t
yt hatledt heGol dCoastt oindependence.

21.Thepr
essint
heGoldCoasthadani nfl
uenceinprepari
ngthecountr
yforindependence.
Thepr
esshadbecomesigni
fi
canti
nt hestruggl
eagainsti
mperi
ali
sm ear
lybef or
eWor l
d
WarII
.TheWestAfri
canYouthLeague,ayout hmovementpioneeredbyI .
T.A,Wall
ace
Johnson,aSi erra.Leonean,andNnamdiAzi kiwefrom Nigeria,start
edanewspaperi nthe
GoldCoast ,theAf ricanMor ningPost ,whichpubl i
shedant i
-i
mper iali
starticl
es.I
n1948,t he
AccraEveni ngNewsandt heCapeCoastDai l
yMai lwerest artedundert heinfl
uenceof
KwameNkr umah.Thesenewnat ionali
stdailiesbecamet hemaj orinstrumentusedbyt he
CPP tospr eadant -col
or spropaganda,andsensi ti
zeandmobi li
semassesi nt heant-
coloni
alstruggl e.Theywer ewr i
tt
enrawayt hatwaseasi l
yunder st
oodbyt heor di
nary
readerwithl i
ttl
ef ormaleducat ion.Themessageoft heart
icles,thecar toonsandsl ogans
thatappear edi nt het wopaper smett heaspi r
ati
onsoft heor dinaryman,capt uredhis
emot i
onsandi nfl
uencedhi mt oputi nt hel i
ttl
eener gytheyhadi nt hef i
ghttoendt he
coloni
alrepr essivesyst em.Thepr essintensifi
edpr essur
ef orconcessi ons( r
eforms)and
promotedt hesl oganof' Sel
f-
governmentNOW, '

22.Gover norSi rCharlesAr den-Clar


ke had hi scont ri
bution r ecognised int he course of
nati
onal i
sm.Si rAr den- Clarkebecamet henew gover noroft heGol dCoastsomet ime
beforen- February1951el ecti
ons.Havingassessedt hepol it
icalsituat
ioni nt hecolony,
Arden- Cl
art-
becamet act f
uli nhisdecisi
onsandpol i
cies.Indeedhi sassumpt ionofof fi
ce
sett hepacef orselfr ulei ntheGol dCoast .Thegover noral lowedKwameNkr umaht o
standf orelectionevenwhenhewasst i
llser vinghi
spol i
ticalpr i
sonsent enceatJames
Fort.Ther esultsoft heFebr uary1951el ectionwer eamazi ng;GovernorAr denCl arke
statedi nhisownwor dst hat'Nkrumahandhi spartyhadt hemassoft hepeopl ebehi nd
him.'TheCPPwon34oft he38seat sopenf orpopularel ectionbyt heelect
oralcolleges.
Consequent l
y,thegover norcour ageousl
yr eleasedhi mf rom pr i
sonandappoi nt
edhi m
LeaderofGover nmentBusi ness,I
n1952,t heExecut i
vecounci lbecamevi rt
uall
yacabi net,
withNkr umahbecomi ngt hef i
rstpri
memi nisterofthei nternalsel fgover
nment .

Theactivi
ti
esofpolit
icalpart
iest
owardstheindependenceoft
heGol dCoast
Twopoliti
calpar
ti
escont r
ibut
edtremendousl
ytothesuccessofthei
ndependenceoftheGol
d
Coasti
.e.TheUnitedGoldCoastConventi
on(UGCC)andt heConvent
ionPeople'
sPart
y(CPP

THEUNI TEDGOLDCOASTCONVENTI ON(UGCC)


TheUnitedGoldCoastConventi
on(UGCC)wasf or
medi nAugust1947bytheupperall
iesled
byprominentSekondibusi
nessper
sonneloftheCent
ralpr
ovince,Geor
geGrant
,Dr.Joseph-B
Danquah,ErnestAr
koAdjei
,andEdwardAkufoAddoamongot hers.

Ref
erenceQuest
ions:
a) Howdi dt
heUGCCcont
ri
but
etot
hedecol
oni
sat
ionoft
heGodCoast
?

b)Expl
aint
her
oleoft
heUGCCi
nthegr
owt
hofGhanai
annat
ional
ism

c) Assessthecontribut
ionoftheUGCCt otheattainmentofGhanaianindependence
1.TheUGCCwast hefirstmodernpol i
ti
calpart
ytobef or
medint heGol
dCoast .Eventhough
i
twaspr edominantl
yofmi ddl
e-classinf
luence,t
hel eader
shipoftheUGCCputf or
wardthe
obj
ecti
veofachi evi
ngconst i
tut
ionalrefor
ms,whi chwoul dleadtoself
-governanceinthe
Gol
dCoast .

2.The leader
shi
p ofthe UGCC adopt
ed the sl
ogan of'
sel
f-
gover
nmentinthe shortest
possibl
et i
me.The par
tythus,wentahead t o cr
it
ici
se t
he 1946 Bur
ns const
it
uti
on
i
ntroducedbySirAl
anwhowasthecoloni
algover
norbythen.

3.TheUGCCappoi nt
edKwameNkr umahasaf ul
l
-ti
meGeneralSecr
etary.Uponhisr
etur
nt:
GoldCoastinNovember1947,t otakeoverhisnewrol
eint heUGCC,Nkr umahusedhis
chari
smaticleader
shi
p,organi
sat
ionalabi
l
iti
esandor
atori
calpowert oattr
actt
heyout
hs,
ci
vilser
vantsandworkerstotheUGCC.Byt heti
mehebrokeawayf rom thepar
tyi
n1949,
Nkr
umahhadi ncr
easedthepopular
it
yoft
hepar
tyandhadbr
oadenedmassappealf
or
i
ndependenceacrossthecount
ry.

4.TheUGCC par ti
cipat
edi nt he1948Febr uar yriots,whichwer eat ur
ningpointinthe
strugglefori ndependencei ntheGoldCoast .The1948r i
otswereablessi
ngindisgui
seto
theUGCC;t her iotsweref i
redbydi scont
entsoft heex-ser
vicemenoft heWorldWarI I
agai nsttheBr i
ti
shcol oni
algovernment .Duringt heriot
s,thepeopleoft heGoldCoast
wer emobi l
i
sedt oboycotttheBr i
ti
sh,Indian,LebaneseandSyr iangoods.TheBr i
ti
sh
react edviol
ent l
yagai nsttheriot
ersinwhi chsomepeopl ewer eshotdead.Someoft he
topl eadersoft heUGCCwer earr
estedduringt heriot
s,whichincr
easedmassrecruit
ment
tot hepartyfort heindependencecause.

5.Consequently,thearrestoftheUGCCpol i
ti
call eadersbytheBr i
ti
shcoloni
algovernment
i
ncreased the act i
vi
ties ofthe UGCC towar ds independence.Kwame Nkr umah,Dr .
Joseph.B.Danquah,Edwar dAkufoAddo,Er nestAr koAdjei
,Wi l
li
am OforiAttaandE.
ObetsebiLampt eywer eallarr
est
edanddet ainedwi thtr
ial
,undertheorder
sofGover nor
,
SirGeraldCr easy.Thedet ent
ionofthese'BigSi x'worsenedthepolit
icalsi
tuati
onand
causedgener alunrestinthecountr
y.Theirevent ualrel
easemadet hem nati
onalheroes
andhence,at tr
actedpopularsympat
hytowar dst heUGCCi nit
sendeavourstoachievesel
f
-r
ulefortheGol dCoast .

6.TheUGCCcondemnedandr ej
ectedtheCousseyconst i
tut
ionalrefor
msof1951.These
werechangesinit
iat
edbyt heconstit
uti
onalcommi ssionofaboutt hi
rt
yni neallGhanaian-
membercommi t
teeledbySi rHenleyCoussey,commi ssi
onedear l
ier-
oni nJanuary1949.
Amongt hechangesr ecommendedbyt hecommi ssionwast heest ablishmentofan
executi
veandanAf ri
candomi natedParli
ament .However ,thepar l
iamentwoul dhave
majorit
yt r
adi
ti
onalchiefsappointed bythecol onialgovernment .Thesechi efswer e
rej
ectedbytheUGCCt hattheycouldnotbeentrustedwiththemissionf orindependence.

7.Thepar t
yadopt edeff
ecti
veuseoft hepresstomobi l
iseandsensi
ti
set hemassesonthe
atrocit
iesoft heBr i
tishcol
onialregi
meandt hebenef i
tsofindependence.TheUGCC
i
nitial
lyusedt heAccr aEveni
ngNewsest abl
ishedbyNkr umahear li
eronbeforehis
depar t
uretof or mtheCPP.Thr oughthepr ess,theUGCC leadershi
pcondemnedt he
discri
mi nat
ionofAf ri
cansinjobal l
ocat
ionanddenyi ngofAfri
canst heri
ghttochoose
theirownnat i
ver epr
esent
ati
ves.

8.Theacti
vi
ti
esoft
heUGCCi nfluencedtheestabl
ishmentofar evi
sedconstitut
ionissuedby
theBri
ti
shcol
oni
algovernmentofSi rCharlesAr denClarkein1954.Unliket heCoussey
const
it
uti
onof1951,the1954const it
uti
onpr ovi
dedf ortheestabl
ishmentofanat ional
assemblywit
h majori
tyseat s open t
o popularel ect
ion byuniversalsuf fr
age.This
const
it
uti
onwasinst
rumentalinaccel
erati
ngtheindependenceoftheGol dCoast .

9.TheUni t
edGoldCoastConvention(UGCC)whi l
eledbyadynami cKwameNkr umah
openeduppar t
ybranchesinandseti nmot i
oneffect
ivepolit
icalmachi
neryi
nmany
di
stri
ctsthr
oughoutt
hecountry.Thi
smovemadet hepar t
ymor epopularamongthe
peopl
e,whowerenowabletoengagei
nvariouspart
yacti
vit
ies.

10.TheUGCCi dent
if
iedwiththepr
oblemsofthemassesdur i
ngthet
imewhenNkrumahwas
theGeneralSecret
ary.Theseproblemsincludedscarci
tyofimport
edgoods,inf
lat
ion,
unemploymentand t he swol
len-
shootdisease in cocoa.Thi
s move i
ncr
eased the
popul
arit
yofthepart
yinfi
ghti
ngagainstBr
it
ishcoloni
ali
sm.

11.TheUGCCactedast hemout
hpi
eceofthepeopleoftheGol
dCoast.Thepart
ycomplai
ned
agai
nst and condemned t
he expl
oitat
ive and oppr
essi
ve poli
cies of t
he Bri
ti
sh
admini
str
ator
sinthecountr
y.Consequent
ly,onbehal
fofthemasses,t
hepar
tydenounced
Bri
ti
shcoloni
ali
sm anddemandedforthei
mmedi atei
ndependenceofGol
dCoast
.

12.TheUnitedGoldCoastConvent
ionpar ti
ci
pat
edi nt
hepr e-
independenceelecti
onsof1951,
1954and1956.Theseelect
ionsincreasedAfr
icanmember shipinthelegi
slat
iveassembl
y,
givi
ngthem anopport
unit
yt opassamot i
ondemandi ngf ori
mmedi ateindependenceof
theGhanaiansf
rom t
heBrit
ishrepressi
veadminist
rat
ion.

THECONVENTI ONPEOPLE' SPARTY( GPP)


InJune1949,KwameNkr umahst eppeddownast heSecr etar
yGeneraloftheUGCCf ol
lowing
i
deol ogi
caldiff
erenceswi tht
hef ounder soft heparty.Nkrumahwasr adicalandr evoluti
onary
i
nout l
ookandbel ievedinmassi nvolvementi nt heacti
vit
iesoftheGoldCoastagai nstBr i
ti
sh
colonial
ism.Thel eadershi
poftheUGCCi nfluencedbyDr .JosephB.Danquahwast hreatened
byt hegrowingpopul ari
tyofNkrumahwi thintheUGCC.Nkr umahandhi sfol
lower sconsidered
theUGCCandi tsleadershipastooconser vati
veintheirapproachandlackedt herevoluti
onary
zealneededt owar dsthegoaloftotalindependencet hatthemasseswer ecravingfor.

Thecontr
adict
ionbet weent heaspirati
onsofNkrumahandt hel
eadershi
poft heUGCCmade
himtobreakawayf r
om thepar tyandf ormtheConventi
onPeople'
sParty(GPP)inAccraor.
June12,1949.Ot hermember swi t
hwhom Nkr umahest abl
i
shed theCPP i ncl
uded K.
A
Gbedemah,KwamenaWel beck,KroboEduseiandKojoBotsiowi
thwhom hebr okeawayfrom
theUGCC.TheCPPpl ayedt hefoll
owi ngrolei
nthestrugglef
orindependenceoftheGold
Coast.
Refer
enceQuestions:
a) HowdidtheCPPcont ri
butetot hedecol
oni
sati
onoftheGodCoast ?

b)Expl
aint
her
oleoft
heCPPi
nthegr
owt
hofGhanai
annat
ional
ism

c) Assesst
hecont
ri
but
ionoft
heCPPt
otheat
tai
nmentofGhanai
ani
ndependence

1.TheCPP adopt edradicalsloganssuchas" Self-


GovernmentNOW and" Seekyef i
rst
pol
iti
cali
ndependence,andallot
herthingsshal
lbeaddedt oit.
"Togetherwit
hr al
l
ydances,
acolourf
ulfl
ag,andcatchingpartysymbols,t
hepar t
yleadershi
pattr
actedthousandsand
tur
nedtheCPPI ntoabr oad-
basedpartythatcutacrossethnicbar
ri
ers.Consequentl
y,t
he
part
yecli
psedtheUGCCandt ookovert hel
eadershi
proleinthestr
ugglefori
ndependence.

2.Aftertaki
ngoverthechi efresponsi
bil
it
yofleadingthecount rytoindependence,theCPP
i
ntensivel
ymobili
zedt henat i
vesagainstBri
ti
shcol oni
alism.TheCPPl eadershi
pwor ked
ti
relessl
y,wi
thdedicati
on,t oexposethecolonialevil
s,vigorouslydenouncei mperi
ali
sm,
andappealt othemassesf ormoresuppor t
.Theant i
-coloni
alcampai gnsbyt hepar t
y
i
nfluencedtheearl
yi nternalsel
f-
governmentoft heGoldCoast ,whi
chevent ual
lyledfull
i
ndependencein1957.

3.Thepartypr ovi
dedaf ramewor kforuni
ty.Apartf
rom discouraginget hnicdi f
fer
ences,t he
ConventionPeopl e'sPart
yadvocat edfordemocr acy,upli
ft
ingofpeopl e'
swel f
areand
eradi
cateofal linj
usti
cespr act
icedbythecoloni
algovernmenti ntheGol dCoast.Unlike
theearl
ierpoli
ti
calmovement swhoseact i
vi
ti
eswer egenerallyconfinedt othecirclesof
chief
s,themi ddleanduppercl assesofsociet
y,theCPPwast herefor e,abletothrowi ts
netwidelytoembr acealClassesofpeopleespecial
lytheyout handl ow-incomewor kers
andfarmer sthroughoutt
hecount ry.

4.Thr
ougheffect
iveuseoft hepr
ess,theCPPmadeacl earrout
efortheattai
nmentof
Ghanai
i
i'i
ndependence.Thepar
tyusedtwonat
ional
i
stdail
ies,t
heAccraEveni
ngNews
andt heCar t-CoastDai lyMai l.Thesebecamet hemaj ori nst
rumentusedbyt heCPPt o
spreadant -
colonspr opaganda,andsensi t
izeandmobi lizemassesi ntheant -
colonial
struggle.Thear ti
clesint hepaper swerewr i
tt
eninawayt hatwaseasi l
yunder
stoodbyt he
ordinaryr eaderwi thlitt
leformaleducat ion.Themessageoft hearticl
es,t
hecartoonsand
sloganst hatappear edi nthet wopamett heaspir
ati
onsoft heordinaryman,capturedhis
emot ionsandi nfl
uencedhi mt oputint hel i
tt
lehehadi nthefightt oendthecol onial
repressivesyst em.Thepr esst hus,hel
pedt hepartya|cal lforposi
tiveacti
on,nati
on-wide
stri
kes,i ntensifypr essuref orcolonialconcessions(reform?andpr omotethesloganof
'
Sel f
-gover nmentNOW. '

5.TheCPPr ejectedt heconstit


uti
onalchangespr oposedbyt heCousseyr epor
tof1949,
whichNkr umahr ef er
redt oasf raudulent.TheCPPmember scondemnedt heCoussey
commi t
teeasagr oupofpeopl et hatwasenl i
sted(chosen)byt hegover
nortosi ngt he
tuneofthecol onialmast er
s.Ther esult
antCousseyconst i
tut
ionof1951wast her ef
or e,
opposedbyt heCPPsi nceitfai
l
edt oeliminatethedomi nantinf
luenceofthetraditi
onal
chief
spointedtobymanyGhanai ansasagent s.

6.TheCPP used Gandhi ism and posi ti


veact i
on againstBr i
tish colonial
i
sm.Thepar t
y
i
nvolvedi nresist
ancebypar ti
ci
patinginwi despreadst r
ikesandr iots.In1950,Br it
ish
schools,shopsandot hereconomi cventureswereboycot tedundert heinfluenceoft he
CPP,whi chaffectedtheBr it
ishcolonialgovernmenteconomi cal
ly.Inthecount rysi
de,the
CPP member sempl oyedt hestrat
egyofmobj usti
ce,cuttingdowncocoaandr ubber
plant
ations,whichputt hecol oni
aleconomyt oastandsti
ll
.Ther esultwast heweakeni ng
ofBrit
ishcolonial
ism whi l
enat i
onali
sm intheGoldCoastwasst r
engthened.

7.Consequentl
y,theCPPempl oyedconstituti
onalmeansofdemandi ngf
orindependence.
Thepar tydemanded forconsti
tuti
onalr efor
ms,engaged thecol oni
algovernmenti n
discussi
ons and demanded fori ncr
eased Af ri
can r
epresent
ation i
nt he legisl
ati
ve
assembly.The 1954 const i
tut
ionalr eforms that i
ncl
uded the expansi on of the
member shi
poft heLegisl
ati
veassembl yf rom 85to104seat swer epart
lyar esultof
pressurefr
om theCPP.Inthesameyeart hepart
yparti
cipat
edint hepre-
independence
el
ect i
onsandscoredanoverwhel
mingvict or
yof79outof104seat s.

8.TheCPPder ivedpopular
it
yfrom thearrestofpar t
yleadersandt heresponseoftheBrit
ish
col
onialgovernmenttowardst heradi
cali
sm oft heparty.In1950,foll
owingawor ker
s'sit
-
downst r
ickofJanuar y9,provokedbyNkr umaht hroughanar ticl
eintheAccraEveni ng
News,thecolonialgover
nmentdecl ar
edast at
eofemer gency,r
aidedtheCPPof fi
cesand
arr
estedt heeditor
soft heAccr aEveningNews,andt hepartyleaderswhoi ncl
uded
Nkrumah,GbedemahandBet sio.Thear r
estoft heleader softheCPPmadet hem state
heroes and honourably st
rengthened the par t
yi nt he cour se ofthe str
ugglef or
i
ndependence.

9.From 1951,t heCPP wor kedcl osel


ywi t
ht hecoloni
algovernmenti ntheprocessof
prepari
ngthecount r
yf ori
ndependence.Wi t
hNkrumahast hepar t
yheadandLeaderof
GovernmentBusinessPr i
meMi nisterfr
om 1952)
,theCPPiniti
atedrefor
msandpr epar
ed
theGol dCoastf orindependence.TheCPP gover nmentini
ti
atedt hecutt
ingdownof
diseasedcocoatreeswhilerepl
acingthem wit
hstr
ongresi
stantstal
ks.Thiswonthepart
y
supportofthepeasant.

10.TheCPP par ti
cipatedint hepre-
independenceelecti
onsof1951,1954and1956.I n
February1951,theCPPwon34oft he38seat si
npar l
i
ament,openforpopul
arel
ecti
onby
theElectoralCollege.Consequentl
y,Nkrumahwasel ect
edrepresent
ati
veoftheAccr a
consti
tuencywi t
ht hehighestmajori
tywhileinpri
son.ThevictoryoftheCPPi n1951
pavedwayf ori
tsleadershipontheeveofindependenceandledtotheimmediat
erelease
ofNkrumahf rom JamesFor tpri
sonby GovenorSirCharl
esAr denClarke.Thegover
nor
consequentl
yappoint
edNkr umahLeaderofGovernmentBusiness,makinghim abl
etostir
hi
scount r
ytoindependence.In1954,t
heCPPwar79oft he104seat sandi n1956general
el
ecti
on;thepar tywon71oft he104seats,ar easonablemaj or
it
yt of or
mt hefir
st
i
ndependentgovernmentoft heGoldCoast
.

11.TheConvent i
onPeopl e'
sPar tydef eatedf avourit
ism,regionalism aswel lassect ari
an
nationali
sm i nt hepr ocessofdemandi ngf ori ndependence.Thepar tyleadershipwor ked
closelywitht heAkanspeaker sinthesamewaywi ththenon- Akanspeaker s.Thepar t
y
alsowor kedcl osel ywiththeex-servicemenofWor ldWarI I
,thewor kers,professionalsand
thepeasant s,whi chpopul ar
izedt hest ruggleofsel f
-det
ermi nation.TheCPPwasabl eto
defeatsect arianpol iti
calorganisati
onsl i
ket heNor t
hernPeopl esPar t
y(NPP)suppor t
ed
byt heGonja,Dogombaandot hernor therntribes;theNationalLiber ationMovement( NLM)
oftheAsant e,ledbyKof iAbretaBusi a,andsuppor tedbymanyNor t
her nAsant echiefsli
ke
Asant eheneBaf uorOseiAkot oandt heTogol andCongr ess( TC)ofmai nl
yt heEwei nthe
Trans-Volta Togol and led by Dani elChapman,Empr ai
m Amu and Rever end Henr i
Kwakume.TheTr ans-VoltaTogol andaUN- mandat edt er
ritoryt ot heBr it
ish,whi chthe
Brit
ishannexedt otheGol dCoast .

12.TheCPPl eader
shipopenedupbr anchesoft hepar t
yacr osst hecount ryasameanst o
takethepartyacti
vit
iesclosertot hepeople.Thepar t
ysoundedmuchi nr uralareasinthe
samewayl i
keinurbancent res.Brancheswer eopenedi nAccr a,Kumase,t heCapeCoast ,
TemaandTakor adiJustasl iehaddonewhi l
eser vi
ngt hel eadershipoft heUGCC,
Nkrumahef fect
edapol i
ti
cmachi nerytoco-ordinat
ebet weenthepar tyleadershipinAccra
andthepar tybr
anchy-countrywide.Thus,theCPPwasabl etoover -
rapt heUGCCt hathad
concentr
atedheractivi
ti
es-intheur bancentres,andamongt hemi ddl
ecl asscit
izens.

13.The CPP l eader


ship accept ed the inst
ruments ofpowerf r
om t he Bri
ti
sh col
onial
governmentandconsequent ly,ledtheGoldCoastt oindependenceonMar ch6,1957.The
new i
ndependentnat i
onpr eviouslyknownas' theGol dCoast'adoptedthename' Ghana'
court
esyofNkr umah.Thename' Ghana'wasadopt edfrom theancientgl
ori
ousempireof
Ghanat hatwasasuccessi nt heWest ernSudan.Int hewor dsofNkr umah,thename
'
Ghana'was an i nspi
rat
ion f ort he fut
ure consequentl
y,t he CPP formed the fi
rst
governmentofthenewi ndependentst ateofGhana.

KWAMENKRUMAHFRANCI SKOFINWI A
Nkrumahwasbor nonSeptember21,1909i nNkr
of ulintheSouthwest ernr
egionoftheGold
Coasttoagol dsmit
hf at
her,Mr
.MwayiKof iFr
ancis.Afterhi
ssecondar yeducati
on,hejoi
ned
Chicwotawher ehegraduat
edasat eacher.Helatertrai
nedintheology.In1935,Nkrumahleft
forfur
therstudiesi
ntheUSwher ehejoinedLincolnandPennsyl vaniaforhi
smast ersi
nAr t
s
andlaterLaw.

TheI t
ali
anaggr essionagainstEt hiopiai
n1935ar ousedpanAf ri
cansent imentsi nNkr umah;
hisexposuretot her aci
alproblem inAmer i
ca,butaswel l
,theideasofl i
bert
ymadehi m even
morer adi
cal.Thet ri
pt otheUSmar kedat urningpointinhispol i
ti
calcar eer
.Whi leintheUS,
Nkrumaht rainedi nt hedisciplinesofeconomi cs,philosophy,Mar xism,pol it
icalsci ence,
sociol
ogyandhi story.Thesel iberalsubjectsshapedhi smor aloutlook.Nkr umahwasan
acti
vememberofAf ri
caStudent sMovement ,whichbr oughttogethert heAfricanst udentsin
theUSandCanada.Thi senabledhi mt oexercisehisskill
sofleader shi
pandmobi lisati
on.

Hisi
ntel
lect
ualoutl
ookwasalsoinfl
uencedbyt hewrit
ingsofKarlMarxandLeni
nthustur
ning
hi
mi nt
oadi sci
pleofsoci
ali
sm.Hewasal soinspi
redbyt hephil
osophi
esofMazziniandthe
PanAfri
canideasofMarcusGarcey,GeorgePadmor eandW. E.
B.DuBois.
Nkrumahadmi redhisAfri
canteacher,t
hepri
ncipalofHwall
esCol l
egeinGhana,Dr.Kweggir
Aggrey,assuch,educat ionmadeNkr umahnotonl yandintel
lect
ualbutalsoar evol
uti
on
character.In1945,Nkr umahl eftNew YorkforLondonwher ehecompl eteshisacademic
missional awyer.Whil
einEngl and,hetookt
heoccasi ontoparti
cipat
eintheOctober1945
PanAf r
icanCongr essinManchest er
,asaco-secret
ary.Thi
sinspir
edhimtoconsolidat
ethe
antcolonialcrusadeandlatert
akeitbacktoAfr
ica.

Ont heeveofhi
sreturnfr
om theDiaspor
a,Nkrumahwor kedbri
efl
yast hesecret
aryofAf r
ican
student
sofWestAf ri
canori
gininthei
rassoci
ati
on,theWestAf r
icanStudentsUnion(WASU) .
ThroughtheWASU,Nkr umahestabli
shedli
nkswit
ht heFrenchspeaki
ngWestAf r
icastudents
suchasLeopol dSedarSengohofSenegalandHouphouetBoi gnyofI voryCoast.Heal so
start
edanewslett
er"TheNewAf ri
can,
"inabidtocreat
eawi derappealfortheAfr
icancause

Ther oleofKwameNkr umahFrancisKofiNwia


Having,spentaboutt wel
veyearsintheDiaspora,Nkrumahr et
urnedhomet otheGol dCoast
i
nNovember1947.Uponhi sretur
n,Nkrumahi mmediat el
ysethisfootont hepol i
ti
calladder
byassumi ngtheroleofSecr
etaryGeneraloftheUnit
edGol dCoastConvent i
on(UGCC) ,apost
hewasaccor dedsoonbeforeher et
urned.Hismagnet i
cpersonali
ty,ambiti
on,char isma,
organizat
ionalabi
li
tyandorator
icalpowermadehi mf amousacrossthecount ry.Therol eof
Nkrumahi nthestrugglef
orthei
ndependenceoft heGol dCoastwasthereforeasf ol
lows:

Ref
erenceQuest
ions:
a) Discusstheinf
luenceofFr
anci
sNkr
umahdur
ingt
hest
ruggl
efori
ndependencei
n
t
heGoldCoast

b)Exami
net
her
oleofKwameNkr
umahi
ntheat
tai
nmentofi
ndependencei
nGhana

c) Towhatext
entwasNkr
umahr
esponsi
blef
ort
hedecol
oni
sat
ionofGhana?

1.Nkrumahacceptedtheleadershi
poft heUGCCast heSecretaryGener aluponhi sreturnto
theGol
dCoasti n1947.Heusedhi spositi
ontoradical
isetheindependencest r
ugglei nthe
GoldCoast,whichincr
easedt hepacet owar
dsi ndependenceat tainment.Hi sdynami sm
enabl
edhimt oopenuppar t
ybranchesandseti nmot i
onef f
ectivepoliti
calmachi neryin
manydist
ri
ctsthroughoutthecountry.Thi
smovemadet hepar t
ymor epopul aramongt he
peopl
e,whower enowabl et oengagei nvar
iouspar t
yact i
vit
ies.Nkrumahr evolut
ionised
theUGCCtot heenvyoftheveryfounders.

2.Hemadeef f
ectiveuseoft hepr esst oext endant i
-coloni
alpropagandat ovariouspar t
sof
thecount ryl
iketheAsant eRegionandt heNorthernRegi on.Heest abli
shedtwonat i
onali
st
dail
ies,theAccr aEveningNewsandt heCapeCoastDai l
yMai l
.Nkr umahmadesur ethat
thearticl
es,cartoonsandsl ogans,whi chappear edi nthesepaper s,werewr i
tteninaway
thatwaseasi lyunderst
oodbyt heor di
nar yreaderwi thli
tt
leformaleducat i
on;andt hat;
they
methi saspirati
ons,capturedhisemot ionsandi nfluencedhimt oputi nthelit
tlehehad;i n
thef i
ghtt oendt hecol onialrepressivesyst em.Thepr essthus,helpedhi mt ocal lfor
positi
veact i
on,nationwidest r
ikes,intensifypressur eforcolonialconcessions( r
eforms),
andpr omotet hesloganof' Self-
gover nmentNOW. 'Thismadet hemovementagai nst
coloniali
sm mor epopularamongt hemasses.

3.Nkrumahwor kedhandinhandwi tht


radeuni
onsl
iket heTeachersUnionandt heRail
ways
Uniont
of i
ghtforworkers'
right
sandconduci
veworkingconditi
onsatt hei
rplacesofwork;
thi
sstr
ategywonhi m supportofwor
kerstot
hestrugglefortheindependenceoftheGold
Coast.Hewasabl etocal
lthedi f
fer
entgroupsofwor kers,pr
ofessi
onalsandf armersto
Posit
iveAction,todemonstrat
eandst ri
keagainstthediscri
minati
velabourpolicyofthe
col
onialgovernment.Nkr
umahwast hebrainbehindtheJanuary9,1950workers'sit
-down
str
ikethatt
ur nedi
ntopol
it
icalchaos,andthreat
enedthecoloni
alsystem.

4.Hef or medt hecommi tteef ort heyouthaf tert he1948r i


ots.Thisyout hcommi ttee
appeal edtotheyoungpeopl eandhel pedtoexpandmember shipoftheUnitedGoldCoast
Convent ion,whi
chwasavi talstept owardst hest ruggleforindependence.Evenafterhe
l
ef tt
heUGCC,Nkr umah'smobi l
isati
onst r
ategyt argetedtheyout hespeciall
ytheschool
l
eaver s,whosel ackofj obsaf terschoolcompel l
edt hei
rangert oopposet hecoloni al
discr
imi nati
vesystem thatdeni edt hem accesstoempl oyment .Inf
act,i
twasmuchoft he
i
ncessantdemandandpr essuref r
om theyout hs,whohadbecomehi smaj orfoll
ower s
thatprompt edhimt obreakawayf r
om the,UGCCandf ormtheCPP.Theyout hsupporters
regardedhi m'Osagyefo'ther edeemer .

5.Kwame Nkr umah condemned Br it


ish coloniali
sm,and mobi li
sed and sensi
tised the
massesaboutt heevilsoftheBr i
ti
shr epressi
vecol onialsyst em.Hemadepol iti
caltours
throughoutthecountry,carr
iedoutpubl i
clecturesandr al
lies,whichi
ncit
edthemassest o
supporttheindependencest ruggle.Hismasspol it
icalrall
i
esr eachedtheremotestvil
l
ages
i
nt he countr
yside,whi ch he of t
en addr essed t ogetherwi t
h hisleadi
ng men.Thi s
propagandast r
ategy,supportedbyanef fecti
veor ganisationalandpropagandamachi nery
out-competedthepol i
ti
calstrategyoftheUGCCl eadership.

6.Thear restandi mpr i


sonmentofNkr umahbyt hecoloni
algover nmentboost edhi sradical
characterinthest r
ugglef orsel f
-r
ule.Hewasf i
rstarr
estedi nFebruar y1948wi t
ht heother
member soft he'BigSi x'f ol
lowingt heriotsthatwer ef i
redbyt hemar chi
ngoft heex-
servi
cement othegover nmentheadquar tersinAccra.Thear r
estoft he'BigSixledt oopen
confrontationbetweent hepeopl eandt hegover nmentl eadingtot heevent ualreleaseof
theleader s.In1950Nkr umahwasagai nar restedonchar gesofi ncitingpoli
ticalchaos
amongt hewor kers.Theper secuti
onofNkr umahandt heotherl eadersoft heGPP
str
engt hened the par ty,t ur
ned t heircause into politi
calmar tyrdom and gr aduated
Nkrumahandt heot herpr isonerst onati
onalher oesi
nt hecausef ori ndependence,hence
boostingthesuccessoft heGPPi nthe1951el ecti
ons.

7.OnJune12,1949,adayaf t
erhebr okeawayf r
om t heUGCC,Nkr umahf ormedamor e
radi
calandr evoluti
onar yparty,theConventionPeopl e'sPar t
y( GPP),whichwast oleadt he
countryt oindependence.TheGPPover shadowedot herpol it
icalmovement st hatfought
fortheGhanai anindependencebecausei tembr acedal lgroupsofpeopl e,youths,wor kers,
professionals,ex-servicemenamongot hers.Nkr umahexpr essedt hevisi
onoft heGPPi n
theslogan' Sel f
-governmentNOW, 'openeduppar tybranchest hr
oughoutt hecount ryand
always-addressedmassr al
li
est ot heremot estvil
lagesi never ydi
stri
ct.Het herefore,set
i
nmot i
onver yeffecti
veor ganizati
onalandpr opagandamachi neryneverknowni nt heGol d
Coastbef ore.

8.Dr
.Fr
anci
sNkr
umahopposedt
heCousseyconst
it
uti
onalr
efor
mst
hatwer
ear
esul
toft
he
CousseyCommi tteerepor tofOctober1949.Her eferr
edt ot
heCousseyr ecommendat i
ons
asf raudulentbecauset her eportsuggest edani ncreasedAfri
canr epresentati
onint he
Legislati
veAssembl y,butt hat
,theAf r
icanseat swoul dbedomi natedbyt r
aditi
onchiefs
whower et obeappoi ntedbyt hecol onialregime.ToNkr umahandhi sf oll
ower
s,t he
Cousseycommi t
teewasj ustagr oupofpeopl et hathadbeenenl i
sted( chosen)byt he
gover nortosingthe' t
uneoft hecolonialmast ers!’Nkrumah'
sobjectiont otheCoussey
reportwast hefoundat i
onf orPositi
veAct i
onofJanuar y9,1950thatforcedt heBri
ti
sht o
carryoutmor epolit
icalreforms.

9.Dr.Nkr umahlaunched" APosi t


iveActioncampaign"againstcolonial
ism.Thecampai gn
educatedmassesont heuseofst r
ikes,boycot
ts,demonstrati
onsandci vi
ldisobedi
ence
againstthecoloni
alpol i
ci
es.Thesuccessandpopul ari
tyofNkr umah'sPositiveAct i
on
campai gnwasdemonst ratedonJanuar y9,1950,when( t
hroughtheAccr aEveningNews)
hecal l
eduponwor kersallovert hecountrytostageasi t-
downst ri
keasasi gnoft heir
suppor tt
ot hedemandf oranendt ocol oni
aladmini
st r
ati
on.Allworkersint hecount r
y
j
oinedt hesit-
downstrikeNkr umahandmostoft heCPPl eadersandt heeditori
alteam
werer ounded-
up,tr
iedan:i mpri
soned.Thisincr
easedt hepopulari
tyoftheindependence
movement .

10.Asl eaderoft heCPP,KwameNkr umahaccept edtheposi ti


onofLeaderofGover nment
Businessi n1951,af terrel
easefrom JamesFor tpri
son.Thisf ol
lowedt hesuccessoft he
CPPi nt heconcludedel ect
ion,wi
nning34oft he38seat sintheLegi sl
ati
veAssembl y,wi
th
Nkrumaiwi nningaseati nAccr awi t
ht hehi ghestmaj or
it
yi nt hewhol eelecti
on.He
becamePr imeMi nisterin1952andi nit
iatedreformsint heGol dCoastl i
keimpr ovement
i
ni nfrastr
uctureest abli
shmentoft heVol taRiverProjectandmanyot herreforms.This
fastpacef ortheeconomi candsoci aldevelopmentoft hecount ryconvi
ncedt hepeople
thatNkr umahandt heCPPwer esignif
icantint hestr
uggl eforf ulli
ndependenceoft he
GoldCoast .

11.Nkrumahsuppor tedfar mersintheGol dCoasti nthef i


ghtagainstt heswol l
en-
shoot
diseasewhichwasaf fecti
ngcocoapr oductioninthecountry.Heencour agedfarmersto
cutdowninf ect
edcocoat reesandgavet hem newi mprovedandr esistantstal
ksforre-
planti
ngorcompensat edthem inmonet aryt er
ms.Theseposi ti
vei ncent i
vesmadeby
Nkrumahrehabili
tat
edcocoaf orming,i
mpr ovedont hel
ivel
ihoodofthef ar mersandmade
hi
scampai gnacceptabletothemasses.

12.Innewhi sposi t
ionasPr imeMi nisteroftheinter
nalself
-gover
nment ,Nkrumahi mpr ovedc:
socialservicedel i
veryint hecount ry.Theseser vi
ceshadbeenbadl ynegl ectedbyt he
colonialgovernmentandwer ethedomi nantcauseofpeopl e'
sdiscontentthatmadet hem
tofightanden:t hecol onialsystem.Nkr umahext endedhealt
hservicest oruralareasand
providedfreeuni versalprimaryeducat i
on( UPE)t ochi
ldrenbel
ow t welveyear s.Heal so
extendedwat erandt other ur
alcommuni t
y.Thismovewonhi m masssuppor tintheGol d
Coast .

13.Nkr
umahdef
eat
edt
ri
bal
i
sm dur
ingt
hei
ndependencest
ruggl
ebyencour
agi
ngnat
ional
uni
tyamong t he masses.He wor ked with allleader
s ofet hnic based part
ies and
movement ssuchasTogol andProgressi
vePar tyt hatwaspr omot ingt hesecessi
onof
Bri
ti
shTogoland.Nkr umahreconci
l
edwi ththeNat i
onalLiberat
ionMovement( NLM)oft he
AsanteledbyKof iA.Busi a,whowassuppor tedbyAsant eheneBaf uorOseiAkotot o
advocatefort he f eder
alsystem ofgover nance agai nstNkr umah's uni
tar
ysyst em.
Becauseofhisvi sionaryleader
shi
pandchar i
smat i
cper sonal
ity,theCPPwonsympat hy
fr
om tradi
ti
onalrulerssuchasNanaKobi naNket siaofEsikaduf rom t
heWest ernregi
on.

14.Nkrumahcooper atedwi t
ht hecoloni
alauthori
ti
esunderGover norSirCharl
esArdenClarke
l
uri
ngt hepr ocessofpr epari
ngt heGoldCoastf orindependence.Nkrumahwasatf ir
st
rel
uctanttowor kwithAr denClarke,butl
aterrealisedthathim andtheGovernorhadt he
sameobj ecti
ve,theattai
nmentoff ul
lself-
governmentf orthecountry.Nkr
umahandt he
governorbegant oest
ablisha'measur eoftrust
'asopposedt owor ki
ngagainsteachother.
The mut ualunder st
andi ng between Kwame Nkr umah and Gover norArden Clarke
i
nfluencedtheBr i
ti
shtoacceptt heGhanaiandemandsputbef orethecoloni
algover
nment .

15.HeledtheConvent i
onPeople'sParty(CPP)toparti
cipateint he1954and1956el ecti
ons,
whichprecededindependence.Nkrumah'sCPPwonover whelmi ngmajori
typar
li
amentary
seatsi
nt hetwoelecti
ons,bri
ngi
ngi ndependencecl
oseri nsight .I
n1954,theCPPwon79
ofthe104seats;thati
s76%maj ori
ty.I
nthe1956gener alelection,thepar
tywon71ofthe
104seat s,areasonablemaj or
ityofnear l
y70%,maki ngi tinevit
abletoformt hefi
rst
i
ndependentgovernmentoft heGoldCoast.

16.Nkr umahdemandedf orthe( f


ul l
)independenceoft heGol dCoast,f i
rstin1953andl at erin
1956.I nJuly1953,heintroducedamot ioninparliamentdemandi ngf ullsel
f-
government
withoutdel ay.Hewasi mpat ientwi tht heconst i
tuti
ont hathadl eftt heGovernorwi th
cont roloft hepol i
ce,thej udiciary,finance,defenseandf or
eignaf fair
s,andabsol ute
power stopr esi
deovercabi netmeet ings,aswel lasenf orceorr ejectlawsuponhi swi l
l
.
Nkr umaht herefor
e,inf
luencedt henew const i
tutionof1954t hatgavet hecountryf ull
i
nt ernalself-governmentwi thanal l
-Afri
cancabinet .I
n1956,het abledanot hermot ioni n
par l
iamentadvocat ingfortotalindependenceoft hecolony.Thisi nfluencedtheBriti
sht o
organi sethef i
nalgeneralelectioni nJulyt hesameyear ,wi t
hNkr umah' sCPPwi nning71
oft he104par li
amentaryseat s.Hence,t heBri
ti
shRoyalgover nmentaccept edtheGhana
IndependenceActonFebr uary7,1957.

17.Nkrumaht hel eaderoft heCPPr eceivedtheinstr


ument sofi ndependence(power)f rom
theBri
ti
shcol onialgovernmentonMar ch6,1957.Thenewi ndependentnati
onpr eviously
knownast he' GoldCoast 'adopt
edt hename' Ghana'courtesyofNkr umah.Thename
'
Ghana'wasadopt edf rom t
heancientglori
ousempi r
eofGhanat hatwasasuccessi nt he
WesternSudan.I nt hewor dsofNkrumah,t hename' Ghana'wasani nspi
rat
ionf ort he
fut
ure.Consequent ly,theCPPf or
medt hefi
rstgovernmentoft henewi ndependentst ate
ofGhanawi thKof iFrancisKwameNkr umahNwi aasthePr i
meMi ni
ster
.

THEIMPACTOFGHANA’ SINDEPENDENCEONPANAFRI CANNATI ONALISM)


TheGol dCoastassumedt hename'Ghana'ontheeveofindependence.OnMar ch6,1957,
Ghanabecamet hef i
rstblack-
Afri
canst
atesouthoftheSaharatoattai
nindependence;and
thefi
rsttr
opi
calcolonialt
erri
tor
ybothinAfri
canandtheCari
bbeant ogetri
dofcolonialrul
e
anddominati
on.I narelat
edcont ext,Dr.KwameNkr umah,theGhanaianfir
stleaderanda
gif
tedPanAfricani
stbecamedescr ibedas' t
hestarofAfri
ca'
sdesti
ny'whosedeli
veranceof
theGoldCoastt oi
ndependenceli
tat or
chofhopet hatbecameaninspir
ati
onfortherestof
coloni
alAfri
ca stil
lfight
ing forsel f-
deter
minati
on.The contri
buti
on ofNkr umah and
i
ndependenttowardsPanAf r
icani
sm andAf ri
cannati
onali
sm i
sasfoll
ows:

Ref
erence
a) Ofwhati
mpactwasGhana'
sindependenceont
hedevel
opmentofPanAf
ri
cani
sm?

b)Di
scusst
hei
mpor
tanceofGhana'
sindependencet
oPanAf
ri
cani
sm

c) Howf
ardi
dGhanacont
ri
but
etot
hegr
owt
handdevel
opmentofPanAf
ri
cani
sm?

1.Thepoliti
calvictorygainedbyGhanai ansinf
luencedot hernati
onali
stsintherestofAf ri
ca
whocamet or ealisethatthest r
uggleagainstcolonial
ism hadstartedbeari
ngf r
uits.Once
Bri
tishgrantedi ndependencet ot heGol dCoastin1957,i tbecamedi ffi
cul
tforthesame
coloni
almast erst odenyot herAf ri
cansubjectswhatshehadal readygrantedelsewher e.
Ast heAfri
cani ntensif
iedtheiranti-
coloni
alcrusade,theBrit
ishpreparedtowithdrawf r
om
Afri
ca.Therefor ewi t
hGhanai ndependent,othercount ri
esespeciall
yofWestAf ricali
ke
Nigeri
a,FrenchWestAf r
ica,Sierr
aLeoneandevenGambi a,smallasi twas,couldnotbe
deniedindependence.

2.Af t
erindependence,Ghanabecameasaf emeet i
ngpl aceforanti
-col
onialgr
oupsi nAf ri
ca.
Uponhi ssuccessofdel i
veringGhana'
sindependence,Nkr umah'smai nambitionwasnow
tot urnAccraintoacent reofAfri
canliberati
on,andpr ovi
deabasef rom whichnat ionali
st
leadersf r
om col onialAf ri
cacoulddr aw suppor tandencour agement .Nati
onal i
stslike
Pat ri
ckLumumba( BelgianCongo) ,Hasti
ngsKamuzuBanda( Nyasal
and),JuliusNyer ere
Kambal ageofTanganyi kaandRober tMugabe( SouthernRhodesia)amongot hersmade
visi
t stoAccratomeetwi thandgetpol it
icalinspirati
onfrom Nkrumah.Ther efore,Ghana
hadbecomeaf ocalpoi ntfrom whichanti
-colonialideasandpropagandaspr ead.

3.Ghanai nfluencedant i
-coloni
alsent i
ment sintheFrenchcol oniesofWestandEquat orial
Afri
cabet ween1958and1960.Thesest at
esthatcameunderGhanai aninfl
uencei ncluded
Senegal ,(
French)Gui neaConakr y,IvoryCoastandCongoBr azzavill
e.Theyl earntf rom
Ghanaand i ncr eased theirdemand f orindependence.Nkr umahofGhanaper sonal ly
i
nfluencedAhmedSekouTour eof( French)Gui neaConakr yt ovot eagainstt heFr ench
federati
on int he De-Gaul l
er eferendum of1958.Consequent l
y,Gui nea acquired her
i
ndependencei nOct ober1958.Ghanawentaheadt oext endf inancialandhumani tarian
assistancet oGui neaupt oat uneof$10mi ll
ionfortenyear s.Thiseconomi cgest ureby
Nkrumahf oll
owedt heFr enchdepar t
ur ecancelli
ngtheireconomi caidt oGuineaaswel las
withdrawingt heirpersonnel.

4. Nkrumaht ookt heleadi nt hemovementt owardsr egi


onalcooper
ati
oninAf ri
ca.In
November1958,hei nit
iatedtheestablishmentoft heunionofGhanaandGuinea.Withit
s
mot to'
IndependenceandUni tytheuni onoftheset wocountri
eswastobethenucleusof
af utur
e'UnionofIndependentAf r
icanSt at
es,'andt hi
swasopent oanyAfri
canstate.It
lat
erbecamet heGhana-Guinea-
Mal iunioni
nApr il1961afterModi
boKeit
aagr eedtojoi
n
KwameNkr umahandAhmedSekouTour e.Thi
spol i
ti
caluni
ongaveapract
icalst
ep
towardsthepoli
ti
calunionofAf
ri
canst
atesasthebestwayofstr
engt
heni
ngAf
ri
canunit
y
andresistneo-
col
onial
ism.

5.IndependentGhanaor ganisedthefir
stconf erenceofi ndependentAfricanst atesinApr i
l
1958.Nkrumahi nvit
edthesevenot herindependentAf ri
canstates,Egypt,Ethi
opi a,Li
beri
a,
Libya,Morocco,theSudanandTuni sia.Theconf erencediscussedmeansofsaf eguardi
ng
i
ndependentst r
engtheningeconomi candcul turalti
esbet weenthesecount r
ies,andhow
theywouldcont r
ibut
et owor l
dpeace.Thei ndependentAf ri
canstatesagr eedonwor kabl
e
arrangementsforhel
pingAf r
icanst
atesstil
lfighti
ngf orsel
f-r
ule.

6.InDecember1958,Nkr umahandGeor gePadmor eorganisedthefi


rstAll-Afr
icanPeopl e’
s
Congress (AAPC) i
n Accr a,after the Accra conference of /independent Af r
ican
governmentofApr i
l1958.Overt wo hundred del
egatesr epr
esenting aboutsi xt
y-two
nati
onali
stgroupsfrom t went
y-ei
ghtt er
ri
tori
esstil
lundercol onialr ul
e attended the
col
onialdominat
iongai nedmuchi nspir
ati
onandencour agement,andt herefore,r
eturned
homedet er
minedtofreet hei
rcountri
es.

7.Consequent ly,Bel
gianCongocaughtt hefeverofGhanaiannat i
onali
sm,whichcontributed
toheri ndependence.Inpar ticular
,Pat r
iceLumumbar eturnedtoBelgi
anCongoaf t
ert he
All
-Af
ricanPeopl esConf erencei nGhana,t remendouslyi
mpr essedbythecontactshehad
madeandt hepoliti
calstrategieshehadacqui red.Soon,hel edhisMovementNat i
onal
Congolais(MNC)t oorganisepol it
icalr
alli
esinLeopoldvi
lle(Ki
nshasa)andotherareas.He
i
ncreasinglydemandedf arani mmedi ateendt oBel gi
anr ul
ei nthecolony.Thusf rom
Ghana,Lumumbagott hesuppor theneededt oi
mplementhi sdemandf ori
ndependence.

8.IndependentGhanacont r
ibutedtot hebridgingofthegapbet weent heAr abNor thandthe
Negr oSouthofAf ri
ca.Nkr umahwasauni fyingfact
orbet weenArabandBl ackAf r
ica.He
wor ked i
ntensel
y wi t
h AbdelNasser ,and t he Algeri
an provisi
onalgover nmentt o
harmonise the hist
oricaldi f
ferences between t he Arabs and the Negr oes.Nkr umah
commendedt hattheSahar adesert,whichdi vi
desbetweenNor thAf r
icaandSubSahar an
Afri
cashouldinsteadbeconsi deredaconsol idati
ngfactorofconti
nent aluni
ty.

9.Hewor kedti
rel
essl
ytobr i
ngunit
yont heAfri
cancont inent.Nkrumahplayedal eadingr ol
e
i
npr epar i
nggroundsfortheformationoft heOr ganisati
onofAf r
icanUnit
y.Thespi ri
tof
Pan-Africani
sm wasal so wit
nessedwhenGhanapar t
icipat
edint hereconcili
ationof
Monr oviaandCasablancagroups,l
eadi ngtotheevent ualformati
onoftheOr ganisati
onof
Afri
canUni t
y(OAU)i n1963.Awar eoft hepositionofmember sofMonr oviagr oup,
Nkrumahabandonedhi sproposalforanal l-
Afr
icangover nmentwi t
hacommondef ense
system,common cur rencyand a uni on l
egi
slature.The r esul
tofhi s move was a
conferenceofindependentAfri
canst atesatAddisAbabai nMay1963,atwhi cht heOAU
emer ged.

10.Onacquiri
ngindependence,t
henewstat
eofGhanaj
oinedt
heCommonweal
thofNat
ions
and consequent
lybecameoneoft hefor
cesthatputpressur
eontheBri
ti
shRoyal
governmentt ogranti ndependencet ohercol oniesi nAfrica.Thissamei nf
luencewas
carr
ied forward byGhana t ot he UN Gener al;Assembl y.In September1960,whi le
addressingt heUni tedNat i
ons,Nkr umahr emi ndedt heGener alAssemblyoft het wo
hundredmi l
lionAf r
icanscr yingforaf reeAf r
ica.Inhi swordshesai d,“.
..
Onecardinalfact
ofourt imei st hemoment ousi mpactofAf rica'sawakeni ngupont hemoder nwor ld..
.
Thet ideofAf r
icannat ionali
sm const itutesachal lengetothecol oni
alpowerstomakea
j
ustr esti
tut
ionf ortheyear sofi njust
iceandcr imecommi ttedagainstourconti
nent..
.All
ourcont i
nentisdemandi ngi sthatAFRI CAMUSTBEFREE. ”

11.Nkrumaht hel eaderofGhanacondemnedt hespiritofsecessi onism inAfri


ca.Ghana
playedagr eatroleindefeat ingtheKatangasecessi oninCongo( 1960-64).Hecalledupon
Africanleaderstoopposet hecapital
istinfl
uenceint heCongo,whi chencouragedMoi se
Tshombe,t hepr ovinci
algover norofKatangat osecedef rom theform Belgi
ancol ony.In
particul
ar,Nkrumahl edt heCasabl ancagr oupt osuppor tast r
ongcent ralgovernmenti n
the Congo undert he r adicalPat r
ice Lumumba agai nstt he Katanga secessionist
movementof t he pro-
west ern Moise Tshombe.Hi si dea was t o maintainl arge
i
ndependentAf ri
canstatest hanencour agingbalkanisat
ion.

12.Ghana gave physi calsuppor tt oliberation movement sin Afri


ca.Nkr umah st rongly
support
edt heNat i
onalLi berati
onFr ont(FLN)i nAl geri
aatat imewhent hef ormerFrench
WestAf r
icancol oniesexpr essedanegat i
veat ti
tudet owardstheAl geriancause.I nt he
1960conf erenceofAf ri
canl eadershel di nAccr a,Nkrumahl edadi scussionaboutt he
dangersoft heprotractedAl gerianconf l
ict.Hedi dnotonl yprovi
def inancialandmi li
tary
assi
stancet otheFLN,butal sot otheAf r
icanI ndependencePar tyofGui neaBissauand
CapeVer de( PAIGC) .Thecount ryalsoof feredf acili
ti
esinGhanat ohel pt rai
n'fr
eedom
fi
ghter
s'toover t
hrowt hei
rcol onialmast ers.Ghanawasasaf eHavent opol i
ti
call
eader s
faci
ngcolonialpersecut i
onforexampl e,Ami lcarCabr alofGuineaBissau.

13.NkrumahofGhanaadvocat edfortheUni t
edSt atesofAfr
ica(OneAfricanCommuni t
y)as
proposedf orbythepioneer
sofPanAf ricani
sm ledbyMar cusGarvey.Inhiswordsdur i
ng
theopeningoft heAll-
Afri
canPeoples'Congressi n1958,Nkrumahstat edthat
,"Todayis
i
ndependence;t omorrow i
stheUni tedSt atesofAf ri
ca."Hedesi redf oraf ederat
ed
Afri
cancont inentunderonepolit
icalleadership,acommondef ensesyst em underan
Afri
canhighcommand,auni onlegisl
aturewitht wohousesofparli
amentandacommon
currency.

14.Consequent l
y,Ghanaj oinedtheagi tat
ionfort headopt i
onoft hei deologyof" posi ti
ve
neutrali
ty"(theNon-ali
gnmentpol icy)byAf r
ican states.Thei deologywasai med at
disassociati
ngAfri
cafrom theinfluenceofcoldwarpol i
ticsofthesuperpower s.Nkr umah
l
ikeNasserwasaf oundermemberoft heNon- al
i
gnedmovement( NAM)t ogetherwi th
Jawahar lalNehruofI ndia,JosephTi to ofYugosl avi
aandSur kano ofI ndonesi a.He
encour agedAfri
canleaderstot aket henon-ali
gnedst andandf oll
ow' posit
iveneut ral
ism'
asamovet oredeem Af ri
caf rom t heyearsofoppr essionandr epression,whi cht he
continenthadsuffer
edf ormoret hanacent uryundert hecol oni
alsystem.
15.Nkrumah' sGhanabecamet hef i
rstcountryaf terEgyptt or ecogni set hedanger sof
neo¬coloniali
sm i n Af r
ica.Nkr umah went ahead t o warnt he new i ndependent
government sofAf r
icat o protectand def end theirindependenceawayf rom f oreign
i
nfluence.Hecondemnedt heevil
sofneo- coloniali
sm andcal l
eduponAf ri
canl eaderst o
wor ktogetherandr esistt heexternalforcesf r
om t hewest er
nwor l
dt hatlookedup- to
bal
kanizing( di
vi
ding)thecont i
nentintosmal li
ndividualst
ateuni ts,uset hem aspol i
ti
cal
andeconomi cpawn( i
nst ruments),'andkeepAf ri
cansdi vi
dedandbackwar d.I n1960,
Nkrumahor gani
sedaconf erenceofAf ri
canleaders,whichamongot herr
esolutionst ooka
fi
rm standagai nstEuropeanpower susingAf ri
cansoi lasat estinggroundf ornucl ear
weapons.HecondemneddeGaul l
e'stesti
ngofnucl earbombsi nt heSahar aandAl geri
a.

16.Onr ecei
vingt heinstrument sofi ndependence,Nkr umahmadeamovi ngspeecht hat
showedhi sstrongattachmentt owar dsthePanAf r
icanMovement.Hedecl ar
ed-“Ghana' s
i
ndependencei smeani nglessunl essi tisli
nked up withthetotalli
berationoft he
conti
nentAfrica.”Suchdecl arat
ionbecameani nspirati
ontother
estofcolonialAfri
cast i
l
l
fi
ghti
ngf ortheirowni ndependence.I tisuponthisbackgroundthatNkrumaht ookt he
i
niti
ati
veinthecauseofAf r i
canli
ber at
ion,i
nthepur sui
tofhispassi
onatedesi r
et osee
tot
alremovalofcol oni
alr ul
einAf r
ica,andtobri
ngaboutpeaceanduni t
yont hecont i
nent.

17.Manyl i
berati
onmovement sinAf ri
cagotdirectencouragementf rom thesuccessoft he
CPPi natt
aini
ngthei ndependenceoft heGoldCoast.InSouthAf r
ica,Rober
tSobukweand
othernati
onalist
sf ounded t
he Pan Af ri
cani
stCongr ess (
PAC)i n 1959 in a bidt o
consoli
datethest ruggleagainstapar t
hei
d.Similar
ly,inBr i
ti
shCent ralAfri
ca,poli
ti
cal
organi
sati
onswer ef ormed to chall
engewhi t
edomi nati
on:theyi ncl
uded theMal awi
CongressParty(MCP)ofNyasal andformedin1959whoseact i
vi
tieswerealsomotivated
bythesuccessoft heCPP.

18.I
nNovember1959,al mostayearaftertheAll-Afri
canPeoplesConference,Ghanahost ed
theAll
-Afri
canTr adeUni onsconfer
ence,whi chl edtot heemergenceoft heAl l
-Afr
ican
TradeUnionFeder at
ion.Nkrumahemphasi sedt hatAfr
icacoul
dneverbef ull
yindependent
oftheformercolonialpowersunlessitwasstrong,andt hatAfr
ica'
sstrengthwasnotonl y
i
npolit
icalbutal
soeconomi cuni
ty.

19.ThegovernmentofKwameNkr umahwentahead t o off


ergenerousschol
arshi
pst o
st
udentsfr
om otherAfri
cancountri
esinGhana' seducat
ioninst
it
uti
ons.Thi
swast oassi
st
i
nai di
ngpersonneltrai
ningschemesoft heseAf r
icancountr
ies.Thebenefi
ti
ngstates
i
ncludedAl
geri
a,Guinea.Sier
raLeone,Nyasaland(Malawi)andEastAfr
ica.

Note:KwameNkr umah'spanAfri
canspi r
itwasst
rongert
hanhiscommi
tmenttohisroleas
theleaderofGhana.Hi sdownfallin1966wasmost l
yduetodevoti
ngmuchofhist i
met o
Afri
can( panAfr
icanaf f
air
s)attheexpenseofdomest i
cprobl
emsinGhana.Thus,hewas
regardedinAf
ri
canf i
rstandGhanaiansecond.

ACHIEVEMENTSOFNKRUMAHANDTHEGPPGOVERNMENT( 1951-
66)
Ref
erenceQuest
ions-
a)Examinethecontr
ibut
ionofKwameNkrumaht
othehist
oryofGhana
b)Assesstheperfor
manceoftheCPPgover
nmentbet
ween1951and1966
c)Towhatext
entdi
dNkrumahl
ivetotheexpectat
ionsoft
hepeopl
eofGhana?
d)Howsuccessf
ulwasNkr
umah'sadmini
strat
ionupto1966?

NKrumahandt heCPPassumedt hearmsofgovernmentofanint


ernal
lyself
-governingGold
Coastin1951atat imeofrisi
ngpr i
cesofcocoa,thechi
efexpor
tcommodi tyonwhi chthe
count
rylargelydepended.Theadmi nist
rati
onofNkrumahalsoinheri
tedat reasuryoftwo
hundr
edmi l
li
onpoundsi nforeignreserves.Wit
haspi r
itofdynamism andpr ospect
sof
i
ndependence,theCPPgovernmentembar kedonanumberofhi
ghl
yambi t
iousbutsuccessf ul
devel
opment alpr
oject
s.

1.Theinternalsel
f-
governmentofNkr umahpr oclai
medaf ive-yeardevelopmentplanofone-
hundredandt wentymi l
l
ionpoundsi nthefir
styearofadmi nistrat
ion.Thisrepl
acedat en-
yearplan ofmer et welvemi ll
ion poundsest abl
ished byt hecol onialgover
nmentof
GovernorAlanBur nsin1946.Nkr umahi mport
edcapi talequipmentandexper tper
sonnel,
andt r
ainedlocalexpert
isetohel pimplementhisfive-yearpl an.Nkrumah'splantar
get ed
improvementi nruralcommuni tyservi
cedel i
veryineducat ion,healt
handwat ertot he
sati
sfacti
onofpeopl e,moder ni
zationofagricult
ure,indust ri
ali
sati
onandt r
ansportand
communi cati
on.Thecolonialgovernmenthadignoredal lthese.

2.Reformsi nt r
ansportnetwor kweret hemosti mpr essiveofNkr umah'sgover nment .From
1951,sever alroadswer ebui l
torexpanded.Themosti mpor t antwer eAccr a-
Takor adi-
AxinrTar
kwahi ghway,thetrunkr oadf rom Kumaset oTamal eandbeyondi nthenor t
hand
the Accra-Kumase t runk r oad.A r ailwayline connect i
ng Kot oko fr
om Achi ase was
compl et
edt or educet hej ourneybet weenSekondi -TakoradiandAccr a-Kumase.Anew
harbouratTemawasbui ltwhi l
et heol doneatTakor adiwasexpanded.Anot herrail
-li
ne
wasal sobui l
tfrom Achimot atot heTemahar bour.In1958,ashi ppi
ngline(theBl ackStar
Lone)wassetupwhi l
ei nt hesameyeart heNkr umahadmi nistr
ati
onest ablishedt he
GhanaAi rwaysCor porat
ion,br eakingawayf rom theWestAf ricanAirways.TheAdome
Bri
dgeandSogankopeBr i
dgewer econst ruct
edont heVol taRivert oli
nkt heVoltaRegi on
wit
ht herestoft hecountry.Thedevel opmentsi nt
ranspor thence,f aci
li
tatedtrade.

3.Nkrumahcr aved formoder ncommuni cat


ionf acili
ti
esi nhi scount r
y.Hemi ghthave
concentratedmuchoft her esourcestoimpr oveont r
anspor tandfacil
it
atesoci alservices
i
nt heruralareas;however ,hesparedsomef ori
mpr ovementi nthefiel
dofcommuni cation.
Hisgover nmentest abl
ishedandmoder nisedradioandt elevi
sionservi
cest oensur emass
educati
on,ent er
tainmentandi nformat i
on.Thet elephoneandwi rel
esstelegraphysyst ems
bui
ltinthecol onialdayswer emoder ni
sedandt remendousl yexpanded.Thegover nment
al
soi ntr
oducedaut omat i
ccommuni cationservices,whi chlinkedmanyi mportantt owns
andciti
es.

4.TheCPPgover nmenti ni
ti
atedtheconst r
uctionoft hehydroelectricpowerdam att heVolt
a
River
.TheVol taRi verhydroel
ectricproj
ectwasai medatpr omot i
ngprogressivemodern
mdust r
ial
i
sationinGhana.Nkr umahcommi ssionedt heVoltaRi verproj
ectin1961andt he
dam wasf uncti
oningbyJanuar y1966,amont hbef oreNkr umahwasover thrown.He
securedfi
nancialassistancefrom theSovietUni onfort hi
spowerdam pr oject,whichwas
stati
onedatAkosomboandbui l
dbyanI t
alianconst ruct
ionf i
r m.Apartf r
om supporti
ng
theindustr
ialsector,theelect
rici
tygeneratedatAkosombohel pedt osolvethedomest i
c
needsandby1980,i twasear ningexportincomesf rom theRepubl i
cofTogoandBeni n
whoi
mpor
tedi
t.

5.The admi ni
st ration ofNkr umah ensur ed effecti
ve industri
aldevel opmentf orGhana
compar ed t ot he col onialgover nment .The i ndustri
alpol icy int he colonialdays
emphasi zedpr i
mar yindust ri
esmaki ngt heGol dCoastasour ceofr aw mater i
alsfor
exporttof eedt hemanuf acturi
ngI ndustriesinEngland.Onassumi nggover nmentcont rol,
theCPPl eader st ookmeasur est oensur ethatmuchoft herawmat erialswerer eserved
forthel ocali ndust r
ies.Manuf actur i
ngindust ri
eswer eest abli
shedandencour agedwi th
i
ncentivesl iket axexempt ions,especi allyoni mports,i ndustri
almat eri
alsandcapi tal
equipment .TheGhanaI ndustri
alHol dingCor porati
on( GIHOC)wassetupt ocontrolstate
i
ndustrialent erpr i
sesmanuf acturi
ngandmar keti
nggoodsf orbothl ocalconsumpt i
onand
export.To ensur e effecti
ve pr oduct i
on of essent i
alsl i
ke saf ety mat ches,sugar ,
pharmaceut icalpr oducts,f i
shing vessel s,detergent
sand t extil
es,t hegover nmentof
Nkrumahent er edi ntopar tnershipwi t
hot hermanuf acturi
ngsect ors.

6.TheCPPgover nmentdevot edmuchef fortandr esour cestoagr i


cul
turaldevelopment .Wel l
awar eoft hei mportanceofagr i
cult
ureast hebasi soft hecount ry'
seconomy,t he
governmentofNkr umahcommi tt
edt omoder ni singanddi versi
fyi
ngt hesect or
.Tosol ve
over-r
eli
anceonor ecrop,cocoa,t hegover nmenti ntroducedawi derangeofcr opsl i
ke,
maize,yam,sugarcane,gr oundnuts,Shea- nut ,cof f
ee and pal m oi lforbot hl ocal
consumpt i
onandexpor tandrsuppl ementpr oduct i
onofi ndustri
alrawmat eri
als.ASt ate
FarmsCor porati
onwasest abl i
sht oencour agel ivestockf arming,par ti
cular
lypoul try,
catt
leandsheepf arming.Teachi ngofagr icul tur alsciencei ninsti
tuti
onsanduni versi
ties
wasemphasi sed,whileexper imentalfarm st at ionswer esetupt ogi vet heagr i
cult
ur al
supporti
ngst affprof
essionalandpr acti
calt rainingandt otrainfarmersi nmoder nfarmi ng
met hods.Thegover nmentsetupaSoi lResear chi nsti
tuteatKwadasonearKumaset o
helpinmappi ngoutsuitablelandsf oragri
cul turet hr
oughoutt heGol dCoast .

7.PrimeMi ni
sterNkr umah hel ped tof i
ghttheswol l
en-shootdi seaset hatwasheavi ly
affecti
ngt hecocoai ndustry.Focusi ngmai nlyonr ehabilit
atingcocoaf ar mingi nthe
country,hepr omotednat i
onwi decampai gnagai nstt hecocoadi seasebyencour agi
ng
farmer stocutdowndi sease:cocoat reeswithcompensat i
onofei thernewi mpr ovedand
resist
antst al
ksf orre- pl
anting ort hegover nmentpai df armer smoneyequi val entof
damages.Theseposi tiveincent i
vesmadebyNkr umah' sgovernmentr ehabi l
itat
edcocoa
farmingandi mprovedont helivel
ihoodoft i
tfarmers.In1952,the;CPP" governmentset up
theCocoaPur chasingCompanyt ohelpi nreducingt hemonopol yoff oreignf ir
msl i
ke
Cadbur yandFr y,overt hepur chaseofcocoapr oduce,whi l
et heoper ati
onoft heCocoa
Mar keti
ngBoar dwasal soexpanded.TheCocoaPur chasi
ngCompanyof feredf inancial
assistancetofarmersinf orm ofloanst ofaci
li
tatethem duringof f
-seasons.

8.Nkrumah'sCPPgover nmentwasequal l
yprogressivei
npromotingthewel f
areofGhanai an
Awar eoftheacuteshort
ageofaccommodat i
oncausedbyt heconcent r
ati
onofi ndustri
es
andot herdevelopmentsinci t
iesandbi ggert owns,thegovernmentembar kedona
housingscheme E solvethepr obl
em.A Mi nistryofHousingwasest abli
shed,whi ch
createdtheStat
eHousingCor porati
onthatembar kedona$2. 5mill
i
onhousi ngpr oj
ectin
thet ownshipsofAccra,CapeCoast ,TakoradiandKumase.Thehousesbui l
tbyt he
corporat
ionweresoldtoindivi
duals22hirepurchaseorlet-
outtolowi ncomeear nerson
rentalbasis.I
nt heruralcommuni ti
es,thegover nmentsetupar uralhousingl oans
schemeandtheFir
stGhanaBuil
dingSoci
ety,whi
chassi
stedpeopl
etobui
l
dorbuyt
hei
r
ownhousest
hroughamortgagescheme.

9.Refor ms i nt he educat i
on syst em wer e: commendabl e. In 1961,t he Nkr umah
gover nment thef i
rsti nt heBl ackwor ldtost arttheUni versalPr i
maryEducat i
on( UPE)
progr am.Thi swarif ree-tui
t i
oneducat i
onschemecover i
ngchi l
drenbelow12year s,whi ch
wasl aterext endedsecondar yandt er t
iarycircles.Primaryenr ol
mentmul t
ipli
edt oovera
mi l
l
ionf rom ar c--.153, 360pupi lsin1951.Thi spr ogram wenthandi nhandwi t
hpr ovision
off reemat erialst extbooks.TheGhanaEducat ionTr ustwasest abli
shed,t obuildand
manage school s and col lege acr oss t he count ry.The gover nmentest ablished t he
Univer sit
yofSci enceandTechnol ogy( 1952)andanot herUniversit
yatCapeCoast( 1962).
By1964,si xteent eachert raini
ngcol legeshadbeenbui lt
.TheNat i
onalResear chCounci l
wasf oundedi n1958t oencour ager esearch.Thegover nmental soencour agedadul t
l
iteracyt hrought hePeopl e'sEducat i
onalAssoci ationundert heUni ver
sityofGhana.
Speci alschol arshipswer eissuedt ost udenttogoabr oadandacqui r
especi alskil
ls.The
resultoft heeducat ionr eformswast hereduct ionini l
li
teracyandcr eati
onofqual if
ied
wor kf orcef ori ndustriesandci vi
lservice.

10.Healthservi
ceswerealsoexpandedwi tht
hemostout st
andingbei ngt hebui ldingoftwo
regi
onalhospital
,theEf i
aNkwant aHospitalestabl
ishedi nSekondi -Takor adiandt he
Okomf oAnqkye,hospi
talinKumaseest abl
ishedatacostof$1. 5mi l
li
on.Pol yclini
cswer e
openedupi nt ownstode- congestthebighospit
als,whi l
edi str
icthospi t
alsandcl i
nics
wereal sobuil
tinmanyr uralareaslikeAccratobr i
ngt heheal t
hser vicescl osertot he
people.ThegovernmentofNkr umahal soprovi
dedmoder nequi pmentandf aci
li
ti
est o
hospital
sbuil
tinthecolonialdays.Amedicalschoolwasest abli
shedi nAccr aandmany
nursi
ngschoolswer esetupt hr
oughoutthecountrytosal vet heproblem ofi nadequate
doctors.

11.TheNkr umahadmi ni
strationr ef
ormedt helocalgover nmentsyst em.Di str
ictandur ban
councils wer
ei nt
roduced wher et wo- t
hir
ds oft heiradmi ni
strat
ive posts were made
electi
ve.Thesecounci l
swer ei nchar geofl ocalneedsanddevel opment ssuchast he
feederroads,wat erser vices,mar ketsandeducat ion.Theyr ecei
vedoper ati
onalgrants
direct
lyfr
om thecent ralgover nment .I
nt heruralcommuni t
ies,thegovernmentusedl ocal
councilstoi ni
tiat
et he spi r
itofcommunal ism,whi ch ensur ed the success ofrur al
developmentpr ogramsl iket heRur alFeederRoadsSchemet hatmai nt
ainedvil
lagetrunk
roadsconnect i
ngtodi stri
ct sandothercommer ci
alcentres.

12.Consequently,theCPPgover nmentAfri
cani sedadmi ni
str
ationt hecivi
lservi
ce.From the
1950swhen' Ghana'gai nedcontr
oloverthenat i
onalaffai
rs,Nkr umah'sgovernmentdr ew
upacompr ehensi veplant opromoteawel f
arest atecompl etelyrunbyt henati
ves.He
i
ntroduced a policyknown ast heAccel erated DevelopmentEducat i
on Plan with an
objecti
vetotrai
ninl argenumber sthepersonnel( l
abourpower )withtherequir
edskil
lsnot
onlyforgeneraladmi nistr
ati
onbutalsofori ndustry,andtheeconomi candsocialser
vices
i
nt heindependentGhana.Ont heeveofi ndependence,Af ri
canshadr eplacedoverthree
thousandtopEur opeanexper t
s.Therefore,t henat i
veshadl earnttomanaget heirown
affai
rs.
13.Aftertaki
ngoverthepower fulposi t
ionasPr i
meMi nisteroftheinter
nalsel f
-government,
Nkrumahi ntr
oducedsoundi ngconst it
uti
onalreforms.I n1953,Governor-generalAr den
ClarkeandPrimeMi ni
sterNkrumahcommi ssi
onedacommi t
teeledbyVanLar e,oneof
Ghana's old poli
ti
cians to do pol i
ti
calmappi ng and assi stinr e-demar cati
ng t he
constit
uenci
esi nthecount ry.Onr ecommendat i
onsoft heVanLar eCommi ssion,the
Nkrumahadmi ni
strati
onintroducedanew const i
tutioni n1954,whi chr esult
edi nt he
formationofaLegislati
veAssembl yof104member sf rom 85member s.Alltheseat sin
theassemblywer etobecont estedf orinageneralelectionandmember svoteddi r
ectl
yby
univer
saladul
tsuffrage.Thecabi netwasmadeanswer abletotheAssembl y.

14.The def eatofr egi


onal i
sm,sect ar
ianism and et hnic nationali
sm was a si gnifi
cant
achievementf orNkr umahandt heCPPgover nment .Bet ween1954and1956,aboutseven
otherpol i
ti
calpartiesteamedupt oopposet heCPPgover nment.Theyi ncl
udedt heUGCC,
theNor thernPeopl esPar ty(NPP)ledbychi ef
sJ. A.Br aimahandYakubuTal i;t
heGhana
Congr essPar ty(GCP)l edthenbyKof iA.Busi a,theMusl i
m Associ at
ionPar ty(MAP) ,and
theTogoCongr ess.(TOt hatwaspr omot i
ngt hesecessi onofBr it
ishTogol and.Af terthe
1954el ectionwonbyt heCPP,t heNat i
onall i
berati
onmovement( NLM)wasest ablished
byt heAsant eledbyKof iA,Busi
at oopposeNkr umah' sadmi nist
rati
onandwassuppor ted
byt heNPPandt heTC.Nkr umahhowever ,reconcil
edwi ththeNLM t hatwasadvocat i
ng
fort hefederalsystem ofgover nanceagai nstNkr umah' sunitarysystem.TheNLM wasa
threatt of ullindependence ofGhana and i tsparti
cipat i
on int he actualmot ion for
i
ndependencei near l
y1957meantagr eatscoret oNkr umahandt heCPPgover nment .

15.Dr .Kwame Nkr umah and t he Convention People'sPar tyl ed t he Gold Coastt of ul
l
i
ndependenceNkr umahi nfl
uencedthenewconst i
tuti
onof1954t hatgavet hecount ryful
l
i
nt ernalsel
f-governmentwi thanall-
Afri
cancabi netanswer abl
et ot heparli
amenti nstead
oft he Br i
ti
sh col oni
alGover nor.In 1956,he t abled anot hermot i
on in parli
ament
advocat i
ngfort otalindependenceofthecol ony.Thisinf
luencedt heBr i
ti
shtoor ganisethe
finalgeneralelectioninJul ythesameyear ,wit
hNkr umah' sCPPwi nning71-72oft he104
par l
i
ament ary seat s. Hence t he Bri
ti
sh Royal gover nment accept ed t he Ghana
IndependenceActonFebr uary7,1957Consequent l
y,Nkr umahandt heCPPr ecei
vedt he
i
nst rumentsofi ndependence( power)from theBr it
ishcol onialgover nmentonMar ch6,
1957.Nkr umahr enamedt henewnat i
on'Ghanameani ng'ani nspirati
onforthef ut
ure.'

16.Nkrumah' sadmi nist


rat i
ont ur
nedAccr aintoaPanAf ricanci ty,whichl at
ert urnedi nt
oa
PanAf ri
canbaseandputGhanaatt hecent reofAfricanpol itics.In1958,Dr .Nkr umah
organisedt heAll-
AfricanPeopl es'Congr ess( AAPC)thatat t
ractedAf r
icandel egatesf r
om
bothi ndependentandcol onialAf r
ica.Overt wohundr eddel egatesr epresentingabout
sixt
y-t
wonat ional
istgr oupf r
om t went y-
eightterri
tor
iesst il
lundercol onialruleat tended
theAAPC.Theconf erenceemphasi sedt heidealsofuni t
yandi ndependence.Fr om the
conference,t he delegat es from st ate;st i
llundercol onialdomi nation gained much
i
nspirationandencour agement ,andt hereforeretur
nedhomedet ermi nedt of reet hei
r
countries.ThisAAPCwast hef i
rstofitski ndont heAfricansoi l,hence,Nkr umahandt he
CPPgover nmentintroducedPanAf ri
canism t otheAfri
cancont ent.
17.Consequently,thespiri
tofPanAf r
icanism infl
uencedNkrumaht oreconcil
eMonr oviaand
Casablancagr oupi
ngsandt hi
sledtot heeventualformati
onoftheOr gani
sati
onofAf rican
uni
ty(OAU)i n1963.I nf ul
fi
ll
inghisper sonaldesir
eofensuringtotalremovaloff oreign
i
nfl
uencef rom theAf r
icanconti
nentandt obringaboutpeaceanduni tyonthecont i
nent,
Nkrumahpl ayedl eadi
ngr ol
ei npreparinggroundf orthefor
mat i
onoft heOAU.Hence,
Ghanabecameoneoft hePioneer
soft heOAU,whi chaimedatcompl et
edecolonisation
ofAfr
icaandconsol i
dati
onc:conti
nent alpeace.

18.Thef orei
gnpol i
cyofNkr umahl edGhanat ochampi oni ndependenceinmostofcol onial
Afri
ca.Ther esultwast hedeGaul l
er efer
endum of1958i nwhichSekouAhmedTour e,on
encouragementf rom Nkr umahmobi li
sedGui neanst ovoteagainsttheFrenchf ederati
on,
i
nf avourofindependence.El sewher e,Nkrumahcondemnedapar thei
dinSout hAf r
icaand
extendedfinancialandmor alassistance,toAf r
icanslikeAhmedBenBel l
aofAl geria,who
weref i
ghti
ngf ortheirindependence.Ont heindependence ofGhana,hedecl ared,“Ghana
i
ndependencei smeani nglessunl essi tisl i
nked up wi ththet otall
iberati
onoft he
continentofAf rica.”Itisupont hisbackgr oundt hatNkr umaht ooktheiniti
ativeint he
causeofAf ri
canl iberat
ionanduni ty.

19.Duri
ng t he i
ndependence agi tations and t he earl
ydays ofhi sl eadershi
p,Nkr umah
condemnedandf oughtneo- coloni al
ism.Hevi ewedneocol oni
ali
sm ast hewor stst
ageof
i
mper i
alism.He bl ocked ties wi tht he Br i
ti
sh gover nmentand cal l
ed upon Af r
ican
i
ndependentgover nment stodi sassoci atewi t
ht hei
rf or mercolonialmast ers.Nkrumah
advocatedfortheuni onoft heent i
reAf ri
cancont i
nentast hebestmeanofmai ntai
ning
the Afri
can strength againstneo- coloniahsm.He bl amed the west ern powersf or
encouragingbal
kani sat
ion(divisionism)ofAf ri
caintosmal l
erstatest hatcannotstandon
thei
rownbutr ather,conti
nuer elyingonf ormercolonialmast er
s.

20.Consequently,Nkr
umahj oi
nedNasseri ntheagi
tati
onforpositiveneutr
ali
ty(
non-ali
gned
poli
cybyAf ri
canstates.Hewasoneoft hei
nfluent
ialfi
guresatt he1955Bandung
conferencewhoagr eedont heestabli
shmentoft heNon- Al
ignedMovement .Nkrumah
maintaineddipl
omaticti
e-wit
hbotht heUSAandt heSovietUnionbuthisMarxistoutl
ook
madehi m bendmor etowar
dssoci
alistworld.

TheshortcomingsofKwameNkr umah
1.Dr .Nkrumahandt heCPP-governmentlastedupt o1966.Inspi teoft heirachievements,
Nkrumahandhi sgovernmentfail
edtopursueconsi st
entpoli
ciesandt hus,itwer emuchof
hi
sweaknessest hatledtot heFebruar
y24,1966coupor ganisedbyCol onelEmmanuel
Kwasikotoka,ColonelA.Ocran,MajorA.A.Af r
if
aandpol iceCommi ssi onerJ.W.Harley.
Withthesupportoft heUS-CIA.,theFebruarycoupl edbyt heoverthr ow ofDr .Kwame
Nkrumah.Thecoupoccur r
edatat imewhent hepresi
dentwasawayt oHanoi ,Viet
nam on
anint
ernati
onalpeacemission.

2.Thechangeincharacterandpersonali
tyofKwameNkr umahwasamaj ordi sappoi
ntment
tothepeopl
eofGhana.Upt o1960,Nkrumahwassel fl
ess,humbleandt olerant.However
,
hebecameasel f
ish,int
oler
antandindiff
erentl
eader,veryinsensi
tivetot hewi shesofthe
peopl
e.Hisbootblockersfl
att
eredhim withti
tl
eslikeOsagyefo( r
edeemer ),showboyand
FounderoftheNation.Nkrumahper soni
fi
edaut hori
tyandf el
tablet oappl ysociali
sm by
for
ceagainstanyoppositi
on.Ghananationalfor
cesmuchlikethecivi
li
answereshocked
andalar
medatt hedramat i
cchangeinchar acteroftheOsagyef
of rom asel
fl
essand
humbleleaderst o a corr
upt,int
oler
ant,proud and powerhungr y Pr
esi
dentwhose
gover
nmentwasl essconcernedwit
hnat i
onali
nterest
s.

3.Nkrumahbecameaut ocrati
candaut hori
tarianmucht ot hesur pri
seofhi sGhanai an
subjects. Hegr aduall
ydest royedt hef orcesofdemocr acyafteri ndependence.I nJul y
1960,hei ssuedar epubl
icanconst i
t uti
on,adopt edt he. tit
leofExecut i
vePr esident,and
thereaft
er,assumedsweepi ngpower s( absolutism).Nkr umahr uledGhanabydecr ee,and
appointedanddismi ssedcivilservant swi t
houthi ndrance.Thi sl
ef tmanyGhanai ansi nthe
civi
lser vi
ceont heirtoes.Ther epubl i
cationconst it
utionofJul y1960gavePr esident
Nkrumahmor edictatori
alpower st hatledhi mt odest royt hedemocr acyhecr avedf orand
hadhel pedtocreate.In1965,onEl ect i
onDayf orMember sofPar liament(MPs) ,Nkr umah
announced MPs he had sel ected wi ththeirr espective constituencies t
heywer et o
represent,someofwhom wer esur prisedanddi dnotevenknow t helocati
onoft hei
r
constit
uencies.

4.Nkr umahusedt hepower soft hepr esi


dencytointer
ferewi ththeJudi ciary.I
n1962,he
survivedf r
om anassassi nat
ionat t
empt ,whichledtot hewr ongfultri
alofAdamayo,a
politi
calopponentasasuspect . Evenaf t
erthecour tacqui tt
edAdamayof orlackof
evidence,PresidentNkrumahhowever ,order
edforthedi smissaloft heChiefJust
iceand
otherj udgeswhower einchar geofAdamayo’ scase.Thi scostNkr umahpopul ar
ityin
Ghana and t he western wor l
d.In Januar y 1964,Nkr umah or gani
sed a plebisci
te
(r
ef erendum)wher etheGhanai answer etodecideont heirmot i
onbecomi ngaonepar ty
stateandt omandat ethepresidenttodismissHighCour tJudgesdhi swish.

5.Nkrumahr ulewast yr annicalandoppr essi veespeci all


yt owardst heFebr uarycoup.He
governedGhanal ikeanabsol ut emonar ch.Heest abl i
shedacoer ci
vespynet workand
passedt hePowerActandpr event ivedet ent ionsactinJanuar yandJul y1958r especti
vely,
which wer e used t o har ass pol i
ti
calopponent s.The Emer gency PowerActgave
unquest i
onablepower st o Nkr umahadmi nistr
ati
ont o dealwi t
hpol i
ticalunr estsand
dist
urbanceswhi l
et hepr event i
veDet ent ionActempower edt hegovernmentt odet ai
n
suspectsofdet ri
ment alact i
vit
ies,wi thoutt r
ialuptoaper iodoff i
veyears.Bet ween1960
and1966,overonet housandt hreehundr ed( 1300)peopl ewer eunreal
isticall
yar r
ested
anddet ained.Theyincl udedDr .J. B.Danquah,Obet sebiLampt ey,Adamayo,AkoAdj eiand
Kofi
.Dr .DanquahandObet sebidiedi ndet erntion(Danquahdi edi nFebruary1965) .Others
l
ike Gbedemah wer ef or
ced i nto exi le.The coer cive poli
ti
calmeasur es er oded the
popularit
yofNkr umahandhi sgover nment .

6.Due tof earofpopul arcrit


ici
sm,Nkr umah and t he CPP gover nmentr esorted to
suppression ofl iber
ty.The gover nmentcur t
ail
ed press fr
eedom,banned opposi ti
on
poli
ti
calpar t
ies,oppositionnewspapersli
ket heDail
yGr aphi
cwer ecensored,l
eavi
ngonl y
the Accra Eveni ng News,and t he Ghanaian Times wer el eftin operati
on.The
uncompr omisinggover nmentoft heCPPsuppr essedther i
ghtsandfreedomsofmasses,
which they cr aved fordur i
ng independence agit
ati
onNkrumah silenced the poli
ti
cal
opponentsofhi sgover nment.TheCPP gover nmentsuppr essed and dominated the
Kumasicouncil
.In 1957,the governmentpassedtheAvoidanceofDi
scri
minat
ionAct.
Despit
eal lofthesemeasures,Nkr
umahwasunabl etowi noverthesupportofthe
tr
adit
ionall
eadersandhost
il
etri
besli
ketheAsante.Theresultwasincr
easedopposi
ti
on
i
nGhana.

7.Thesoci al
istpol ici
esadopt edbyt heNkr umahgover nmentfai
ledt oimpr ess.Inhi s
economy pur sui t
,Nkr umah fail
ed to sustai
n developmentf r
om I 960.'he enf orced
nati
onalisationandst atecontr
oloft heeconomy,wi themphasisoni ndustrial
isati
on.A
social
istinstit
ut ewasst ar
tedasWi nebain1960t oprovidesoci
ali
steducat i
ont ot heCPP
l
eader sandci vilservants.In1961Nkr umahvi si
tedthecommuni strepubl i
csofEast ern
EuropeandChi na.Lat er,heenteredintoarmsdealswi ththeeaster
nbl oc,par tofwhi ch
wast hebui ldi
ngoft heGhanaiansecur it
ysystem byt heRussi
ans.Ther adicalsociali
st
poli
ciesofNkr umahscar edof fther i
chGhanaianandal i
enat
edt hewest er ncapi t
ali
st
worldwi t
ht heirfinancialsupport
.

8.Someoft heeconomi cmeasuresinmining,touri


ng,banking,i
nsur
ance,t r
adeandf ar ming
successf ulbutlateraffect
edbyNkrumah' sambi ti
ons.TheVoltaRiverPr oject,whicht ea
functionalinJanuar y1966,wasoneoftheambi t
iousproj
ectsundertakenbyt heNkr umah
admi nistr
ati
on.Hi seconomi cdevel
opment swer eaffectedbysoci ali
sm.Mostoft he
i
ndust rieswerer obbedofgoodmanager sast hesupportersofcapital
ism l osttheirjobs
throught hesoci ali
stmanagerswhor eplacedt hem wereof t
enincompet ent.Ther esul
t
waseconomi cmi smanagementandi ndustri
aldecay.By1965,onl ytwost ate-owned
factoriesoutofsevenwer emaki
ngprofi
ts.

9.Nkrumahandhi sCPPgover nmentl edt hecount ryint


obankr uptcyandot hereconomi c
probl
ems.By1965,t heCPPgover nmenthadbecomef i
nancial
l
yi nsolvent(bankrupt
).The
governmentoffi
cial
swer everyext
ravagantandengagedi nexcessi veandl avishspending
attheti
meofeconomi cgr i
evancesmostoft hem werecor r
uptandembezzl edvastsums
ofmoneyt hroughmani pul
ati
onoft hei
rmi nist
eri
aloffi
ces.Nkrumahkeptahugecabi net
ofthir
tytwomi nist
erswithverymanyf oreignmi ssi
ons.Cabinetmi nister
sandt oppar t
y
offi
ci
alsledtoexpensiveli
femucht otheenvyoft hecommonper son.Allthesepol i
ti
cal
anomalies worsened the fi
nancialcrisis and made t he downf alloft he Nkrumah
governmentinevi
tabl
e.

10.From 1964t ot hetimeoft hecoupi nFebr uar


y1966,essent i
algoodsl i
kesugar,drugs,mil
k,
ri
ce,cement ,par aff
in,safetymat chesandi ndustr
ialraw mat eri
alswer eshortinsupply.
The pr i
ce f ort hese commodi ti
es wer ei nf
lat
ed and ver y unst able.The Nkr umah
admini strationexer cisecont r
olsoverimpor t
ati
oninor dertopr otectt hecountry'
sforei
gn
reserve,butt hisresultedintoshor t
agesofi mportedi ndustri
alraw mat er
ial
sandbasi c
goodst hatcoul dnotbepr oducedlocall
y.Inurbancent res,empl oymentcausedsever al
hardshi ps.Thef all
ing priceofcocoaon t hewor ld mar ketpr omot ed povert
yi nthe
count r
ysi de.I twasunwi setoconstructtheNkrumahaatTower ,ast hemasseswer epoor
andst ar ving.Theaf orement i
onedproblemswi pedawayt heearli
ereconomi cgainsofthe
CPPgover nment .
11.Theexcessiveambi t
ionofNkr umahcosthi sgover nment .Nkr umaht ri
edt odot oomuch
tobringabout economi c and soci al change wi t
hin t he shor test time possi bl e.
His dr eam i si ndustri
ali
sati
ondr ovet hecount ryintooverambi ti
ousvent ures.The
Nkrumahadmi nist r
ati
onwasat ragedyofexcessashet riedt obet oor evoluti
onar ywi th
hisconceptofor ganisingthest ateanddel inkitf rom thei nfl
uenceoft heBr i
ti
sh:I nhi s
att
emptt omoder niseGhana,t heNkr umahi nit
iatedexpensi vepr oj
ectsli
ket heVol taRi ver
Proj
ectandt heAccr a-Temahi ghwayi nor dertof inancet hesepr oj
ects,Nkrumahr esor ted
toforei
gnbor r
owi ng.Thet roublewast hatheoverbor rowed' .By1964,Ghana' sdebthad
j
umpedt osevenhundr edsevent ymi lli
ondol l
ars( $770m)f r
om fivehundr edtwent y-
five
mill
iondoll
ars( $525m)i n1957.Evenwi tht hef alli
nt hepr iceofcocoa,t hepr inciple
sourceofGhana' sforeignexchange,t heNkr umahAdmi nistrati
onmadet oef fortorr evise
thegovernmenteconomi cpr oj
ectsandi ndust r
ialpr ogramme.

12.TheCPPr egi mewascor ruptandi mmor ali


nconduct.Thegover nmentof fi
cial
sr ecei ved
bri
besopenl y,stolepublicf unds,boughtexpensi
vecar sandbui l
tfabulousmansi ons.
Nkrumahhimsel fownedsever almist
ressesandgir
lfr
iendsonwhi chhespentl avishly.On
casesofcorruption,t
hecommi ssi
onsofenquir
yint
ot heNkrutnahpr oj
ectsafterthef allof
hisgover
nmentcl ear
lyindicatedthatmuchoft hemoni esspentondevel opmentpr ojects
andt heservicest othemasses wer ealwaysinf
latedthrought hemal practi
cesoft he
thoseoffi
cialscont r
oll
ingt heawar dofcont ract
sandpr ocur
ement .Thegover nment
offi
ci
alkeptmoneyi nforeignbanks.Thus,Nkr umahandhi sCPPl ostthemor alvoi cet o
rul
ethecount ry.

13.In1964,Nkr umahdi rectl


yinterferedwi ththepol i
cedepar t
ment .Aft
erheescapedanot her
assassi
nationat temptwhenhi spr esidentialpolice-guardcalledAmet ewe,ondutyathi s
resi
dencei nAccr afir
edatNkr umahbutmi ssedhi mf oroneofhi sbodyguards.The
Presi
dentgotdet erminedtol ett hepol i
ceatl argepayheavi l
yf ortheaborti
vecrime.On
ordersofPr esidentNkr umah,manyoft heseni orpol i
ceof f
icerswerepur gedandmany
othersdetained.Thepol i
cecommi ssionerJ-W. K.Har leyandhi simmedi atedeputyA.K.
w
Dekuwer ear restedanddet ained hi leallther egionalpoliceheadswer edismissedfrom
offi
ce.Consequent ly,thepresidentl osttheloyaltyoft hepol i
ceof f
icerswhol at
erjoi
ned
thei
rcounterpartsinar mytost ageupacoup

14.Thegover nmentofNkr umahaggr i


evedt henat i
onalar myandf ail
edt oat t
endt othe
gri
evancesoft hear myof fi
cers.Theseni orof f
icersf eltinsecurewi tht heest abli
shmentof
the Presi dent
's own guar d br i
gade ( uni
t)whi ch was st eadi
lyexpandi ng and bet ter
equippedt hant henat ionaldefencef orce.TheGhanai anar myi ncont rastl ackedbasi c
uti
li
ti
esl i
keboot s,uni
for ms,weaponsandvehi cl
es.Byt hetimeoft heFebr uar ycoup,onl y
40%oft hear myvehi cleswer er oad-wor t
hy.Themor eannoyi ngpar twast hegover nment
movet hr ought heDef enceMi nistr
yt opolitici
set hear mybyopeni ngaCPPbr anchi nthe
mili
taryacademyobl i
gingcadet stoappl yt oj oi
ni t.Twopr ovokingsi tuationsi nt hear my
camei n1965,whi chconvi ncedt hear myt opl otacoupagai nstNkr umahadmi nistrat
ion:
thefir
stwasi nAugustwhenNkr umahdecr eedthef orcedr eti
rementoft hepr ofessionally
compet entar myChi efofSt affMaj or-
Gener alOtu,andhi sDeput yLt .-
Gener alAnkr ah,and
repl
acedt hem wi tha'soci ali
stpoliti
calofficer'Char lesBar wah,l aterpr omot edt oMaj or-
General.Thesecondsi tuati
onwasi nNovember ,'theat tempteddeci sionbyNkr umaht o
sendhisar mytoRhodesi atofighttheset t
ler(theUDI -government )ledbyI anSmi th.

THE1966–MILI
TARYCOUPANDNKURUMAHDOWNFALL
Nkur
umahfai
l
edtouphol
dthesuppor
toft
henat
ionalf
orces;i
nst
eadheant
agoni
sedhi
stop
commandbyensuringfor
cedthereti
rementofthearmyChiefofStaffMaj
or-
GeneralOt
uand
hi
sdeputyLt.GeneralAnkr
ahwi t
houtsoundingreasons.Gri
ppedwi t
hfear,theremai
ning
armyof
fi
cersmovedagainstNkrumahadmi ni
str
ati
ontosafeguardthei
rposi
tionsbyst
aging
acouponFebruar
y24,1966.

Inthef i
nalanal
ysi
s,therei
gnofNkrumahcl osedonasadnot e.Helostt
hesupportofall
classesinGhana,makinghi
sdownfalli
nevi
table.Si
ncet
her
ewasnopossi bi
li
tyofremoving
himf rom powerthroughconst
it
uti
onalmeans,t hecoupbecamet hebestalt
ernat
ive.In
February1966,

Themai nf iguresbehindt hecoupi ncl


udedColonialEmmanuelKwasiKot oka,Col
onelA.
Ocran,Maj orAkwasiA.Af ri
faand poli
ceCommi ssionerJ.W.Har l
ey.Thecoup plott
ers
weredeterminedt ooverthrow Nkrumahandwer er eadyt oengagei naci vi
lwarincase
Nkrumahar oyalarmy( president
ialunit
)staged acount eroff
ensi
ve.Thecausesoft he
downfal
lofNkr urumahwer emainlytheweaknessesoft heCPPadmi ni
str
ati
on,andafew
ext
ernalfactors.Henr
iNkr umahwaspr imari
l
yresponsibleforhisdownfall
.

Guidi
ngquestionsont hedownfal
lofNkrumah
a)Accountf orthe1966coupde' t
ati
nGhana
b)Discussthecausesandef f
ectsofthedownfallofNkrumah
c)Examinethefactorsfort
heoverthr
owoft heCPPgover nment
d)How f arwer ethe economi cf act
orsresponsibl
ef ort he coll
apse ofNkr
umah’
s
gover
nmenti n1966?
d)"KwameNkr umahwaspr i
maril
yresponsi
bleforhisdownfal
l.
"Discuss

SummaryofcausesofNkuramahdownf al
l
1.Corr
upti
onandimmor al
i
typract
icedbythegover
nmentofNkr
umah

2.Gr
ievancesi
nthear
my,whi
chcauseddi
ssat
isf
act
ionamongt
hemi
l
itar
ygener
als

3.Att
emptbyNkrumahtosendhi
smi
l
itar
yfor
cest
oSout
her
nRhodesi
atof
ightagai
nstt
he
UDIgover
nmentofI
anSmit
h.

4.Nkrumah'si
nter
venti
onint
hepol i
ceandjudi
ci
alsyst
em especi
all
yaf
terAdamayowas
acqui
tt
edofanattempt
edassassi
nat
ionofNkr
umah

5.Nkrumah's aut
horit
ari
ani
sm and di
ctat
orshi
p exhi
bit
ed when he abol
i
shed t
he
const
it
uti
on,whichhadputt
hecabi
netunderpar
li
amentar
ycont
rol

6.Thechangeinchar
acterofNkrumahf
rom Osagyef
oandt
oler
antl
eadert
oasel
fint
oler
ant
cor
ruptandpower
-hungryl
eader

7.Theunr
eal
i
sti
csoci
ali
stpol
i
ciesofNkr
umah

8.Theexcessiveambit
ionsofNkr
umah,whi
chl
edt
otheexcessi
veext
ernalbor
rowi
ngt
hat
causedf
inanci
albankrupt
cy

9.Theext
ravaganceandl
avi
shspendi
ngbyNkr
umahandhi
sgover
nmentof
fi
cial
s

10.Suppr
essi
onofdemocr
acybyNkr
umahadmi
nist
rat
ion(
per
secut
ionofpol
i
ticalopponent
s)

11.Soci
o-economi
cpr
obl
emsl
i
keunempl
oymentandscar
cit
yofessent
ialcommodi
ti
es

12.Nkr
umah'
sgover
nmentpr
act
icedt
ri
bal
i
sm

13.Lackofconst
it
uti
onalavenuest
oover
thr
owandt
heCPPgover
nment
14.Thedrast
icf
alli
nthepr
iceofcocoaont
hewor
ldmar
ket
,whi
chi
ncr
easedeconomi
c
pr
obl
em i
nGhana

15.Ambi
ti
onf
orpowerbyt
hecouppl
ott
ersf
orexampl
eCol
.kot
okaandHar
ll
ey

16.I
nfl
uenceofpri
orcoupsi
nAf
ri
cal
i
ket
he1965coupsi
nAl
ger
iaandCongoandt
he1966
coupsinNiger
ia

Pl
easenote:
I
twerel
argel
yNkr
umah'
sweaknessest
hatcausedt
he1966coupt
hatcausedhi
sdownf
all

Effectsoft hedownf allofNkr umahandt heCPPgover nment


The Febr uary 1966 coup l ed t ot he overt
hrow ofaut ocrat
ic Nkrumah and t he CPP
admi nistr
ation.Nkr umahf ledt oexilesoughtrefugeinGui neaConakr ywher etheGui nean
l
eaderSekouTour emadehi m co-presi
dentandset t
ledhimi ntoanol dFr enchcolonialstyl
e
residence.TheGui neanl eaderallowedhimt obroadcastmessagesofr esistancetotheGhana
againstt hemi li
tarygover nmentonr adi
oGui nea'
s’Voiceoft heRevolution.’
’Nkrumahdi edin
frustr
at i
onaf tersuccumbi ngt ocanceroft heskinonApr il27,1972i nBuchar est,Rumani a.
Hewasbur iedi nGui neabef or
et heAcheampongadmi nistr
ati
onr eturnedhi sremainst o
Ghanaf orast at
ebur ialinJuly1972.

Aftertheover t
hrowofKwameNkr umah'sgovernment,t
hecoupl eaderssetupamili
taryj
unta
i
nt henameoft he'Nat
ionalLi
berati
onCouncil'(
NLC)andi nvit
edt hereti
reddeput
yheadofat
armedf or cesLt.-
GeneralArt
hurJ.Ankraht oheadt heCouncilwi ththepoli
cecommi ssi
oner
J.
W. K.Bar l
eyasDeput yCounci lChai
rman.TheNLCcompr i
sedf ourseniorarmyandf our
policeof f
icerswhol edt hegovernmentuntilOctober1969.Someoft heCouncilmember s
wer eCol onelA.A.Af r
if
a,ColonelA.Ocr an,ColonelE.K.Kotoka,andA.Yakubu.TheNLC
however ,appointedmainlyci
vil
i
anst oheadthediff
erentminist
ries.

Referencequest i
ons
a)Exami netheef f
ect soft he1966coupi nGhana
b)Assesst heachi evement soft hemili
tar
ygover nmentinGhanabet ween1966and1969
c)Towhatext entdidt heNat i
onalLiberat
ionCounci lful
fi
lltheaspirati
onsofGhanai ansupto
1969?
Positi
veeffects(strengt hoftheNLCadmi nistrati
on)
1.Thepeopl eofGhanawel comedt heover t
hrowofDr .KwameNkr umahwi thjubil
ati
on.They
sawi tasar estorationoft hei
rfr
eedom andconst i
tuti
onalright
s.Hisstatueinfrontofthe
oldPar l
iamentar yHousei nAccra,whi chpr ocl
aimed" KWAMENKRUMAH FOUNDEROF
THENATON"waspul leddownasyounggr oupsthathadbr oughtupsloganslike'Nkr
umah
isthenewMessi ah'mar chedthrought hest r
eetsofAccr acarryi
ngplacardsandbanner s
proclai
mi ng'Nkrumahi sNOTourMessi ah.'

2.Consequently,theNLC gover nmentimmediatelyreleasedmember soft hepubli


cand
opposit
ionpolit
ici
answhohadbeenkepti ncustody(det ention)underthe1958Prevent
ive
Detenti
onActi nit
iatedbyt hegovernmentofNkr umah.However ,somel i
keDanquahand
Obetsebihaddi edinpr isonbeforethecoup.Manyper sonswhohadf l
edtoexil
eduet o
poli
ti
calpersecuti
onorf earofcoerci
onfr
om theNkr umahadmi nist
rati
onwer ewel
comed
homebyt heNLCadmi nist
rat
ion.Amongthosewhor etur nedwasKof iAbref
aBusiawho
becamePr i
meMi nisterin1969whent hemil
it
aryjuntaret urnedGhanat ocivil
i
anrul
e.

3.Consequentl
y,hundr
edsoftheCPPgover
nmentandpar t
yof fi
cialswentindetentionas
Nkrumah'sdetai
neescameout.Mostofthecabinetminist
ersoft heCPPgover nment
werearr
estedanddetai
nedonthemor
ningofFebr
uary24,1966.I nthedaysthatfol
lowed
thecoup,manyoft heCPPMembersofParli
ament,RegionalCommi ssi
onersandpar t
y
off
ici
alswereroundedupandi mpr i
soned.I
nanat t
empttocheckoncor r
uptionand
bri
bery,t
henew det
aineeswerelat
ertri
edandconvi
ctedoncasesofcor
rupt
ion,bri
bery
andabuseofpubl i
cof fi
ce.However,major
it
yoftheCPP suppor
ter
swer egivenf ai
r
tr
eatmentli
keK.
A.Gbedemah.

4.The NLC gover nmentundert ook immedi at


e measures to eff
ectpol i
ti
calchanges
(ref
orms) .Thenewmi l
i
tarygovernmenthel pedtopreparetheconsti
tuti
onforthe'
second
Republi
cofGhana. 'Thejunt
aest abl
ishedaConst it
uti
onalCommi ssionin1967aspartof
the pr
epar ati
on process tor et
urnt o civil
i
an rul
e.In December1968,a Const it
uent
Assembl ywasswor nint odiscussanddr aw upaconst it
uti
on,whichwaspr omul
gated
(decl
ared)i n August1969.Among ot herchanges broughtby t he new Republi
can
consti
tutionwast her educt
ioni nthenumberofadmi nistr
ati
vedistr
ict
stot heori
ginal
numberi nheri
tedatindependence.

5.InMay1969,t heNat ionalLiberati


onCounci l
,nowunderBr i
gadierAkwaseA.Af ri
fali
fteda
banonpol i
ti
calpar ti
es.Thisf oll
owedt heestabli
shmentofanEl ectoralCommi ssi
oni nan
att
emptt orest or
edemocr acyi nGhana.Consequent l
y,KofiA.Busi aaf ormerexi l
eand
l
ongtimecr i
ti
coft heNkr umahadmi nistr
ati
onf or
medt hePr ogressiveParty( PP)thatlater
wast owi nthe1969gener alelection.Otherpar t
iesformedaf tertheCPPbanonpol iti
cal
part
ieswasl if
tedi ncludedt heNat i
onalAlli
anceofLi beral
s( NAL)est ablishedbyal ong
ti
me l eading memberofNkr umah' s CPP and gover nment ,K. A.Gbedemah and t he
People'sPopul arPar t
y( PPP) ,whichwasbannedbyt heNLCal mosti mmedi at
elyafterits
for
mat ion.ThePPPhadbeenf or
medwi t
hthesol eaim ofrevivingNkr umah' sideal
sand
works.

6.Inanat t
emptt ocutdowngover nmentexpenditure,theNLCgover nmenti niti
atedpracti
cal
steps.Firstwasar eductionint hesi zeofgover nmentmi nistr
iesf rom t hi
rt
y-t
wo t o
seventeen( 32-
17).Mostoft heministeri
alpostswer egiventomai nlyci vi
l
ians.Forei
gn
mi ssi
onswer eequall
yreducedbyf ortypercent(40%) .Consequentl
y,thej untacall
edback
ordi smissed dipl
omat s sentt o vari
ous count r
ies byt he governmentofNkr umah,
replaci
ngsomeoft hem wi thgoodwi l
ldi
plomatswhower ehighlypower edci vi
li
ans.The
l
ocalgover nmentwasr eformedwi t
har educti
onint henumberofadmi nistrat
ivedistr
ict
s.

7.Tradit
ionalchi efswhohadbeendi smissedbyt heNkr umahadmi nistr
ati
onwerer estored
and re¬instated.The t radit
ionalleader s wer e dethroned (removed from offi
ce)as
punishmentf orengagi ngi nopenpolit
icalact i
vi
tiesagai nsttheCPPgovernment.Nkr umah
hadr eplacedt hem wi tht hosewho pl edgedt hei
rloyaltyto hisgovernment.Ther e-
i
nstall
ationofGhanai anchi efswasacl earindicat i
onthatt heFebruar
y1966coupwasnot
aresultofinter est
soft hear myandpol i
cebutf oreverygr oupofpeopleinthecountrythat
wasdi ssati
sfiedwi ththeNkr umahadmi nist
rati
on.

8.TheNat ionalLi
berat
ionCounci l(NLC)r est
oredcompl et
ef reedom ofspeechandpr ess.
Freedom ofpr esshadbeeni ncreasi
nglyrestr
ict
edbyt headmi nist
rati
onofNkr umah
becausesomepr essjournali
stswer eengagedi nopencriti
cism againstthegover
nment
poli
ciesand act sofr epression than constr
ucti
velycomment i
ng on the gover
nment
project
s.Theabuseoff reedom ofspeechhadl edt of l
eeingofmanyofopposi ti
on
poli
tici
ansincl
udingKofiA.Busi a,whohadl ongser vedast hechiefspokesper
sonofthe
oppositi
on.TheNLC setupt heCent reforCi vi
cEducat i
onheadedbyK. A.Busiato
sensiti
seGhanaiansaboutt hei
rcivicri
ghtsandduties.

9.GeneralAnkrah negot
iated formassi ve fi
nancialassi
stance f
rom t he Int er
nati
onal
MonetaryFund( I
MF)andsetupaneconomi ccommi tt
eet oreceiveandpl anf orthe
fi
nancialgr
ant.The commi ttee was also tasked tofi
nd a betterformul af ordebt
repaymentt
ot heGhanaiancredi
tors.Consequently,t
heNLCgovernmentr eceivedagr ant
from theIMFandt heWor l
dBankofaboutt went
ymil
li
onDoll
ars($20m)topayof fthe
short-
ter
m t rade bi
ll
s( debt
s) accumulated by t
he Nkrumah administ
rat
ion;and
successfull
ynegot i
atedwithcreditor
sofbot htheWesternandEasternblocsabout
rescheduli
ng Ghanaian debtrepaymentf ormedium and l
ong-
term l
oans.The junta
recei
vedmat eri
alai
df r
om countr
iesli
keCanada,WestGer
many,theUSAandt heUK,i n
form ofdrugs,foodandagri
cult
uralgoods.

10.Nkrumah'spr esti
giousSeven-YearDevel
opmentPlanwassuspendedandmanyofhi s
project
st hatwer eunderwayl i
ket heNkrumahTowerandAccr a-Temahighwaywer e
stopped.Thiswasa movebyt hemi l
i
tarygover
nmenttoi mproveon thecountry'
s
economy.Gover nmentexpenditureoncapit
alandmachi
ner
y,expert
sandequipmentwas
tr
emendousl yreduced.Theresourceswer
ehence,di
ver
tedt
obet t
ersoci
alser
vicedel
i
very
especial
lyinthecountrysi
de.

11.Themi l
itarygover nmentwentont oempl oycompet entmanager sint hegovernment
department sandst atecor porati
onsasot herserviceventuresl ikestate-
ownedhot el
s
weregi vent opr i
vatei ndivi
dualst or unt hem.Thel abourf or
cewashencer evi
sedand
redundantl abourwas obvi ousl
yr etrenched.This economi c poli
cy by the Ankrah
administrati
on was ai med atdel i
nki ng stat
e parastatal
sf rom t he i
ncompetentand
i
nexper i
encedsoci ali
stmanager swhoseappoi nt
mentt ooffi
cef oll
owedt hei
rloyal
tyto
PresidentNkr umah.TheNLC- governmentsetupanumberofCommi ssionsofInqui
ryto
i
nvest i
gatest ateor ganisati
onsl i
ket heTi mbaMar ketingBoar dandt heSt at
eHousi ng
Corporation.Allthatthemi l
i
tarygover nmentai medatwasi mpr ovementintheoperat
ions
ofpublicco-operationsandot herstatut or
yboards.

12.Themasseswer ereli
evedofeconomi cpressuresforsomet i
me.Between1966and1969,
theNat i
onalLiberati
onCounci lintr
oducedmeasur esdesi gnedtoreducethecostoflivi
ng.
Intheveryf i
rstbudgetoft henewmi li
tar
yregime,reviewswer emadei nt hecustomsand
excisedutiest arget
ingr educedpr icesonessent i
alcommodi ti
es.Thepr icesofmot or
spiri
ts and inland postage wer e also revi
sed.A pr ogressi
ve taxati
on system was
establi
shedwi thfavourableratesofi ncomet axesdeclared.Thenewf i
scalpoli
cyadopted
bythemi li
tar
ygover nmentgavet axexempt ionst:poorlypaidworkers.

13.Thecocoaf armersbenef i
tedfr
om theimpr ovedpricesofcocoa.TheNat ionalLiberati
on
Counci li
ncr easedthepr oducerpri
ceofcocoabyaboutt wentypercent( 20%) .Thiswas
accompani edbyt wo-yeardevelopmentpl an,whichi nt
roducedr efor
msi nAgr icult
ure,
fi
sheries and wat ersuppl y.The developmentpl an pai
d speci alattenti
on t or ural
developmentespeci al
lyin ext
ending safewat erint hecount r
yside.Thegover nment
l
aunched t he' Operati
onFeed Your sel
f,
'whi chled to,ar emar
kabl eincreasei nf ood
product i
on.Theseandot herrefor
msupl i
ftedthepeople'sstandar
dsofl i
vingespeci all
yof
thegrassr ootsmasses.

14.Thegover nmentofAnkrahat t
emptedt oreduceont hei nfl
ationar
yr atesint hecountry.In
1967,themi l
it
arygover
nmentdeval uedtheGhanai ancedi(cur r
ency)andi ncreasedwages
andsalariesinthepubl
icservi
cebyf i
vepercent( 5%).Inor dertoensur efurthereconomi c
growthinGhana,basicimportit
emsl ikedrugs,chemicals,andspar epar t
swer eputont he
generall
icense(opentoeverypotenti
alcit
izen).Hence,therewasi ncreaseint hesupplyof
essenti
alcommodi ti
estherebyreducinginflat
ionandsavi ngGhanaf r om totaleconomi c
coll
apse.

Negativeeffect
s(shortcomi
ngsoftheNLCadmi ni
str
ati
on)
1.I nspiteoft heabovegains,t
heperi
odafterNkrumahwitnessedseri
ousunemployment
causedbyeconomi cst
epstakenbytheNLC admi ni
str
ati
ont ore-
appraiseNkrumah'
s
presti
giousSeven-YearDevel
opmentPlan,abandoni
ngmanyofhi sproject
sthatwere
underwayliketheNkr umahTowerandAccr a-
Temahi ghway.Thismeasureappeared
necessarybutl
edt othesackingofr
edundantworkersontheseproj
ect
s.Unemployment
gotwor se wit
ht he ret
renchmentoflabouri n gover
nmentdepartment
st o cuton
governmentexpendi
ture.

2.Themi l
i
taryr egi
mei ncr
easedthedef encebudgethence,ant
agonisedtheeconomi clif
eof
thecountr
y.Ast heAnkr ahadmini
strat i
oncutexpendi
tur
einmanysect ors,t
hispolicywas
off
setbyi ncreaseddefenceexpendit ure.Mostofthegovernmentdepar t
ment sreceived
l
essfundingt hatcouldnotenabl
ethem commi ttoful
fi
ll
i
ngtheirdepar
tment alobl
i
gat i
ons.
Thearmyal locati
onswentupbyt went y-t
wopercent(22%)andt hehugedef encebudget
wasast r
ategybyt heNat i
onalLi
berationCouncilt
oconsoli
dateit
spowerbase.

3.TheNat i
onalLiberat
ionCounci lchai
redbyAr thurAnkrahdevaluedtheGhanai ancedi
(curr
ency),whichl edtoi ncreasedpricesofimpor t
edi t
emsandshor tageofsupplyof
basiccommodi t
ies.Thei ncreaseinpr i
ceofi mport
edi temsdidnotonl ybri
ngabout
deteri
orati
on i
nt he balance ofpaymentf orthe country,butalso affect
ed peopl
e'
s
consumpt i
onofessent ialgoodsf r
om outsidet
hecountry.

4.Thehugeext ernaldebt sleftbyNkr umahandt heCPPadmi nistrationwer enotrepudiat


ed
muchasst epshadbeenunder takenbyt heNLCt osettl
et hem.At temptsbyAnkr ah'
s
admi ni
strat
iont oat t
ractf orei
gnai dbyacqui ri
ngmor ecredi ts( l
oans)f rom theIMFand
WorldBankt opr omot eeconomi cgr owthonlywor senedthecount r
y'
sdebtbur den.The
government '
ssuccessf ulnegotiati
onswi thGhana'scredit
orst or e-schedul
ethepayment
ofmedi aum andl ong-terml oansonl yprolongedthef i
nancialf rustrati
ons.Fail
ureofthe
mili
taryjuntatoset t
leNkr umah' sexternaldebtsbecameami llstone( economicburden)to
theNLCi tself
andt hef uturegovernment s.

5.Economic problems persi


sted inthe country.There was per sist
entinfl
ati
on,whi ch
worsenedtheeconomi cl i
feoft hepeopl eofGhana.Thei nfl
ationaryt
rendsinGhana
rai
sedthepricesofgoodsandser vi
cesandt husincreasedhardshipformostpeopl e.The
governmentattempttocont roli
nfl
ati
onbydeval ui
ngt hecediwasonl ysuccessfulunti
l
hal
f-waythrought heNLCadmi ni
str
ation.Consequentl
y,thefoodpr i
cesremainedhi gh
mucht othedissat
isf
acti
onofGhanai ans.

6.Evenwhent hemili
tar
ycouncili
ncr
easedthepr oducerpri
ceofcocoabyt went
ypercent
(20%),t
hispri
ceremainedlowontheworldmar ket.Thi
swasamaj orcauseofeconomic
hardshi
psinGhanasincecocoawasthechiefsourceoffor
eignexchangeforGhana.

7.Corrupt
ioni nGhanaper sist
edespeci al
lywithi
nt hedi ff
erentgovernmentdepar t
ment s.
Somehi gh-rankedof fi
cersoft heNLC gover nmentwer egui l
tyofcor rupti
onast hey
engaged i nf inancialmi smanagement .Sever aloft hese high-r
anked of f
ici
als were
convict
edandi mprisonedf orbriber
yandcorruption,buttheseevilsper
sistedespecial
lyat
thelowerl evelsofpubl i
cser vice.Inallbutthepol i
cedepar tment,corrupti
onr emained
untouched.TheGhanai answer ein di
sbel
iefas' rumour sofmal pr
actice'among t he
disci
pli
nedmember softhemi l
i
tarygovernmentandt hus,theylookedforwar dtoachange
i
nadmi nistrati
on.

8.Consequentl
y,Ankrah,thechairmanoftheNLCbecameself-
centered.Inpreparat
ionfora
ret
urntoci vi
li
anr ule,GeneralAnkrahwasgui l
tyofsoli
cit
ingforf undsf r
om foreign
companiestoor gani
seapol it
icalpar
tyofhisowninadealofbecomi ngaheadofst ate
and government .I
deall
y,member softheNLCwereonlyobl
igedtopr eparetheGhanaf or
areturntocivil
ianruleandAnkr ah'smanoeuvr
et ofor
m hisownpar t
ycausedl ossof
confi
dence,whichthepeopl ehadi nthemil
i
tar
ygovernment
.Her esignedhisposi t
ionas
chai
rmanoft heNLCi nMarch1969andwasr epl
acedbyBri
gadierAKwaseA.Af ri
faoneof
t
hear
chi
tect
soft
he1966coupd'
etat
.

9.Divi
sionsconti
nuedwi t
hintheNat ionalLiber at
ionCounci l
.Themi sunder standi
ngswi t
hin
thejuntaaff
ecteddecisi
onmaki ngatt het opl evel.Evi
denceoft hedi vi
sionsintheNLC
cameoutwi t
hanabor ti
vecoupi nApr i
l1967,l edbyt woj uni
orofficers.Theat t
empt ed
coupwasst agedatHoi nt heVol taRegi oni nwhi chGener alE.K.Kot okat hemaj or
archi
tectoftheFebruary1966coupd' etatwasshor tdead.Ankrah'
sat t
emptt oform his
ownpol i
ti
calpart
ywaspar tl
yduet odi sagreement swithothermember soft heNLC.Such
divi
sionsf
orcedAfri
fatorusht hereturntoci vil
i
anr uleforf
earofacoupat t
emptsimilarto
thatofApri
l1967,whichledtot hemur derofKot oka.

Gui
dingquest i
onsont he1972coup:
a)Accountf orthedownf allofKof iA.Busiain1972
b)Accountf ortheri
set opowerofI gnatiusAcheampongin1972
c) Discussthecausesandef fectsoft he1972mi l
it
arycoupi
nGhana
d)Assesst heachievement soft hemi l
itarygover
nmentinGhanabet
ween1972and1978
e)Accountf ortheoverthrowofAcheampongi n1978
f)Exami nethecausesandef fectsofthe1978coupi nGhana

THEBANDUNGCONFERENCEANDTHENON- ALIGNEDMOVEMENT
TheBandungconf erencewashel di nI ndonesiai n1955bet weenApr il18and24.I twast he
fir
stlarge-scaleAf ro-Asi anconferencet hatwasat t
endedbydel egatesmost l
yf r
om newl y
i
ndependentst atesf rom bot h Asia and Af rica.Itwasspear headed byAsi an statesof
Indonesia,India,Pakistan,Ceylon(Sr i
-Lanka)andBur ma.OtherAsianst atesrepresentedwer e,
Vietnam,andcommuni stChinawhosePr i
meMi ni
sterZhouEn- Laisur vi
vedanat tempted
assassinat i
ononhi swayt otheconf erence.Thei ndependentAfri
canst at
esr epr
esent edwere
Egypt,Li beri
aandEt hiopia;Afr
icanst atesundercol oni
alruleliket heGol dCoast ,Algeri
a,
Kenya,t heSudanandLi byawerer epresent ed.I ntotal
,twenty-
ninest atesf rom Africa,Asi
a
andt heMi ddleEastwer er epr
esentedatt heBandungConf erence.

Themai
nar
chit
ectsoftheconferencewer
e,SurkanoPr esi
dentofIndonesia,Jawahar
lal
Nehr
uPr
emi
erofIndi
aandAbdelGammalNasserExecut
ivePresi
dentofEgypt
.

Originoft heBandungConf erence


InMay1954,Asi anst atesheldtheCol ombomeet i
nginSri-LankainwhichNehr uemphasi sed
ameet ingforAfricanandAsi anstatesai medatcr eat
inguni tyandpeacebet weent het wo
continents.Suchameet i
ngwasat hreattot heUSAandt hei mperi
ali
stpowersofWest ern
Europe.TheUS- governmentt r
ied t
o count eractan Af ro-Asian meeti
ng and a possi bl
e
fri
endshi pbetweenAf r
icaandAsi abyor ganisi
ngtheSout hEastAsianTr eat
yOr ganisation
(SEATO)meet i
ngi nMani l
aPhi li
ppinesi nSeptember1954.TheSEATO conf erencewas
attendedbyt heAsi anst ateofPhi l
ippines(host)
,PakistanandThai l
and,andt hewest ern
statesoft heUSA,Br i
tain,France,Aust r
ali
aandNew Zeal and.Manyoft heAsi anst ates
rej
ect edtheconference,hencei thadlit
tl
esuccess.

Jawaharl
alNehruchair
edapr epar
atorymeeti
ngfortheAfro-
Asianconf
erenceonDecember
28 and 29,1954.Themeet ing washeld atBogor,Indonesi
aand wasat tended byt
he
sponsor
ingcountr
iesoftheBandung(Afr
o-Asi
an)conf
erence.

Asopposed t ot he Afro-Asian conf


er ence and due tothe li
tt
le successoft he SEATO
conference,theBrit
ishinit
iatedtheBaghdadpact .Thetreat
ywassignedbet weenBri
tain,and
Ir
aq,Iran,TurkeyandPaki stanonFebr uary24,1955,aboutt womont hsbeforetheBandung
conference.TheBaghdadpactwasanant i
-communistoranti-
Sovi
etagreementwhichledt oa
for
mi dableall
iancebetweent hesi
gnatorynat i
onsincol
laborat
ionwit
ht heUSA.
Nehruwasagai nstt hesuccessoft heBaghdadpactandpr oceededtowor kwithSurkanoto
organiset heAf ro-
Asi anconf erence.Nehr u'si
nterestintheBandungconf erencewasbasedon
posit
iveneut r
ali
tywhi chst oodf orthef ollowing:
•Nonpar ti
cipationinmi li
tarybl ocs
•Opposi ti
ont oimper i
alistmi l
i
tarytreaties
•Totalabol it
ionofcol onialism andal lit
smani festat
ions
•Anti-coloni alcampai gnst hroughsuppor ti
ngallpeoplefight
ingforindependence
•Anti-racism t hroughdemandi ngforequal i
tyofallraces
•Activest ruggleforpr eser vingandst r
engt heningpeace
•Medi ationi nt heset t
lementofi nt er
nat ionaldisputesandensur i
ngnon- vi
olenceineasing
i
nter nationaltension
•Adopt i
ngpr i
nciplesofpeacef ulcoexist enceamongnat ions

Thef i
nalpreparat
ionsfortheBandungconferenceinvol
vedameet i
ngbet
weenNasserof
Egyptrepresent
ingAfri
ca)andNehruofIndia(repr
esenti
ngAsi
a).Themeet
ingwasheldon
Februar
y15and16i nCairoandwasconcludedwi t
hNasserandNehrusi
gni
ngthe"
Treat
yof
Fri
endship."

Objecti
vesoft heBandungconf erence
a.Topr omot eAf r
o- Asianeconomi candcul t
uralcooperat
ion
b.Toopposecol oni ali
sm andal lit
smal practi
ces
c. Tol ayst r
ategiesf ordistancingfrom coldwarpol i
ti
cs
d. Todenounceneocol onial
ism bycol dwarpower sandmaj orindustr
ial
isedpower sof
Europe
e.Establ i
shaf oundat i
onf orf uturemeet ingsbetweenpr esentstat
eswi thapossi bi
l
ityof
expandi ngthef orum
f. Delegat esatt heconf er
encewer ealsoconcer nedwi t
ht heworseni
ngr elat
ionsbetween
China,t heUSAandt hewest
g.Todi scussmechani smst hroughwhichAf r
o-Asiannati
onscouldcontr
ibutetoworldpeace
andcooper ati
on
h.Needf orgoodwi llandcooper ati
onbetweenAsi aandAf rica
i
. Todi scussmat ter sofnat i
onalsovereigntyanddenouncer aci
sm

WhytheUSAandwest ernEur opeanpower swer eagainstAf r


o-Asiancooper ati
on
a.Theconf erencewoul dbringtoget herrepr
esentati
vesofcl oseto1. 44bill
ionpeopleofAsia
andAf ricacombi ned,almostt wot hi
rdsoftheworld'spopulati
on.
b. Thedel egat esatt heconf er
enceposedat hreattot hedomi nantwest ernpower sinthe
UnitedNat ionsGener alAssembl y.
c.Theagendaoft heconf erenceaimedatdenounci ngcol oni
ali
sm inAsi aandAf ri
ca,i
norder
toli
mi tdi recteconomi cexploitationofthetwocont inentsbythewest .
d. Theor gani sersoft heconf erencel ikeNehr uandNasserhadMar xi
stinfl
uencewhi ch
scaredt hewest ernpower sofapossi bleinvol
vementofcommuni stRussiainAsiaand
Afri
ca.
e. Thecooper ati
onbet weenAsi aandAf r
icawoul dl imitcapital
istrelati
onsofwest ern
power swi ththet wocont i
nents.
f. Thei nvol vementofcommuni stChi nacalledforsuspi ci
onsofapossi blecommuni st
inf
luencei nEast ernAsi a.
g. TheUSAonherpar twasopposedt othepr i
nci
pleofposi ti
veneut ral
it
yadvocat edforby
Nehr u.
h.TheBandungconf erencepr ovi
dedanoppor tuni
tytobui ldast rongAf ro-Asiansoli
darit
y
whosef oundat ionwasal r
eadyl aidatthefif
thPanAf r
icanconferenceinManchest er.

I
nfl
uenceoft
heBandungconf
erenceonAf
ri
can
Ref
erenceQuesti
ons:
a)Howdi dt
he1955BandungConf erenceinspir
ethedecol onisati
onofAf r
ica?
b)Assesstheimpactoft he1955Af ro-AsianConf erenceinI ndonesi
aont hegrowthof
Afri
cannati
onali
sm
c)TowhatextentdidtheBandungConferencecontr
ibut etothedecolonisati
onofAfri
ca?
1.Theconf er
enceconsoli
datedtheAf r
o-Asiansol
idarity.Ther el
ati
onshipbetweenAfri
ca
andAsi ainfl
uencedAsianstatest oall
ywi thAf r
icanst hroughoutthedecoloni
sati
on
process.

2.TheIndonesiansuccessagai nsttheDutchwasst i
l
lfr
eshattheti
meoft heconf
erence.
ThesuccessofI ndonesiannati
onali
sm becameamot i
vat
iontot
heAfr
icandel
egat
eswho
i
ncreasedtheirpoli
ti
calagit
ati
onsupont hei
rret
urnt
oAfri
ca.

3.Ther esol
uti
onsoft heBandungconf erenceshockedcol onialadmi ni
strat
orsinAf ri
ca
Consequentl
y,the French and t
he Bri
ti
sh col
oniali
stsincreasingl
ygave t heirAfr
ican
coloni
es pol
iti
calconcessions (
ref
orms)l i
ke i
ncreased Afri
can representat
ion i
nt he
assemblyconsti
tut
ionaldevel
opmentsandadministr
ativeposit
ions.

4.Delegat
esf rom Afr
icanstatesli
keKenyaandAl ger
iawereinspi
redtoincr
easetheir
demandf orsoverei
gnr i
ghtandindependencef
oll
owi
ngthei
rinter
act
ionwit
hdelegat
es
fr
om independentAsianst
ates.

5.Delegates atthe conference unanimouslycondemned al lmanif


estati
ons ofcolonial
domi nati
oninAsiaandAf ri
ca.Theydeclaredi ndependenceasasover eignrightofall
peopleundercolonialdomi nati
on.Thedeclarat
ionofsover ei
gnr
ighttoindependencehad
profoundimpactoncol onialAfri
ca.

6.ThedelegatesatBandungadoptedt heresol
uti
onsoftheUNchar t
eront hedecl
arati
onof
ful
lsupporttothefundamentalprincipl
esofhumanr ightsandself-
deter
minati
onofall
peopl
esandnat i
ons.'
thus,i
ncr
easingonpol i
ti
calagi
tat
ionsfori
ndependenceinAfri
ca.

7.The Bandung confer


ence gave Afr
ican delegates a plat
form to ai
routant i
-col
onial
sent
imentsagainstEuropeanpowers.Theconf er
encethereforeboostedtheconfi
dence
of Afr
ican l
eadersl ike Nkrumah and i nternati
onal
ised Af r
ican ri
ght t
o polit
ical
i
ndependenceandf r
eedom fr
om economicexpl oit
ati
on.

8.Theconf er
encecondemnedt heact
ivi
ti
esofcol dwarpower s,theUnit
edSt atesofAfri
ca
(USA)and t heUnited SovietSoci
ali
stRepubl i
c( USSR)i nt hedeveloping world.The
successoft heBandungconf er
encetherefor
e,influencedt hefor ei
gnpol
iciesofthenew
superpower si n Afr
ica and Asiathrough intensifyi
ng theirsupportt o anti
-col
onial
str
uggles,hopi
ngtowi nloyal
tyfr
om Afr
icansandAsi ansrespect i
vel
y.

9.AttheBandungconf er
ence,thedelegatesopenlycondemnedt heFrenchrigi
daggression
i
nAl geriaandt hei
rcontinuedcolonialexpl
oitati
oninNor t
hAf ri
ca.Consequent
ly,there
wasi ncreasedmi l
it
ari
sm oft heNat i
onalLiberat
ionFront(FLN)inAl ger
iaandpol i
ti
cal
agi
tationsintherestofNorthAfr
icanstatesunderFrenchimperial
i
sm.

10.Theconferencecondemnedt heraci
str
egi
mesinAf ri
cai.e.apar
thei
dinSouthAf r
icaand
theCentralAfri
canFederati
on(CAF). Thedel egatescalledupontheUnitedNat ions
Secur
it
yCounci ltoint
erveneinSouthAfri
ca,whil
eAsi anandAf ri
canmember soft he
Commonweal thorgani
sati
onpledgedtopr
essur
izetheBr i
ti
shgovernmentt
odi ssolvethe
CAFandr ecogni
seautonomyoft heCAFmembers.

11.TheBandungconf
erenceinfl
uencedcommunistChinato conf
ir
m supportto Af
ri
can
l
iber
ati
onmovement.Consequent
ly,Chi
nai
ntensi
fi
edsupporttoAlger
iansthr
oughthe
FLN,andlat
ertootherl
i
berat
ionmovement
sli
ket
heZi
mbabweAf
ri
canNat
ionalUni
on
(ZANU)i
nSouther
nRhodesi
a.

12.Consequentl
y,otherAsianparti
cipantsatBandungpl edgedt oassi
stAfri
cansint hei
r
questforsoverei
gnexist
enceandself-
deter
minat
ion.India,IndonesiaandBur maaft
erthe
confer
encebeganext endingmoral,fi
nanci
alandmi l
i
t aryassi st
ancetoAfricanfr
eedom
fi
ghter
sliketheCPPoft heGol
dCoastandt oAfri
cansinPor tugueseAfr
ica.

13.Attheconfer
ence,thedelegat
esusedonevoicetocondemnneocol oni
almechanismsof
thesuperpowersandi ndustr
ial
isedpower
softhewest.I ndependentAfri
canandAsi an
stat
es were cauti
oned to prot
ectthei
rsover
eign exi
stence and independence f
rom
wester
nimperial
ist
s.

14.Thebignat i
onsatt heconfer
enceli
keI ndi
aandIndonesi
apl
edgedtechni
calexper
ti
seand
technol
ogicalassistancetoeconomi call
yweaknat i
onsespeci
all
yinAfri
ca.Themost
benefi
ciar
iesincl
udedt heGoldCoast,l
aterGhana.

15.Theconf er
encemil
itari
zedAf ricannat
ional
ism.Apartfr
om emphasi zi
ngnon-vi
olencein
rest
ori
ng wor l
d order,I ndonesian and Viet
namese delegates encour
aged Af ri
can
nati
onal
iststoemployvi olencewi t
hlessonsofsuccessinIndonesi
aagainsttheDut ch
andVietnameseagainsttheFr ench.

16.TheBandungconf erencelai
daf oundati
onfortheformati
onoft heNon-al
ignedmovement
(NAM) .Thedelegatessubscribedtonon-ali
gnmentwhosechar terwassignedatthe1961
Belgr
ade conference.The Non- al
igned member s decl
ared t
heircommi ttmentt othe
str
uggleagainstimper ial
i
sm inallitsmanif
est
ations.TheNAM conf i
rmedt heAfro-Asi
an
sol
idarit
ywher emember susedacol l
ecti
vevoi ceagainstcoloni
ali
sm dur i
ngt heUN
generalassemblies.

THEMOVEMENTOFTHENQNALI GNEDCOUNTRI ES(THENONALI GNEDMOVEMENT)


Ori
gin
TheendofWor l
dWarI Iin1945wasat urningpointinthehistoryofthewor l
d.Itledt othe
emer genceofnew superpower s,t heUni tedStatesofAf ri
ca( USA)andt heUni tedSoviet
Sociali
stRepublic(USSR) ,withdifferentideologieswhichledtot heemer genceofcol dwar
poli
ticsin1946.TheUSAandt heSovi etUnionchangedt heorderofwor l
daf fai
rstoabi pol
ar
world,lateri
nfl
uencingt heformationofmi lit
aryblocs;t
heNor t
hAt lant
ictreatyOr ganisati
on
(NATO)andt heWar sawpact .TheNATOwascr eatedasacooper ati
onof(west ern)Eur opean
capital
istnat
ionsinal l
i
ancewi ththeUSA,whi l
etheWar sawpactwasanal li
anceof( easter
n)
Europeancommuni ststatesledbyt heSovi etUnion.

Thecountri
esofthesouthi.e.AsianandAf r
icanstateswereopposedtot hemi l
it
aryblocsand
theemergingcoldwari nf
luence.Thesewer eeconomi cal
lyweaknationst hathademer ged
withtherapi
dcol l
apseofcol oni
alempi r
es.Theyf eltt
heneedf oranew i nter
nati
onalmulti
-
l
ateralcoordinat
ion among t hemselves thatwoul d promote peacefulcoexistence and
preser
vewor l
dpeaceandsecur it
y.

TheAf ro-
Asiannati
onshadt hedesiret ojoi
neffor
tsf ort
hecommondef enseofthei
rinter
ests,
thestrengtheningoft hei
ri ndependenceandsover ei
gntyandthecul turalandeconomi c
rescueoft hei
rpeoples.Theywant edt ojoi
ntl
yexpr essast r
ongcommi tmenttowor ldpeace
bydecl ar
ingthemselvesas" non-
ali
gned"ornon- supporter
sofneitherthecapital
i
stsoft he
NATOnort hecommuni stsoft heWar sawpact.Theyhel daconfer
encei nBandungIndonesia
i
nApr i
l1955t ostrengthentheirnon-ali
gnedint
erestsandadvanceast rategytoachievetheir
object
ives.

TheBandungconf
erencewasat
tendedbydel
egat
esf
rom t
went
y-ni
necount
ri
esoft
hepost
-
coloni algenerati
onwi t
hamaj orgoalofidentifyi
ngandassessi ngwor l
di ssuesatt heti
me,
andcoor dinatepolici
estodealwi t
hthem.Par ti
ci
patingnati
ons( non-
ali
gnedst at es)atthe
conf erenceagr eedtohaveacommonpr ojectthatwi l
lunit
ethem withclosercoor dinati
onof
theirposi t
ionint hecol
dWarer a.Theconferencef ocusedontotalpoli
ti
caldecol onisati
onof
AsiaandAf r
ica,andagreedt
hatt henewlyattainedpol i
ti
cali
ndependencewasj ustameans
toat tainthegoalofsocio-
cul
turalandeconomi cindependence.

TheBandungconferencether
eforel
aidthef oundat
ionofthenon-al
i
gnedmovementwi
thit
s
chart
ersi
gnedsixyearslat
eratthefi
rstsummi tconfer
enceoftheNon-Al
i
gnedMovementi
n
Belgr
adeYugosl
avi
af r
om September1-6,1961.

Followingt heachi evementsoft heBandungconf erence,theNon- ali


gnedl eadersofI ndia,
Indonesia,Egypt,SyriaandYugosl aviaheldameet i
ngonApr i
l26,1961.AbdelNasserofEgypt
andJosi p( Joseph)Ti t
oofYugosl aviaaddr essedheadsofst ateandgover nmentoft wenty-
onenon- al
i
gnedcount r
ies;t
ogether ,thenon- alignedcount ri
esagr eedonani mpr ovementi n
i
nt ernati
onalrel
ations,resi
stancet ouseofvi olencei ntheset t
lementofconf lict
sandot her
mat tersofconcerni nthewor l
d.Theymetagai ni nCairoinJune1961t oformul atethecri
teria
ofmember shiptot heNAM.Memberst atesemphasi sedt hatthemovementwasnott oplaya
passi verol
eininternati
onalpolit
icsbuti nstead,t heyagreedt oformulatetheirownposi ti
oni n
ani ndependentmannersoast oreflectthei
ri nterest
s.

Ther
eforet
heBelgradesummi tconfer
enceinYugoslavi
aofSept ember1961at
tendedby
del
egatesf
rom abouttwenty-f
ivenon-
ali
gnedcount
ri
esof fi
cial
lyunvei
l
edtheNon-al
igned
movementwit
hJosip(Joseph)BrozTi
toasthef
ir
stGeneralSecret
ary.

THECONCEPTOFNON- ALIGNMENT
TheNon- al
ignedmovementwasf oundeddur i
ngt hecol l
apseoft hecol
onialsystemsi nAfr
ica,
Asia,LatinAmer i
caandot herpartsofthewor ld.Themovementemer gedatt heheightofthe
col
dwar .Thet erm" non-alignment"isani deabr oughtupbyt heIndianPr i
meMi ni
ster
Jawahar lNehr ur ef
er r
ingtoneut ral
i
sm orposi tiveneut r
ali
ty.Itisaconceptf oundedont he
pri
nciplesofpeacef ulcoexistenceor'
panchsheet .'Theprinci
plesofnon-al
ignmentar e,
•Mut ualrespectf oreachot her'st
err
itor
iali
ntegrityandsover ei
gnty
•Non- aggression
•Non- i
nterferenceineachot her'
sint
ernalaf
fairs
•Equal i
tyandmut ualbenef i
t
•Peacef ulcoexistence

Non- al
i
gnmenti sani nt
er-government
alcooperat
ionofstat
eswhoconsi deredthemselvesnot
formallyal
ignedwi thoragai nstanymajorpowerbl ocofthecoldwar .JawaharlNehru,the
founderfatheroft hepr i
ncipleofnon-al
i
gnmentdescr i
beditasar efusaltobet iedtoany
milit
aryall
i
ancewi theitherblocinthecol
dwar ,i
.e.capi
tal
i
storcommuni stbloc;aconscious
attempttowi denthedistancebetweenindependentstat
esandthefor
mercol onialmaster.

Thepri
ncipl
eofnon-al
ignmentmeanst hatnon-
ali
gnedmembersr eservedther i
ghtand
fr
eedom t
odeci
det osupportornotsupportanycountr
yonanymat terofconcern.Hence,
membersofNAM coul
ddecidetosupportasuperpowerononei
ssue,andr ef
usetodosame
onanot
her.

TheNon- ali
gnedmovementwasf oundedbyt heeconomi cal
lyandmi l
it
ari
lyweakernati
onsin
anef forttodeterminetheirownpolicieswi t
houtanyinfl
uencef r
om t hegreatpowers,soasto
safeguar dt hei
ri ndependence,sover eignt
y and terri
tori
alintegri
ty away from cold war
i
nfluence.Thedevel opi
ngcountri
esofAsi aandAfri
caadopt ednon- ali
gnmentasast rat
egyto
exertt hei
rposi t
ionont hewor ldscene,andpar ti
cipateininternati
onalaffai
rswithoutany
mani pulati
onf r
om powerbl ocsandt heirall
i
es.
Ther easonsthatl edtot heriseoft heNon- al
ignedmovementi ncludedtheposi t
ionofNehr u
againstthestrongal l
egianceofani ndependentst atetotheformercolonialmast er.Theend
ofWor ldWarI Iledtocoldwarr ival
rybetweenwest ernandeast
ernpower sintheirat t
emptt o
extendt hei
rinfluenceinAf ri
caandAsi a;henceNAM wasacol l
ect
iveattempttor esistthi
s
i
nfluence.Thei ndependentAsi anandAf ricancount ri
eswantedforei
gnaidandf elttheywoul d
gai
nmor ewithoutaligni
ngwi t heithertheUSAort heSovietUnionast heyfear edt hatthe
superpowerr i
valrywouldputt hem undercoldwarcont rolt
hatwouldunder minet heirnewly
acquiredindependentst atus.Consequent ly,t
het hi
r dworldnat
ionswantedt oest abli
sht hei
r
owni dentit
yinthewor ldaffai
r s.

AIMSANDOBJECTI VEOFNAM
Ref erenceQuest ion:
1.Accountf ort headopt i
onofNon- Alignmentbyposti ndependentAf ri
canst ates
a.Tomai ntainwor ldpeacebypr omot ingnon-violencemeansandr ej
ecttheuseoff orce
b.Tosuppor tsel f-
det ermi nat i
onandnat i
onalindependencei nt hethirdwor ldandr ejectall
for msofi mper i
al i
sm
c.Saf eguar dt hesover eignt yofmemberst atesagai nstdomi nationbyt hesuper power si .
e.
encour agei ndependenceofnon- alignednat i
onsf r
om coldwarofgr eatpower s
d.Todi scour agemi li
taryal liancesandpushf ordisarmamentofsuper power s
e.Enhancesoci oeconomi cdevel opmentand t her estructuri
ng ofi nternationaleconomi c
syst ems
f.Topr omot eeconomi cindependenceofmemberst ates
g.Encour ageact ivepar ticipat i
onofnon- ali
gnedst ates( t
hirdwor l
d)ini nternati
onalaf f
airs
especi all
yi nt heUNwi thoutcoer cionanddomi nationfrom gr eatpower soft henor th
h.St rengt hent heUNOt owar dsef fectiveper f
ormance
i
. Pr omot esout h-sout hcooper at i
oni .e.cooper ati
onamongt hirdwor ldnat i
onswi thmut ual
under st andingandt olerance
j
. Ensur epeacef ulcoexi st enceamongal lnationsoft hewor ldi.e.democr atiseinternational
relations
k.Rej ectal lfor msofr acialdi scri
mi nationlikeapar theidandZi onism
1.Encour ager espectf orhumanr ightsaspr oclaimedi ntheUni versalDeclarationofHuman
Right s
m.Tot aler adi cationofpover t
yfrom non- al
ignedcount ri
es

Not
e:
Att
heLusakaconferenceofSeptember1970,Non-
ali
gnedmember sadoptedtwonewaims:
 Peacefulresol
uti
onofdisput
esintheworl
d;
 Oppositi
ont ostati
oni
ngofmi li
tar
ybasesinthef or
eigncountr
ies,especi
all
ythet
hir
d
worl
d.

Theaimsandobj ect
ivesoftheNon-al
ignedmovementwereoffi
cial
lyprocl
aimedi
nthe
HavanaDecl
arat
ionof1979atthesi
xthNon-al
i
gnedSummitConf
erenceinCuba.

Per
for
manceoft
heNon-
ali
gnedmovement

Refer
encequesti
ons-'
1.Expl
ainthesuccessesoft
heNon-ali
gnedmovementsinceit
sincept
ion
2.Howr el
evanti
stheconceptofNon-al
ignmenti
npost
-i
ndependenceAfri
ca?
3.HowsuccessfulhasbeentheNon-ali
gnedmovementsincei
ts1955

SUCCESSESANDACHI EVEMENTS:
1.TheNon- al
i
gnedmovementhadal ongper
iodofexi
stenceasablocofdevel
opingnations
sincei
tsof
fici
alinaugur
ati
oni
n1961.Themovementhasbeeni nexi
stenceforoverfif
ty
yearsandthishasbeenduet otheconti
nuousconferenceshel
dbythememberst ates
si
ncetheBelgr
adeconfer
enceof1961,andthestr
onggroundtakenbymemberst
ates
dur
ingi
nter
nati
onalf
orumsli
ket
heUnitedNat
ionsGener
alAssembli
es.

2.Themovementat t
ractedmanydevel opi
ngcount r
ieshenceexpandi ngmember ship.As
moreAsianandAf ri
cannat i
onsbecamei ndependent ,theyjoinedt hemovementt hus
membershipwi
denedf rom t
heori
ginalt
wenty-
ninestatest ooveronehundredandt went y.
Mostoft hemember soft hemovementar ef rom Asi a,Amer i
cas,Afri
ca and three
membersf r
om Oceania.Thelastmember stojoinincludeFiji(2011)from Oceani
aand
Azer
bai
j
anofAsi a(2011)

3.The NAM t hrough the Wor ki


ng Group on Peace Keepi ng Oper ations has great l
y
contri
but edtot heprevai
li
ngwor l
dpeaceandst abil
i
ty.Non- ali
gnedmember scontri
buted
tocontainingthecol dwart ensionofsuperpower swhi chhadt hreatenedwor ldpeaceand
securi
ty.The movementcondemned t he arms r ace by t he super powerst hrough
supportingtheSt rat
egicAr msLi mitat
ionTalks( SALT)agai nstnucl earweaponsandt he
Strat
egicAr msReduct i
onTal ks(START).TheSALTandSTARTr educedonmi li
tar
izati
on
ofthewor l
d,calmeddownt heeast-westconfl
ictandf inall
yledtot hefinalcol
lapseofcol d
warpol i
tics.Wor ki
ngGr ouponPeaceKeepi ngOper ationshasal sobeeni nstr
ument alin
proposing peace expedi t
ionsi n stat
est hr
eatened bywarand conf li
ct,forinstance,
Somal i
a.

4.Consequently,thepressuresand act ivit


iesoft heNon- al
igned movementl ed tot he
coll
apseofcol dwarpoli
tics.Memberst atescont i
nuedwi t
ht heirpur
suitofneutrali
sm or
positi
veneutral
it
yastheycondemnedt heact ivit
iesofthesuper powersl
ikethear msr ace.
Asat hi
rdbl
oc,Non-ali
gnednat ionsusedt heUni t
edNat i
onsasapl atf
ormt oisolatethe
i
deologicalwarandbr i
ngaboutamut ualconsentbet weent heUSSRandt heUSA.The
pressureoft heNAM l edt ot hecollapseoft heBer l
i
nwal landt her e-
uni
ficati
onof
Germany,andt hedisi
ntegrat
ionoft heSovi etUnion,whichdeal taf inalblow tot he
communi stbloc.

5.TheNon- alignedmovementhasst oodf ir


mi ndemandi ngf orr
eformat i
onoft heUnited
Nat ionsasawayofst rengtheningitseffect i
venessincarryi
ngoutitsactivi
ti
es.TheNAM
hasopenl ycr i
ti
cisedt hecur rentUN- str
uct ureandpowerdynami csthathasbeent aken
advant ageofandut il
izedbypower fulst atesatt heexpenseofNon- al
ignedstates,which
violatesthepr incipl
esoft hemovement .Themovementhasout li
nedt heUnitedNations
Secur it
yCounci lasthemostdi st
ortedandundemocr ati
cor ganthatneedsr eshapi
ngt o
impr ovet ransparencyanddemocr acyi nt heUN decision-maki
ngpr ocess.Hencet he
alignedst atesledt ot heest abli
shmentoft heUNDPi n1965,andt henegot i
ati
ononan
Internati
onalEconomi cOr der( I
EO)int he1970st osol
vetheNor t
h-Southconfli
ct.

6.TheNon- ali
gnedst ateshaveproducedani mpactoni nt
ernationalpol
iti
cs.Theyhave
conti
nuouslydemandedf ormut
ualr espectofal
lnat
ionsoft hewor l
d,bi
gorsmal linthe
int
ernat
ionalaff
airs.Duet othestrengthoft hemovement ,thesuperpowersandot her
greatpowershaveal li
edwithNon- ali
gnednati
onsinat t
emptt owint hei
rsupportfor
vari
ouswor l
dpolicies.TheUSAthrought heUNSecurit
yCounci l(UNSC)haswor kedwith
manyNon- ali
gnedst atesinbot
hAf ricaandAsiainthecampai gnagainstterr
ori
sm.The
movementhasbeeninst
rumentalintheUN peacekeepi
ngmi
ssi
onsl
aunchedbyt
he
Secur
it
yCounci
li
nNamibi
a,Yugosl
avi
a,Somal
i
aandAngol a.

7.Non-al
ignmenthasenhanceduni tyandcooper at
ionamongmemberst ates.Thissout h-
southcooperat
ioni
.e.cooperat
ionamongt hi
rdworldnati
onshasenabledt heformation
ofaunitedfr
ontofdevelopi
ngnationsduringt heUni
tednati
onsGeneralAssemblies.Non-
ali
gnedmember shavewor kedtogetherandhaveusedonevoi ceinanat tempttor educe
thedominanceofsuperpowersandi ndust
riali
sednati
onsonthei
nternati
onalscene.

8.TheNon- al
ignedmovementhasbeeni nstr
ument alintheconsolidat
ionandpr omot i
onof
Afro-Asiansolidar
ity.Themut ualcooperat
ionbet weenAf r
icanandAsi anst atesbecame
offi
cialatt heBandungconf erenceandhasbeenpr opagatedduringt hevar i
ousNon-
ali
gnedconf er
encesl ikethe1960Cai r
oconf erence,the1961Bel gradeconf erence,and
the1970 Lusakaconf er
ence.Consequent l
y,coordinati
on between Af r
ican and Asian
nationshasbeenwi t
nessedinthefiel
dofeducat i
on,tradeandindustry,humani t
arianand
technologicaladvancement .

9.Themovementhasachi evedeconomi cf ruit


s.Economi call
y,st
rongnon-ali
gnednati
ons
havealwaysextendedfi
nancialandt echni calassi
stancet omemberst atesinwanting.
Non-al
ignedpowersli
keIndia,Indonesia,UAEandSaudiAr abi
ahaveprovidedfundsand
techni
calexper
ti
set oprojectsunder wayf orweakmember sli
keAngola,Ugandaand
Tanzania.Themovementhast herefor
eboost edtheconfidenceofNon-al
ignednati
onsto
rej
ectanyeconomicassi
stancef r
om gr eatpowerswithst r
ingsatt
ached.

10.Consequent l
y,t
heNon- ali
gnedmovementl edt ot heestabl
ishmentofthesout h-t
o-south
commi ssionin1988wi thamaj oraim ofi ncreasi
ngcooper at
ionamongt hesout hern
nati
onsi .
e.nationsoft hi
rdwor ld.Thesout h-t
o-southcommi ssionwasalsof or
medt o
addresst heeconomi cbackwar dness^oft heNon- ali
gnedmember sandt hecont inued
expl
oitati
onofl ow devel
opingnat ionsbyt hedevel opedwor ld.TheNAM hashence
coll
aboratedwithot herorganisati
onsoft hedevel opingwor l
dl i
ketheGroupof77t o
promot edial
ogueandcooper at
ionamongt hirdwor l
dnat i
onsinanef f
ortt
ocr eategl obal
awarenessaboutt hei
rpoli
ticali
nterests.

11.Member shaveupheldanddemonst rat


edthenon- ali
gnedpr incipl
eofmai ntai
ningf
ri
endly
rel
ati
onsofal lnationsofthewor l
d.TheNon- al
ignedmovementhashencecondemned
i
mper i
alistat
tacks,actsofaggr
essionandot herinjusti
cesofbi gpower sagainstweaker
nati
ons.Member softheNAM condemnedt heSovi etinvasionofAf ghani
stanin1979,the
Amer i
canaggr essi
veat t
ackonLibyain1981,t heAmer icani nvasionandoccupat i
onof
AfghanistanandIraqandt hei
nvasionandoccupat ionofLi byabyt heNATOi n2011that
consequentlyledtot hemyster
iousassassinati
onoft hegr eatLi byanleaderMuammar
Gadhafi.

12.TheNon-
ali
gnedmovementboost
edt
hedevel
opmentofAf
ri
cannat
ional
i
sm.Thr
ought
he
United Nat i
ons General Assembl y,Non-al
igned member s air
ed out anti-
col
onial
sentimentsagainstEuropeancolonialpower
sanddemandedf ortheinter
vent
ionofthe
i
nternationalbodyinfavourofAf r
icanandAsi anst atesunderfor
eigndominati
on.The
eff
or t
soft hemovementagai nstforeigndominati
oni nfl
uencedthemajorpowersinthe
UNt or econsi
derthei
rapproachtowar dst
heper si
stentforei
gndominat
ionsinAfr
icaand
Asia.

13.Non-al
i
gnedmember scondemnedr aci aldi
scri
mi nat
ionanddomi nancei
nt heworld.The
spi
ri
tofnon- ali
gnmenti nspir
edthemovementt ocondemnapar t
hei
di nSouthAf ri
ca
wherethewhitesoppr essivel
y domi nated maj ori
tyAfri
cans. Memberstatesextended
moralandfinancialassistancetoAfricansagainsttheapar t
hei
dr egi
me.Themovement
has al
so been instrument alin pr
essur i
zing t
he Uni t
ed Nati
ons toi nt
ervene i
nt he
Pal
esti
nianquesti
onagai nstZioni
stIsrael.

14.TheNon- ali
gnedmovementhasat temptedtointerveneinconfl
i
ctsinvol
vingmember
states.Non- al
i
gnedcount r
iescondemnedt heinvasi
onofKuwai tbyIr
aqandof t
ent ri
ed
medi tat
inginthePaki st
aniconfli
ct.Themovementmember swerepartofthesuccessi n
thear bi
trati
onpr ocessint heSudanconf l
i
ctthatpeacefull
yendedthepr otr
actedcivil
unrestsince1955.Thear bi
trati
onint heSudanconfli
ctledt
othe2011refer
endum t hatl
ed
tothemut uali
ndependenceoft heSouthSudan,henceanewmemberoft hemovement .

15.Non-al i
gnednat i
onshavest oodf orther i
ghtsofal lpeopleint hewor l
dandt hesover ei
gn
ri
ghtofever yst ate.TheNAM adopt edt heuni versaldecl arati
onofhumanr i
ghts( UDHR)
andt heUni tedNat i
onscharterthatcallsforsover eignequal i
tyofallpeoplesoft hewhole
world.Themovementencour agesr espectf orhumanr ightsandcondemnsuni lat
eral
aggressions ofpower fulnations overt he weak ones.Thi sis aimed atsuppor ti
ng
sovereignexi stenceofal lnati
onsint hewor ld.Themovementt hroughitsWor ki
nggr oup
onHumanRi ghtshasof tenst oodforsoci alj ustice,hasf iercel
ystoodagai nstcul t
ural
margi nali
sationbycal l
i
ngf orpr otecti
onofcul turaldiversityandr eli
gioustolerancein
worldaf fai
rs.

16.Member soft heNon-al


ignedmovementhavecont i
nuouslyemphasiseddemocr acyand
theestabl
ishmentofpeopl es'gover
nments.Theycondemneddi ct
atorialr
egimesofI di
Amini nUgandaandHussienSadam r egi
mes.Themovementcalledforpeacefulhandover
ofpowert hrough consti
tuti
onaland democr at
ic means.Non-aligned nati
ons has
col
lecti
vel
yst ood agai
nstmi l
i
tarycoups and has condemned unlawfultakeoverof
governmentbymi l
i
tarymen.

17.SomeNon- ali
gnedmemberst at
eshavemanagedt oexer ci
sef r
eedom ofact i
onwhile
deal
ingwi t
hgr eatpowers.Thiswasexhibi
tedbyLibyaagai nsttheNATOi nvasi
onin2011.
Egyptexercisedthesamef reedom ofacti
onandnat ional
isedtheSuezCanalCompanyi n
1956aftertheUni t
edStatesofAmer i
caandt heUnitedKingdom wi thdrewthei
reconomic
ai
d meant t o enable Nasser '
srevolut
ionar
y gover nment t o establ
ish t
he Aswan
engi
neeringpr oj
ect.
Probl
emsorchall
engesofthemovementsi
ncei
tsincept
ion
TheNAM hasf acedalotofpr obl
emswhichhavemadei tdi
ff
icul
tfort
hemovementt
o
achi
evemostoftheobj
ect
ives:

Reference
a)Exami nethechallengest oNon-ali
gnment
b)Discusst hefact
or sthathavehinderedtheperf
or manceoftheNon-ali
gnedmovement
c)Accountf orthefail
ureoft heNAM since1961
1.Per sist
entpovertyandeconomi cbackwardnessamongt heNon-al
i
gnednat i
onsisoneof
thefarreachingpr obl
emst hathavemadet heconceptofnon-al
ignmenttoremainamyth.
Hence memberst ates have ended up aligning wit
h oracceptdi ctat
ions ofthe
industr
iali
sedpower s,andthishasunderminedtheireconomi
cindependence.

2.Ideol
ogicaldiff
erenceshavecreatedconf l
i
ctsamongmemberst at
es.Al otofmi st
rust
s
andsuspicionshavemadei ti
mpossibleforthenon-ali
gnedstatestofulf
il
lthemajoraims
andobjectivesofthemovement .Statesli
keTanzani a,Ghana,Yugoslavi
a,Indi
aandCuba
embracedsci enti
fi
csocial
ism atthetimeot hernon-al
ignedstatesl
ikeKuwai tandKenya
commi tt
edt ocapital
ism.Thediff
erencesini deol
ogyhaveaf f
ectedunityandcooperati
on
ofnon-ali
gnedmember s.

3.Neo-coloni
ali
sm isyetanot herthorninthefl
eshoft heNon- ali
gnedmovement .For
mer
col
onialmast er
sandt heindustr
ial
isednati
onshavecontinuedtodictatepol
i
ciesupont he
newlyindependentstatesofthethirdworl
d.Non-al
i
gnedst ateshavebeenunabl etomake
i
ndependentpol i
ti
calorsoci o-
economicdecisi
onswi thoutmani pulat
ionfr
om t hewest.
Duri
ngt heNon- al
ignmentconf erenceinHarare,Li
beriawasi nf
luencedbyt heUSA t o
opposet heresol
uti
onofi mposingeconomicsancti
onsonapar theidSouthAfr
ica.

4.Poli
ti
calinst
abil
it
ieswithi
nmemberst at
eshavehinderedt hepr
ogressofthemovement.
Suchinstabi
li
ti
esincl
udecivilwars,et
hnicandraci
alcl
ashes,whichareadiseasei
nmany
devel
oping nati
ons.Thepol i
ti
calinst
abil
it
ieshavest r
ained r
esourcesofNon-ali
gned
stat
esandhavei nfl
uencedthem toagreetomili
tar
ypactswi t
hgreatpower
s.

5.Theendofcol dwarpolit
icsl
eftthemovementwi t
hnocommonenemy.I deal
ly,t
heNon-
ali
gnedmovementwasanof fspr
ingblocofthecoldwartensi
onbetweenthewesternand
eastern bl
ocs.The col
lapse ofthe ideol
ogicalwarthreat
ened t
he exist
ence ofthe
movementasnon- ali
gnedcountri
eshavef ai
ledtoest
abli
shnewpr i
ncipl
estoguidethei
r
rel
ationsandact
ivi
ti
esinworl
dpol i
ti
cs,awayfrom t
hecoldwarera.

6.Lackofapr operdefi
nitionofnon-al
ignmenthasbeenanot herthreattothemovement .
Non-ali
gnedmember shavepr omotedandimplement edpol
iciesaccordi
ngtothewayt hey
understandthemovement .AhmedSurkanoofI ndonesi
adennednon- ali
gnmentasapol i
cy
gearedt owar
dscontainingcoldwarwhi l
eothernon-ali
gnedleadersli
keNyereredefi
nedit
asar ightofsmallnationst osel
f-
determinat
ion.Thisvari
anceinappr oachaffect
edand
conti
nuest oaff
ectdecisionmakingofthemovement .

7.Thereisalwaysf orei
gnsuper vi
sion,patr
onizeandinter
rupti
onbypowerbl ocsandgr eat
power softhewor l
d,thussuffocati
ngt heinter
est
sofnon- al
ignedstates.Duringcol
dwar
ti
mes,t heSovietUnioninfl
uencedCubat oaccepther(theUSSR)asunof fi
cialal
lyofthe
Non-ali
gnedmovement ,whi l
et heUSA usednon- al
i
gnedst atesli
keKenya,Li beri
at o
preventthemovementf r
om imposi ngsancti
onsonapart hei
dSout hAfri
ca.Suchext er
nal
i
nfluenceaffectedt
heoper at
ionsoft hemovement .

8.Thewideoperat
ionar
eaoftheNon-
ali
gnedmovementhaspr
ovedabighindr
ancet
othe
act
ivi
ti
esofthemovement.Membershi
ptothemovementisenti
rel
yforthi
rdwor
ldof
countr
iesofthe'sout
h'andthusit
soperationsi
ncl
udet hedif
ferentconti
nentsli
keAsia,
Afri
ca,SouthAmer i
caandsomepar t
sofNor t
hAmer i
caliket heCaribbeanandWest
Indi
es.Thisisoneoft hemajorhi
ndrancestomut ualcooperati
on,unity,andsupport
amongnon- al
i
gnedstates.

9.Non-al
ignedst at
esar eaffi
li
atedmembersofothergr
oupsandor ganisat
ions.Since1963,
Afr
icanindependentst at
eshavebeenmember softheOrganisat
ionofAf ri
canUni t
y(OAU) ,
now theAf ricanUni on( AU)andar eunderregi
onalgroupings like the EastAf rican
Communi ty,Preferenti
alTreatyAr
ea,andtheEconomicCommuni t
yofWestAf r
icanStates;
whil
et heAr abst ateshaveconsoli
datedthei
rcooperat
ionthrought heAr abLeague.The
memberst atesoft hereforepaymoreloyal
tyt
oothergroupi
ngst hantheNAM.

10.Theper sistentint
erstatesconf l
i
ctsar eyetanot hergreatchall
engeoft heNon-ali
gned
movement .Non-al
ignednat ionshaveof tenbeenengagedi ninter
statewr angl
esduet o
borderissuesorsuppor tofsubversiveandt er
ror
istacti
vit
iesinanothermembercount ry.
Confli
ctshaveexi st
edbet weenI ndiaandPaki stan,Ir
aqandKuwai t
,Ugandaandt he
Congo,Ni geri
a and Camer oon,Mor occo and Al ger
ia among other s.The int
erstate
wrangles among non- ali
gned count r
ies have endangered uni
ty and har mony i
nt he
movement .

11.Manyoft hecorefounder
soft heNon-al
i
gnedmovementar eeit
herdeadorhaveleftt
he
poli
ti
calscene.KwameNkr umahwasoust edinthe1966Ghanaiancoupbeforehedied
yearslat
erNasserdiedin1970,andSurkano,Jawahar
lalNehr
uandJosip(Joseph)Tit
o
arealll
onggone.Themovementi shenceinthehandsofnewgenerati
onl
eaderswhodo
nothaveini
ti
alvi
sionandmotivesoft
hefounderstat
esmenofnon-al
i
gnment.

12.Leadersofnon- al
i
gnednat i
onsar eeit herdrivenbyper sonalornat i
onalint
erests,which
havesuf f
ocatedthenon-ali
gnedi nterests.NasserofEgyptj oinedt hemovementwi tha
basicaim ofpr omoti
ngpanAr abism,Yugosl avianTi t
owant edt ouset heNon- ali
gned
movementt oensureYugosl aviansecur i
tybyr educingcol dwart ensionandMuseveni
engagedi nnon-ali
gnedactiviti
est oconf i
rmt ot hefactt hatUgandanshavel egiti
mate
i
nterestsofthei
rownt hanbei ngpr o-westorpr o-east
.Tohi m non-ali
gnmenti stakingthe
bestandr eject
ingthebadf rom ever ysyst em;butwi thoutal lowingoutsidepower sto
prescri
bewhati sbestforUgandaasanon- ali
gnednat i
on,henceUgandaj udgesf ri
end
andf oeaccordi
ngtohowt heyr elatewi thUgandani nt
erests.

Short
comi ngsandf ail
uresoft heNon- ali
gnedmovement
Theabovepr oblemshaver ender
edt hemovementweakt hroughthefol
lowingways
1.Bilateralmil
itar
yagreement shavebeensi gnedbetweenmemberst atesoftheNon-al
igned
movementandpowerbl ocs.Count r
iesli
keAfghani
stan,I
raqandDemocr ati
cRepublicof
Congo.KenyaandUgandahavesi gnedt r
eat
ieswiththewesternbloconeconomi cand
mil
itaryli
nes.OtherslikeAngola,Li
bya,Burmaandt heSudanali
gnedwi tht
heEasternbloc.
Thisisagainsttheprincipl
esofnon- ali
gnment
.

2.The movementhas f ai
l
ed to sol
ve inter
stat
e confl
i
cts among non-al
i
gned nat i
ons.
Confl
ict
sandpolit
icalmi
sunder
standingshaveexist
edbetweenIndi
aandPaki st
an,I raq
and Kuwai
t,Ugandaand t heSudan and theCongo questi
on,which caused tension
bet
weenUganda,theKabi r
aadministr
ati
onandRwanda.Suchconf li
ctshaveinf
luenced
memberstatesoft
heNAM t oal
l
ywi ththewestint
hequestforsol
uti
ons.

3.TheNon- al
i
gnedmovementf ai
ledinit
sattempttomai
ntainpol
i
ticalstabil
i
tyandsecurit
y
ofit
smemberst ates.Manymil
itar
ycoupsandcivi
lwar
shavebeenexper i
encedi
nAf ri
can
stat
esl i
keUganda,Congo,TheSudan,TheCent r
alAfri
canRepubl i
c( CAR)andAsi an
countr
iesli
keIraq,Lebanon,Afghani
stanandSyri
a.Thishasaf fect
edpeacei nt hese
nat
ionshencer
ender
ingt
hemovementi
nef
fect
ive.

4.TheNAM hasf ail


edt odevelopi ntoacohesivebodyt hatcant hreatent hewor l
dpower
bl
ocs.Thepowerbl ocs,thatis,EasternandWest er
nbl ocshavecont inuedt oexisteven
aft
erthecollapseofcol dwarpol i
ti
cs,henceleadingtoanew t rendofi mper i
ali
sm.The
NAM isthesecondl argestorganisati
onaf t
ertheUNandhasabout60%ofi t
smember s
asmember soft heUNaswel l
.Themovementhashoweverf ai
ledt oexertitsinf
luencein
worldpoli
ti
csast hepowerbl ocshaveal waysappear edsuperiort othemovementand
hencecontinuesubor dinati
ngt heal i
gnedst atesinwor l
daffairs.Themovementhas
henceremainedinani nferi
orpositi
ondur i
nginternat
ionalconventionsliketheUN- General
Assembly.

5.Memberst atesoft hemovementhavenotabsol utelyfol


lowedthe" pri
ncipl
eofnon-
ali
gnment"or" posi
tiveneutral
i
t y"
.Theali
gnedstatessi ncecoldwartimesfai
ledtouphold
theprinci
pleof" posi ti
veneut
r al
it
y",andinst
eadendedupi dent
if
yingthemselvesalong
for
eignideologies.i
. e.capi
tal
ism andcommuni sm.Thef ai
l
ureofpositi
veneut r
ali
tyhas
notonl yperpetuated neo¬col oni
ali
sm in memberst atesoft hemovement ,butalso
underminesthesover ei
gnstat
usandi ndependentexistenceoftheal
ignedstates.

6.TheNAM hasf ail


edtopreventideol
ogicalconf
lict
samongmemberst ates.Conf
li
ctshave
occur r
edamongmemberst at
esasar esul
tofideological
:di
ffer
ences.Thebi ggernations
oft hemovementhaveonmanyoccassi onsundermi nedproceedi
ngsf orwar
dedbyNon-
al
ignedmember sr egar
dedt obeweakert hant hem.Thi shasaf fectedt heprocessof
fi
ndi ngacommonappr oacht oproblemsoft hewor l
dandt heref
orehi nderi
ngsolidari
ty
withinthemovement.

7.Themovementhasf ail
edt opr omot eeconomi cdevelopmentofmemberst ates.Most
membersar eweaksci enti
ficall
y,technical
lyandsoci o-
economical
ly,whichhas caused
thei
rpol
i
ticalvulnerabil
it
yt oneo- coloni
alinfl
uenceofpowerbl ocs.Asar equi
rement
,the
movementhasf ai
ledi ntheendeavor stocollecti
vel
yencouragecapacitydevelopmentof
i
tsmemberst atest ouplif
t–t hei
rsoci o-
economi calwelf
are.

8.Themovementhasf ai
l
edi ni t
sendeavour st oimpr oveont helivi
ngcondi ti
onsoft he
peopleofi tsmemberst ates.Maj or
it
yoft heNon- Ali
gnedmemberst ateshavebeen
i
ncreasinglyaffectedbyt hel evel
sofi gnorance,diseases,pover t
y,starvationandot her
rel
ated socio-economi cproblems.Thei ntervent
ion oft hewest er
ni nt ernat
ionalnon-
government alorganisat
ionshasopenedgat esf orincreaseddomi nationandexpl oi
tat
ion
ofNon-alignedst ates.Thepoor estnationsoft hewor l
dr egardi
ngt otheUNDPpover t
y
i
ndexar emost lymember softhemovement .

9.Economiccooper at
ionhasnotbeencompl et
elyachievedamongNon- al
ignedst at
es.The
poorqualit
yofagr i
cultur
alandi
ndustri
alcommodi t
iesofNon- ali
gnedst ateshasf orced
mostoft hem establi
sheconomicandt r
adetieswitht hewest.Compet iti
onforwest ern
i
nvestorshasbeenr ampantamongNAM member sint heiref
for
tstoupliftthei
reconomi c
standar
ds.Allthesehaveonlyhi
nderedeconomi crelati
onsofNon- Al
ignedmember sbut
al
so wor sen t
he dependence syndrome among memberst ates oft he Non-aligned
movement .

10.Themovementhasf ail
edtocheckonper sonalconf
li
ctsofheadsofNon- ali
gnedst
ates
whichhaveaffect
edthemovement .I
n1969,Fi delCast
roofCubaor ganisedtheHavana
Confer
ence ofNon-ali
gned count
ri
es whi ch some memberst at
es ignored.Confl
i
cts
exi
stedbetweenSult
anHassanofMor occoandBenAl iofTunisi
a,Josephkabi l
aofDR-
CongoandPaulKagameofRwanda.
11.Themovementf ail
edt ocondemnandpr eventmi l
i
tarism ofgr eatpower sintheNon-
al
ignedcountri
es.Maj orPower soft hewor ldsincet he1960shaveexer ci
sedactsof
aggressi
onagainsti
n-ali
gnedcount ri
esf orexample;Francet est
edanucl earbombinthe
Saharain1966andt heVSbombar dmentofBenghazii nLibyai nthe1980s.TheNAM did
nottakeacti
onapar tfrom verbal
lycondemni ngt hemaj orpower s.Theweaknessofthe
movementi npreventi
ngmi li
tari
sm maj orpower swasf urtherexposedin2011whent he
NATO unleashedexpl osi
onsi nLibyaagai nstGadhaf i'
sr egime.Themovementdi dnot
cl
earlycomeouttor escueLibyafrom theNATOi mperiali
sm.

12.NonAl i
gnedmember shavef ai
ledtopreventinfl
uenceofwest erncult
uresfrom er
oding
nati
vecul t
uralheri
tage.TheNon- ali
gnedstateshavecont i
nuousl
ybeendomi nat
edby
westerncultur
alagainstthenativecult
uresandt hishasaf f
ectedthesocialandcult
ure
i
ntegrat
ions the movement .Dubious western pract
ices l
ike homosexuali
tyand gay-
marri
agear ehighl
ygr owing i
nt heNAM f rater
nitycourtesyofwest ernmoneysand
pol
iti
calfavourspouri
ngintodesperat
ecountri
es,mostofwhi chareNon-Ali
gned.

13.Somememberst ateshaveaccept
edbi ggerpowerst oest abl
ishmili
tar
ybasesi ntheir
ter
ri
tori
es.Suchstatesi
ncludePaki
stan,Egypt
,Kenya,CentralAfri
canRepubli
c(CAR),I
raq,
Afghani
stanment i
onbutaf ew.Theestabli
shmentofmi li
tarybasesinNon-al
ignedstat
es
hasunder minedt hesoverei
gnstatusandt err
it
orialint
egr i
tythatthemovementhas
str
onglyencouraged.

14.Non-Alignedst ateshavebecomebr eedinggroundsf orterr


oristactivit
iesint hewor l
d.
Terr
oristor ganisat
ionshaveharboured,or
ganisedandunl eashedact ivi
tiesoft er
ror
ism
usi
nggr oundsofi li
gnedstat
esliketheSudan,Somal i
a,Pakistan,Afghani stanandIraq.
Theleaderoft heAlQaeda,OsamaBi nLadenwaski l
l
edi nAbbot tabadi nPakist
an,a
str
ong memberofNAM,wher ei thad soughtr ef
ugef oll
owi ng t
hepopul armassive
ter
rori
stact i
vit
iesofSeptember11,2011ont heUSA.

THEPAN AFRI CAN MOVEMENT( PAM)ANDTHECONCEPTOFPAN AFRI CANI


SM SINGE
1900
ThePanAf r
icanMovement( PAM)isanorgani
sat
ionofsel
f-
expr
essi
on,coordi
nat
ionand
resi
stanceofAf r
icanpeopl
esthr
oughoutt
heworldint
hei
rquestforatotalandcomplet
e
l
iberati
on.

TheconceptofPanAfri
cani
sm emphasisesspi
ri
tualuni
tyofbl
acksi
ntheworldwi
thastr
ong
att
achmenttowardst
heblackconti
nentAfri
ca.I
tseekstounif
ytheAfr
icanpeopl
eorpeopl
e
l
ivi
nginAfri
ca,i
ntoa"
OneAf r
icancommunity.
"

Themovementuphol dst herighttosel f


-gover
nance( i
ndependence)i
nAf ri
ca,recognisesthe
desir
etopreserveandrevivetheAf r
icancultur
alheri
tageandAf ri
caneconomicadvancement .
Itcondemnsslaveryandcol oniali
nfluencethatrapedtheAf r
icancult
uralheri
tage.'hence,i
t
aimsatachievi
nganAf r
icanper sonali
tyanddignit
y.

PanAf ri
cani
sm pr
e-supposesthatbothAf r
icansintheDiaspor
aandt hoseinAf r
icasuffer
ed
atthehandsofthewhi t
erace.TheAf r
icandescendantsi
nt heDi
asporasuffer
edf rom sl
aver
y
underthewhitesl
ave-l
ordsandthosei nAfri
cawer esubj
ectedtountol
datroci
tiescommi tt
ed
againstt
hem byEuropeancoloni
ali
sts.

Itisont hi
sbasisthattheadvocat esofpanAf ri
canism,whoi ncl
uded,Dr .Will
iam Edward
Burdhgart(
WEB)DuBoi s,Blai
seDi agne,Dr .Alexander,Mar cusGarveyandGeor gePadmor e
etcet
era,emer
gedt oopposethecont inuedoppr essi
onandexpl oi
tat
ionofbl acksbythewhi t
e
raceinthepol
it
icalandsocio-
economi cf i
elds.Theadvocat esofPanAf r
icanism wereAfri
can
descendantsi
nthediasporamainlyf r
om Amer i
cas(includi
ngWestI ndiesandt heCar i
bbean).
Theywerefr
eed-sl
avesbutsti
llfacingmargi
nal
isat
ion.TheAf
ri
candescendant
swer edeni
ed
fr
eedomsofassociati
on,ownershipoflandandpropert
yandwerer
acial
lydi
scri
minatedwi
th
novoti
ngri
ghts.

Theref
ore,t
hePanAf ri
cani
stslongedtoimpr oveont hepositi
onoft hebl ack-manthrough
agi
tati
ngforequaltr
eatmentf r
om thewhit
er ace.Theyidenti
fi
edt hemselveswi t
hAfri
caand
desi
redtoseeAf ri
caf r
eef r
om forei
gnrul
eandEur opeandomi nati
on.Toachi evethi
s,they
came up witht he conceptofPan Af ri
canism implying t
heirspiri
tualuni on wi
tht hei
r
motherl
andAfri
ca.

ThePanAf ricanconceptwasai medatagit


ati
ngforapoli
ti
calfederat
ionofAf ri
canstates
underthe"Uni t
ed,Stat
esofAf ri
ca.
"However,wit
htheattai
nmentofi ndependence,the
conceptofapoliti
cal
l
yunit
edAf r
icawassoonrepl
acedbyt
heasserti
onofcompet ingnati
onal
i
nterest
swithinthenewlyi
ndependentAf
ri
canstat
es.

Ori
ginofpanAf ri
cani
sm
PanAf r
icani
sm isapol i
ti
calandcultur
alphenomenont hatregar
dsAf r
ica,Afr
icansand
Afr
icandescendantsabroadasauni t
,andaimsattheregenerat
ionandunifi
cat
ionofAfri
ca
andthepromotionofthefeeli
ngofsol
idar
it
yamongthepeopleoftheAfr
icanworld.

PanAf r
icanism ori
ginatedintheNewWor l
dint
heeighteenthandni net
eent
hcent
uri
esasan
i
ntegralpar tofthebl ackli
berat
ionstr
uggleagai
nstwhi tedomi nati
onandexpl
oit
ati
on.I
n
Afr
ica,t
hePanAf ri
canMovement( PAM)tookanewtwistofliber
ationfr
om t
hedat
eoffasci
s:
I
tal
ianaggr essi
ononEt hi
opi
anin1935.

ThePAM ar oseoutofandinresponsetotheoppressi
onsofAf
ri
canpeopl
esfort
hei
rdigni
ty,
sel
f-respectandindependentstatehood,andsuppressi
onofthei
rspeci
alandeconomic
fr
eedom.

By1900,t heAf
ri
candescendantshadintensifi
edthei
racti
viti
est osecur
eequalri
ghts,self
-
governmentandindependenceforAfr
ica,anduni t
yoft heAf r
icanpeoples.Mar
cusGar vey
ref
err
edt hePAM asani nspir
ati
ontoencour ageself
-awarenessont hepartofAfr
icansby
encouragi
ngthest
udyoftheirhi
stor
yandculture.

Thel
eader
shi
poft
hemovementcamef
rom t
heAmer
icasunt
ilt
hef
if
thPACi
nManchest
er

UK,i
n1945,whi
chsawtheemer
genceofAf
ri
cannati
onal
i
stf
igur
es/notablyKwameNkr
umah
andJomoKenyatt
a,wi
thapr
ogr
ammeofAf r
ican'
aut
onomyandindependence.

Themovementst ar
tedasablacki nt
ell
ect
ual,cult
uralandpoli
ti
calmovementthatadvocated
fortheri
ght
sandf reedomsofAf ri
candescendantsint henewwor l
d( Ameri
ca,WestIndies,
andt heCar
ibbean)
.TheseAf r
icandescendant sroseupf ol
l
owingt hediscr
imi
nati
ont hey
facedaft
ert
heaboli
tionofsl
avetradeandslavery.

ThePanAf ri
cani
sm wasaj ointef
fortbyAf r
ican-
Americanstof ightagainstslaver
y,whi
te
domi nati
onandexpl oi
tati
ont heyexperi
encedintheDiaspora.Theyf el
tdepressed,homel
ess
asor phansand so much unwant ed inthe New Wor ld.Theyhence,t hought-ofAfri
ca
excellentl
yandwi thnodoubtast hei
rancestrall
andandbel ievedt hecontinentwasthei
r
sourceofl oveandhappiness.

Thepi oneer
sofPanAf ri
canism wereintel
lect
ualsli
keMar cusGarveyfrom Jamai ca,astr
ong
scholarand wr i
ter,Dr.Wi l
li
am Edwar d Burdhgart(WEB)DuBoi s,Dr.Alexander,George
Padmor eandSyl vesterWill
iamsaTr inidadlawyer.Educationwast heref
ore,amaj orf
actor
thatarousednational
ism oftheseNegr osandt hei
rdesir
ef orfr
eedom.Theyshar edt hesame
objecti
veofliber
atingtheblackracethought heydif
feredinapproach.MarcusGar veyheaded
agroupt
hatwasradi
calandsuppor
tedamili
tantappr
oachwhereasot
hersli
keDr.DuBoi
s
wer
emoderat
eaidopt
edforst
rongconst
it
uti
onalmeansofachi
evi
ngAfr
icandemands.

ThePanAf r
icani
stsformedassociationsandheldconf er
encesthatl
aterexportedtheideasof
Pan Afr
icanism to Af r
ica.The associati
ons included the Ameri
can Negr oes Academy
Associ
ati
onofDr .Alexander
,theNat i
onalAssociati
onf ortheColouredPeopl eledbyDr .
Wil
li
am Edwar dBurdghartDuBois,andtheUniversalNegroMovementofMar cusGar vey.

Sincethei ncepti
onofPanAf ri
cani
sm,aser i
esofPanAf ri
canCongresses( PACs)havealso
proceededi nthevari
ousciti
esacrossEurope,Amer i
caandAf ri
ca.TheyincludedthePACi n
London-UK ( 1900);t
he1919PAC i nPar i
s-France;the1921PAC i nLondon- UK,Brussels-
Belgium andPar i
s-Fr
ance;t
he1923PACi nLondon- UKandLi sbon-Por
tugal;the1927PACi n
New Yor k-USA;the1945PACi nManchester-
UKandt he1958AAPCi nAccr aGhana.Other
i
nf er
encesi ncl
udedtheSixt
hPACi nDaresSal aam-Tanzani
a(1974)andt heSeventhPACi n
Kampal a-Uganda(1994).

Ai
m andobject
ivesofPanAfr
icani
sm
 Promoteandf orgeunit
yofblacksal
lovert
hewor
ldr
egar
dlessofeducat
ionand
economiclevel
s

 Restorethebl
ack-man'srespectanddi
gni
tyt
hatwaswhi
tewashedbysl
aver
yand
Europeancol
oni
alexpl
oit
ati
on.

 Revi
vetheAf
ri
cancul
tur
alher
it
aget
hatwasunder
minedbysl
aver
y,Chr
ist
iani
tyand
col
onial
i
sm.

 Tobuil
dandestabl
i
shast rongloyal
tytoAfr
ica,asopposedtoi
ndi
vi
dualanddi
vi
sive
i
nter
ests:t
hePanAfr
icani
stsencouraged"
Afr
icanforAfr
ican.
"

 Est
abl
i
shast
rongbl
ackvoi
ceagai
nstwhi
tedomi
nat
ionandexpl
oit
ati
on.

 Promotei
nter
nat
ionalr
elat
ionswi
thot
herr
aceswi
thoutAf
ri
cansbei
ngensl
avedor
expl
oit
ed.

 Pr
omot
erespectoft
her
ight
sofAf
ri
cans.

 Upl
i
ftAf
ri
cani
nter
est
sandt
hedesi
ret
odevel
op.

 Er
adi
cat
eint
erst
ateconf
li
ctsoutoft
heent
ir
eAf
ri
cancont
inent
.

 Ensurer espect and defence of Af ri


can sover
eignty,ter
ri
tor
ial i
ntegri
ty and
i
ndependencet hePanAfr
icanistswantedtopr
eventforei
gner
sfrom expl
oit
ingAfr
ican
resour
cesan:inter
veni
nginAfricanaff
air
s.

 Enf
or cer
egionaleconomici
ntegr
ati
onasawayofendi
ngeconomi
cexpl
oit
ati
onoft
he
Afr
icanstat
esbyf orei
gner
s.

 Upl
i
ftt
heAf
ri
canst
andar
dsofl
i
vingandpossi
blycur
bdownpover
ty.

 Pr
omot etechnologi
caltr
ansferfrom t
henew worl
dt oAf
rica. ThePanAf r
icani
sts
hi
ghli
ghtedscienceandtechnologyasameanst opromotedevelopmentandcreate
mater
ialcondi
tionsf
ortheli
berati
onoftheAf
ri
canpeopl
e.

Pleasenot
e:
Theemancipati
onofwomen,t heendtoapart
hei
d,rel
i
giousfreedom,freedom ofmovement
,
fr
eedom ofexpr
essi
on,economiccooper
ati
on,Af
ri
canunityandsocialt
ransfor
mati
onwereal
pl
acedont hePanAfr
icanagendaf orAfr
icanli
berat
ionfr
om theper
iodofslaver
ytothe
i
ndependenceoft
heAf
ricancont
inentandf
reedom t
othepeopl
esthr
oughoutt
heworld.

THEPANAFRI CANMOVEMENTI NPHASES


PHASE1si nce1900
Themoder nPanAfri
canMovementst
art
edl
eadingt
hestruggl
eforAfr
icanr
ight
soff
ici
all
yin
1900.Duri
ngt hi
speri
od,aseri
esofPanAfr
icanConf
erences(PACs)wereheldi
nvarious
ci
ti
esacrossEuropeandAmeri
ca.

Thi
swasmai nl
yaradicalmovementdominat
edbyi nt
ell
ect
ualsf
rom Ameri
caandWestIndi
es
whoincludedDr.Wi
ll
iam EdwardBurdhgar
t(W.E.
B.)DuBois,Mar
cusGarvey,Geor
gePadmore,
andAlexander.

Itwaschar act
erisedbyPol i
ti
calmanoeuvr
esi nEur opeanandAmer i
cancapit
als,ai
medat
l
iber
atingtheblacksallovert
heworldfr
om racialsegregati
on.Var
iousconfer
enceswerehel
d
duri
ngt hi
speriodandt hi
swasbecauseoft hei nt
ell
ectualchar
acter
ist
icofthePAM.The
confer
encesheldi ncl
uded:

The1900LondonConf erence;
Thiswasthef ir
stconfer
enceofpeopl eofAf r
icandescent
:itorgani
sedbySirHenrySyl
vest
er
Will
iamsaTr ini
dadianBarri
st er.Theconferencetookplacefrom July23-25att
heLondon's
WestMi ni
sterHall.I
twasat tendedbySt aunchandr adi
calPanAf ri
cani
stsli
keAl
exanderand
Dr.Will
i
am Edwar dBurdhgart( W.E.
B.)DuBois.

The 1900 London confer


ence was the fi
rstever-
poli
ti
calconf erence by bl
acks to be
recogni
sedbythewhiteadmini
str
ator
s,andt hefi
rstt
ounitethepeopl eofAfri
canorigi
n.The
delegat
escondemnedthegrabbi
ngofAf r
icanlandandraci
aldiscr
iminationbycol
oniali
sts.

Duringt
heconfer
ence,Dr .Wi l
l
iam EdwardBur dhgart(W.E.
B.)DuBoi sdraftedalet
tertothe
QueenoftheUKandot herEuropeanleader
sappeal ingtothem tostruggleagai
nstr
acism,to
grantbl
ackcol
oniesinAf ri
caandt heWestI ndiestherighttoself
-government.DuBoisalso
demandedforpol
iti
calandot herr
ightsfort
hebl acksintheUnit
edSt ates.

The1919PACi nParis:
Theconferencewast hefir
stoff
icialPAC.Itwashel dfrom Febr uar
y19- 21.Itwasor gani
sed
byDr.Wil
li
am Edwar dBurdghar
t(W. E.
B.)DuBoisassist
edbyaSenegal esebornBlaiseDiagne,
theHeadofChamber '
sCommi tteeonCol oni
es.Fift
y-seven( 57)del egat
esf r
om Amer i
ca,
WestIndi
esEur ope,andAfri
caattended,represent
ingabout85, 000,000peopl eofNegr oand
Afr
icandescentAfri
candelegat
eswer efr
om Egypt,Abyssinia,Liber
ia,Algeri
a,BelgianCongo
andthePortuguesecoloni
es.

Manypeopl
ecouldhaveattendedt hePar
isconfer
encebutweredeni
edpassport
sbyt he
Br
it
ishandAmericangover
nment s.Thepurposeofthemeeti
ngwastouni tbl
ackleaders
worl
dwi
detosecurei
nter
nat
ional
izati
onoff
ormerGermancol
oniesi
nAfr
ica.

Theconferencewasatt heti
mevectorpowersofWorldWarIl edbytheBri
tishandFr ance,
wereholdingtheVer sai
ll
espeaceSett
lementinthecityofPar i
s.Themai nt askofPan
Afri
cani
stswaspet i
ti
onthemajorpower
sattendi
ngtheVersai
ll
espeaceconference.DrWEB
Duboiswantedtherecommendati
onsoftheAfri
canConfer
encetoberecogni
zedbyt heAlli
ed
Vict
orsatVersai
ll
es.

Inthenameofjust
iceandhumanity,thePanAfri
candel
egat
esi nPar
isdemandedf
ort
he
str
engt
heni
ngofthefor
ceofcivi
l
izationandthat
,immedi
atestepsbetakent
odevel
opt
he
peopl
eofAf r
icandescent.Theresolut
ionatt
hePACinPar
ishence,st
ipul
atedthat:
 TheAl l
iedvi ctor
sandt hei
rassoci at
esest
abl
i
shedacodeofl aws.“ Forinter
nat
ional
pr
otect
iont othenat
ivesofAfri
ca.”

 Est
ablishmentofapermanentBur
eawhosespecialdutywasto“over
seet
heappli
cat
ion
ofthel aw st
ipul
atedi
n(a)abovetot
hepolit
ical,soci
alandeconomicwel
far
eoft he
nat
ives.”

 Thenat i
vesofAf r
icaand peopl
eofAf
ri
can descentnr“
gover
ned accor
ding t
othe
pri
nci
plesment
ionedabove.
”

 Landandal
li
tsnat
uralr
esour
cesbepr
eser
vedf
ort
henat
iveswi
thef
fect
iveowner
shi
p.

 Capit
alinvest
mentandgrant
ingofconcessi
onsberegul
atedsoast
opr
eventexpl
oit
ati
on
ofnati
vesandexhaust
ionofthenat
uralweal
thoft
hecount r
y.

 Thegr
owingsoci alneedsofthenati
vesmustber
egar
dedandpr
ofi
tsbet
axedf
orsoci
al
andmater
ialbenefit
softhenati
ves.

 Theri
ghtofever
ynati
vechil
dtol
ear
ntor
eadandwr
it
eint
hei
rownl
anguageandt
he
l
anguageoft
hetr
ust
eenati
ves.

 Sl
averandcor
poralpuni
shmentbeabol
ishedandf or
cedlabourexcepti
npuni
shmentf
or
cr
imeandthestat
etoprescr
ibeandr
egulat
elabourcondi
ti
ons.

 PersonsofAfri
cansdescentshouldbeaccor
dedthesamer i
ghtl
ikethei
rfel
lowciti
zens
(whit
es)andnott obedeniedavoi cei
ngovernment,cour
tjust
iceorsocialeconomic
equali
tyonaccountofr
aceorcolour.

 Gr
eat
ersecur
it
yofl
i
feandpr
oper
tyshoul
dbeguar
ant
eedal
lthenat
ives.

 Nat
ives workers,l
ike whi
tes,shal
lequi
tabl
erepr
esent
ati
on i
n al
lthe i
nter
nat
ional
i
nst
itut
ionsoftheLeagueofNati
ons.

 IncasepeopleofAfr
icansdescentaredeli
ber
atel
ydeni
ed(excl
eded)fr
om socialpol
i
tical
andcult
uralaf
fai
rsonraci
algrounds,i
tshal
lbethedut
yofLeaguetoint
ervene.

Theaboveresol
uti
onsresol
uti
ons,whichwerealsosenttoMr.Charl
esEvansHughes,t
heUS
Secr
etar
yofSt ate,werehowever,reject
ed bytheAl l
i
ed vi
ctor
satt heVersal
li
esPeace
Conf
erence.

THE1921LONDONPAC
Thi
swast hesecondPanAf r
icanCongresshel
dinseveralsessi
ons.ItbeganinLondonUK,
whil
eotherconf erencewer
ehel dinPari
sFranceandBr ussel
sBelgi
um.Amongdel egates
whodeliberatel
ywasW.F.Hut chi
nson,aj
our
nali
stf
rom GoldCostandanI ndi
anrevol
uti
onary
Shapur
jiSaklatvala.

ThisPACwasmost lyfocusedonchangetobepresi
dedoveri nAfr
icabytheEur
opeans,f
or
thegoodofAfri
cannatives.Themeeti
ngwasmorepr acti
calthant
heprevi
ousones.Atthe
Londonsessi
on,LondonResol uti
onswer
eadopt
ed,laterrest
atedby(W.E.
B)DuBoisinhis
Manifest
otot
heLeagueofNat i
ons.

“Engl
and,wit
hallherPaxBr
it
annic,hercour
tsofj
usti
ce,est
abl
ishedcommer ce,
andacertai
n
apparentr
ecogni
ti
onofNati
velawsandcustoms,hasnevert
hel
esssystemat
icall
yfost
ered

i
gnor
anceamongt
heNat
iveAf
ri
cans,hasensl
avedt
hem,andi
sst
il
lensl
avi
ngt
hem,has
usual
lydecli
nedeventotr
ytotr
ainbl
ackandbr
ownmeni nrealsel
f-
government
,torecogni
se
educatedblacksasci
vil
i
sed,ortogr
anttoAfr
icancol
oni
est hoseri
ghtsofsel
f-gover
nment
whichitfr
eelygi
vest
owhi t
emen."

1923LONDONCONFERENCE:
Thiswasthethi
rdPAChel df i
rstinLondon-UKandconcludedi
nLisbon-Port
ugal133black
delegat
esfr
om theworld-
overattendedthemeet i
ng.Thi
smeeti
ngwast otal
l
yunorgani
sed.
Thismeeti
ngwasal soar epeatoft hedemandssuchassel f
-r
ule,thepr obl
emsint he
Diaspor
aandtheAfr
ican-Eur
opeanr el
ati
onship.

Thecongr essclai
medt
hattheabsol
uteequali
tyofal
lracesi
nthephysical
,pol
i
ticalandsoci
o-
economi cf i
eldswasafoundi
ngstonetohumanadvancement .Themaj orconcer nofthe
conferencewashowever,thesoci
ali
mpr ovementoftheblackracethanpoli
ti
calf r
eedoms.
Thef ol
lowingwasaddr
essedatthemeetng:
i

a. Thedevel
opmentofAfr
icashoul
dbef
ort
hebenef
itofAf
ri
cansandnotmer
elyf
ort
he
prof
it
sofEur
opeans.

b.Thereshoul
dbehomer
uleandar
esponsi
blegover
nmentf
orBr
it
ishWestAf
ri
caandt
he
Bri
ti
shWestIndi
es.

c. TheAboli
ti
onofthepr
etensi
onofawhi
temi
nor
it
ytodomi
nat
eabl
ackmaj
ori
tyi
nKenya,
Rhodesi
aandSouthAf
ri
ca.

d.Lynchi
ngandmobl
awi
ntheUSshoul
dbesuppr
essed:(
thel
awmost
lyhar
assedbl
acks)

THE1927PACI NNEW YORK:


Itwasschedul edtositi
nTunisiabutf ai
ledbecauseBr i
tai
nandFr ancecoul dnotal l
ow an
Afr
icansi t
tinginNewYor kitwashoweverat t
endedby208del egat
essignif
icantl
yifadopted
andr einf
orcedmostoft heresolut
ionssimilar
lyi
tpasseddur i
ngtheearl
ierconferences.The
col
oni alaut hori
ti
es i
n Afr
ica denied passpert
st o Af r
icans who wished t o att
end the
conferencei ntheUS.Thisfourt
hPanAf ri
canConf erencehoweveradopt edresoluti
onsthat
weresi mil
art otheThi
rdPan-Afri
canCongr essmeetings.

NOTE:
PhasesIhadli
tt
lei
mpactasitneveri
nvol
vedareasonabl
enumberofblacksfr
om t
heAf
ri
can
cont
inent
.Itwasal
sonotspeci
fi
cindemandingofri
ghtsandi
ndependence.

PHASEII(1945)
Thi
speriodwasat ur
ningpoi
ntinthehist
oryofPanAf ri
cani
sm,it
sgrowthanddevel
opment
.It
st
artedwiththefi
fthPanAf r
icanCongressheldi n1945inManchesterUK.Delegat
eswho
at
tendedwerefrom Ameri
ca,Afri
ca,WestIndi
es,EuropeandtheCar
ibbean.

Thefift
hPanAf r
icanCongresswast henextgatheri
ngaf
terthef
ir
stmaj orf
ourheldinphaseI.
TheConf erenceinManchest erwaspr e-dominat
edbyAf r
icandel
egatesforthefir
sttimein
thehist
or yofPanAf r
icani
sm,Amongt heAfri
canswhoat t
endedwer eWallaceJohnsonfrom
Sier
raLeonePet erAbrahamsf rom SouthAfri
ca,chi
efObafemiAwolowoandNnamdiAzi ki
we
ofNigeria.Juli
usNyer er
eofTanganyi ka,KwameNkr umahandDanquahoft heGoldCoast,
JomoKenyat t
aofKenyaandHast i
ngsKamuzuBandaofNyasal and.

Thef ocusofdi scussi


onwasont heli
berati
onofcoloni
alAfri
ca.TheManchesterConference
wasor ganisedbyaspeci al'Int
ernati
onalConferenceSecretar
iat
'consi
sti
ngofDr .Pet er
Mil
liardofBr i
ti
shGuyanaaschai r
person.KwameNkr umahoft heGol
dCoastandGeor ge
Padmor eofTr ini
dadasjointsecretari
es,JomoKenyat taofKenyaasassistantsecretary,
PeterAbr ahamsofSout hAfri
caaspubl i
cit
ysecr
etaryandRasMakonnen( f
ormall
yGrif
fins)of
WestI
ndi
esact
edast
het
reasur
er.

About200parti
ci
pantsatt
endedmostl
yfr
om colonialAfr
ica.SomeoftheseAfr
icandel
egates
l
aterbecamef ut
urepresi
dentsofi
ndependentAf r
icanstates.DuBoiswastheper manent
chair
persontoallt
hesessionsoftheManchest erconferencethatr
unf r
om the15-19of
October1945.

Someoft hefact
orsthatinfluencedtheManchest erConfer
enceincl
udedtheemer genceofan
el
it
eclassinAfri
ca,t
heI t
alianinvasi
onofEt hi
opia,WorldWarJ.I,Afr
icaneconomicboom,t he
1941 Atl
anti
c chart
er,and concer n overthe right
s ofpeopl e ofAfri
can descent.The
conf
erencewasbasicall
yt ouni t
etheindependencemovementl eadersandtofindappropr
iate
meansofachievi
ngAf r
icani ndependence.

Thesignificanceoft hefifthPanAfri
canConf erenceinManchest erReferenceQuest i
ons:
a)Exami net heimpactoft heManchesterconf erenceont hedevel opmentofPanAf ri
canism
b)To whatext entdi dt heFi f
thPanAf ri
canCongr essi nfl
uencet hegr owthofAf ri
can
nati
onal i
sm?
c)Explaint hesigni f
icanceoft he1945conf erenceinManchest eronPanAf ri
canism
1.TheManchest erConf erenceAfr
icanisedt heconceptofPanAf r
i sm:I
cani twast hefirst
PanAf ricanConf erencet obeattendedbymanydel egatesfrom Af ri
ca.Thedel egatesat
theconf erenceshar edcommonant -colonialsentiment s,ast heywer eundert hesame
colonialmast ersnot ablytheBri
tishandt heFr ench.Thei deasacqui redatManchest er
prompt edt hem t oreturnhomeandconsol idatetheliberati
onmovement .

2.Theconf erencebr oughtt oget


herAfricansf r
om Af ri
caandt hosei ntheDi aspora.It
foster
edunitybetweent het wogroupsofPanAf r
icani
sts.Theconf erenceencour agedco-
operati
onamongPanAf ri
canistswhoshar edideasandst rat
egiesofachievi nguni t
yand
i
ndependenceofAf ri
cans.ThePanAf r
icanist
sf r
om,Af ri
cabur i
edt heirmisconcept i
onof
thosei nthedi aspora,whom t heyhad r egarded asst rangers.TheAf ri
canDi aspor
a
assuredtheircol
leaguesfrom Afri
caoftheirsupportagainstEuropeandomi nati
on.

3.Duringtheconference,thedelegatesagr eedtosellt
heideaofPanAf ri
cani
sm toAfrica.
Theysuggestedtheshi f
tingofthePanAf ri
canbasefrom t
heDiasporat
oAf r
ica.Onr
eturn
to Afri
ca,t
heAf ri
can delegateslaid down a strat
egyofest abli
shi
ng a Pan Af
rican
foundati
onthatcamet or eal
it
yaftert
hei ndependenceofGhanain1957.

4.I
tencour aged delegates f
rom Af r
ica tor eturn home and l ead theircountri
es t
o
i
ndependence.Upont heendoft heconference,theseAfri
candelegatesr et
urnedhometo
thei
rrespect
ivecountr
iestoleadtheindependencestruggl
e.KenyattareturnedtoKenyai
n
1946andNkr umahr etur
nedt ot heGol dCoasti n1947.Nyer ere,NnamdiAzi luweall
foll
owedsuit
,withKamuzuBandar et
urningtoNyasalandmuchl ater.

5.TheManchest erconferencecalledf oreffecti


vemobi l
isati
oni nordertoscor eagainst
coloniali
sm.PanAf r
icanistsont heAf ri
cancont i
nentwer etherefor
einfl
uencedt oform
radicalmovement st hatdemanded f orimmedi ate autonomyand i ndependence,and
respectf orsoverei
gntyandt er
ri
tor
ialintegri
tyofAfri
canst ates.Theradicalmovement s
(polit
icalpart
ies)adopt edsloganslike'Self-
deter
minationNOW andpassedr esol
uti
ons
demandi ngforf r
eedom,j ust
iceanddemocr acyinAfr
ica.

6.Consequentl
y,delegatesfrom Africawere advised t
oi nvolve massesi nt he struggle
fori
ndependence.Unitywasalsocal l
edforamongt hef r
eedom f i
ghters.Upont hei
rreturn
toAfri
ca,thePanAf r
icani
stsinvolvedil
l
iter
atepeasantsint hestruggleagainstEuropean
dominati
onandsensi ti
sedthem onPanAf r
icanaffai
rs.Thisledt othepopul ari
tyoft he
i
ndependencemovement .Notably,NkrumahandKenyat tar especti
velytr
ansformedt he
UGCCandt
heKAUi
ntomasspol
i
ticalpar
ti
es.

7.Theconf er
enceledtoopencr i
ti
ci
sm agai nstEuropeancoloni
ali
sm inAfri
ca.Int
ell
ectual
at
tacks on colonialexploit
ati
on increased withi
n and outside Afr
ica f
oll
owing the
i
ncreased poli
ti
calawar enessofAf ri
cans.ThePan Af ri
cani
st saft
ertheManchest er
Conferencecondemnedt heconti
nuedi nhumanexpl oi
tat
ionofAf ri
cansthroughforced
l
abour,poli
ti
calsuppressi
onanddi scr
iminati
on,andlandgrabbi
ng.

8.Del
egatesatt heconfer
enceadvocatedforcul t
uralr evi
valamongAf r
icanstat
es.They
wereconcernedwiththeabuseoftheAf r
icanculturalheri
tagefoll
owingt hei
ntr
oduct
ion
ofChri
sti
anityandcol
onial
i
sm byEuropeans.Thedel egatesagreedthatpromoti
ngAfri
can
cul
tur
alvalueswouldhel
ptoredef
inetheAf r
icandignityandpersonali
ty.

9.Thef i
fthPanAf ri
canconf erenceled tot heformationoftheWestAfricanNati
onal
Secret
ari
at(WANS)i nDecember1945.Thesecr etar
iathadmemberswhower emainly
WestAf r
icanpoli
ti
ciansstayi
ngi ntheUKandFr ance.Theyi
ncl
udedDanquahf r
om the
GoldCoastandSengohofSenegal .TheWANSpol i
ti
cali
sedmember
swhor etur
nedhome
toAfri
catoacti
vel
yinvolvedintheindependencestr
uggle.

10.Theconf er
encewasoneoft heearl
iereventsthatencour
agedunity,soli
dari
tyandco-
oper
ation ofAf r
ican l
eader
s bothi ndependentas wellas those stil
lf i
ghti
ng for
i
ndependence.The Pan Af ri
cani
stsf rom independentAfr
ican States l
ike Ethi
opia
moti
vatedt hei
rcounterpar
tsfrom coloni
alAfri
catoconsoli
datetheirstr
uggleagainst
col
oniali
sm.

11.Thethemeoft heconf er
encest i
rredupPanAf r i
cani
sm.I tst
ated,'
Afr
icaforAfr
icansand
Afr
icaforblacks.'I
ttheref oreconsoli
datedAfricanpersonali
tyanddigni
ty.Thedelegates
attheManchest erConf er enceemphasi sedrespectf orAfri
candignit
y,soverei
gntyof
Afr
icanstat
esandr espectofr i
ghtsofAfri
cansinAf r
icaandblacksinthenewwor ld.They
demandedfort heimmedi at ewit
hdrawalofEuropeansf r
om Afri
ca.

12.The Manchest erConf erence mi l


it
ari
sed Afri
can national
i
sm.The del egates att he
conf
erencerealisedthatAf r
icanindependencecouldnotbeachi evedonasi lverpl
ateas
theEuropeancol oni
ali
st swer enotpr eparedtodecoloniseAfr
icanterri
tor
iesundert hei
r
cont
rol
.They agr eed t hati twas usel ess t
o condemn col onial
i
sm and i tsrelated
oppr
essivepolicieswithoutt aki
ngaction.Thedelegat
eshencesuppor tedtheuseoff orce
andwithdedicationforthesakeofAf ri
cancause.

13.ThefifthPanAf ri
canconferencel ai
dthef oundati
onforf urtherPanAf r
icanconfer
ences
(PACs) .PanAfricani
stsfrom Af r
icanotabl
yNkr umahandKenyat t
aacqui redorgani
zat
ion
ski
ll
st hatlat
erenabledthem t osuccessful
lyorgani
seAfricangat herings.Onachievi
ngthe
i
ndependenceofGhana,Nkr umahor ganisedthe"AllAfr
icanPeopl esConf er
ence"(AAPC)
i
nAccr a.Otherconferencesi ncl
udedthe1961Cai roConf erence,thesecondAl lAfri
can
PeoplesConf erenceof1974i nTanzaniaandt he1963conf erenceinAddi sAbabaduring
whicht heOAUchar t
erwassi gned.

14.Theconfer
encest rongl
ycondemnedr acism i
nt heworl
d.Thedel egatesdemandedfor
equaltr
eat
mentoft heblackr acebyotherracesespeci
all
yt hewhites.Theyatt
acked
raci
aldi
scr
iminat
ionofAf ri
cansandt hecolour
edi nSout
hAf ri
caandi nthenew world.
The Pan Afr
icanists encouraged t
he invol
vementof Af r
icans and blacks i
nt he
devel
opmentofthewor l
daf f
airs.

15.The1945PanAf ri
canconf
erenceincreasedtheacti
viti
esoftheWestAf ri
canStudent
s
Uni
on( WASU)
.Member sofWASUbecamei ncreasi
nglyradi
cal
;theyusedthepressto
at
tackcol
oni
alexpl
oit
ati
oni
nAf r
ica,
-peti
ti
onedtheBri
tishgover
nmentofClementAtl
eeto
decoloni
seBrit
ishcol
oni
esi
nAfr
ica'
-
orini
ti
ateref
ormstopoli
ti
cal
l
yempowert
heAfri
cans.
WASUemphasi sedunit
yamongAfri
canfreedom act
ivi
stsandacommonapproachto
att
ainself
-r
ule.

16.Delegat
es atthe ManchesterConf erence demanded forthe implementati
on ofthe
resol
uti
ons ofthe 1941 Atlant
ic chart
er.The delegat
es based thei
rarguments and
resol
uti
onsont heprinci
plesofthecharterthatdemandedf orsoverei
gnrightandself
-
governmentofal
lpeopleunderforei
gndomi nati
on.

PHASEI II(
1958)
EVENTSONTHEEVEOFTHEALLAFRI CANPEOPLES' CONGRESS( AAPC)
PhaseIIIofPanAf r
icani
sm wasmainlyaphaseofstruggl
eforAfri
canindependence,whi
ch
haditsroutesest
abli
shedsoonaf
tertheatt
ainmentofthei
ndependenceofGhanain1957.At
thetime,KwameNkr umahthefi
rstleaderofGhanawast hemai nacti
vistbehi
ndt hePan
Afr
icanMovementont heAf
ri
canconti
nent.

Nkrumahendeavouredt opursueanintegr
ati
veagendaofco- coor
dinat
inguni
tyofAfrican
st
ates.Heechoedthedr eam oft
hepi
oneersofPanAf r
icani
sm ofuni
fyi
ngtheAfr
icanpeople
orpeopl
eli
vi
nginAfrica,int
oa'OneAf
ricanCommunity.
'

From 1950to1965,thi
speriodcoul
dber ef
err
edtoast he'
AgeofkwameNkr umah,
'bywor
ds,
acti
onsandexampl e,Nkrumahmobi l
isedAfr
icanleader
sofbothindependentAf
ri
cast
ates
andli
berat
ionmovement sforPanAfri
cancauses.

Nkr umah'
s atti
tude was i
n confirmation wi
th hi
s decl
arati
on on the ni
ghtofGhana's
i
ndependencet hattheindependenceofGhanawasmeani ngl
essunlessitwaslinkedwi
th
totalli
berat
ionoftheAfri
cancontinent.Itwasforthi
sbackgroundthatthel
eaderofGhana
organisedvari
ousPanAfri
canCongr esses.

I
twast hereforefrom t
hisdatesigni
fi
edbyt heattai
nmentofGhanaianindependenceunder
t
hedynami cleadershi
pofNkr umahthatPanAfri
canism,asamovementofi ntegr
ation(uni
ty)
waspursuedwi t
hpurpose.Duri
ngthi
speriod,t
hePanAf r
icanMovementaimedati mprovi
ng
t
he African pol i
ti
calcultur
e and economi ci ntegr
ati
on at regi
onal,continent
alar id
i
nter
continentall
evel
s.

Nkrumahast hepaceset
terfi
rstspear
headedthefor
mat
ionofGhana-
Guineaunionearl
yin
1958.Theunionwasl at
erjoi
nedbyMal i,andthi
swasthef
ir
ststeptowardstheunionof
Afr
icanst
ates.

Secondl
y,Nkrumahorganisedaconfer
enceofindependentAfr
icanst
atesinAccr ai
nApr il
1958,justa yearaf t
erGhana'sindependence.The confer
ence was attended by all
i
ndependentAfr
icanst
atesofthet
imei.
e.Egypt
,Ethi
opi
a,Ghana'
hostst
ate)
,Liberi
a,Morocco,
SudanandTunisia.

The1958Apr ilconf
erenceofindependentAfri
canstatescal
ledforremovalofcustomsand
otherrestr
ict
ionson trade among allAfri
can stat
es;enhance economicexchanges-and
consequentl
yestabl
ishacommonmar ket
.TheindependentAfr
icanstat
esalsoproposedthe
establ
i
shmentoft heeconomi ccommi ssi
onofAfricaandadvocatedforthepol
it
icaluni
tyof
Afri
ca.

Ot
herissuesatt heconf
erenceincluded,assist
ancetot
heliber
ati
onmovementst hr
oughout
Af
ri
ca,therelati
onbetweenindependentAf r
icaandtheUni
tedNations,andonthewaysand
meansofpr otecti
ngAfri
cafrom thedi vi
si
venessofcoldwarpolit
icsoftheeastandwest
bl
ocs,aswellasadopt
ingtheNon-al
i
gnmentpolicy.Thei
ndependentAf
ri
canst
atesar
guabl
y
l
aidthebai
si
sf ort
heOrgani
zat
ionofAfr
icanUni
ty.

Lat
erinDecember1958,Nkrumahwi tht hehelpofGeor gePadmorewhom hehadappoi nted
ashiSpersonaladvi
soronPanAf r
icani ssuesconvenedanotherconferenceinAccraknown
astheAllAfri
canPeoplesConf
erence.
' Thiswasaconf erenceofbot
hl eader
sofindependent
Afr
icanstat
esandl i
ber
ati
onmovement s.

THEALLAFRI CANPEOPLESCONFERENCE( AAPC)


Over250del egatesandsever alobserversatt
endedtheAAPC.Someoft hemember swer e
repr
esentati
vesofAf r
icansf r
om SouthAf ri
ca(notabl
yMandela)whoescapedt heAparthei
d
securi
ty-
int
ell
igencenet worktoattendt hemeeting.Pat
ri
ceLumumba( Bel
gianCongo)and
KamuzuBanda( Nyasaland)werealsoamongt hedelegat
esfr
om coloni
alAfr
icathatat
tended
theAAPC.

I
ssuest hatwerediscussedincludedanti
-col
oni
ali
sm,anti-
imperi
ali
sm,anti
-raci
sm,Afri
can
unit
yandnon-al
ignment.Thedelegatesdi
scussedregi
onalgr
oupings,col
oni
alboundar
iesand
therol
eofchief
sandr el
igi
ousleaders.

TheDecember1958Accr aConf er
encewasi nt
endedt oinstallrevol
uti
onaryspir
iti
nt he
freedom fighter
sornat i
onal
ist
sasawayofachi evi
nganal l-
Africanindependenceandlater
thepr oposedUni t
edSt at
esofAf ri
ca.Nkr
umahinhi skeyaddr esst othedelegat
esstated,
'
Todayi sAf ri
canindependence,t
omor r
owist
heUnitedStat
esofAf ri
ca..
.'

Si
gni
fi
canceoft
hePAM-
Afr
icanPeopl
es'
Congr
ess

Ref
erenceQuesti
ons
a)How fardi
dtheAH-Af
ri
canPeopl
esConfer
ence(AAPC)inAccrainf
luencethegrowt
hof
Afri
cannati
onal
i
sm? ,
b)Assessthei
mpactoft
hePanAfri
canCongr
essofDecember1958onPanAf r
icani
sm

TheAll-
AfricanPeoplesConfer
encepr ovi
dedapl at
form oranavenueforinteracti
onbet ween
l
eadersofl i
ber
ati
onmovement sandi ndependentAfri
canst at
es.Thesedel egatesshared
amongstt hemselvesideas,st
rategi
esandwaysofachi evi
ngAfri
canindependence.Dur ing
theconferenceNkr umahhadl engt
hydi scussi
onswi t
hot herAfri
canpol i
ti
call eader
sl i
ke
Patr
iceLumumbaoft heBelgi
anCongo.Suchpol iti
calinter
act
ionscreatedabondamong
Afr
icanleaders.

Delegat
esatt heconfer
encecondemnedcolonial
ism andtheconti
nuedcol onialdominat
ionin
Afri
ca.Withconcer nofAf r
icanli
berat
ioncomingont opoft heconf erence'
sagenda,t he
delegat
esdiscussedamongot heri
ssuesanti
-col
onial
ism andanti
-i
mperiali
sm.Thi si
ncreased
Afri
cangrievancesagainsti
mper i
ali
sm andhenceconsol i
datedanti
-colonialsenti
mentson
theconti
nent.

Thedel egatesattheconf erencecondemnal lfor


msofr aci
sm inAf r
ica.Inthei
rviewsofanti
-
raci
sm,t heyattackedt her aci
stregimesinAlgeriabyt heFrench,inSout hAfricaandinthe
Portuguesecol onies.Theconf erenceagreedt opushf orthedi si
ntegrati
on(separati
on)of
CAF( CentralAfri
canFeder ati
on)anddemandedf orAfr
icanparti
cipati
oninSout hernRhodesi
a
NorthernRhodesi aandNyasal and( whi
chwer eBr i
ti
shcoloniesunderCAF) .Emphasiswas
alscputonr ecogniti
onoft hedignit
yofanAf r
icanperson.

The confer
ence emphasi sed Afri
can unit
y.The desireto achieve poli
ti
cal,cult
uraland
economicintegrat
ionbothatregionalandconti
nentall
evelwasclearl
yputf orwar
d.Thisform
o:integr
ati
on( unit
y)hadear li
eronbeenpr esentedattheApr ilcongressofi ndependent
Afri
canstates.Delegat
esatt heconf er
encereali
sedtheimportanceofAf ricancooperat
ion,
'
hence,t
hei
deaofuni
tywasemphasi
sedi
nther
estoft
heconf
erencest
hatf
oll
owed.

Consequentl
y,theAccraconfer
enceofDecember1958l ai
dthefoundati
onf ort
heformat i
onc:
Organi
sati
onofAf r
icanUnit
y( OAU).Thiscarneafterthedelegatesagreedt oestabli
shan
i
nstrument(body)thatwouldenableAfri
canstowor ktogetherandsolvethesocio-economi
c
andpoli
ti
calproblemsonthecont i
nentwit
houtinvol
vingtheint
ernati
onalcommuni t
y.

Duringt heconf erence,Nkrumahencouragedt hepolicyofNon- al


ignment,Hecalledupon
Afr
icanl eaderstoadoptt hepoli
cyofposi
tiveneutr
ali
tyasast r
ategyandmeansofpr otecti
ng
Afr
icanf rom neo-coloni
ali
sm andhosti
l
iti
esbetweencol dwarblocsoftheeastandwest .The
conference realised the import
ance ofpr o-Af
ri
canism as opposed t ot he i
deological
di
fferencesoft hesuperpower s.I
nhiswords,Nkrumahst at
ed,"Wefaceneit
herEastnorWest !
Wef acef orward."

Thedel egatesagreedtoestabli
shapermanentPanAf r
icansecr etar
iatinAfr
ica.Hence,af
ter,
theconf erence,GhanabecameaPanAf r
icanbaseandar evoluti
onarybaseoff r
eedom
fi
ghters.Africannati
onal
ist
svisi
tedNkrumah( Ghana)togetr evoluti
onarymoraleandpolit
ical
guidance.Thi swasal ong-
term achi
evement,whichPanAf r
icanistslongedfor.Fr
om Accr a-
Ghana,ant i
-coloni
alsent
imentswouldbeair
edoutwi thoutfear.

Consequently,t
heAccr aconf er
enceledt otheestabl
ishmentofr egi
onalgroupi
ngsinAf r
ica.
Thedelegatesattheconf er
encediscussedatl engt
hthei mport
anceofi nter
-stat
ecooperati
on
atregi
onallevelasaboostt oPanAf r
icani
sm.Lessonswer edr awnf r
om t heGhana-
Guinea
uni
on,whi ch was l aterjoined by Mal i
.Signifi
cantl
y,t he union sett he pace forthe
est
abli
shmentofr egi
onalintegrat
ionsliketheEastAf ri
canCommuni ty(EAC),theEconomi c
committeeofWestAf r
icanStates(ECOWAS)amongot hers.

AttheAl lAfri
canPeopl es' Congress,thePanAf ricanMovementbecameaconcer nofAf r
icans
i
nAf ri
cat hanchampi oni ngt heinterestsofblacksi nt heDiaspor
a( abroad).Thisther
efore
mar kedashi ftawayf rom t hegrievancesoft hebl ackpeopl etowardst heideaofbr i
nging
togetherAf r
icansont hecont i
nent,andt ouset hemovementt osolveAfricanprobl
ems.Tom
Mboya,t hechai r
persont ot heconf erencemadet hef ol
l
owingcl osi
ngr emarks,"TheAl l
-
Afri
canPeopl esConf er encehasmar kedther ediscoveryofAf r
ica..
.thecol oni
alpower s
shouldnow r eversethescr amblef orAf ri
ca.
..Yourt imehaspassed,Af r
icamustbef ree.
Scram from Af ri
ca.'

Theconferenceboost edthespir
itofAf ri
cannational
ism ont hecont inent.Beingthefirstofit
s
ki
ndont hecont i
nent,theconferencewasat tendedbymanyr epresentativesofabout300
fr
om closet o62nationali
stsandr evol
utionar
yor ganisat
ions.Thi sst r
engthenedant i
-coloni
'al
sent
iment sandconsol i
datedar evolut
ionaryspiri
tamongAf ricannat i
onalists.Thedel egat
es
caut
ionedt herevol
uti
onaryleaderstousemi l
i
tarymeansagai nstEur opeancol oni
ali
sts.

AttheAAPCcongr ess,PanAfr
icani
sm becamemor er
eal
ist
ic,pr
acti
calandmoremili
tant.Pan
Afri
canist
sdemandedf orimmediatei
ndependenceandaspeedyendt ocoloni
aloppression.
Theycriti
cisedthereformsimplement
edbyt hecol
oni
almastersanddemandedEuropeanst o
respectAfricansover
eignt
y.

Consequentl
y,theconfer ence,agreedt
oensur erespectforever
yAf r
icanleader
,respectf
or
eachother'
sterri
tor
ialintegri
tyandsoverei
gnty.Thedelegatesagreedtotheuseofpeaceful
meansofsolvingint
er-stateconfli
ctsot
herthanresort
ingtowar.

TheAllAfri
canPeopl
es'Congressbr
idgedthegapbetweentheArabsi
nthenorthofAf ri
ca
andblackssouthoft
heSahara.Thi
senabledblackAf
ri
canstoer
asethehi
stor
icalgr
ievance
agai
nsttheArabsasper
petuat
orsofslavet
radeandsl
aver
y.
Theconf erencelai
dt hefoundationf ort
heconferencesthatfol
lowedinAfri
ca.Thesewere
heldi n Tunis-
Tunisi
a,Lagos- Nigeri
a,in Addis Ababa-
Ethi
opia,and Cai
ro-Egypt
.Allthe
meetingst hatfoll
oweddi scussedt heattai
nmentoft ot
alindependenceandpr ot
ect
ionof
Afri
cafrom neo-coloni
ali
sm andcol dwar.Unityi
nAf r
icawasacommonphenomenondur i
ng
theseconferencesasemphasi sedi nAccr
a.

Att he conference,independence Af
ri
can states pl
edged fi
nancial
,mor
aland mili
tar
y
assistance t
of reedom fight
ers.This mot
ivated Afr
ican nat
ional
i
sm and i
ncr
eased t
he
revoluti
onar
yspiri
tduri
ngt hestr
uggl
esfori
ndependence.

Delegatesattheconfer
encedi scussedtheroleofAf ri
canchief
sandr eli
giousleader
si nt he
str
uggleagainstEuropeandomi nati
on;t
hepar ti
cipati
onofthechiefsandAf r
icanrel i
gious
l
eader swasast ept
owardsef f
ect i
vemobil
isati
onofmassesagai nstcoloni
aldomi nat
ion.The
conferenceagreedt
hatthechiefsandt hereli
giousleader
splayedagreatroleinpopul ari
sing
theindependencest
ruggles.

Ghanaaf t
ertheAAPC r eal
isedaconsol idat
edposit
iontoi nfl
uencenationali
sm i nWest
Afr
icaThehoststatetotheconferencebecameahabitatf
orf r
eedom fight
ers.Thei nf
luence
ofGhanawasst ronginFranco-phonestatesofWestAf r
ica,asNkr umahbel ievedint he
i
mmedi at
eindependenceofstat
esl i
keIvor
yCoastandSenegal.

ObstaclestothePanAf r
icanMovement
ReferenceQuestions-
a)Accountforthedel ayedprogressofthePanAfri
canMovementbefore1945
b)Exami nethereasonswhyPanAf ri
canism hadl
i
ttl
einf
luenceonAf
ricabef
ore1945
c)Discusstheobst acl
est othePanAfri
canMovement

OBSTACLESBEFORE1945
1.ThePanAf ri
canCongresses(PACs)wereinit
ial
l
yheldoutsi
deAf ri
ca,thati
s,i
nEuropean:
America.ThePanAf r
icanideawasnotexposedt othenativeAfricansduri
ngthetime.
Thatmeanst hatAf
ri
canshadl i
ttl
eknowledgeaboutthePanAf r
icanMovement ,whi
lethe
few whohear dofitwer etoopoort ot r
avelandat t
endthePACs.Thi shinder
edt he
devel
opmentofPar-Af
ricani
sm inAfr
ica.

2.ThePanAf ri
canMovementl ackedastrongbase( pl
atf
orm)ont heAfri
canconti
nent.The
PanAf ri
canideasandresoluti
onshencestayedfarawayfrom Afri
cans.I
tshoul
dbenot ed
thatAfri
calackedanywhi t
eappealorsympat hy.Thiswaswi t
nessedwhent heEuropean
coloni
ali
sts(FranceandBri
tain)deni
edthe1927-PACf r
om seati
nginTunisi
abeforeitwas
rescheduledtoNewYor k.

3.Thei nt
ellectualcharacter
ist
icoft hePanAf r
icanMovementati tsi
nit
ialstageaf fectedthe
PanAf ricanact i
vit
ies.Thebl ackel i
teclassdomi natedt
hemovementi nt heear l
yyear s,
whichmademanyAf r
icanstoper ceivei
tasasanal i
enmovement.Thei ntell
ectualsinthe
Diasporadi dnotdomucht oidentifywit
ht heAf ri
canpoor.I
twasthisintellect
ualgapt hat
preventedt hespiri
tofPanAf ricanism fr
om spr eadingtoAfr
ica.

4.Thedi f
ferenceini deologyamongt hepioneer
soft hePAM hi nderedtheacti
viti
esof
Afr
icanism from spreadingt oAfr
ica.MarcusGarveydesi
redforamor eaggr
essiveand
mil
itantapproachwher easDuBoi spreferr
edamor epeacefulapproachofdiscussions
wit
ht hewhi teoppressor s.Thi
swasasetbackt othePanAf r
icanMovementunt ilthe
1945Manchest erConf erence.

5.PanAf ri
cani
sm bef or
e1945hadbeenpercei
vedasabriefmovementaimedatpromot i
ng
theinter
estsofbl acksandsolvi
ngthei
rproblemsintheDiaspor
a.Thenati
veAf r
icans
ref
erredtotheBlacksintheDi
asporaasst
rangerswhohadabandonedt
heori
ginalAfri
can
cult
uresforf
oreignonesi
ntheNew Worl
d.Nat
ivesi
nAf ri
calookedatblacksi
nt he
Diaspor
aasstranger
sandt
hati
swhythei
deaofPanAfr
icani
sm wasnottakenser
iousl
y
attheti
me.

6.Theblackdescendantsint heNew Wor ldexperi


encedf i
nanci
alconstrai
nts.Theylacked
enoughresourcesandwor kforcetospreadtheidealofPanAfri
canism.Thisexplai
nswhy
thePanAfricanideasandactivi
ti
esforalongti
mer emainedtheoret
icalandhenceignored
bytheAfri
cansont heAfr
icancontinent
.

7.Thecolonialpoli
ci
esinAfr
icaint
roducedbyEur opeanscouldnotall
owPanAf r
icanism t
o
germinat
e.Thesepol i
ci
escr eat
eddi vi
sionsamongAf r
icansandgr oomedhatred.The
Bri
ti
shpolicyofdivi
deandruleandtheFr enchandPor tugueseassi
milati
onpol
i
cycr eat
ed
ri
val
ryandpr ideamongAfri
cans.Allthesedeniedt hePanAf r
icanMovementapossi bi
l
ity
touni
teAfricansagai
nstf
ightEuropeancolonialdominati
on.

8.ThenativeAf r
icansatthetimewerepolit
ical
l
ybackwardandignorantoftheri
ght
st hey
weresupposedt oenjoy.Theyt
reat
edwhi t
esasagodl yr
ace;i
tisnotther
efor
esurpr
ising
thatby t he ti
me,the idealofPan Af ri
canism br
oke t
he headli
nes.Such pol
iti
cal
unconsciousnesscoul
dnotenableAfr
icanstoadoptit
.

9.Thecommuni cat
ionsystem toget herwithlanguagebarr
ieral
sohinderedthedevelopment
ofPanAf ri
canism i
nAf ri
ca.I
lli
teracywasati tshi
ghestpeakwhil
eatt hesamet i
me,there
wasavar iance(diff
erence)int hel anguagesspokenont heconti
nent.TheAnglo-phone
(Engli
shspeakingAf r
icans)andt heFr anco-phone(Fr
enchspeakingAf r
icans)couldnot
mut ual
lycommuni cate.Thishi nderedcommuni cat
ionandcooper at
ionamongAf ri
cans
henceanobst acl
etoAf ri
canuni ty.

10.Theindependentstatespresentby1945i gnor
edt heideal sofPanAf ri
canism.These
countr
ieswereLiberi
a,EgyptandEt hiopia:t
heyneverembr acedPanAf ri
canism eit
her
becausetheywereeconomi cal
lyconstrai
nedorwer epre- occupiedwithsocio-economic
probl
ems.However ,t
heoppor tuni
tycamewhenGhanar eceivedindependencei n1957.
Nkrumaht heGhanaianleaderhadear li
eronat t
endedt heManchest erConferenceand
wasawar eofthebenefi
tsofthePanAf ri
canMovement .

11.Thenegat i
veattitudeoft hecoloni
ali
ststowar dsPanAf ricani
sm wasanot herobst
acle.
Thecol onial
ist
swer eawar eofPanAfricanism anditsobjecti
ves,andwer escaredofthe
PanAf ricanactivi
ties.Nowondert hattheypr event
edthe1927congr essf r
om seati
ngin
Afri
ca.Thecol onialistseasil
ysi
l
encedAf ri
canswhor etur
nedf rom abr
oad.TheBr it
ishand
theFrenchwer esuspi ciousofanynat i
onalist
icacti
vit
iest hatwoul d checkont heir
expl
oitativepol
iciesi nAfri
ca.

Ot
herobst
acl
est
othePanAf
ri
canMovement(
from 1945)i
ncl
uded:

Revi
sionQuestion:
Accountfortheinef
fectivenessofthePanAf r
icanMovementfrom 1945
1.Thear eaofoper ati
onoft hePanAfricanMovementistoobig.Themovementi sexpected
t
ooper at
einAf r
icaandt herestoft
heWor ld,i
ntheCari
bbean,Ameri
cas,EuropeandWest
I
ndies.Thatiswhyi ttooksol ongforotherpart
softhewor l
dlikeAf
ricatoconceivethe
i
dealsofPar .Afri
canism.Afri
caaloneist oobiganareatowi t
nesstheeffect
ivenessof
t
hemovement .

2.Afr
icansoci
etieslackedfai
rlydevel
opedcasheconomi es,whi
chwoul
df i
nancenati
onali
st
act
ivi
ti
est o opposet heEur opeancolonialpol
i
cies. Bef ore independence, t he
Eur
opeanscont roll
edmostoft heeconomiesinAf r
ica.Thi
smeanst hattheAf r
icans
wouldnotensur et heeffecti
venessoft henati
onali
sticacti
vi
ti
eshencehinderi
ngt he
pr
ogr
essofPanAf
ri
cani
sm.

3.Itt
ooklongbef oreAf r
icanswi t
nessedmi l
itantnat
ional
i
sm ont heconti
nent.Itwasafter
WorldWarI IthatAf r
icansr esor
tedtomi l
it
arymeansofst ruggli
ngf
orindependence.This
wasafterther etur
nofAf ri
canex-servi
cemenofWor l
dWarI IandAf
ri
canintel
lect
ualsthat
att
ended'theManchest erConference.Thesehadacqui r
edmoder npoli
ti
calskil
ls,which
wereessentialtofightforindependence.

4.LackofanindigenousAfri
canpoli
ticalcult
ureofpurposehashinder
edt heacti
vi
ti
esof
PanAfri
cani
sm.Thi shasforcedPanAf ri
canist
stoadoptWester
npol i
ti
calcul
tur
essuch
asmultipar
ti
sm anddi sgui
seddemocr acy.Theseforei
gnpol
iti
calsystemsaredivi
sive
hencedi
scourageunit
yofpurpose.

5.Thehet erogeneousnatureofAf ri
cansocieti
esint er
msofr ace,ethni
cand cultural
di
versit
y-Amongt heracesi
nAf r
ica,i
ncl
udeblacks,col
oureds,Arabs,WhitesandIndians.
Thi
s has been wor sened by the exi
stence ofvery many l anguages and r
eli
gious
di
ff
erences.Theaf or
ementionedhavemadet hegospelofAf r
icanunityandbrot
her-hood
amyt h.

6.Thereisapr oblem ofr egionali


sm.Somenat i
onali
stsli
keNkrumahandNasseradvocat ed
foranintegrati
onofal lAf ri
canstatesint
oal ar
geUni t
edStatesofAfri
caaspr oposedby
thepioneersofPanAf ricanism.Othersli
keNyerer
eandAzi ki
weopposet hearrangement.
Thisledt othedi vi
sionofAf ri
caintoCasablancaandMonr oviagroupings.Eventoday,
whereasleadersl i
ket hel ateGaddafisupport
edanAf ri
canFederat
ion,othersli
keMbeki
areopposedt oi t
.Thissenseofr egional
ism waswitnessedattheAfri
canUni onSummi t
ofJuly2007i nAccra,Ghana.

7.Consequently,Africancountri
eshavepr eferredt oestabl
ishregi
onalgr oupi
ngsatthe
expense ofcont inentalint
egrati
on.The regi onalgr
oupings i
nclude t
he EastAfri
can
Communi ty( EAC),theEconomi cCommuni tyofWestAf ri
canStates(ECOWAS)andt he
South Afr
ican Devel opmentCommuni ty( SADC) .Member soft hesegr oupi
ngspref
er
l
oyaltyatregionallevelthanconti
nent
allevel,hencehinderi
ngcontinent
alcooper
ati
onin
solvi
ngAfri
canpr oblems.

8.Theimpactofcivi
lwarsinAfr
icahassever elyaffectedthePanAf r
icanMovement .These
ci
vilwarshavedi vi
ded theAfri
can st atesagai nstt heidealsofuni ty,sol
idar
it
yand
cooperat
ion,
'andf
indi
ngsolut
ionstot hei nstabil
i
tiesont hecont
inent.Theseincl
udedt he
Biaf
rancivi
lwarinNigeri
a(1967-70),theKat angaci vi
lwarinCongo( 1960-
63),andt he
ci
vilwarsinSudan(1955-
2005).Otherci vilwarshaveoccur redinUganda,Chad,pr esent
dayDRC,Rwanda,Burundi
,Somali
aandLi bya.

9.Int
erstate and inter-
personalrivalr
ies i
n Af r
ica have dragged down t he Pan Afri
can
Movement ;Nkr umah was condemned by t he WestAf r
ican leadersf orsupporti
ng
subversive(rebel)acti
vit
iesintheircountri
es.CongoKi nshasa( DRC)condemnedUganda
andRwandaf orunaut hori
zedent r
ancei ntheCongo.Per sonalbi ckeri
ng( quar
rel
s)were
witnessedbet weenUganda' sAmi nandNyer ereofTanzani a,Mobut uofZai reandDos
SantosofAngol aetcetera.Curr
ently(2012)JosephKabi raofDRCi sbl
ami ngRwandafor
supporti
ngt heNyamur engerebels(a.k.
a.M23)l edbyJeanBoscoNt aganda.Notallt
hese
canenabl eAf r
icanleaderstoagreeonst rategi
estowardscont inentalpr
oblems.

10.Theweaknessoft heOrganisati
onofAf r
icanUnity(
OAU)delayedt
heachievementsofPan
Afri
cani
sm.Si nceitsfor
mat ionin 1963,t heOAUwasneverper f
ect.Herpower swere
economical
l
yandpol i
ti
call
ylimited,whichreducedthebodyt oaconservat
iveone.The
OAU hencef ounditincreasingl
ydi f
fi
culttosolvetheproblemsont hecontinent
.She
l
ackedf i
nances,hadnocont inentalar
myyetther
ewer eideol
ogicalvar
iancesamong
Afr
icanpoli
ti
calleader
s.Duetot hi
s,PanAf
ri
cani
sm remai
nedintheoryandwasnotable
toperf
ormtoitsexpectat
ions.

11.Dif
ferencesi
ndevelopmentl evelsamongAf ricancountr
ieshinder
edt hepr
ogressofPan
Afr
icanism.Economicall
yst rongernat i
onslikeEgypt,IvoryCoastandNi ger
iaarenot
wil
li
ngt osharethei
rresourceswi t
hweakst atesl
ikeBur undi
,Uganda,Mozambiqueand
theCongo.Suchdi scouragesi nterst
atetr
adeandr egi
onalcooperati
onandi ntheend
hamper suni
tyonthecontinent.

12.Badgovernance(arbi
trar
yrule.)ofsomeAf ri
canleadershasalsohi
nderedthePanAf rican
acti
vi
ti
es.Sinceindependence,humanr i
ghtsviolati
onhasbeenr ampantdur i
ngt hereign
ofleader
slikeIdiAmi nofUganda,Mobut uofZai re,andSaniAbachaofNi geri
a.Such
l
eadershi
pwasar efl
ecti
onoft hecol
onialoppressi
veruleoftheEuropeans.Thepolicies
oftheoppressiveAfri
canl eadersgreat
lyhinderedpolit
icalawar
enessoft heirsubj
ect s,
hencecri
ppledPanAf r
icani
sm.

13.Neocol oni
ali
sm isanot
herthor nint hefl
eshoft hePanAf ri
canMovement .Thef or
mer
coloni
almast er
sand thei ndustri
alised count
ri
esoft hewor ld haveint
ensi
fied thei
r
inf
luenceinAfri
catr
eati
ngthecont inentasasour ceofcheaplabour,rawmater
ialsanda
venueofi nvest
mentandmar ket,hence,underminingeconomicandpol i
ti
calgrowthof
Afri
ca.

14.IndependentAfri
canst at
es havebal kanised( di
vided) themselvesi nt
oFrancophone
andAngl ophonest ates(Commonweal t
hNat ions).Theyhaveequal lyadoptedforei
gn
cult
uresinthei
rpoli
tical
,soci
alandeconomi cl
ife.ThishasmadeAf ricanstat
estoremain
sockreconomical
lypoorandvulner
abletothedictatesoftheindust
ri
alisedworl
d.

ACHI
EVEMENTSOFPANAFRI
CANI
SM (
PAM)

ReferenceQuest ions:
a)Assesst heachi evement softhePanAf ri
canMovementupt o1963
b)Howsuccessf ulisPanAf ri
cani
sm sinceitsi nception?
c)"
PanAf ricani
sm isani deadiffi
cul
ttoachi eve."Discuss
Si
ncei tsincepti
on,PanAf r
icani
sm hashadt hef oll
owi ngachievement s:
1.ThePanAf ri
canMovementhasmanagedt oupl i
ftthedi gnit
yofbl acksandAf ri
cans
throughoutt hewor l
d.Mostoft hePanAf ri
canistsbelievedt hi
swast heonl yrout
et o
peace and pr ogress.As a r esul
t,Af rican descendant s have ri
sen t ointer
nati
onal
leadershipwhi l
eot hershaveheldpositi
onsofi nfluencei nwor l
daffai
rs.BoutrosBoutros
Ghal iofEgyptandKof iAnanofGhanaar ef ormerSecr et
aryGener al
soft heUN.I n
November2008,Bar ackObamawasvot edt hef i
rstAf r
ican-Amer i
canPresidentoftheUS.

2.PanAfri
canism r
elati
vel
ysucceededi nbri
ngingtogetherpeopl
eofAf
ri
candescent(ori
gin)
al
lovert heworl
d;f r
om Afri
catot heDiaspora.Thi
swast hr
ougheff
ecti
vePanAf r
ican
Confer
ences wher e al
lthe African deiscendant
s could meetand discuss matters
concer
ningAfri
ca.Signi
fi
cantoftheseconf er
enceswast he1945Manchest
erConference.

3.PanAf r
icanism wast hef i
rstexpressionofant i-
colonialsent i
ment s.Itcondemnedt he
col
oni aloppressivepoli
ciessuchaseconomi cexpl
oitationandar bitrar
yarrests.Through
continuousdemandf orAf r
icanself-
rule,thewhol eofAf r
icawasr escuedf rom direct
for
eigndomi nati
on.TheAf ri
candescendant sfr
om theDi asporaplayedani mpor t
antr ole
thr
oughext endingmor aland.f i
nanci
alsuppor ttof acil
itatethedecol oni
sationprocess.
Notablewast hemuchassi stanceextendedt otheAf ricansi nEthiopiaandSout hAf rica
againsttheItali
anaggressionandApar theidrespecti
vely.
4.Consequently,t
hespi r
itofPanAf ri
canism l
edt othedestr
uctionofApar t
hei
dinSouth
Afr
ica,andt hel iber
ati
onofbl acks.Themovementcondemnedr aci
sm andduringthe
var
iousPanAf ricancongresses,theapar t
hei
dr egi
meswer econdemnedf orat
roci
ti
es
againstAfr
icans.Thr oughtheOAU( andthefront
li
nestat
es),thePanAf ricanMovement
ext
endedassi stancet otheAfri
cansi nSouthAfri
caandcalledf orsanct
ionsagai
nstthe
aparthei
dregimes.

5.Themovementmi l
it
ari
zedAf r
icannat i
onali
sm.TheManchest erandAccr
a conferences
advocatedf ortheuseoff orceandmi l
it
antmeansagai nstcol
onialdomi
nati
oninAfri
ca.
Many l i
berati
on movement si n Afri
ca li
ke in Kenya,Alger
ia,South Af
ri
ca and the
Portuguesecolonies,adopt
edt hi
sr adi
calapproach.

6.ThePanAf ri
canMovementest abl
ishedaPanAf ri
canbasei nAf r
icaasagi t
atedforduring
theManchesterconf
erence.ThePanAf ri
canSecr etar
iatcamei nt
oexi st
enceupont he
ret
urnoft hePanAf ri
cani
stsofAf ri
canor i
gint othecont i
nentandt heat t
ainmentof
i
ndependencebyGhanai n1957.Nkr umaht heleaderofGhanat ookupt hetaskofcr eati
ng
awareness tothe r
estoft he African populati
on aboutt he need f ortotalAf ri
can
i
ndependenceandintegrat
ion,hencehewasr egardedt hegrandfatherofPanAf r
icani
sm
i
nAf r
ica.

7.ThePanAf ri
canMovementboost sofi t
slongexi stenceofover110yearssi nceits
i
ncept i
onaround1900.Thisispart
lyduetother ecommendablewor kbythemovement ,
andt hestr
ongsenseofbr ot
her
-hoodandt ogethernessamongt hePanAf r
icanist
s.In
Afr
ica,themovementhasevolvedfrom al
oosebody( OAU)toastr
ongAfri
canUni on(AU)
ai
medatachi evi
ngconcret
egoalsofPanAfri
canism.

8.TheconceptofPanAf r
icanism developedf r
om beingamovementofemot i
onsandideas
toamovementwi t
hobjectivesandt argetstoachieve.PAM advocat
edforunit
yofAfri
can
stat
eswhichledt
ot heformationofr egionalint
egrat
ionsli
ketheEastAfr
icanCommuni t
y
(EAC),t
heCommonMar ketforEastandSout hernAfri
ca( COMESA)andt heEconomic
Communi t
yofWest

9.Consequentl
y,i
n1963,thePanAf ri
canMovementgavebir
tht otheOrgani
sati
onofAfri
can
Movement( OAU)withi t
sheadquar tersi
nAddisAbaba,Et hi
opia.TheOAUwasabl eto
addresssomeoft hepr oblemsoft heAfr
icanpeopl
e,promotedt heconceptofAfri
can
i
dentit
y,r
esist
edneo-colonial
ism andcoldwar,
"andencouragedunityandco-oper
ati
onat
regi
onalandconti
nentallevel
.

10.Thespi ri
tofPanAf ri
cani
sm amongAf ri
canstat
eshasensur edsolidari
tyamongAf ri
can
delegates (r
epresentati
ves)atvar i
ous int
ernat
ionalconferences and f or
ums.Thi s
wasexper i
enceddur ingtheLomeConvent ionandhasbeenwi tnessedatt heUnited
NationsGener alAssemblyanddur i
ngmeet i
ngswithdonoragenciesl i
ketheWor l
dBank
andt heInter
nationalMonetar
yFund( I
MF).TheAfricansol
i
darit
yati nt
ernati
onall
evelhas
reducedchancesofneo¬col oni
ali
sm.

11.ThroughtheOAU,PanAf ri
canism br
idgedthegapbetweentheArabnort
handt heNegro
South.Thisbroughtcoexi
stencebetweent hetworaceswhil
etheimprovementinthei
r
rel
ati
onshiphasconsoli
datedAfri
canbr ot
her-
hoodaswellaspromoti
ngdevelopmentin
Afr
ica.

12.Themovementhast ri
edtouplif
tthesocio-
economicwel far
eoft heAfr
icanpeople.This
hasbeenthroughtheregi
onalgroupingsandconti
nentalcoll
ecti
venesst
hroughwhi chthe
economicmar kethasbeenenlarged;andhasstr
engthenedt heAfri
canbargai
ningpower
forAfr
icangoodsandser vi
cesont heworldmarket.Themovementhasenabl edAf r
ican
governmentstoestabl
ishst rat
egiesoferadi
cati
ngpovertyanddisease.I
n1974,the
movementl edtotheestabli
shmentofAfri
cantradeunionsAssoci
ati
on,whi
chhasbeen
i
nstrumentali
npromoti
ngt heint
erest
sofworkersinAf
ri
ca.

13.Themovementhascont inuouslycondemnedci vilwarsandpoli


ti
calconf li
cts,whi chhave
ravagedt heAf r
icancontinentsinceindependence.Thecivi
lwarsincludet heMozambi can
civi
lwar( 1977-94);theAngolanci vi
lwar(1976-2002);t
heSudancivilconflictssince1955;
andt heci vi
lwar sinChadsi nce1965.Ot hercountr
iesaff
ect
edbyci vilconf l
i
ctsi ncl
ude
Burundi,Uganda,t heDemocr at
icRepubl i
cofCongo( DRC)andSomal ia.PanAf ricanists
l
ikeNel sonMandel a,Joachim ChissanoandBi shopDesmondTut uhavet r
iedtomedi ate
between conf l
icti
ng gr oups in or der to ensure peaceful resoluti
on t o pol i
ti
cal
disagreement s.

14.Pan Africani
sm condemned and par tl
ysucceeded i n keepi
ng Afri
ca awayf r
om t he
i
deologicalconfl
i
ctoft hecoldwarpower soft heUSAandt heUSSR.ThePanAf ri
can
Movementdemandedt hei
ndependentAfricanstatest oadoptposi t
iveneutr
ali
tyand
becomemember soft heNon- Ali
gnmentMovement .AbdelGammalNasserandKwame
Nkrumah wer ef ounding f
athers ofthe Non-Ali
gnmentMovement .The non-al
igned
propagandahinderedthepenetrat
ionofcol
dwari nf
luenceintoAfr
icanstat
es.

15.Thespi r
itofPanAf ri
canism hasbeenwi tnessedwi thther efugepoli
cyadoptedbyAf rican
\gover nments.Af ri
can stateshave col l
ectivel
yt ackled the probl
em ofr ef
ugeesby
ensuri
ngt heirprotecti
on,pr ovi
sionofr el
iefai dli
kef oodandmedi ci
ne,'andensur i
ng
observati
onofr efugeer i
ghts.Wor ki
ngwi t
ht heinternati
onalbodiesliketheInternat
ional
Commi t
tee ofthe Red Cr oss ( CRC),and t he United Nat i
ons High Commi ssion for
Refugees( UNHCR) ,Afr
icanst at
eshaveensur edextensionofhumani t
ari
anassistancet o
therefugeesaswel lassettl
ingandr eset
tli
ngt hem intheirrespect
ivecountri
es.

16.ThePanAf r
icanMovementhasensur edr evi
valofAfricancul t
uralheri
tage.Throught he
Organi
sationofAf ri
canUnity,alanguagebur eauwasest ablishedwithitsheadquarter
si n
KampalaUgandat opromoteAf ri
canlanguages.Leadingl anguageslikeHausa,Kiswahi li
,
Lingal
aandAr abicaretaughtandpr omot ed.Assi
stancei salwaysgivent oAfri
canwr i
ters
l
ikeNgugiWAThi ong'
o,ChinuaAchebeandWol eSoyi nka.TheOAUensur edsuccessf ul
PanAf r
icancult
uralfest
ival
spr evi
ouslyheldinLagos,CairoandJohannesbur g.

17.The movementhas encour aged r espectf orand obser vati


on ofhuman r i
ghts,and
establ
ishmentofdemocr ati
cgovernancei nAf ri
ca.ThroughtheAf r
icanUnion(AU)Afri
can
statescoll
ecti
velyover seerespectf orhumanr i
ghtsbycondemni ngdespoticruleand
cri
mesagai nsthumani tyespeci
allyduringci vilwars.TheAUsendsAf ri
candelegati
onsto
observeelect
ionprocessesi ndiff
erentAfricanst atestoensurepeacefultr
ansferofpower.
Tonot eisthattheAf r
icanUnionhaswor kedwi t
ht heInter
nati
onalCourtofJustice(I
CJ)
totryAfri
canpolit
icall
eader sbl
amedf orgr osshumanr i
ghtsvi
olati
onandcr i
mesagainst
humani t
y,suchas,Char l
esTaylorformerl eaderofLi beriaandBembaf ormerCongolese
rebell
eaderandpol i
ti
cian.

18.PanAf r
icanism hasbeeni nst
rumentalintheAf ro-
Asianrelati
onship.Thetwocont inents
havealwaysst oodt oget
herduringUNgener alAssembliest ocondemnt heindustrial
ised
nati
onst hatexploitanddominatethepoorAf ri
canandAsi anst at
es.DuePanAf ricanism,
tr
aderelationsbet weenAfri
canandAsi anst at
eshavei mpr oved.Asianst
ateslikeI ndia,
Japan,IndonesiaandChi nahaveal waysgivenassistancet oAf r
icainfor
m off inances,
humanr esource,techni
calandtechnol
ogicalknowledge.

Note:
Otherachi
evement
sofPAM ar
ecover
edundert
heOAU.
WeaknessesofthePanAf ri
canMovement
1.Themovementhasf ail
edt of orm anAf ricanfederati
on,theUni tedSt atesofAf ri
ca
advocatedforbyt hepi oneer
sofPanAf ri
canism.TheAf ri
canf ederati
onort he" One
Afri
canCommuni ty"woul dputAfri
canst at
esunderacent ral
isedpolit
icaladministr
ati
on
andacol l
ect
ivemili
tarycommand.Thef atewaswi tnessedatt hePanAf ri
canconf er
ence
inGhanain2007whent heAf r
icanleadersexpressedmi xedreacti
onsast helat
eCol onel
MuammarGadhaf i;thefall
enLibyanleaderresurr
ectedtheidea.

2.Pan Af ri
canism has compl etelyf ai
led t o er adicate neo- coloniali
sm f r
om Af ri
ca.
Mani f
estat
ionsoff or
eigndomi nationst il
lexi sti nAf rica.Neocol oniali
sm hasgr eatly
hinderedAf r
icangovernment sf rom maki ngindependentdeci sions.Af ri
caneconomi es
haver emainedunder ¬developedduet oneo- col omali nf l
uence.Pol it
ical
ly,neocoloni al
i
nt er
venti
onwasexper i
encedamongot hercasesdur ingt heinvolvementoft heNATOi n
theLibyanpol i
ti
calstri
feof2011i nwhi chcel ebr at
edandnow f allencol onelMuammar
Gaddaf iwasoust ed.Neo- coloniali nfl
uencem Af r
icahasmuchbeenf eltineconomi c
termsduet oacquisit
ionofext er nalaidf rom t hewestt hatAfricangover nmentskeep
fi
nancingf oroveryear s.Accor dingt otheUN Conf erenceonTr adeandDevel opment
(UNCTAD) ,between1970and2002,subSahar anAf ri
car eceived$294bi l
li
oni nl
oans,paid
out$268bi ll
i
onindebtser vice,andyetst i
llowes$300bi l
li
on.

3.ThePanAf r
icanMovementhasf ail
edtoi mproveont hestandardsofl ivingofAf r
icans.
ManyAf ricansl iveinabj
ectpover tyandsufferfrom severekill
erdiseases.Af r
icar emai ns
miredinpover ty.Asoftoday,mostoft heAfricansli
vebel owt hepovertyl evelof1dol l
ar
asdai l
year ning.Oft he177count ri
esont heUni t
edNat ionsDevel opmentPr ogram
(UNDP) '
sHumanDevel opmentI ndex,thebottoms23ar eallAfri
canstates.Oft he39most
i
mpover ishednat i
onsofwor l
d( by2007),34ar eAfri
canandt heyincl
udeEt hiopia,Bur undi
,
Uganda,Mal awiandMozambi que.Hence,ast hePAM f ai
l
st otacklethel evelsofpover ty
and disease,under employmentand unempl oyment,and t he poorand l ow l evels of
educati
on,t hef utureofAfri
cai satstake.198mi ll
i
on( 76%)Af ri
canslivi
ngi ncitiesinsub-
SaharanAf rical i
veinsl
ums,t hebiggestpercentageinthewor l
d.

4.Themovementhasf ail
edtobringaboutconcr et
ecooper ati
onbetweenAf ri
cansont he
conti
nentand t heAf ri
canDiaspora.TodayPanAf ricanism i
scompl etel
yani deaof
Afri
cansont heconti
nentt
hanofbl acksal
loverthewor ld.Thi
spartl
yexplai
nswhymany
bl
acksout sideAfri
cadespi
seanythi
ngt odowithAfri
ca.Somecl aimthatAfri
cawasbet t
er
offduri
ngt hecoloni
ali
sm daysthantodayunderindependentleader
ship.TotheseAfr
ican
descendants,nothi
nggoodcancomeoutofAf ri
ca.

5.I
nt er-
stateconf li
ctshavecont inued to eatup t heAf ri
cancont inent.Thedi ff
erences
bet weenan;amongAf ri
canstateshavesabot agedAfricancooperationanduni ty.Manyof
thesei nter-
stateconfli
ctsarear esul
tofunclearnati
onalboundar i
esaswel laspr omot i
on
ofsubver si
ve(rebelacti
vit
iesi
not herst
ates.Someoft heseinter
stateconf l
ict
shavebeen
bet weenSomal iaandEt hi
opiaovert heOgadent err
itory,betweenUgandaandTanzani a
overt heKager ar egi
onandbet weenUgandaandKenyaoverMi gingoIslandi nLake
Victori
a.Cur rentl
y(July-
2012)theDRCi sbl amingRwandaf orsuppor t
ingtheNyamur enge
rebels( a.
k.a.M23)l edbyJeanBoscoNt aganda.

6.Consequent l
y,conflictsamongAf ricanl eadersanddi pl
omat sar
ever ycommon.Such
confli
ctshavehi nder edsol idar
it
yati nternati
onallevel,makingAfr
icaunabl etocompete
favourablywit
hot herr aces.Theseconf l
ictshaveexistedbetweenthel at
eMobut uofZai
re
andDosSant osofAngol a,be* tweenBashi rofSudanandMuseveniofUganda,Museveni
andt helateGaddaf iofLi byaandbet weenZenawiofEt hiopi
aandAf ewerkiofEri
tr
ea.Pan
Afrl
canists(Afr
icanl eader shavefai
ledt oreconcil
eandcooper at
emut ual
ly.
7.Ethni
cism,racism anddi vi
sioni
sm ar er ampanti nAfri
caandt hesedet er
ioratenati
onal
unit
yandnat ionalbuildi
ng.Ethnicrivalr
ieshavebeenwi tnessedinRwandaandBur undi
betweentheTut siandt heHutu,i nNi geri
abet weentheHausa- Ful
aniandt heIgbo,in
Congobetweent heLenduandt heNyamur enge,inEthi
opiabet weentheAmhar aandt he
majori
tyofot heret hnicgroupsliket heGal l
a,theBakongoandOvi rnbundui nAngol a.
SomeAf ri
canst ateshaveexper i
encedt her i
seofet hni
csub- nati
onali
sm li
keofBuganda
i
nUganda,Makondei nMozambi queandJa- l
uoi nKenya,whi l
eracialnati
onalism ofthe
ArabsagainstNegr oesofSudanandbl acksagainstwhitesint heSouthAf ri
canRepubl ic
andZimbabwe.

8.Regionalintegrat
ionshaveusurpedcont inent
alintegrat
ionadvocat
edf orbyt hePan
Afri
canMovement .ManyAfri
canstatesfinditeasiertorelat
ewit
htheirnei
ghborhoodat
regi
onallevelthanrefer
ri
ngtoconti
nentalaffai
rs.Thishascr i
ppl
edconti
nentaluni
tyand
cooperat
ionwhi chrequi
rement
sfordevelopment .

9.Afr
icanculturei
sstillbei
ngovershadowedorer odedbywester
ncult
urali
nfl
uenceandthi
s
i
saweaknessoft hePanAf r
icanMovementi nit
seffor
tstoensureani ntactAf
ri
can
cul
turalherit
age.TheAf ri
cancul t
uralheri
tagehasbeendilut
ed,henceundermini
ngthe
PanAf r
icanobject
iveofrevi
vingAfricancul
ture.

10.ThePanAf ri
canMovementhasf ailedtofindalasti
ngsol ut
iontother ampantcivilwar
s
experi
encedont heAfri
cancont i
nent.Theci vi
lwar shavecondemneduni ty,peaceand
devel
opmenti nt hest
atesofAf ri
caandt hecontinentatl ar
ge.Suchci vilwarshave
occurr
ed in Mozambique (1977-94),Uganda (1989-2005),Sudan (1955-
2005) ,Congo
(1998topresent
),Li
bya(2011)andSomal iaunti
lpresent.

11.PanAf r
icanism hasfai
ledtowi peoutdict
ator
shipandaut
horit
ari
anism fr
om Af ri
ca,Some
Afr
icanleadersatthesamet i
mehaveover -st
ayedinpowerthus,underminingdemocr acy
andpeacef ult
ransferofleadershi
p.Casesarethelat
eMuammarGaddaf iofLibya(1969-
2011),DosSant osofAngol a(si
nce1978),Rober
tMugabeofZi mbabwe( since1980),Paul
MbiyaofCamer oon(si
nce1982)andMuseveniYower iofUganda( si
nce1986) .

12.Themovementhasnotf oundpropermedicinefortherampantmi li
tarycoupsi nAf r
ica.
VeryfewAf ricangovernmentsaresafe,asthearmedf orceshavequi t
eof tentakenover
powerundert heguiseofsol vi
ngnat i
onalprobl
ems.Coupshavebeenexper iencedin
countr
iesli
keGhana( 1966leadi
ngtot hedownfallofNkrumah),Uganda( 1971leadingto
thedownf allofObot e)andNi geri
a1966Januar yleadi
ngt otheover throw ofTaf awa
Balewa).Othercoupshaveoccur redinIvor
yCoast ,Li
bya,Congo,Togo,Al geri
aandMal i
(2012)
.

13.ThePanAf ri
canMovementhasnotputanypr opermechanism t
oensureobser
vati
onand
respectofhuman r i
ghtson thecontinent
.Even though themovementcont i
nuousl
y
condemnsact i
vit
iesofhumanr i
ght
sabuse,upt opr esent
,humanr i
ght
saregrossl
y
viol
atedi
nAf ri
ca.Countr
ieswit
har ecordofhumanr ightsviol
ati
onincl
udeUganda,t
he
SouthAfr
icanRepubli
c,Somali
a,Zi
mbabwe,Sudan,EthiopiaandNiger
ia.

14.Afri
cai ssti
lleconomi cal
lybackwar d,whichisaweaknesst othePanAf ri
canMovement .
Economi cal
lydevel oped countri
esofAf ri
ca havedonel it
tl
et o encourageeconomi c
growthoft heent i
reconti
nent.Thishasencour agedneo- col
onial
i
sm,i ncreasedthedebt
burdenandwor senedthestandardsoflivingofAf r
icans.Rampantslums,r uralpopul
ati
on
thatistwo-thirdsoft hetotalAfr
icanpopul ati
onandl ackofbasicstructuresneededfor
development ,areallmanif
estati
onsofAf rica'
seconomi ci
nabil
it
y.

15.Ther
efugeecr
isi
shasbeenconcent
rat
edi
nAf
ri
ca.By2011,Ni
ger
iahadmanyr
efugees
f
rom Liber
iaandSier
raLeonewhi letoday;Ugandai
saccommodat
ingahi
ghpopul
ati
onof
r
efugeesfrom Somal
ia,Kenya,Sudan,Burundi
,Rwandaandt
heCongo.

16.PanAfri
canism hasfailedtoer adicateideologi
caldi
ff
erencesf rom Africa.Duri
ngthecold
warera,thePanAf ricanmovementf ail
edt oupholdthepr i
nci pl
eofposi t
iveneutr
ali
ty.
Manyoft heAfri
canst ateseitheralignedwi ththecommuni stUSSR( Russia)orCapital
i
st
USA.Thisincr
easedpol it
icalunrestinAf r
icaasmostoft hecivilwar sl
ikeinAngola,Sudan
andMozambi quetur
nedoutt obepr oxywar sduetocoldwari nfluence.

17.Thought heOAU,PanAf ri
canism fai
ledtoensur einfr
astr
ucturaldevelopmentont he
Afri
cancont i
nent.Manyoft heAfr
icanstateshavepoorsoci o-
economi cinf
rast
ructures
especial
l
yint r
ansportsyst
ems.Thisaffectsthemechanismsofdevel opmentespeci
allyin
theindustr
ialandagr i
cult
uralsect
ors.Hence,mostoft heAfri
canst at
eshavef ai
ledt o
real
iseeconomi cdevel
opmentandt hemi l
l
ennium devel
opmentgoal s.

Summar yoft hefactorst hati nfl


uencedt hedevel opmentofPanAf r
icani
sm
a.Thel egacyofSl avetradeandSl avery
b.Eur opeancol onialpolicies
c. Infl
uenceofbl acks/Af r i
canDi aspor a
d.TheI tal
ianinvasionofEt hiopia1935- 41)
e.TheManchest erConf erence( 1945)
f. Activiti
esoftheWestAf ricanSt udentsUni on( WASU)
g.Raci alawar enessofAf r
icanse. g.Apar thei
dinSout hAfri
casince1948)
h.TheEgypt i
anrevoluti
on( 1952) /
influenceofNasser
i
.Thei ndependenceofGhana( 1957)/cont ri
butionofNkrumah
j
.Impactoft heAllAfri
canPeopl esConf er ence'AAPCconf er
ence( 1958)
K.TheindependenceofGui neaConakr y(1958)/r ol
eofSekouTour e
l
.Infl
uenceoft heNon- al
ignedMovement( since1961)
m.Thef ormationandr oleoft heOAU( 1963- 2002)/r ol
eofAfri
canUni on(AU)
n.Impactofwest erneducat i
on
o.Ther oleofmasspol it
icalpar ties
p.Contributionofmassmedi aandpr ess

Summaryofthecontri
but
ionofthePAM t
ot hegr
owt
hofAfri
canNati
onali
sm
a. I
twas t he f
irstexpressi
on ofanti
-col
oni
alsent
iment
si.e.attacked t
he col
oni
al
oppr
essi
vepol
i
cies

b.Encour
ageduni
tyofAf
ri
cansdur
ingt
hest
ruggl
efori
ndependence

c. Themovementmi
l
itar
isedAf
ri
cannat
ional
i
sm e.
g.dur
ingt
heManchest
erConf
erence

d.PanAf
ri
cani
stsdemandedf
ort
hei
mpl
ement
ati
onoft
he1941At
lant
icchar
ter

e. Called upon Af
ri
cans t
oret
urnt
o Af
ri
ca and l
ead i
ndependence st
ruggl
es i
nthen-
respecti
vecount
ries

f
. Condemnedt
heApar
thei
dpol
i
cyi
nSout
hAf
ri
caanddemandedf
orl
i
ber
ati
onofbl
acks

g.The movementcondemned the Centr


alAf
ri
can Feder
ati
on and demanded f
ort
he
i
ndependenceofCAFmembercountr
ies

h. Condemned the conti


nued col
onialexpl
oit
ati
on ofAfri
ca and t
hrough t
he OAU,
i
tpet
it
ionedt
heUNt
ointer
veneinfavouroft
heAfri
cancause

i
.Inf
luenced t
heAf
ri
can Di
aspor
ato suppor
tthei
ndependencemovementi
n Af
ri
caj
.
Suppor
ted the f
ormati
on of pol
iti
calpar
ti
es and t
he i
nvol
vement of gr
assr
oot
s
massesthr
oughef
fect
ivemobi
l
izati
on

j
. Condemnedneo- col
onial
ism andwarnedAf ri
cansonthedangersofcoldwari
nfl
uence1,
I
nfl
uenced t he establi
shment of a l iberat
ion committee by the OAU through
whichassi
stancecoul
dbeext endedt
oAf r
icanf r
eedom f
ight
ers

m.Enabl
edAfri
canstot
alkwit
honevoicedur
ingt
heUNGener
alAssembl
ydel
i
ber
ati
ons,
and
incondemnati
onoft
heincr
easedcol
oni
aldomi
nat
ioni
nAf
ri
ca

n. Encouraged t he revi
val of Af
ri
can cul
tur
al her
it
age and condemned west
ern
cultur
alinf
luenceinAfri
ca

THE1963PAN AFRI CAN CONFERENCEI N ADDISABABAANDTHEFORMATI ON OFTHE


OAU
Fol
lowing t
he1958," Al
lAf ri
can PeoplesConf erence"inAccra,Ghana,ot herPACsand
confer
enceson Af r
ican issueswer eor gani
sed on theAf ri
can cont
inent.Thr
ough these
confer
ences,Af
ricanst ates-mencouldmeett odel i
berat
eonAf ri
canindependenceandunity
ofpurpose.Theyi ncludedt he"Al
lAf r
icanPeopl esConf er
ence"inTunisia,t
he1961Cai ro
confer
ence(Egypt )
,theLagosconf er
ence( Niger
ia)andt he1961and1963conf erencesin
AddisAbaba(Ethiopia).

Int heear l
y1960s,Af r
ica becamebal kanised i
nto Casablanca and Monr ovia groupings
result
ingf r
om divergentvi ewsonAf r
icanunityespecial
l
yasr egardsthef or
mat i
onofaOne
Afri
canCommuni t
y( USA) .Thetwogroupingsorganisedsecretmeet ingsallwiththepurpose
offindinglast
ingsol ut
ionst oAfri
canproblems.Thet woantagoni sti
cgroupsr epr
esentedt he
divi
sionism anddi f
ferencesamongAf ri
canleaders.TheMonr oviagroupwasr elati
vel
ybi g
compr isi
ngallformerFr enchcol oni
esofWestandEquat ori
alAf ri
caatt hetimeapar tfrom
GuineaConakr yandMal i.Othermember swer ethetwoEnglishspeaki ngWestAf ricanstates
ofLiber i
aandNigeria.

MembersofCasabl
ancagr
oupi
ngwer
eGhana,Gui
neaConakr
y,Egypt
,Mal
i
,Mor
occo,and
et
cet
era.

TheCasabl ancai deologi


calcampwasr elat
ivel
ysmal lbutherst r
engthl i
edm t hei deas
member sstoodf or.Casablancamember spushedf oranAf r
icanfederati
on( t
heUni tedStates
ofAf r
ica)underonepol i
ti
caladmi nist
rat
ionandacent rali
sedmi li
tar
ycommand.Thei deasof
Casabl ancawer egr eatl
yopposedbymember soft heMonr ovi
aideologicalgr oupi
ngt hat
regardedanAf ri
canfederationasNkr umah'sownmaki ng.TheMonr oviablamedNkr urnahfor
hisintenti
onsofr uli
ngoverAf rica.Member softheMonr ovi
acl ai
medt hatpoli
ticalunit
ywoul d
hardlybeachi evedimmedi atelybeforeAfri
canindependencewasconsol i
dated.

Theideologicalmi sunderstandi
ngbet weenmember sofCasablancaandMonr oviahindered
theprogressofthePanAf r
icanidealofunit
yandco-oper
ati
on.Apolit
icalreconcili
ationofthe
twcAf ri
cani deologicalgr oupi
ngswasachi evedatthe1963conf erenceofi ndependent
Afri
canleadersi nAddi sAbaba,Et hi
opia.TheAddi
sAbabaconf erencewaschai redbyt he
Ethi
opianleader.Emper orHail
eSelassieandwasconcludedwit
ht hesigningoft hecharterof
theOrganisati
ono:Af ricanUnity(OAU)ont heMay25,1963.

Factorsbehindt hecall
ingofthe1963Addi sAbabaconf erenceandthef or
mati
onofthe
OAU
ReferenceQuestions:
a)Accountf ort
hecalli
ngoftheAddisAbabaconf er
enceinMay1963
b)Exami nethefactor
sforthefor
mat i
onoft heOrganizat
ionofAfr
icanUni
ty
1.Thei ncr
easeddemandf orAfr
icanindependenceledtotheformati
onoftheOAU.By1963,
theseedsofAf r
icannat ionali
sm plantedduringthecol onialperiodhadst artedbear
ing
frui
ts.Nat i
onal
ism i nAfricawasconsol i
datedbyanumberoff actor
ssuchasi mpactof
Wor ldWarI I
,i
mpactoft he1945Manchest erconference,theriseofAf r
icanel i
tes,et
cet
era.
TheAf r
icaneli
te'cl assest abl
ishedpolit
icalorganisat
ions,whi chenabl edthem achieve
i
ndependencef ort heirrespectivest
ates.TheOAUwast herefore,establi
shedt oensure
totaldecoloni
sati
onofAf rica.

2.By1963,anumberofAf r
icanst at
eshadgainedt ot
alfreedom andi ndependencef r
om
forei
gndominati
on.Suchcount r
ieswereTanganyi
ka,Ghana,Liberia,Egypt,Uganda,Sudan,
Nigeri
a,andetceter
a.Thesecount ri
eswereproudoft hei
rnewl yachi evedindependence
andwer einspir
edbypopul arsloganssuchas" Afri
cani dent
ity","Afri
canper sonal
it
y",
"Afri
canuni
ty"and"Afr
icandestiny.
"TheOAUwast herefore,est
abl i
shedt osteer
-upthese
i
deas.

3.ThedevelopmentofPanAf ri
canism andi tsadopt
ioninAf r
icaenabl
edthef ormationofthe
Organisat
ionofAf ricanUnity.TheOAUwasanof fspri
ngoft hePanAf r
icanMovementi n
the questf orAf r
ican unitysi nce 1900.Pan Af ri
canism was growing st r
ongerover
generati
ons.Themovementwasembr acedinAf ri
caaf t
ertheManchest erConference,
whichwasat tendedbyal argenumberofdel egatesf r
om t heAfr
icancont inent.Pan
Afri
canism infl
uencedAf r
icanst atestohaveast r
ongsol i
darit
y,wor
ktoget hertowardsthe
samegoal s,whichincludedsaf eguardingAfri
canindependence.SuchAf ri
canef f
ortswere
tober eal
isedt hroughacont inentalbody,hencetheOAU.

4.From t het i
meAf ricanst atesacquiredindependence,Afri
canleader
sbegant ostr
ongly
advocat eforcontinentalunityinAfrica(
OneAf ri
canCommuni ty).Thepioneer
sofAf r
ican
unityincludedSengohSedanofSenegal ,Juli
usNyerereofTanganyika,Hail
eSelassi
eof
EthiopiaandKwameNkr umahofGhana.Thei rinfl
uencewasduet othethemeof" Afri
ca
forAf r
icans,"whichcoul dbeachi evedonlyifAfr
icanleader
swor kedtoget
herorusedone
voicetospel louttheiri
nterests.

5.Theimpactoft he" Al
lAf r
icanPeopl esConf er
ence"heldinAccr aledtot hefor
mationof
theOAU.Theconf erenceat t
ractedmanydel egatesf r
om bot hi ndependentandnon-
i
ndependentstatesof-Af ri
ca.Dur i
ngt heconf erence,Nkrumaht heleaderofGhanaand
host-
presi
dentstated,"Thismidt wentiethcent uryisAfri
ca's.Thisdecadei sadecadeof
Afr
icanindependence;f orwardthent oi ndependence,tobei ndependentnow,t omorrow
i
st heUni t
edSt at
esofAf ri
ca."Thepr oceedingsoft heAccr aconf er
enceinfl
uenced
Afr
icanstocontinuemeet i
ngandwor kingt ogether,t
heresultofwhi chwast heOAU.

6.Consequent l
y,ther oleofKwameNkr umah waspar amounti nt hef ormat i
on oft he
Organi
sationofAf ricanUni ty.Nkrumahadoptedt hesl oganof" Africamustuni t
e,"and
wentaheadt owr i
ter el
evantlit
erat
ureonthetheme.Heor ganisedthe" AllAfri
canPeopl es
Conference"inAccr ainDecember1958,i nwhichheemphasi sedt hatAf ri
cacoul dnever
bewhol l
yi ndependentunl essshewaspol i
ti
call
ystrongandeconomi cal
lyco- operat
ive.
Nkrumahwast hebr ainbehindt heCasabl
ancaideologicalgroupingwhosedr eam wast o
establ
i
shaPanAf r
icanfeder ati
onunderonepoli
ti
caladmi nist
rati
on.

7.Theemer genceofMonroviai
deologi
calgroupingi nf
luencedthecall
i
ngoftheAddisAbaba
ccr-
ferenceandtheformati
onoft heOrganisati
onofAf ri
canUnityi
n1963.TheMonr ovi
a
groupingwasf or
medi n1961tor i
valt
her adicali
sm ofmember softheCasabl
anca.The
poli
ti
calconfl
ictbet
weenthetwoi deol
ogicalgr oupingswasr esol
vedinEthi
opi
ain1963;
l
aterleadingwaytothefor
mationoftheOAU.

8.Therol
eplayedbyHai
leSel
assi
e,theEthiopi
anl
eaderl
edtothebi
rthoftheOAU.The
I
tal
iani
nvasi
onofEthi
opi
aconsoli
datedtheposi
ti
onofEthi
opi
ansthepri
desymbolof
Afri
ca.Sel assie-
desi
redt
oshi f
tthecent r
eofAf r
icanpoli
ti
csfrom Ghana,WestAf ri
cato
Ethi
opia,int heHornofAfri
ca.Her eal
isedthedangersoftheideologicalconf
li
ctbetween
theCasabl ancaandMonr oviagroupings;hereconcil
edtheinter
nalrivalr
iesbetweenthe
twoi deologicalcampsfort hegoodofAf ri
ca.Selassi
ehencecal ledt heAddisAbaba
conferencei nMay1963,fr
om wher etheOAUchar terwasdraft
edandsi gned.

9.Afr
icanleaderswer enothappywi tht hecontinuedexploit
ati
onoftheircont i
nentbyt he
Westerncolonialpower s.NkrumahandNasseri nparti
cularwerestr
onglyopposedt othe
emergingneo-coloniali nf
luencei
nAf ri
ca.Theywer eopposedt otheexi sti
ngl i
nksor
rel
ati
onsbet weent heindependentcolonialstatesandtheirfor
mercolonialmast er
s.The
Addis Ababa conf erence was therefore,an opportunit
yt o devi
se a mechani sm of
contr
olli
ng theinfluenceoft heformercol onialmast er
sand t heotheri ndustr
ial
ised
westernEuropeanpower sintheaff
airsofAfri
ca.

10.Afri
canl eader
swer ealsoinfluencedbyt henewl yestabli
shedNon- al
ignedMovement
(NAM) ,whichcameintoexi
stencei n1961.TheNAM compr i
sedmai nlyAfri
canandAsi an
countr
ieswhosemaj orai
mswer et oco- operat
eandsol vet hei
rownpr obl
emswi t
hout
i
nvolvi
ngsuperpower sandi ndustrial
i
sedwest ernpowers.NasserandNkr umahwer e
foundi
ngmember softheNAM.Theyhencedesi redfort
hesamei deasandprinci
plesfor
Afri
ca,andt oguar
dtheAfri
cancont inentagainstcoldwarinf
luence,

Note:
Theaimsandobj
ect
ivesoft
heOAUar
eal
sor
easonswhyt
heor
gani
sat
ionwasf
ormed

THEORGANI SATIONOFAFRI CANUNI TY( OAU)CHARTER


Theyear1963wasayearofAf r
icanunity.Representativesof32independentAfri
canstates
metinAddisAbabaEt hi
opi
a,tosignt
heOAUchar ter.Af t
erHai
leSelassi
eplayedanadvisory
andreconcil
i
atoryrole,membersofradicalCasablancaandmoder ateMonr oviaset
tl
edtheir
di
ffer
encesandsi gnedachart
eronMay25,1963,gi vingbirt
htoaloosepolit
icalor
gani
sati
on
ofAfr
icastates(t
heOr gani
sat
ionofAfr
icanUni t
y).

TheOAUt hereforeorigi
nat
edf r
om t
hepanAfri
cani
dealofunit
y.TheAfri
canstat
es-menwho
si
gnedt
hechar terhadt heideaanddesi
retoupholdAfr
icandigni
tyandself
-deter
minat
ion
wit
hpol
i
tical,socialandeconomicunit
yofAf
ri
canstat
es.

Aimsandobj ecti
vesoft heOAU
Theai msandobj ectivesoft heOr ganisati
onofAf ricanUnitywerebroughtouti nart
icl
eIIof
thechar t
erandwer easf ol
lows:
a.Eradicat eallf
ormsofcol oniali
sm from Af r
ica
b.Topr omot eAf r
icanuni t
yandsol i
darit
ythatwast odevelopandcreatebrotherhoodamong
Africans
c.Todef endt hesover eignty,ter
rit
oriali
ntegrityandindependenceofAfri
canst at
es
d.Topr omot et her espectofhumanr i
ghtsi naccordancewi t
htheuniversaldeclar
ati
onof
humanr i
ghts(UDHR)of1948
e.Toco- or di
nateandi ntensifyAfri
canef forttoachievebetterst
andar
dsoflivingofthepeople
ofAf rica \
f.Toenf orceeconomi cdevel opmentandpr osperi
tyont heconti
nentasawayofchecki ng
neocol oniali
sm

Pr
incipl
esoft
heOAU
a. Toachi
evetheaboveai
ms,t
heAf
ri
canst
ates-
menl
aiddowngui
del
i
nesi
nar
ti
cleI
IIoft
he
char
ter
'

b.Non-
int
erf
erencei
nthei
nter
nalaf
fai
rsofanot
hermember
-st
ate
c. Respectf
orsover
eignequal
i
tyofal
lmember
-st
ates

d.Adheretothepeacef
ulset
tl
ementofdisput
esthatincl
udei
nter-
stat
eandi nt
er-
personal
confl
ict
s among Afr
ican l
eader
sthrough negot
iati
on,mediat
ion,reconci
l
iat
ion and
arbi
tr
ati
on.

e. Absol
uteort
otaldedi
cat
iont
ocompl
etel
i
ber
ati
onofAf
ri
canst
ateswhi
chwer
est
il
lunder
col
oni
alcont
rol
.

f
. Detachmentfr
om superpowerideol
ogi
es(col
dwar)byadopt
ingapol
i
cyofnon-
ali
gnment
(posi
ti
ve neut
ral
it
y)wi t
hr egards t
o powerblocs i
.e.capi
tal
i
sm ofthe westand
communism oftheeast.

g.Er
adi
cat
ingofpol
it
icalassassi
nat
ionsaswel
lascondemnsubver
sive(
rebelact
ivi
ti
es)i
n
ot
hermemberst
ates.

h. Respectforthesoverei
gnt yandt
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
yofeachmember
-st
ateandcompl
ete
ri
ghttoindependentexi
stence.

Organsandstruct
ureoftheOrgani
zat
ionofAfr
icanUnit
y
TheGeneralAssembly(Summi t
)
Thiscompri
sedofheadsofst at
eandgovernment.Themajordutywasdeci
sionmaki
ng.The
chairt
othi
sgeneralmachinebecametheDi
plomaticChi
efofAfr
ica.

Everyyearmember -
stateswouldsitandelectaDipl
omaticChieforChai
rpersondur
ingt
he
annualsummi tconf
erence.Theheadofst at
eorgovernmentofthehoststat
et ot
heannual
summi tconf
erencebecamet henextDi
plomati
cChi
ef.

TheGener alSecretar
iat
Thisservedast hepermanentadminist
rat
ivewi
ngoftheOAU.Ithaditsheadquarter
sinAddis
AbabaEt hiopia.Thegeneralsecr
etari
atwasheadedbyaSecr et
aryGeneral,elect
edbyt he
OAC gener alassembl yon a 5 (fi
ve)yearter
m.Hewasassi sted byregionalassist
ant
secret
ariesf rom the di
ff
erentregi
onsoft he cont
inenti
.e.North Af
ri
ca,Cent ralAfr
ica,
SouthernAf r
icaetcet
era.

TheCouncilofMinist
ers
Thecounci
lcompr i
sedmi ni
stersofforei
gnaff
air
sfr
om eachmember-
stat
e.Thesehadatask
ofdraft
ing minutes forthe gener alassemblyto di
scuss.They al
so over
looked t
he
i
mplementati
onoft heOAUr esolut
ions.

Thespeci
ali
zedcommissions
Thesewer
esetupforspecif
icrol
esinspeci
fi
careas.Theyincl
uded:
a. Acommi ssi
onf
orreconci
li
ati
on,ar
bit
rat
ionandmedi at
ionsupposedl
ytor
esol
veconf
li
cts
amongmember-st
ates.

b.The economic and soci


alcommission wi
thar ol
e of ensur
ing soci
o-economi
c
devel
opment.Thi
scommissi
oncoul
dalsoext
endr
eli
eftodi
sast
erfal
lenar
eas.

c. TheDefenseandsecur
it
ycommissiontoover
seest
abi
l
ityont
hecont
inentaswel
las
sol
i
citapeacef
orcet
oareasf
aci
nginsur
gence.

d.Acommissionf
orHealth,sani
tat
ionandnut
ri
ti
on't
hiswaschar
gedwi
tht
heheal
thand
wel
far
eoftheAf
ricans.
e. TheEducationandcult
uralcommi ssi
on:t
hiswasestabl
ishedwit
htheai
m ofr
evi
vi
ng
Afr
icancul
tureandpr
omotingli
ter
acyamongtheAfr
icanpeople.

f
. Science,r esear
ch and technol
ogi
calcommissi
on:t
his was t
asked wi
th pr
omoti
ng
i
nventivenessand innovati
venessofthebodyinthefi
eldsofresear
ch,sci
enceand
technology.

g.Thel i
ber
ati
oncommi t
teewit
hi t
sheadquart
ersi
nTanzani
a:t
hiswaschar
gedwit
hthe
l
iberat
ionoftheenti
reconti
nentfr
om forei
gnruleanddomi
nati
onthr
oughext
endi
ng
supportt
oli
berat
ionmovements.

Achievements(successes)oftheOAU
ReferenceQuesti
ons:
a)Towhatext entdidtheOAUachi evetheai
msofitsfounder
s?
b)Assesst heachievementsoftheOAUbet ween1963and2002
c)Howsuccessf ulwastheOr gani
zati
onofAfri
canUni
tyinachievi
ngi
tsobl
igat
ions?

Sincei t
sinception,theOr ganizat
ionofAf ri
canUnit
ymanagedt oscor erel
ativesuccess
throughthefol
lowi ng:
1.Despi teoft hemanypr oblemsshef aced,theOr
ganisat
ionofAf r
icanUnit
ymanagedt o
over
comemostoft hem andhencesur vi
vedupto2002.Thislongexist
enceofalmost40
year
swasduet otheannualsummi tmeetingst
hatprovidedgroundfordiscussi
onand
fi
ndi
ngsolutionstoAf r
icanproblems.

2.Duet oi t
sidealsuccessi novercomingmostoft hechallenges,member shiptot heOAU
wasexpandedf r
om t heori
ginal32member -
stateswhoiniti
all
ysignedthechar t
erin1963,
toalmostt heentir
econt i
nent.Thisshowedar emarkabl
ewor kasdr awnint heobj ecti
ves
oft hebody.I tshoul dbenot edt hatMoroccopul l
edoutoft heOAU af terthebody
recognisedtherighttoindependenceofSouthWestSahar a(POLISARIO)from Mor occan
domi nati
on:andlatergrant
edmember shi
ptoSouthWestSahar a.

3.Asalmostt heentir
econti
nentbecamepar tofthebody,theOrgani
sati
onofAf r
icanUnity
ther
efor
esucceededi nupholdi
ngt hei
dealofunity.Assuch,membersoftheOAUal ways
spokewi t
honevoi cedur
ingt heUN generalassembly.
summitsandot herint
ernat
ional
convent
ionslikethemostpr onouncedLomeconvent iononeconomicrelat
ionsbetween
Afri
caandEur opeanEconomicCommuni ty(EEC).

4.Thr
ought hecommi ssionformediati
onandr econci
l
iat
ion,t
heOrganisati
onmanagedt o
set
tl
einterst
ateconfl
icts,whi
choccurredmainlyduetobordermisunderstandi
ngs.The
OAUmedi atedbetweenSomal i
aandEt hiopi
aovertheOgadenprovince,betweenCongo
andUganda,MoroccoandAl geri
aetcet
era.

5.TheOAUcont ributedtothecompl eteer adicat


ionofcoloni
ali
sm fr
om theconti
nent.This
wast heeffor
tofherl i
berat
ioncommi tteei nTanzania.Thecommi t
teemobi l
i
sedand
ext
endedsuppor ttotheMozambi canLi berat
ionFront(FREL1MO)inMozambi que,the
SouthWestAf ricanPeople'
sOr ganisati
on( SWAPO)i nNami bi
aandtheAf r
icanNat i
onal
Congress(ANC)i nSout
hAf ri
ca.Thi ssuppor tfrom t
hecont i
nent
albodyinfl
uencedt he
att
ainmentofindependenceinthesest ates.

6.Consequentl
y,theOAUmadeanef forttoli
berateblacksinSouthAfri
caf r
om thebondage
ofaparthei
d.Theor ganisati
oncal l
ed forsanct i
onsagai nsttheracistwhitemi nor
it
y
regimesandthr ought hef r
ontl
inestates,thebodyext endedthenecessaryassist
anceto
blacksinfor
m ofmor alandf i
nanceandpr essur
isedf ortherel
easeofpol it
ici
ansli
ke
Mandelawhol aterledAf r
icanstovictory.
7.Thebodysuppor t
edtheest abl
i
shmentofr egi
onaleconomicco-oper
ations.Thiswasaf t
er
member -st
atesreal
i
sedi twasi mpossibl
et oachieveconti
nentaleconomi cintegr
ati
on.
Therefor
e,theOAUinfl
uencedt heest
abli
shmentoft heEastAfr
icanCommuni t
y(EAC),the
Economic Communi ty of WestAf r
ican Stat
es ( ECOWAS) and t he Sout h Afr
ican
DevelopmentCommuni t
y( SADC).

8.TheOAU pr omoted and encouraged economicdevelopmentwithi


n Afri
ca.Thebody
est
abli
shedtheAf r
icandevelopmentbank( ADB)wi t
hi t
sheadquart
ersinAbi dj
anI
vory
Coast
.The OAU al so i
nfl
uenced the establi
shmentoft he Arab bank forAfr
ican
Devel
opment.Thesebanksext endedloansf ordevel
opmentprogr
amst oAf ri
canst
ates
wit
hthelowesti
nterestr
ates,ai
mingatdiscouragi
ngborrowi
ngfrom t
hewest er
nworl
d.

9.TheOAU putmor eeffor


ttor evi
vi
ngandpr omotingAf r
icancultureaswel lassocial
i
ntegrat
ion.Theor
ganizat
ionencouragedAfr
icancult
uralfest
ival
slikethe1973festi
val
s
i
nNi ger
ia;ot
herf
esti
valswereheldinstat
esl
ikeEgypt.Theorganisati
onalsoencour
aged
gamesandspor t
sont heconti
nentthrought
heall-
Afri
cangamesl i
kethoseSouthAfri
ca
hostedi
n1999.

10.Throught heeducati
onandcul tur
alcommi ssi
on,Afr
icanlit
eratur
eandl anguageswere
encour aged.A languagebur eauwasputi nplacewi t
hitsheadquartersinKampala,
Uganda,t hroughwhichleadi
ngl anguagesli
keHausa,Kiswahi
liandArabi
cwer epromot
ed.
Assistancewasal sogiventoAf ri
canwr i
ter
sli
keNgugiWaThi ong'o,Chi
nuaAchebe,Wole
Soyinkaet c.

11.Thebodycour ageouslyi
ntervenedandcondemnedci vilwarsandseparat
ist(
secessi
oni
st)
movement s on t he continent.She int
ervened and succeeded i n prevent
ing the
disi
ntegr
ationofCongoi n1963dur i
ngtheKat angacrisis(1960-
63)andinNigeri
aduring
theBiafr
awar( 1967-70).TheOAUsucceededi nendingt heMozambicancivi
lwar(1977-
94)andtriedtosolvethecivi
lwarsinSudan,Chad,Somal iaandUganda.

12.TheOr gani
sat
ionofAf r
icanUnityt r
iedandmanagedt ohandlether ef
ugeepr oblem onthe
conti
nent.Thr
ought hecommi ssionf orr
efugees,member -st
atestri
edt oresett
leinter
nally
displ
acedpersons( I
DPs)andr ef ugeesint heirrespecti
vecount r
ies.Inconjunctionwi t
h
theUni t
edNat i
onsHi ghCommi ssionforRef ugees( UNHCR) ,theOAU est abli
sheda
generalfundto givereliefsuppor tto displacedper sonsi nAf ri
cai ntermsoff ood,
Medicineandshelt
er.

13.The conti
nentalorgani
zati
on encour agedobser vati
onandr espectforhumanr i
ght
sand
democrat
icgovernance.Member -st
atesagr eedt oover seet herespectforhumanr i
ght
s
thr
oughcondemni ngoppressi
veandaut hor i
tar
ianregimest hatpromot edabuseofhuman
ri
ghtandobservedelect
ionprocessesont hecontinent.TheOAUsentobser verstoSout
h
Afri
cadur
ingthe1994gener alel
ecti
onst hatledtot hecollapseofapar t
hei
d.

14.Consequentl
y,t he Organi
sati
on ofAfrican Unit
ywentahead t o condemn dict
ator
ial
regi
mesi nNigeriaunderSaniAbacha,i
nt heCentr
alAfr
icanRepubl
icunderBoukassaand
MengistuHail
eMar i
am'sr egi
mei nEthiopia.Suchregimesespeci
all
yofMengistuwere
i
nternat
ional
l
yr ecognizeddespot
swhot arnishedt
heAfri
canimage.

15.TheOAUt r
iedandmanagedt omai nt
ainpeaceontheconti
nent.Thr
oughnobl emenl ike
Mandela,theOAU medi at
edbet weenwarringpart
ieswhoincludedthegover nmentof
Burundiandtheopposit
ionrebelgr
oupin1998.Thebodyalsoencouragedtalksbetween
bl
acksandt heapar
thei
dr egi
mei nSouthAf ri
ca.Member-
stat
eswoul dalsocont r
ibute
peacef or
cestooverseepeaceandsecur it
yincountri
esexper
ienci
nginsurgence.The
OAUi nf
luencedZi
mbabweUganda,RwandaandAngol atosendt r
oopstoDRCdur i
ngt he
ci
vi
lst
ri
fei
n1999.

16.Thebodyencouragedrel
ationsbet weenAf ri
caandAsia,andt hisconsolidatedtheAfr
o-
Asi
ansoli
dar
ity.The t
wo cont i
nents always st
ood together- dur
ing the UN Gener al
Assemblytocondenm exploitati
onbyt hedevel
opedcount ri
esandt hecont i
nuedneo-
col
oniali
nfl
uencetobothcont i
nents.TheOAUal sopromot edt r
ader elat
ionsbetween
Afr
icaandAsia.Asi
ancount r
iesIndia,ChinaandJapanoftengaveassi stancetoAfri
cain
for
m offi
nance,t
echni
calandt echnologi
calknowledgeandservices.

17.Goodandcommendabl ewor kwaswi t


nessedi nscienti
fi
cr esearchthr
oughthescience
and t echnologicalcommi ssi
on.The Af r
ican medi calr esearch f
und (AMREF)was
establi
shedandwor kedwi t
ht heWor l
dMedi calAssociati
onandt heWor l
dBanktocarry
outresear chonAf ricanlocalherbs.Thecommi ssi
onwor kedt oeradi
catesomediseases
ont hecont inentsuchast heeast -
coastfever,ri
nderpestaswel lasdeali
ngwi t
ht he
problem ofl ocustsespeci all
yi ncentralAf r
icat hr
ought heEastand CentralLocust
Associ at
ion(organisati
on).

18.TheOr gani
sati
onofAf ri
canUni tyat t
emptedtoencour ageinfr
astr
uct
uraldevel
opmentin
Afri
ca.Throught heAfri
canDevel opmentBank( AFDB),fundswer eext
endedt omember-
stat
est oimproveont hei
rinfrast
ructuresuchasr oads,harboursandrai
lways.Thebody
tr
iedtoest abl
i
shat r
ans-Afr
icahi ghwayfrom Mombasat oLagos.Anat t
emptwasal so
madet oconstructthenort
h-r
oadf rom theCapeinSouthAf r
icatoCair
oinEgypt.

19.TheOAUcal ledforandencouragedmember -
statestoadoptthepoli
cyofnon-al
ignment
(posit
ive neutr
alit
y)dur i
ng t
he cold warpol i
tics ofthe superpowers.The body
discouragedmember -
stat
esfrom all
owingtheest abl
ishmentofmil
itar
ybasesi ntheir
countriesbyeithertheUSAortheUSSR.Theor ganisati
onther
efor
eattemptedtoprotect
thecont i
nentfr
om thesuperpowerideol
ogi
es.

20.Theconti
nentalbodyensuredahar moni ousrel
ationshi
pbet
weentheArabNorthandthe
Sub Saharan Afr
ica.Thisincreased Af r
ican benefi
tsfr
om the Ar
ab League whose
headquar
tersweresit
uatedinCairo,Egypt.

21.Thebodycont inuousl
ycondemnedt heassassi
nati
onofAfricanl
eaders,whi
chputmany
Afr
icangover nment sinsuspense.Afr
icanl
eadersassassi
nateddur
ingt het
enur
eoft he
OAUi ncludeSankar aofBur ki
naFaso,SamoraMachelofMozambi que,AnwarSadatof
Egypt,LaurentKabil
aofCongo,amongot her
s.

Weaknesses( f
ailures)oftheOr ganisati
onofAf r
icanUnity(OAU)
Ref
erenceQuest ion:
a)Howf ardidtheOAUf ailt
oachi evetheai mstowhi chitwasestabli
shed?
1.Theor gani
zat i
onf ail
edt oachi evet hedesiredpolit
icalunionont hecont i
nent
. Pan
Africanism advocat edfort heest abli
shmentofaOneAf r
icanCommuni t
y(theUni
ted
StatesofAf ri
ca) .However ,thi
sf ail
edbecauset hemember–st ateshavebecomemor e
concer nedwithi nt
ernal–stateaf f
airsthanf
ost er
ingconti
nentali
nter
ests.

2.Consequently,t
heOAUf ai
ledt oestabl
ishacont inent
alarmedf orceunderacent r
ali
sed
1Ccommand.Thewar sandr ebelacti
vit
iesont hecontinentwerenotcheckedbecause
thebodylackedanarmyofi tsown.Ther efore,t
heobj ecti
veofdef endi
ngindependence,
sover
eigntyandt er
ri
tor
ialint
egrit
yr emame4adr eam inAf r
ica.Observi
ngpeaceand
secur
it
yont heconti
nentalsoremainedadr eam.

3.The bodyf ail


ed to geta cl
earmedi
cine agai
nstcold warinfl
uence.Hence,itwas
unsuccessfuli
nenf orci
ngthepol
i
cyofpositi
veneut
ral
ity(non-
ali
gnment)
.Thisbrought
i
deologicaldi
ffer
encesamongmember-
stat
es.Countr
iesli
keTanzania,Mozambique,and
Gui
nea( Conakry)f
ellunder
communistinfl
uencewhi
leother
sli
keKenya,Congo(Zai
re)
andNigeri
abecamepur el
ycapi
tal
i
sticstates.Ther
esul
twasimper
ial
ism ofthesuper
power
sinAf ri
ca.

4.Theorganisat
ionfai
ledtoenforcediscipl
i
neandr esponsi
bil
i
tyamongmember -
stat
es.She
coul
d not puni sh member -stat
es who f ail
ed t o meet their annualsubscr i
ption
(membership)fees.Until2002,mostmember -
stateshadnotevenpai dt hei
rar r
ear s.
Basi
ngon1995st ati
sti
cs$583mi ll
ionwereinar rearsasonl y17member shadf ully
cl
earedtheirf
inanci
alobli
gat
ions.Thishinder
edtheOAUi nf
inancingtheannualbudgets.

5.Fail
uretoimproveont hewelfareofAf ri
cans;dur
ingthetenureoft heOAU,manyAf ricans
l
ivedinabj ectpovert
yandsuf feredf r
om severeki l
lerdiseases.Africawasmi r edi n
povert
yasmostoft heAf r
icansl ivedbelowt hepovert
ylevelof1dol l
arasdailyear ning.By
2000,onlyabout33%oft heAf r
icanpopul aceearnedabout$25oraboveasdai lyear ning
whil
et heincomepercapitahadcont i
nuedtodecline.Duri
ngt hi
st i
me,72%ofal lAf ricans
l
ivi
ngi nci t
iesinsubSahar anAf ri
cal i
vedinsl umswhi le40% oft hesel i
vedi nl ife-
thr
eateningcir
cumstancesint ermsofheal t
hwithnoconnect i
ont osewer s,l
ackel ectr i
city
andhavenoaccesst orunningwat er,By2002,22oft he33poor estnationsoft hewor l
d
wereAf r
ican.

6.TheOAUsomet i
mesf ai
ledinhermedi at
ionandarbit
rat
ioneffort
s.Manyi nt
er-
personal
confl
ict
scont inuedt oexistamongAf ri
canleader
saswel lasinter
-st
ateconfl
ict
samong
member -stat
es.Thei nter-
stat
econf l
i
ctsexist
edbetweenTanzani aandUgandadur ing
Amin'sr egime,t he conf l
i
ctbet ween Et
hiopi
a and Somali
a overt he Ogden ter
rit
ory
i
ntensif
iedby1979,whi l
eNi ger
iaandCamer oonexperi
encedabor derdisput
e.Allthese
test
edthecr edibi
lit
yoft heOAU.

7.TheOAUf ai
ledi
nitsendeavorst
of i
ndconcr
eteremedy( sol
ution)totherefugeeprobl
em
i
nAf rica.Thiswasduet othefai
l
uretoaddresst hecausesoft herefugeecrisi
sthat
i
ncludedr ampantwar s.Theresul
twast heconst antmigrationsfrom onecount ryto
another.By2002,Nigeriahadmanyr ef
ugeesfrom Sierr
aLeone,Li beri
aet cet
era,whi
le
othercountri
esforli
keUgandahadmanyoft her efugeesfrom Somal i
a,Sudan,Congo
RwandaandBur undi.

8.Bythet i
metheOAUcol lapsed,Afri
caninfrastructurewasinaverysor
ryst
ate.Therewere
veryl
owandpoort ransportandcommuni cat i
onsyst ems,manyofwhi
chwer ei
ncomplete
orbrokendown.Thet r
ans-Afri
cahi ghwayf r
om Mombasat oLagosandt henorth-
road
fr
om t he Cape t
o Cairo wer e notcompl eted.Developmentofslums was r ampant
especi
allyi
nurbanareaswher emostci t
ydwel lersli
vedinsl
umsinhousesbarelyfi
tfor
humanhabi t
ati
on.

9.Thebodyf ail
edt odoawaywi t
hneo- colonial
ism throughwhi chAf r
icanindependencewas
underminedaseconomi cexpl oi
tati
onofAf ri
cabecamer ampant .TheOAUmember -
st ates
weregrosslydependentonf oreignandr el
iefaidfrom developedcount r
ies.Af
ri
canst ates
coul
dnotsust aint hei
rdomest icbudget swi t
houtext ernalfunding.Thi sconsolidat ed
for
eign(neo-coloni
al)inf
luencei nAf r
ica.Neo- col
onialinfl
uencei nAf r
icawasmuchf eltin
economict er
msduet oacqui sit
ionofext ernalaidfrom thewestt hatAf r
icangovernment s
keptfi
nancingf oroveryears.Accor dingt otheUNConf erenceonTr adeandDevel opment
(UNCTAD) ,between1970and2002,subSahar anAf ri
careceivedS294bi l
li
oninloans,pai d
out$268bi l
li
oni ndebtservi
ce,andyetst il
lowes$300bi ll
i
on.

10.Mil
it
arycoupswererampantdur
ingthetenureoftheOAUsi mpl
ybecausethebodyfail
ed
tofi
ndpropermedici
netot
heserampantcoupsandcontinuedmil
it
ari
sm onthecont
inent.
Suchcoupsincl
uded1971and1985coupsi nUganda,t
he1966JanuaryandJulycoupsin
Niger
ia,1966,1972and1978coupsi
nGhanaamongot
her
s.Thesecoupsl
eftAf
ri
can
gover
nment si
nsecur
e.

11.TheOAUf ailedi nheref fortstodoawaywi thdict


atorshipandt hel ongper si
stencein
powerofAf ri
can leaders.Si nce independence,Af ri
ca wi t
nessed gr eatdi ctatorsl
ike
Boukassaoft heIr-
ir
alAfricanRepubl ic,IdiAminofUganda,Rober tMugabeofZi mbabwe,
SaniAbachaofNi geri
a,Mobut uWazabangaofZai r
e,Mengi st
uMar iam ofEt hiopiaamong
others.Thesel eadersviolateddemocr acyast heyperpetuatedneo- coloni
alism.I twasa
fai
lureoft heOAUt hatwi t
nessedt hecont i
nuedauthor i
tari
ani
sm i nAf ri
caast hebody
pursuedthepol icyofnoni nterf
erencei ntheaffai
rsofthemember -
states.In1975att he
ti
met hesavage- di
ctatorshipofAmi nwasi nter
nati
onall
ycondemned,her eceivedthe
"Honouroft heDi pl
omat i
cChi efofAfrica."

12.TheOr ganisat
ionofAf r
icanUni
tycouldnotdoawaywiththeassassi
nat
ionofAfr
ican
pol
it
icalleaders.AnwarSadatofEgypt,SankaraofBur
kinaFaso,Samor
aMachealof
Mozambi queandLaur entKabi
raofD.R.Congoamongot
herswereallmur
deredasthey
ser
vedt hei
rnations.

13.Thebody' sot herweaknesswast hef ail


uretoelimi
nateci vi
lwar sandsecessi
onism
compl etel
youtoft heAfri
cancontinent.Suchcivi
lwarsthreatenedAfri
canunit
yatbot h
nationaland cont i
nentallevel
,as wel las breedi
ng inter-
stat
e wrangl
es amongst
neighbour ingstat
es.Suchcivi
lwarsincludedtheSudancivi
lwar s,t
heChadcivi
lwars,and
theci vilwarsinAngolaandMozambi que,aswellassecessi
onistwarsli
ketheBiaf
rawar
i
nNi geria.

14.TheOAU t r
iedbutf ail
edt oputupapr opermechanism thatwoul densureconcrete
observati
onandr espectforhumanrights.Grosshumanr i
ghtsvi
olat
ionswer erecor
dedin
countri
esLikeUgandadur ingAmin'
sr egime,SouthAfr
icadur i
ngapar thei
dregime,and
Zair
eunderMobut u,toment i
onbutaf ew.Al lt
hoset
arnishedtheAf r
icanimageont he
i
nternati
onalscene.

15.Thecontinentalbodydidli
tt
let
orescueandpreserveAfr
icancultur
e.Afr
icancul
tur
eswere
alwaysdomi natedandovershadowedbyf or
eignandwest erncult
ures.Assuch,the
forei
gncul t
uresdi l
utedtheAfri
cancultur
alheritageandaff ect
edtheAf ri
canori
ginal
personal
i
t yandidenti
ty.

16.TheOr ganisati
onofAf ri
canUnityfail
edtoconsoli
datemember shi
pofal li
ndependent
Afri
canst ates.Thebodyf ai
l
edt olureMor occobackaf t
ertheMaghr eb-
Arabnation
withdrew f r
om theOAU.ThebodyhadcondemnedMor occandomi nanceint heSouth
West ernSahar aandgaveani nvi
tat
iontoSout hWestSaharatojointheOAUasawayof
recognisingherindependenceawayf r
om Morocco.

17.Consequentl
y,t he conti
nent
alsecuri
ty or
gan coul
d notrescue South WestSahara
(POLASARIO)from Mor occandominat
ion.By2002,t
heyeartheOrganisat
ionofAfr
ican
Unit
ywasdi ssolved,thePOLASARIOwarhadi nt
ensi
fi
edwit
hMor occor ef
usi
ngtogrant
sel
fdeter
minationtoSout hWestSahar
a

18.TheOAUwasdi scredi
tedforherfail
uretocr
eat eaconti
nentaleconomicco-
operati
onand
fai
luretoestabli
shacont inentalcommonmar ket
.Thislef
tAf r
icaneconomicrel
ati
onsat
regionall
evelthroughregionalgroupi
ngssuchast heEastAf ri
canCommuni ty(EAC)and
theEconomi cCommuni t
yofWestAf r
icanSt
ates(ECOWAS) .

19.Thebodyf
ail
edinitsendeavor
st ocol
l
ect i
vel
yisol
ateapart
heidr
egi
meinSouthAf r
ica.
Somemember -
stat
esoft heOAU exhi
biteddoublestandardsbymaint
aini
ngdial
ogue
(det
ent
epol
icy)wit
hther aci
stregi
mei nSout hAfr
ica.TheseOAU membersincl
uded
Mauri
ti
us,Malawietcet
era.These conspir
ing member-
states sabot
aged t
he Af
ri
can
ef
for
tsagai
nstapar
thei
danddelayedthel
iberat
ionofbl
acksinSouthAfri
ca.

20.Thebodyr eactedr el
uctant
lyint he1990- 94Rwandancr isi
s.Thi scausedt heRwanda
genocide(masski l
li
ng)wher etheconser vati
veHut ueli
minated( murdered)closetoone
mill
ionTut siandHut u-
moder atesinar ecord100days.TheRwandangenoci dewas
recordedasoneoft heseminalevent sinthelifeofhumanityofthet wenti
ethcent ur
y.The
OAU neveri ntervenedasHut uext remistscar ef
ull
ycoordinatedanor ganizedassaul t
againsttheirTut sicounter
partsandsl aughteredthem inthemostgr uesomewayas
thousandsofmoder ateHut usandopponent stot hegovernmentwer esyst ematically
hunteddownandmur deredaswel l.Theeventdi dnotonlyaffectRwandabutal soCent ral
Afri
caandAf ri
caatl argewithalarge-scaleref
ugeemovementi ntoneighbouri
ngcount r
ies.

Chal
l
enges(
probl
emsorobst
acl
es)t
otheOAU

ReferenceQuest ions
a)Accountf orthef ail
ureoftheOrganisationofAfricanUni
ty
b)Exami nethechal lengesfacedbyt heOAUbet ween1983and2002
Anumberofpr oblemsaf f
ectedtheact iviti
esoft heOAUcausi ngit
sfai
lureandevent ual
col
lapse.Thesei ncluded:
1.Thegeogr aphicalvastness(size)oft hecontinentofalmost12mi l
li
onsquar emi les
affectedtheper f
ormanceoft hebody.Thesi zeofAf ri
cahinder
edtheeffect
ivenessof
OAUi ntryi
ngt opr omotepoli
ti
calunityandt r
adingacti
vi
ti
esamongt hemember-states.

2.Theheterogeneousnatur
eofAf ri
cawasagr eatobstacle.Af
ri
cahasavar i
etyofr aces,
wit
hmanycul t
uralandet
hnicdiff
erencesaswel lasmanyl anguages.Asar esult
,these
var
iancescouldnotenabl
eco-operat
ionandunityofpurposeontheAf r
icanconti
nent.

3.Consequentl
y,l
ackofacommonl anguagethatcoul
dunif
yAfri
canpeopl
easwellasease
communicationhinderedtheacti
vit
iesoft heconti
nent
albody.Thi
sisbecausemany
tr
ibesi
nAf ri
cahavet hei
rownlanguagesthatpavedwayforAngl
oandFrancol
anguages
todominateanddivi
deAf ri
ca.

4.Afri
canst ates-
menwer eal waysdi
videdoni deol
ogicalli
nes.Peopl
el i
keNkrumahdesired
apolit
icalfederat
ionofAf r
icawhil
eot her
slikeNyerereencouragedregional
i
sm (l
oyal
tyto
regi
onalintegrit
y).Evenaf t
erthedeat hofsomeoft hefounderst
at es-
men,thosewho
remained and ot her
st hatcameaf t
ert hem could notagr eewhet herto est
abli
sh a
feder
ationofAf ri
canstatesormaintai
nal ooseunion.

5.Consequent l
y.Lackofacommonappr oachagai nstAfri
canpr obl
emspr ovedagreat
obstacle.Wher eastheOAUcondemnedapar t
heid,member -
stat
esl i
keMalawi,Bot
swana
and Maur i
tius succumbed tot he dent
ente poli
cyand mai nt
ained di
alogue wi
ththe
apartheidregime.AsAf r
icanleadersli
keNyer ere,condemnedAmi n'
sdictat
ori
aland
tyr
annicalrule,other
sli
keGadhafisuppor
tedAmi n.

6.Thecoldwarconfl
ict(oft
hesuperpowers)aff
ectedt
heoperat
ionsoft
heOAU.Stat
esli
ke
Egypt
.Tanzania,Angola,andMozambi quealli
edwi t
htheUSSR andt herestofthe
communistblocwi thKenya,Congo and theCentralAf
ri
canRepublic(CAR)bendi
ng
towar
dsthecapit
ali
stworldl
edbytheUSA.

7.Presenceofneo- col
oniali
nfluenceofdevelopedcountri
esintheaffair
sofAf ri
caequall
y
af
f ectedthedecisi
onsoft heOAUaswel lasconti
nentalandregi
onalrelati
ons.I
n1987,
USA i nt
ervened to pr
eventa bar tert
ransacti
on ofbeansand t ransformersbetween
UgandaandTanzani arespectivel
ybyofferi
ngTanzaniafreebeans.Thecol l
apseofEast
AfricanCommuni tyi
n1977wasal soaresultofneocolonial
i
sm.
8.Thedi f
ferencesinthel evelsofeconomi cdevelopmentamongt hestatesofAfri
cawere
anotherproblem t
hataff ectedtheconti
nentalbody.DevelopedAf ri
canstatesLi
keNiger
ia,
Egypt,Algeri
aandI voryCoastcoul dnotco- operat
eonequalf ooti
ngwi thpoorcount
ri
es
l
ikeUganda,Tanzani a.Rwanda,andGui neaBissauandt hishinderedtradeandeconomic
rel
ati
onsamongmember softheOrgani
sati
onofAf ricanUnity.

9.Consequentl
y,povertyandeconomicbackwar dnessofAf r
icaaffect
edtheacti
vi
ti
esofthe
OAU.ManyAf ricanstateswereaff
ectedbyfinancialconstr
aintsandthi
scouldnotenabl
e
them meettheirannualsubscri
pti
onobligat
ions( payments).Thebodycouldnothence,
fundheracti
vit
ies.Byt heti
meoft hecol
lapseoft heOrganisati
onofAfri
canUnit
y,22of
the33poorestnationsoftheworl
dwer ei
nAf rica.

10.TheOr gani
sationofAfricanUni t
yl ackedadef ineddisci
pli
narymechanism topunish
memberst ateswhodef aultedagainstherpr incipl
es.Casest udiesi
ncl
udeMal awiand
Botswanawhosuppor t
edapar t
hei
dthr oughdialoguewiththeSout hAf
ri
canraci
stregi
me,
andallothermember swhof ai
ledtomeett her equi
rementsoft heOAUsuchaspayi ng
annualsubscri
pti
onobli
gation(member shi
pfees).

11.Mili
tarism andrampantpol
it
icalinstabi
li
ti
essuchascivilwarsaff
ectedtheOAU.These
thr
eat enedAfri
canpeace,securit
yanduni t
yofpurpose.Poli
ti
calinst
abil
it
ieshinder
ed
economi cdevelopment, co- operati
on and t
raderel
ationsand worsened di
plomati
c
rel
ationsamongmember -st
ates.

12.Presenceofdictatori
alregimesont hecont
inentaff
ect
edtheOrganisati
onofAfri
canUni
ty.
Dict
atoriall
eadersjeopardisedorhinder
edtheeffor
tsoft
hecontinentalbodyi
npromoti
ng
democr acyandhumanr ightsinAfr
ica.

13.Coloniallegacy was anot


herobstacl
et ot he OAU.Afri
can states had cat
egorized
themselvesbasingont hei
rformercoloni
ali
stse.g.theAnglophoneoft heBri
tishand
Francophoneoft heFr
ench.Thesekeptcl
oser el
ati
onsofAfr
icanstateswitht
heirfor
mer
coloni
almast er
s

14.Theinter
stat
econfl
ictsandi nt
erpersonalwrangles(amongAf r
icanl
eaders)aff
ectedthe
OAU.Somel eader
sofAf r
icanstatesdr aggedtheircount
ri
esintoconfl
i
cts,whichcould
notenablethem t
or espectthepr i
ncipl
esoft heOAU.Theseconf l
i
ctsexist
edbet ween
UgandaunderMuseveniandSudanunderBashi r,DosSantosofAngolaandMobut uof
Zai
re,andmanyothers.

15.ThedoublestandardsofAfr
icanleader swereagr eathindrancetotheOAU.SomeAf ri
can
leader
sworkedagai nstthepr i
nciplesoft hebodyf orsel f
ishi
nterest
s.Countr
ieslike
Kenyaacceptedmi l
i
tar
ybasesi nt heirter
ri
tor
iescont raryt otheOAU' scal
lfornon-
ali
gnment(posit
iveneutr
ali
ty).OtherslikeBotswanamai ntai
neddial
oguewi t
hapartheid
yettheOAUhadi mposeddiplomat i
candeconomi csanct ionsagai
nstSouthAfri
ca.

16.Tradebar
ri
ersestabli
shedbymember softheOrganisat
ionofAf
ri
canUnityhinderedt
rade
rel
ati
onsont heconti
nent.Kenyain1976bl ockedthepassageofTanzaniantrucksfr
om
passi
ngthroughKenyaf rom Zambi a,whichpartl
yl edtothecoll
apseofEastAf r
ican
Community.Thiscaseamongot her
shi nder
edeconomi cco-
oper
ati
onintheregion.

17.Ther ampantoutbr
eakofcal amiti
eslikef amine,fl
oodsand epi demicsexposed t
he
weaknessesoftheOrganisat
ionofAfri
canUni tyasint
ernat
ionalor
ganisati
onsl
iketheUN
andtheICRCtookoverresponsibi
l
ityofdisastermanagementinAfri
ca.

18.Lackofaconti
nent
alf
orcewi t
hacentral
i
sedmil
i
tar
ycommandpavedwayf
orpersi
stent
poli
ti
cali
nst
abi
li
ti
esandi nsecur
it
iesandfai
l
urebythebodyt
ocheckont hem.Thi s
expl
ains the per
sist
entci
vilwar
s and subver
sive act
ivi
ti
es dur
ing t
he days oft
he
Organisat
ionofAfr
icanUni
ty.

Thecontri
butionoft heOAUt ot hegr owthofAfri
cannati
onali
sm andFanAf ri
cani
sm
Oneoft hemaj orreasonsoft hesi gni
ngoft heOAUChar teront heMay23,1963wast he
compl
eteer adicati
onoff orei
gni nf
luenceanddomi nat
ionfr
om t hecont
inent
.Member-stat
es
est
abl
ishedal i
berationcommi tteet ohelpinduri
ngthisnoblecausewher etheyagreedto
workt
ogethert ohel pAfr
icanstatesandpeopl est
il
lunderf
oreigndominati
on.Fori
nst
ance:

Ref
erenceQuest i
ons:
a)Howdi dt
heOAUi nf
luencethegrowthofAf r
icannati
onalism?
b)Exami nether ol
eoftheOAUi nstrengt
heningthedesir
ef orindependenceofAf
ri
ca
1.Theor ganizati
oncall
edforunit
yofAf ri
cansi nthei
rstr
uggleagai nstf
orei
gndominat
ion.
TheOAUcal l
eduponAf r
icannati
onali
ststoinvolvemassesi ntheanti-
col
oni
alst
ruggles
asawayt opopulari
zethedesir
eforindependence.

2.Consequentl
y,member
-st
atesoftheOAUagr eedtouset heirgoodoffi
cestounitet
he
l
iberati
onmovement
sasawayt ostr
engt
hent heef
fect
ivenessofthestr
uggle.Thi
swas
witnessedwhent
heZANUandt heZAPUagreedtoworktogethertodef
eattheUDI.

3.Thebodyest ablishedal i
ber
ationcommi tt
eewi thitsheadquartersinTanzania.The
commi t
teeconsistedofAl ger
ia,Ethi
opia,GuineaConakry,Uganda,Egypt,Senegal
,Zaire,
Niger
iaandTanzani a.Thecommi tt
eewasr esponsi
bleforcoordinati
ngtheassistance
fr
om Af r
icanstatesandmanagi ngt hespecialfund.Thecommi tteeextendedmor al,
fi
nanci
alandmilitarysupportt
ot heli
berati
onmovement sespecial
lyofSouthernAfr
ica.

4.Members oft he OAU agr eed toreceive and sponsornati


onali
stsfrom l
i
berat
ion
movementsformi l
i
tary,educat
ionandvocati
ont r
aini
ng.Theyalsoal
lowedthet
ransi
tof
al
lmater
ial
s(mat eri
alaid)andvolunt
eersont hei
rwayt ol
iber
atedzonesandtoAfri
can
st
atesst
ruggl
ingforindependence

5.TheOrganisati
onofAfri
canUnitycal
l
edupont heUN toimposesanctionsagainstthe
Por
tuguesecoloni
aloppressor
sinAfri
ca,t
heaparthei
dregimeinSouthAf r
icaandI an
Smit
h'sgovernmenti
nRhodesia(Zi
mbabwe)fort
hei
rconti
nuedvi
olat
ionofAfr
icanright
s.

6.Consequently,member s of the OAU addr essed t he Afri


can cause for complete
i
ndependencei ntheUNgener alassembly.ThebodysentanAf ri
candelegat
ionconsist
ing
offoreignmi nist
ersofLiberia,Tunisi
a,MadagascarandSi err
aLeonet ospeakatt he
meeti
ngsoft heUN Secur ityCouncil(UNSC)addr essingthei ssueofgenocide(mass
ki
ll
i
ng)i nPor t
uguesecolonies.Thisatt
ractedinter
nationalat
tentionagai
nsttheatr
ocit
ies
ofPortuguesecolonial
i
stinAf ri
ca.

7.TheOAUdemandedal lAfr
icanstatestobreakoffdipl
omati
candconsul arrel
ationswith
thegover nmentsofPort
ugalandSout hAfr
icabecauseoftheirconti
nuedoppressionand
humi l
i
ationofthei
rAfri
cansubjects.Member softheOAUagreedt ocutofftr
adet iesand
boycottimpor t
sfrom thesetwocount ri
esandt ocloseAfricanportsandai rportsto
PortugueseandSout hAf r
icanshipsandpl anes.Theyal
sor estr
ict
edtheirplanesf r
om
fl
yingoverAfri
canstat
es.

8.Member -
stat
esoft heOAUdecl aredMay25,as‘ Af
ricanLi
berat
ionDay.’Ont hi
sdayof
ever
y year,African st
ates agreed t
o organi
ze populardemonstrat
ions,and raise
awarenessforcompleteeradi
cat
ionofcol
onialoppr
essionfr
om Afr
icanstatesst
il
lunder
for
eigndominati
on.

9.Member
soft
heOAUr
ecogni
zedpossi
bil
i
tiesofempl
oymentt
oref
ugeesandpol
i
tical
l
eader sfrom Af
ri
canstat
est hatwerestil
lunderfor
eigndominati
on.Theyagreedthatif
thesepol i
ti
calr
efugeeswereempl oyedinAf r
icangover
nmentser vi
cesofindependent
states,t
heywouldbemotivat
edt oi
ncreasi
nglydemandforthei
rsel
f-gover
nance.

10.TheOAUcondemnedr acialdiscr
iminati
oninal li
tsf
ormsi nAfr
icaandalloverthewor ld.
Thisledt othegrowthofAf ri
cannat i
onali
sm inawayt hatmembersoftheOAUexpr essed
deepconcer narousedi nal lAfri
canpeopl esandgover nments.Inpar
ticul
ar,theOAU
demandedanendt o discriminati
onagai nstpeopleofAf ri
candescent( ori
gin)livi
ng
outsideAf r
icapart
icul
arlytheUSA.Thi smot i
vatedAfr
icansoutsi
dethecontinenttogive
assistancetothecauseofAf ri
canindependence.

11.TheOr ganisat
ionofAf r
icanUni tyemphasi
zedr esol
uti
on1515oft heUNandt hishadan
i
mpactt ot hegrowthofAf r
icannational
i
sm.Member soft
heOAUencour agedpr essur
eon
thecolonialmastersespeciall
yBr i
tai
ntoobservetheprovi
sionoftheUNr esoluti
on1515
on independence and opposed herf orlooking on as t
he minorit
ywhi t
es declared
themselvesindependentinSout her
nRhodesia(Zimbabwe)throughtheUDI .

12.Thecontinentalbodydemandedf ortheimmedi atei ndependenceofNami biaawayfr


om
the i
nfl
uence ofapar t
heidi n South Af ri
ca.The OAU emphasi zed thatSouth West
Afr
icaNami bi
awasundert heUNmandat e(supervi
sion)andt heref
oreAfricansi
nNami bi
a
wereenti
tledtoself-
determinat
ion.Thismor alsuppor tfrom theOAUi ncreasedthespir
it
ofNamibianst ousemil
itarymeansi ntheirstr
uggleforindependence.

13.TheOAUadvocat edfortherespectofther
esoluti
onsofthe1941Atlanti
cchar
terandthi
s
greatl
yinfl
uencedt hegrowthofAf ri
cannational
ism.Member softheOAUcal ledupon
coloni
almast er
st ogivet hecoloni
alpeopleinAf r
icaanopportunit
ytoclai
mf ort
hei
r
severeequali
tyandindependencewi t
houtf
oreigndominati
on.

14.Consequent l
y,theOAU demanded f ortheobservat
ion and respectforther i
ghtsof
Afri
cansont heAf r
icanconti
nentasstatedinthe1948uni ver
saldeclarat
ionofhuman
ri
ghts,whichincludedfreedom ofpr
ess,associ
ati
onandther i
ghttoequalrepresent
ati
on
i
nt helegi
slati
vecouncil.

15.Theconti
nentalbodyrecogni
zedandapprovedl
iber
ati
onmovementsinAfri
caandt his
moti
vatedAfri
can nati
onali
sm. The movements approved by t
he OAU i ncl
uded
the FRELIMO ofMozambi que,t
heANC ofSout hAfri
ca,MPLA ofAngol
aandt he
SVVAPOofNami bi
a.TheOAUsupportedt
hem tousemili
tar
ymeansinthei
rstr
uggl
ef or
i
ndependence.

16.TheOAUpar ti
cipatedi npre-
independencediscussionsbetweenAf ri
cannat i
onal
ist
sand
colonialadmi ni
stratorsandt hispavedwayf ori ndependence.Suchdi scussi
onswer e
organizedbet weent heZANU andt heZAPU wi thI anSmi t
h'sgovernmentofSout hern
Rhodesi a,theANCunderMandel aandt heapart
heidr egi
meofSout hAfricaetcet
era.The
di
scussi ons wer e direct
ed towards Afri
can fr
eedom and i ndependence from forei
gn
domi nation.

17.Consequent
ly,t
heorganisati
oncondemnedt heper secuti
onofAf ri
canli
berat
ionfi
ght
ers
thr
ougharbi
trar
yarr
estandi mpri
sonment,hardlabour,publi
cfl
ogging,amongother
s.The
OAU ont hi
sgroundpr essuri
zedf ort
hereleaseofAf ri
canpolit
ici
anssuchasNel son
MandelaofSouthAfr
icaandRober tMugabeofSout hernRhodesia.

18.The Organizat
ion ofAfri
can uni
tysentobserversto witness i
ndependentt r
ansi
tion
(el
ect
ions),whi
chcontr
ibutedtoAfr
icanat
tai
nmentofindependence.Observersweresent
toSouthernRhodesiai
n1980wher etheZANUl edbyMugabewer evict
orious,t
oSout h
Afr
icain1994wher eMandelaandtheANCwont herace.
Howsuccessf
ulhasbeent
heAf
ri
canUni
on(
AU)i
nful
fi
ll
ingt
heobj
ect
ivest
heai
ms
t
owhichitwasfounded

Pr
eambl
e
a)Aviabl
eint
roduct
ion
b)Showtheawarenessoft
heobj
ect
ivesoft
heau

c)Gi
veandexpl
aint
heachi
evement
sandweaknessesoft
heau

d)Acl
earst
andpoi
ntandv
ali
dconcl
usi
on.

Poi
ntstoconsider
 Theauwasf oundedoutofthedesi
retorebrandtheOAUi nfi
ndi
ngsolut
ionsto
i
tsseri
ouspr obl
emsthatpl
aguedit
soperati
ons
 It
sestabl
i
shmentf ol
l
owedt hesi
gni
ngoft heconstit
uti
veacti
nJuly2000in
LomeTogoby53Af r
icanheadsofstat
esandl aunchedinDur
bansouthAfri
ca
onJuly92002

Obj
ecti
ves
 Achievegreat
eruni
tyandsoli
darit
yamongAfr
icancountr
iesandpeopl
e
 Acceler
atepoli
ti
cal
andsocio-economi
cint
egr
ationoftheconti
nent

 Pr
omot
epeace,
secur
it
yandst
abi
l
ityont
hecont
inent

 Defendt
hesov
erei
gnt
y,t
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
yandi
ndependenceofi
tsmember
st
ates

 Promotedemocr
ati
cpr
inci
plesandi
nst
it
uti
ons,
popul
arpar
ti
cipat
ionandgood
gover
nance

 PromoteanddefendAf
ricancommonposi
ti
onsoni
ssuesofi
nter
estt
othe
cont
inentandi
tspeopl
e

Achi
evement s
 Hasconsol idat
edunityandinter
dependenceofAfri
canstates.
 Successfull
ymedi at
edintheSudanconf l
ict(
2005-2011)andSomali
aconfl
ict
(2006)leadingtothesouthSudanindependencein2011andt het
ransi
ti
onal
federal
gov ernmentofSomal i
ain2006respecti
vel
y .

 Establ
ishmentofthepanAf
ri
canpar
li
amentasapl
atf
ormt
oinv
olv
etheAf
ri
can
peopleinit
sacti
vi
ties

 Att
emptedtocombatcor
rupti
onthroughadopt
ingt
heAf
ri
canuni
onconv
ent
ion
onprev
enti
ngandcombatingcor
ruption(
2003)
.

 Hasdevel
opedacommondef ensepol
icyf
ortheAfri
cancont
inentt
hrought
he
est
abl
ishmentoft
hepeaceandSecuri
tyCounci
l(PSC)i
n2004.

 Hasencour
agedpeacef
ulr
esol
uti
onsofconf
li
ctsonthecont
inente.g.call
edfor
t
hedial
ogueinBur
undibet
weenpresi
dentNkur
unzizaandopposit
ionov erthe
i
ncumbent
sthi
rdt
erm aspi
rat
ions

 Hastri
edtopromoteself–reli
ancethr
oughstrengtheni
ngt heAfr
ican
dev
elopmentbankandest abli
shi
ngnewf i
nanciali
nsti
tuti
onse.g.theAf
ri
can
monetaryf
und(Yaounde),theAfri
cani
nvestmentbank( Tr
ipol
i)
,

 Hasstoodagai
nstunconsti
tut
ional
changeofgovernmentinAf
ri
cathr
ough
coupsandci
vil
warse.g.condemnedmi l
i
tar
yint
erventi
oninCAR2013Mali
2013andmauri
tani
a2005

 Theaucondemnst er
rori
sm andsubversi
veactiv
iti
esontheconti
nente.
g.t
he
ter
ror
istat
tacki
nUganda( 2010)
,Kenya(2014and2015),
AlshababinSomal
ia
andBokoHar am i
nNiger
ia

 Uphol
dsgenderequali
tyandwomenempower mentthr
oughencouraging
womeni nimport
antposit
ionsl
i
kethechairmanshi
paswellasorganizi
ng
conf
erencesongenderissues;
thecur
rentchai
rper
sonofauisDr.(
Mr s)
NkosazanaDlamini
Zuma.

 Ithasstoodgroundtodirectl
yint
erv
eneintheaff
air
sofmemberstatest
o
preventwar(Burundi
may2003)andcount ergrav
ecircumst
ancesl
ikewar
cri
mesagai nsthumanit
ye. g.Somali
aandChadet c

 HasenabledAfr
icanst
atest
omaintai
nacommonst andwit
honevoicedur
ing
i
nternat
ional
for
umsonmat t
ersconcer
ningt
hecont
inente.
g.i
ntheungeneral
assembly

 Str
engt
henedr
egional
economiccommuni
ti
es(
RECS)ont
hecont
inentasa
basi
sforal
lAf
ri
canint
egrat
ion

 Hasatt
emptedtore-est
abl
isht
hemember shi
pofmoroccot
heabscondedt
he
OAUinthe1984throughaccor
dingheral
lAUbenef
it
sandstat
us.

 Emphasi
zescr
ossbor
dert
radet
hroughencour
agi
ngmemberst
atest
oopen
bor
ders.

 Hasemphasizedt
hepromotionofAf
ri
cancul
tur
eandl
anguagee.
g.t
hrought
he
Afr
icanacademyofl
anguages

 Hasattempt
edt
oimprov
eonthewel
fareandl
iv
ingcondi
ti
onsofAfr
icanse.
g.
commended950mil
l
iondol
l
arsi
nApril
2015tofi
ghttheEbol
ascour
gei nwest
Afr
ica

 Uphol
dsAf r
o-Asi
ansoli
dari
tye.
g.expr
essedcondolencestovi
cti
msof
ear
thquakeofApri
l2015inNepalandalsoencour
agesst r
ongeconomi
cti
es
wit
hAsianpowersli
keGhana.

 Itcondemnsforei
gnint
ervent
ioninAfr
icanaff
air
se.g.itst
oodagainstNATO
expedit
ioni
nLibyain2011andr ej
ect
edt he“
noflyzone”overLi
byaproducedby
theUNsecurit
ycouncil
 Hasest
abli
shedstrongeconomi
canddi
plomati
cti
eswi
tht
heEur
opeanUni
on
(
EU)andtheEuropeanEconomicCommunit
y(EEC)
.

Weaknesses
 Failuretocreateauniongover nmentthatwouldleadtothedesir
eduni t
ed
st
atesofAf ri
ca.Theideawashi ghlyrej
ectedbymemberst atesofsouthern
Afr
icaintheAU- Accrasummi tofJuly2007.
 FailedtorescueAf ri
canter
ri
tor i
esfrom imperi
alcontr
ole.
g.canaryi
slands,
CeutaandMel il
launderSpain,saintHelenaandTrist
anDaCunhaunderBr i
tai
n,
Madeiraandsav ageisl
andsunderPor t
ugal,
May ott
eandreunionunderFrance.

 Hasfail
edtof
indal
asti
ngresol
uti
oninthet
erri
tor
ialconf
li
ctbet
ween
Moroccangov
ernmentandthePOLISARI
Ofrontoverthest
atusofWest
ern
Sahar
a.

 Hasnotfoundal
asti
ngresolut
ionint
hesevereki
l
lerepidemi
csthatt
hreat
en
Afr
icanpeopl
eonthecont
inentli
kemalar
iaandHIV/AIDSscour
ge.

 TheAUhadbeenchall
engedi
nremedyi
ngthesev
ereabjectpovert
yamong
Afr
icanpeopl
eswhi
chhashi
nder
edimprov
ementinthei
rstandardsofl
i
ving

 Therehasbeennosoluti
onbytheAUtocount
ertheeco-
probl
emsont he
conti
nentl
i
kedeforest
ati
on,dr
oughtwhi
chhavecausedpersi
stentf
aminei
n
di
ffer
entAfr
icanst
ates.

 Ithasfai
ledtoharmoni
zepoli
ciesoft
heRECswhichisanobst
acletot
he
missionoftheAfri
caneconomiccommunityi
nensur
ingacont
inent
al
economicintegr
ati
onwithasingl
ecurr
encyby2023

 Nopract
ical
stepinint
egrat
ingthepar
ti
cipat
ionoft
heDiaspor
ainbui
l
dingt
he
AUandcontri
butetothedevel
opmentoftheconti
nent
.

 Inabi
l
itytoint
erv
eneinLibyai
n2011tobl
ockerpeacenegot
iat
ionsbet
ween
i
ncumbentGaddaf iandopposi
ti
ongr
oupswhichescal
atedi
ntotheovert
hrow
andmur derofGaddafi

 Fai
lur
eofmemberstat
estor
iseenoughf
undingtosupportt
heAU- peace
missi
onse.
g.i
nDarf
urandSomali
awhichrendert
heAUi nef
fect
iveness.

 TheAUhasconti
nuousl
yreli
edonforei
gnorgani
zat
ionsli
keUNandtheNATO
i
nhandl
ingAf
ri
canaffai
rse.g.i
ntheDarf
urandSomal i
aandSomal
iahence
per
pet
uati
ngneo-
coloni
ali
sm.

 Per
sist
entv
iol
ati
onofhumanr
ight
sinAfr
icae.
g.inChad,Somal
iaandCARi
s
at
tr
ibut
edtotheAUweakhumanri
ghtsobser
vat
ioninst
rument
s.

 TheAUhasnotestabl
ishedpropermechani
sm t
oprot
ectt
heAfri
canpeopl
e
fr
om unt
imel
yter
rori
stattackse.
g.i
nKenya,Somal
i
aandNiger
ia.

 Nor
esol
uti
onbyt
heAUont
hebur
eaucr
acyi
ndeci
sionmaki
ngcausedbyt
he
di
ff
erencesi
nideol
ogyamongheadsofst
ate

 Theconti
nentalbodyhasnotbeenabl
etoest
abli
shaconti
nent
al mil
i
taryf
orce
underacentr
ali
zedcommandandi nst
eadrel
iesonmai
nlyvol
untaryfor
ces
fr
om memberst atesf
orit
speacemissi
ons.

 TheAfri
canunionconv
enti
ononpr ev
ent
ingandcombat i
ngcorr
upti
onadopt
ed
i
n2013hasnoty ethel
pedincurbi
ngdownt herampantcor
rupt
ionont
he
conti
nentasmanymemberst at
esarest
il
lrankedhighamongtheworl
d’smost
graf
tnati
ons.

 Thepr
inci
pleofnon-
int
erv
ent
ionhaspr
otect
eddespot
icl
eader
s

NATIONALI SM I
NKENYA( KENYANROADTOI NDEPENDENCE)
Theroadt oindependenceinKeny awasami xtur
eofv i
olenceandnon- vi
olence.In
1895af t
ertheBr i
ti
shhadest ablishedKeny aasaset tl
ercolony,whit
eset tl
ement
i
ncreasedinthecountry.By1920, thewhit
eshadt akenchar geofthepol i
ti
cal,social
andeconomi caffair
sofKeny a.Theset t
lershadoccupi edLandespeci all
yint he
centr
al;theyestabli
shed an unfaireducation syst
em est abli
shed and abov eal l
raci
sm.Theseamongot heratrociti
esinf
luencedAfricansi nKenyatost rugglefor
i
ndependence.Thest ruggleforKeny ani
ndependencewasnothowev er-
ast rai
ght
path;t
heKeny annati
onali
stsfacedmanychal l
enges.

OBSTACLESTOKENYANSTRUGGLEFORI NDEPENDENCE
Ref
erenceQuest ions:
1.Accountf ort hedel ay edi ndependenceofKeny a
2.Exami net heobst aclest oKeny annat ional i
sm
3.Di scusst hechal lengesf acedbyKeny annat i
onalistsi nt hest ruggl eagai nst
Britishi mper ial ism
 TheBr i
t i
shcol oni alpol i
cyofdi videandr uleaf fect edt hedev el opmentof
national ism i nKeny a.Asamat terofconsol idati
ngt hecol onial i
sm i nt he
colony ,t heBr itishpol icyi nstigatedr iv alr
iesamongKeny anmassesandt his
wor senedt heexi stinget hnicconf li
ct si nKeny aforexampl e,theNandi against
theMasai ,andt her estoft heot hert ribesagai nstKi kuy u.Thedi videandr ule
policyt her efor e, disuni tedt heKeny answhi chgr eatlyaf fectedt hest ruggl ef or
independence.
 Thecol onialgov ernmenti nKeny ai mpl ement edpol i
ti
calr est r
ictionswhi ch
retardedKeny annat ional i
sm.Thegov ernmentsl appedbar riersonAf rican
politicalpar tici pation t ot headv ant ageofwhi teset tlersandper hapsAsi ans.
Thef earwast hatAf ricanpol i
ticianswoul dsabot ageandcutshor tBr i
tishr ule
andwhi teset tlement .Thi shost ileat titudeoft heBr i
t i
shcol onialgov ernment
was ev identwi tht he bani shi ng oft he oper ations ofpol i
ticalpar ti
es
(organi zations)especi allyKAUaf tert hedef eatoft heMauMaumov ement .
 Consequent l
y ,t hebr utalpol icyempl oy edbyt heBr i
t i
shdur i
ngt hei rcoloni al
gov er nance i n Keny a hi ndered t he pr ogressofnat i
onalism.The col oni al
officialscoer cedt heKeny ansi nawayofi nti
mi datingt hem f rom j oiningt he
politicalst ruggl e.Someoft hepol iticalact ivist
swer eki l
ledlikeDedanKi mat hi
oneoft hei nfluent i
al l
eader soft hemau- mauar medr esist
ance.
 Thepr esenceofahi ghnumberoff oreigner si.e.whi tesandAsi anshel dback
the decol oni zat ion pr ocessi n Keny a.The whi t
esand Asi answor ked as
coloni alagent swhi chputt hem i naposi ti
ont ohav eapol it
icalandeconomi c
adv ant ageov erAf r icans.Theadv ancementofAf ricannat ional ism poseda
greatt hreatt ot hef oreigner swhosedesi ret opr ot ectt hei reconomi cand
politicalposi tionsi nf luencedt hem t oopposet heKeny annat i
onal istst ruggl e.
 Thepol i
ticalsuppr essi onbyt hecol oni algov er nmentt hr eat enedt hespi ritof
national ism i nKeny a.Dur i
ngt hemau- maur ebel l
ion,t heBr i
ti
shadopt eda
count er r ev olut ionar y appr oach whi ch i nv ol ved r oundi ng up suspect ed
collabor ator si nur bancent ers.Thecol oni algov er nmenthunt eddownand
arrest edpr omi nentpol i
tical l
eader sl i
keMzeeJomoKeny atta.
 The emer gence oft ribal ,r egionaland sect arian nat i
onal i
sm i n Keny a
cont ributedt ot hedel ayofi ndependence.TheKeny anpol iticall eader swer e
dividedont ri
bal lineswher emanyf rom ot hert ribesbl amedt hosef rom ki kuy u
ofbei ngegocent ri
c.Thi st r
ibalism waswi tnessedi npol iticalmobi l
izat i
ons
l
ikemaumaumov ementandt hepol itical par tiesl i
keKANUandKADU.
 Economi c const raint s af fected t he pr ocess of Keny an st ruggl e f or
i
ndependence.TheKeny annat ional istl eader swer ei ncapaci tat
edf i
nanci al l
y;
they coul d notr aise t he desi r abl ef unds t o enabl el ocaland nat ional
mobi li
zat i
on agai nstBr i
tish domi nance.Mostoft he economi c and /or
commer ci alv ent ur eswer eundert hemonopol yoff or ei gner si.e.whi tesand
Asianswhower ecol oni al agent s.
 Ideol ogicaldi fferences among Keny an nat ional ist s wor ked agai nstt he
struggl e f ori ndependence.TheKeny anpol i
tici ansdi f
fer edi nthei rappr oach
toachi evei ndependence.Somel i
keOgi ngaOdi ngaandTom Mboy aopt edf or
discussi onswi tht hecol oni algov er nmentwhi leot her sl ikeDedanKi mat hiand
JomoKeny att asecondedmi lit
ar ism.Ev enatt heLancast erconf erencewi th
theBr iti
shgov er nmentNgal aandMboy acl ashedi ndi sagr eementov ereach
other 'sviews.
 Nat ionalism i nKeny awasf urtherdi scour agedbyt hei nconsi stenceofKeny an
national ists.Pol i
ticall eader sl ikeKeny attaand Mboy aconcent rated t hei r
politicalmobi lizationsi nur bancent ersamongt heel itesandmi ddl ecl ass
citi
zens.Themaj or itypeasant si nt hecount rysi dewer ei gnor edunt il 1960.
 Consequent ly ,lackofpol iti
calconsci ousnessamongKeny anspar tlydel ay ed
i
ndependenceat tainment .Duet ot hedi scr imi nat iveeducat ionpol icybyt he
coloni algov er nment ,t he maj or ity oft he Keny an popul ace was l efti n
i
gnor anceduet ot hehi ghl evel sofi l
lit
er acy .Sensi ti
zat i
onont hecol oni al
atroci ti
eswashence notef fect ive especi al lyi n 1940' sand 1950' s.Thi s
delay edKeny ani ndependence.
 The poor t ranspor t and communi cat ion sy stem l ed t o t he del ay ed
i
ndependenceofKeny a.Thei nabi li
tyofKeny anpol i
tici ansf rom ur bancent er s
to accesst hecount rysi de( r
ur alar eas)t o ext end t hei rpol i
ticalact ivi
t i
es
affect edt hest ruggl ef ori ndependence.Thi si neffect i
v emassmobi lization
render edt heopposi tiont ocol oni alism at ought ime.
 The del ay ed i ndependence oft he nei ghbour ing st at es i .
e.Uganda and
Tangany i
kawasaset backt ot heat tainmentofi ndependencei nKeny a.The
factt hatt heBr iti
shwer ei nchar geofUgandaandTangany ikamadet hem t o
hav est r
onghol dunt oKeny a.I nt hesameway ,itwashar df orUgandaand
Tangany i
kat oex tendassi stancet ot heirKeny ancount erpar t
sast heywer e
equal lyinv ol vedi nst ruggl ingagai nstBr iti
shr ul e.

THEMAU- MAUUPRISI
NG1952- 55
Themau-mauupri
si
ngwasawarofi ndependencet
hatoccur
redinKenyabet
ween
1952and1955.Itwasthefirstrev
oltinKenyaagainstcol
oni
ali
sm andthefi
rst
mil
it
aryupr
isi
ngi
nBri
ti
shAfr
ica.
Theori
ginoft
heupri
si
ngisnotclearal
thoughsomehist
ori
anssay
;iti
sder
ivedf
rom
thephr
aseinKi
swahi
li
,"MzunguAendeUl ay
aMwafri
kaApateUhur
u".

Themau- maur ebelli


onwasspear headedbyt heKikuyuandi twascent eredin
Centr
alKeny a.
Therebell
ionwasor gani
zedunderthebannerofKenyal andandreform ar
myl edby
GeneralChina(War uhiuI
tote),Bi
l
dadKaggi aandDedanKi mathit
heex-servi
cemen
ofWor l
dWarI I
.Ot herkeypersonsintheupri
singwer
eJomoKeny att
aandPaul Ngei
.

Causesoft herevoluti
on
ReferenceQuestions:
1.Towhatext entwast hel
andpr obl
em responsi
blefort heoutbreakoft heMau-
Mauupr isi
ngin1952?
2."Briti
sh poli
cieswer epri
maril
yr esponsi
blefort he1952- 55 Keny an rev
olt
s."
Discuss
3.Howf arwastheMau- Maumov ementanational
istmov ement?
4. Assesst hecont r
ibuti
onofracism totheoutbr
eakofKi kuyuupr i
singinKenya
1952-55
5.Di scussthecausesandef f
ectsoftheMau- Mauupr i
singof1952- 55

 Thel andquest ionwaspr imar i


lyr esponsi blef orthemau- mauupr i
singi nKeny a.
By1950,t heBr itishpol icyi nKeny ahadr esul tedintol andal ienat ionbyt hewhi t e
settlersespeci allyoft hef ert
ilel andsofKi rinyagahi ghlands( Mt .Keny a) .The
ult
imat egoalwast ot urnKeny aint oaWhi teman' scount ry.Thi spol i
cyaf fected
theKi kuy u,Masaiandot hergr oupsi ncent ralKeny a.Duet oAf r
icanl andhunger ,
theyr oseupt hr oughar ebel li
on.
 Consequent l
y, manyKeny answer ecompel ledt oabandont hei rancest ralhomes.
Manyoft hem becamesquat tersonest at esandpl ant ati
onsownedbywhi tes
whoset tledi nt hecount r
yf rom Sout hAf r
ica,Aust ri
a,andBr itain.I tshoul dbe
notedt hatsomewhi tesl eftcommi ssiondi dnotsol vet hepr oblem.Ther efor e,the
strongat tachmentofAf r
icanst ot heirancest ralt r
adi ti
onsi nf l
uencedt hem t o
stageupanupr isi ng.
 Thecr eat ionofr eser vebyt heBr it
ishcol onialgov ernmentt or eset tlesomeoft he
Africansgr ievancesl andhadbeengr abbedr aisedAf ri
cangr iev ances.These
reser veswer emai nlydomi natedbyt heKi kuy uandt heMasai .TheMasaiwer e
oncef orcedoutoft hef er ti
leVasi n- Gishupl ateauandl at ertheLai kipiaplat eaut o
Ngong r eser ves.Manyoft her eser veswer esmal l
,ov erpopul ated and l ess
product i
v e.Thi s congest i
on coupl ed wi th poorcondi ti
ons i nt he r eser ves
i
nf l
uencedmanyAf ricanst of lockt otownsl ikeNai robiandNakur ui nsear chf or
empl oy ment .Thei rf rustrationswhi l
ei nt heset ownsi nf l
uencedt hem t oj oint he
uprising.
 Introduct ionofsoi lconser vationmet hodsbyt heBr iti
shwasl ookedatasa
mocker y .TheAf ricanswer et aughtmet hodsofusi ngt er r
acesacr osst her idges
asawayofchecki ngsoi ler osion. Ast heyt oiledt o earnal ivi
ngt hrough
cultivation,di scont entamongAf r
icansgr ew duet ounpr oduct i
v i
tyofl and.Thi s
i
nf l
uencedt hem t or ebel againstt heBr i
tish.
 Thedesi ref orindependencei nf l
uencedmi l
itantnat ional i
sm i nKeny a.Thiscoul d
beder i
vedf rom t heKi swahi l
imeani ngoft hephr ase' Mau- Mau' .TheKeny ans
wer et ir
edofpol i
ticalmar ginali
sat ionf r
om t het i
met hei rcount rywasest abl ished
asaset tlercol ony .Af ri
canswer el eftoutofpol iti
cswi ththewhi tesassumi ngal l
politi
cal responsi biliti
es.
 Theoppr essi vecol onialpol ici
esoft heBr it
ishhar denedt hepeopl e'sgr i
ev ances
i
nKeny a.Amongstt hem wast heKi pande( ident i
tycar d)sy stem wher eAf ricans
coul dnotbeal lowedt omov ef rom onecount yt oanot herf reel yunl esst heyhada
speci alpass i ssued by t he col oni alaut hor ities.Thi sr est riction ofAf ri
can
mov ement sannoy edt hem t or i
seupagai nstt heBr itish.
 The Br i
tish col oni al admi ni strat i
on i mposed agr icul tur al r est rictions t hat
i
ncr easedt hehat redofAf r i
canst owar dst heBr i
tish/whi t es.Af ri
canswer enot
all
owedt ogr owsomeoft hecashcr opssuchascof feeandpy ret hr um.Af ricans
wer enotsupposedt oi nv olv ei ncat t
ler anchi ngaswel l.Al lt heseagr icul tur al
activ i
tieswer er eser vedf ort hewhi tef ar mer s.Thepol icywasl ookedatasa
measur et oi mpov er i
sh Af ricansi n Keny a.Hencet heyst aged t hemau- mau
upr i
singt or edeem t hemsel v es.
 For cedl abourasi nst i
tutedbyt hecol oni algov er nmentcausedunt ol dsuf feringt o
themasses.Thr ought hispol icy ,theKeny answer ecompel ledt opr ovidef r ee
l
abouronpubl icwor ksl i
ker oads,r ai l
wayl ineandgov ernmentst at i
ons.Many
other sempl oy edbyt hewhi tepl ant at ionowner swer epai dv er yl owwages.Thi s
expl oitat i
oncompel ledasi zeabl enumberofAf ricanst of lockt ot ownssuchas
Nai robi .Wi thouteducat i
on and any ski l
l,t hese Af ricans f ound t hemsel v es
unempl oy edanddesper ate.Theywer eeasi lyr ecr uitedi ntot hemau- mauf or ces.
 TheBr i
tishcol oni algov ernmentadopt edapoort axat ionpol icy .Af ri
canswer e
forcedt opayhi ght axest hr ought hehutandgunt axpol icy .Taxeswer eal so
l
ev iedonl and.Thet axat i
onpol icywasai medatf orcingAf ri
canst owor kf or
whi teson t hei rpl ant ationsaswel lasgov er nmentst at ions.Thi sr epressi ve
taxat ionsy stem wi thapoormet hodoft axcol l
ect ioni nfluencedAf ricanst or ise
upagai nstt heBr iti
sh.
 Raci sm causedt hemau- maur ebel lion.Keny a, likeSout hAf r icaandAl geriahada
colour -barpr obl em.Thi swasduet ot hepr esenceofasi zeabl ewhi teandAsi an
popul ation.TheAsi answer emai nl yi nt ownswhi let hewhi teswer ef oundi nt he
count rysideaswel l.Thewhi tespr act isedundi sgui seddi scr imi nat i
onespeci al ly
agai nstt hebl acks.Thi sat titudewasal soshar edbyt heAsi answhokeptt hei r
distanceawayf rom t hebl acksev ent hought heseAsi answer eequal lyunder
l
ooked byt he Br itish.Such r acism was cl ear lyv isiblei nt he pol iti
caland
economi csy st em wher eAf ricanswer egener allyexcl uded.
 Theconf lictsi ncul tureandt radi tionalbel ief shadahandi nt her ebel l
ion.The
Scot tishmi ssi onar iesest abl i
shedast rongbasei nki kuy ul andt oChr i
stiani set he
count ry.Chr ist iani tywasst rongl yopposedt osomeoft het r adi t
ionalpr act icesof
theki kuy ut radi t i
on.Acasei npoi ntwasf emal eci rcumci sion.Mi ssi onar ieshad
alsoexcl udedt heAf ricansf rom t het opchur chl eader ship.Ther ef or e,mau- mau
waspar tl
yi nspi redbydi ffer encesi nr eli
gi on.
 Consequent ly,t hei ndependentAf ricanchur chesi nKeny ai nf l
uencedt hemau-
mauupr ising.SomeKi kuy unat ional ist shadf oundedkeyi ndependentchur ches.
Thiswasanat temptt ogl or ifyt heposi tionoft hebl acks.Thei mpactoft hiswas
thecement ingofast rongsenseofi ndependencewi thint heAf ri
canchur ch
mov ement .I ti sf ort hisr eason t hatmanyoft he mau-mau f ight erswer e
member soft hei ndependentAf ricanchur chesandopposedChr istianityi ni ts
original sense.
 Thei mpactofWor l
dWarI Ihadanel ect roni cef fectonnat ional i
sm i nKeny a.The
warbr oughtaboutt her et ur nofAf ricanex- ser v icemenwhohadgai nedmi l
itar y
skillsandr enewedpat riotism.Thosewhor etur nedi ncl udedBi ldadKaggi aand
War uhi uI totepopul arlyknownasGener alChi na.These' ret ur nees' hadobser ved
theAsi annat ionalmov ementandwer eexposedt odemocr at i
cpol iti
cs.By1950,
manyoft heex- ser vicemenwer edi scont ent edowi ngt ot hedecl iningst andar ds
ofl iving and i nadequat e pol iticalr efor ms by t he Br itish col oni alists.They
ther efor e,opt edf orv iolenceoutofpol iti
cal andeconomi cgr ievances.
 Thei nadequat econst itutionalchangesi ni ti
at edbyt heBr itisht ast edt hepat ience
ofAf r i
canst or ev olt.Ar ound1946,t heAf ricanel i
tesl edbyMat huEl i
otf ounded
theKeny aAf ri
canuni on( KAU) .TheseAf ricanspr essedf orAf ri
canpar ti
ci pat ion
i
nKeny anpol itics,equi tabl er epr esent at i
onofal lr aces,soci alj ust i
ceandsel f-
deter mi nat i
on.KAUdemandedf orbet terwor kingcondi ti
onsandcal l
edf orl and
reforms.Themember sofKAUwhobel i
ev edi nconst i
t utionalmeansi gnor edby
thecol onialsecr etar ywhor ef usedt omeett hedel egat est hatt hepar t
yhadsent .
Consequent ly ,someoft hemember sofKAU r ealizedt hef ail
ur eofpeacef ul
meansandt her ef ore, inf l
uencedt hemau- mauupr ising.
 Griev ancesamongt heur banpet tyt rader sandwor ker si nf l
uencedt hemau- mau
uprising.Theset r
ader sand wor ker si n Nai robiand Nakur u wer eov er taxed,
commer ciallydi scr imi nat edanddeni edl ucr at ivedeal sbygov ernmenti nf avour
ofAsi ant rader s.Mostoft heset rader si nfluencedt hef or mat ionorj oinedt he" 40
group"whi chmobi li
zedassi stanceamongt owndwel lersandpr epar edgr ound
fortheupr ising.
 Consequent ly ,t hef or mat ionoft he" 40gr oup"l aidgr oundsf ort hemau- mau
uprising.The" 40gr oup"wasf or medi nt he1940' sl edbyMwangiMachar i
aand
StanleyMat henge.The" 40gr oup"oper atedsecr et l
yi nur banar easespeci al ly
Nairobi ,mobi lizingassi st anceandr ecr ui t
ingf ight ers.Thi s" 40gr oup"al soknown
as Chama Cha 40 ( t he pol iti
calpar ty of40)and / ory oung men of40
admi ni steredt heKi kuy uoat hwhi chwasadedi cat i
onbyt hef reedom f ight er st o
fi
ghtf ort hel andofGi kuy uandMumbi .Mostoft hememberoft hisgr oupof40
becamemau- mauf ight er s.
 Theemer gencyofr adi cal si nKAUmadet hemau- maur ev olti nev i
tabl e.Manyof
these r adical s wer e ex- ser vice men ofWor ld WarI Iwho nev erbel iev ed i n
peacef ulmeansofdemandi ngf orsel f-ruleandl andr efor ms.Ar ound1946, these
radical sf oundedt heKeny al andandr ef or m ar my( l
at ert heMa- Maumov ement )
andest ablishedl inkswi tht he" 40gr oup"i nNai robit hatoper atedsecr et l
yamong
thepet tyt rader s,wor ker sandt heunempl oy edAf ri
cans.By1952,t hest agewas
setf orar ev ol t.
 Ther i
seofki kuy unat ional ism,whoseambi ti
onwast ocapt ur epowerandl ead
ther estoft hecount ry.Att het opoft hisKi kuy umov ementwasEl iotMut ony iand
DedanKi mat hi.TheseKi kuy unat i
onal istscol lect edgunsandot herweaponsand
establ ishedcampsi nNai robi ,Ki ambu,Ny er i
,EmbuandMur anga.Theyr ecr ui ted
member sf rom wi thinandout sideKAUandadmi nister edt he' oat hofsecr ecy '
(ki
kuy uoat h)t ot henewr ecr uits.
 Thegr owi ngnat ional i
sm i nWestAf ricai nspi redt heKeny anst or iseupagai nst
theBr iti
sh.Af t
erWor ldWarI I,theWestAf ricansi nt ensi fiedt hei rdemandf orsel f-
gov ernmentbot hi nt heFr enchandBr itishcol oni es.I n1944,TheFr enchcol oni al
author i
ties or gani zed t he Br azzav ille conf erence whi ch r esul ted i nt o some
politi
calconcessi onsi nFr enchcol oni es.Af r
icansgott her i
ghtt ov ote,est abl ish
politi
cal par tieswi t
hani ncr easedAf ricanr epr esent ationi nt heFr enchpar l
iament .
Simi l
ar ly,theGol dcoastandNi ger iar ecei v edconst itut i
onalchangesf rom t he
Briti
shcol oni alaut hor itiesi .e.t heBur nsconst itutionandRi char dsconst itut ioni n
1946r espect ivel y.Al lt hesel ackedi nKeny awhi chi nfluencedKeny anst or esor t
tov i
ol ence.
 TheEgy ptianr ev olutionof1952or gani zedbyNasserpav edwayf ort hewi der
mobi lizat i
on ofAf ricans agai nstcol oni alr ul e.Nasserused r adi o Cai rot o
broadcastpr ogr amsi nAr abi c,Engl i
sh,HausaandKi swahi li,whi chpr ogr ams
appeal ed t ot he Af rican pat riotst oi nt ensi fyt hei ref for tagai nstEur opean
coloni alism.Thebenef itsf rom r adi oCai ro, wi thmor alandf inanci alsuppor tf r
om
Egy ptcr yst alli
zedKeny annat ional ism i nf or m ofanar medr esistancet hrough
mau- maumov ement .
 Ther oleofKeny anel itesi nf l
uencedt hemau- mauupr isi ng.Themosti nfluent ial
wasJomoKeny at
tawhoseimport
ancewast osensi
tizethemiddl
eclass,of
fer
espi
onageinf
ormationtothef
reedom fightersandsol i
citf
orfi
nanci
alsupport
.
Theacti
vi
ti
esoft heKenyanel
it
est owardst heupri
singcausedconcernont he
Bri
ti
shwholaterarr
est
edmanyofthem includingJomoKeny att
a.

THECOURSEOFTHEREVOLT
Ther evoltst
artedin1952whent hemau-maufi
ghter
swenttothebushandst ar
ted
attacki
nggov ernmentstati
ons,farmsofwhit
esett
ler
sanddestroyi
ngthei
rpropert
y
i
nt heprocess.Thefighter
ssl aughter
ed/muti
l
atedtheset
tl
ers'animal
s,at
tacked
theirshopsandki l
l
edcolonialoffi
cial
s.

I
nMar ch1953,apol i
cest ati
onatNai v ashawasi nv adedandabout173pr i
soner s
wer
ef reed.Upt oApr il1954,t heguer ril
laswer eonr ampageduet oanumberof
f
act
or s;
 Ther ebel l
ionst ar tedi nanar eat hatwasheav il
ypopul at
edandv erycl oset o
Nai robi,aci tyofunempl oyedi dlers.Thepeopl eal sohadaccesst onewspaper s,
radiosandwer eabl et omoni tortheact i
v i
ti
esoft her ebel s.
 Thedecl arationoft hest ateofemer gencebyt heBr i
tishcol onialgov ernment
arousedmor ef earamongt hepeopl eofKeny a,for ci
ngt hem t ogot ot hebush.
 In1953,t hegov er nmentmadeabl underofar restingJomoKeny at t
awhowas
tri
ed. andi mpr i
sonedatKapengur i
a.Al thoughhebel ongedt oKAU,t her ewasno
clearev idencet hathewasanact ivememberofmau- mau.Wi thawi def ollowing,
the ar restofKeny attar esul t
ed i nt o an i ncrease i nt he numberofr ebel
sympat hizersamongt heki kuy u.
 Ther olepl ay edbyt heex- ser vi
cemenofWor ldWarI Iwhohadmi litaryski llsand
cour agef av our edt heMau- Mau.Thi st ogetherwi tht hesecr etnat ureoft he
mov ementmadei tdi f
f i
cultf ort heBr iti
sht odi scov ert heplansoft hef ighters
wel linadv ance.
 The f ight ers al so f abr i
cated weapons l i
ke guns and gr enades f rom t hei r
wor kshop,col lect edf inancesandot herwarpr ovisi onsf rom t heirsuppor ters
hencewer eabl et osust aintheupr i
singatt hebegi nning.
 Thef ight er swer eal sowel lmobi l
izedandor gani zedatt hebegi nni ngoft he
rebel l
ion;t hey "boast edofast rongl eader shipunderDedanKi mat hiandGener al
Chi nawhot riedt ouni fyt heguer r
ill
aar myonMt .Abadar es.
 Thegeogr aphi calf act orgr eatlyassi stedt hemau- mau.Ther ebellionoccur red
aroundMt .Abadar esandMt .Ki ri
ny aga.Themount ainshadst eepsl opesand
bamboof orest s,whi chwer esui tabl ef orguer ril
lawar fare.Inashor tr un,t he
rebel swer eabl et or ecr uitandt r
aint hei rforceswi t
houtmuchi nterf erenceupt o
1954.Ther eaf ter,t hecol onialgov ernmentembar kedonasy stemat iccampai gn
andsuppr essedt her ebel li
on, leadingt oi t
scollapsebyl at e1955.

FACTORSTHATLEDTOTHEDEFEATOFMAU- MAU
Ref
erenceQuest i
ons:
1.Accountf orthefai l
ureoft heMau- Maumov ementby1956
2.Discusst hefactorsthatl edtot hecollapseoft heMau- Maumov ement
3.Accountf orthemi l
it
arydef eatofKeny ai ntheperiod1952-56
 Mau- Mauwasor gani zedonet hni
cl i
nesespeci al
lythatitwasdomi natedbyt he
Kikuyu.TheBr i
ti
shwer eabl et oexpl oitthisbyt urni
ngt her estoft het r
ibes
againstthekikuy u.Itshoul dbenot edthatt hekikuyuleader sadminister
edt he
oathofsecr ecyi nkikuy ulanguageandsangpr ai
sest oGi kuyuandMumbi .By
doingsot heyscar edawayt herestofthet ri
bes.
 Disunit
yamongt heAf ri
cansf ail
edthemau- mau.TheBr i
ti
shef f
ecti
velyusedt he
divi
deandr ul
epol i
cyandt urnedt heki kuyuthemsel v
esagai nsttheMau- Mau.
Thegr eatl andowner sandt heel der l
yaswel last heChr istianswer eal lopposed
tot heuseofv iol ence.Theyt her efor edi scour agedt heirt ribesmenf rom j oini ng
ther ebel l
ion, whi chsuppr essedt heupr ising.
 Themi lit
ar yweaknessoft hemau- maumov ementf rust ratedAf ri
cans.Manyof
the f ight er sl acked t rai
ning and exper i
ence;t hey wer ei ll
-equi pped and i ll
-
organi zed compar ed t ot he Br iti
sh.Many wer e ar med wi thr udi ment ar y
homemadegunsandpangas.Besi des;t heBr i
tishhadr ecr ui t
edAf ri
canst of ight
fell
owAf ricans.
 Themau- maumov ementdi dnotr eceiv emuchassi stancef rom ext ernalsour ces.
Thiswasduet ot hest ronghandoft heBr iti
shandt heexi stenceofcol oni alr ul e
allov erAf ri
ca.Themov emental sof ailedt ocapt ur eandr etaint hei nt ernalbases
wher et heycoul dexpandandconsol idat etheupr i
si ng.
 Ont heot herhand,t heBr it
ishcol oni algov ernmenti nKeny ahadapower fuland
wel lequi ppedar my .Someoft hecol oni alt r
oopswer er ecr uitedf r
om Keny aand
ther estofBr i
tishAf r
ica; fori nst ance, IdiAmi nandot herUgandanswer et akent o
suppr esst hemau- maumov ement .Thecol oni alt roopsdi dso wi thal otof
brutal ity.Thecol oni alar mywasal sosuppor tedbyj etfight er swhi chbombedt he
rebel possessi ons.
 The Br i
tish count eri nsurgence measur es scar ed t he ki kuy ui nto gr adual
withdr awalf r
om t her ebellion.Thegov ernmentr oundedupt housandsoft he
Kikuy ui nt he ar eas ofNy er i
,Nai robiand Ki ambu.These wer e det ained i n
concent rat i
oncampswher et heywer esubj ect edt of or cedl abour ,andt or tur e.
Someoft heAf ricansdi edi nt hepr ocess.Thi spol i
cyi sol atedt hef ight ersand
deni edt hosesuppl iesandr ecr uits.
 Geogr aphi calobst aclescont ribut edt ot hedef eatoft hemau- mau.Duet ot he
diffi
cul tter raine. g.t her i
dges,f ighter swer ecutof ffrom t heirr eser vesast he
gov er nmentf or cessur roundedt hehi l
lsandf or est s.Thi sf aci l
i
t atedt hei rdef eat
andt hev ictoryoft heBr it
ish.
 Consequent ly
,t hecondi ti
onsoft hewarcoul dnotf av ourt hef reedom f ight er s.
Theysuf feredf rom f ami neandst ar vationandmanysur vivedonwi ldgamese. g.
monkey sandpl ant s.Themor ef r eedom f ight er sst ar v
edt odeat h,t hemor et he
restwer edemor alizedandsur render edt ot hecol oni al f
or ces.
 Theeconomi cweaknessoff reedom f ight ersf aci l
itatedt hei rdef eat .Att hei nitial
stage,t heMau- Mauf ight erssur v ivedonhandout sf rom asmal lmi ddl ecl assof
mai nl ypet tytrader sandwor ker s.Bymi d-1954,suppl i
er swer escar ceast he
mi ddl ecl assdecl inedf inanci all
y .
 Thewhi teset tl
er si nKeny agav et heBr iti
shgov er nmentf or midabl eassi st ance.
Theypr ov i
dedmuchoft hef oodandespi onagei nformat ionwhi leot her swer e
recrui tedast roopsi nt hecol onialar my .Thei rdesi ret opr ot ectt heeconomi cand
politicalposi ti
oni nKeny ai nspi redt hem t o gi v ef ul
lsuppor tt ot hecol oni al
gov er nmentagai nstt heAf ri
cans.
 Themau- maumov ementgr adual lylostherl eader ship.Thi swasmai nl yaf tert he
capt ur eofGener alChi nai nFebr uar y1954andKi mat hiinOct ober1956.Ki mat hi
wasl at erconv ictedandhanged.Thel ossofi nf l
uent i
all eader shipdecl inedt he
spiritoff reedom f ight ersandweakenedt hem t remendousl y.
 By1956t henumberoff r
eedom f ight ershadshr unkduet ot hedeat hs, arrestand
deser tions.Someoft hev ictimswer ebet ray edbyf ormerf ight erswhoont hei r
capt ur ewer erel easedbyt heBr itisht ospyont hei rf ell
owf ighter s.Byt heendof
1956, mau- mauwasdead.

EFFECTSANDSI GNIFI
CANCEOFTHEMAU-MAUUPRI
SING
Refer
enceQuest
ions:
1.Assesstheimpactoft
heMau-
Mauupr
isi
ng
2.Howdi dt heKi kuy ur ev oltsof1952- 55af fectt hepeopl eofKeny a?
Si
gnifi
cance/posi tiveef f ect s
 Mau- Mau l ai daf oundat ion f orAf rican sel f-
rulei n Keny a.The Br iti
sh wer e
compel l
edt oabandont hei rpl anofcont inui ngt or ul et hecount ryf ort hei nt erest
ofwhi te set tler s.Ther eaf ter ,t heyassumed di rectr esponsi bili
tyf orKeny an
adv ancementand saw t he need t o speed up const ituti
onaland economi c
progr essi nf av ourofKeny annat ives.
 Ref ormswer ecar riedouti nt heagr icul tur alsect or .TheKeny angov er nment
openedt heKeny anhi ghl andst osomeoft heAf r i
canpeasant s.Thegov er nment
issuedoutl andt itl
est ot hosewhoownedl andandr eset t l
edmanyofki kuy u
peasant st oar easwi thf ertilesoi ls.
 Consequent ly, Af ri
canf armer swer eal l
owedt ogr owcashcr opsespeci allycof fee
andpy ret hr um.Bet ween1954and57,cof feepr oducedbyAf ricansr osef rom
4,000t o26, 000acr es.Thi sr educedAf ricanpol i
tical gr i
ev ances.
 TheMau- Mauupr i
si ngi nf luencedt heBr itishgov er nmentt oi nitiateconst i
tut ional
changesi nKeny a.I n1954, t
hecol oni alsecr et aryOl iverLy t
tl
et oncr eat edamul t i
-
racialcounci lofmi nist er scompr isingt hr eeEur opeans,t woAsi ans,andone
Af r
ican.B. AOci ngawast heAf ricanr epr esent ative.Theabov ef i
gur eswer el ater
revisedandi n1960t heconst i
tut iongav emaj orit
yoft hepost st oAf r i
cans.
 Af r
icanswer eenf ranchi sed and st ar t
ed el ect i
ng t hei rf el
low Af ricanst ot he
nationalassembl yi n1957.Thi sempower edAf ricansandgav et hem hopef or
self-det ermi nat i
on.
 Thepol iti
calact ivitieswhi chwer ebanneddur ingt her ebel li
onwer er esumed.I n
1955 pol iticalpar ties wer ef ormed l eadi ng t ot he emer gence ofpr omi nent
national ist ssuchasTom Mboy a,Ogi ngaOdi ngaandAr apMoi .Mboy awas
infl
uent i
alamongt hewor ker s.Thesepol iticianswer eal soel ect edt ot heLEGCO
andl at erj oi nedt hemaj orpol i
tical par tiesi .e.KANUandKADU.
 Thecol oni alpol icieswer er ev i
sed.Thel abourpol icychangedandf or cedl abour
wasabol ished.Gr adual ly,t heki pandesy st em decl inedandt het axat ionsy stem
wasr ev ised.Thi scr eat edr elat i
v ehar monybet weent heBr itishcol oni al
ist sand
Af r
icancommuni t
yandwi tht hewhi teset tlercommuni tyi nKeny a.
 Theendoft her ebel lionandabol it
ionoft heki pandesy stem f aci li
tatedt he
closur eofAf ricanr eser v esanddet ent ioncamps.Byl ate1956,t hest at eof
emer gencewasdenounced.
 Indirect l
y ,Mau- Maui nf luencedAf ricannat i
onal i
sm i nt heBr i
tishcol oni esofeast ,
cent ralandWestAf rica.TheBr it
ishf ear edt hatv iol encecoul dbr eakouti not her
coloni es.Theyt her ef or e, hur ri
ed/hast enedt oi nitiateconst i
tut i
onal changest hat
prepar edt hei rr espect ivecol oni esf ori ndependence.
 Inthef inal anal ysis, theMauLMaumov ementhadat remendousi mpactonKeny a.
Itwasanat ional isticmov ementt hatAf ricansl ostmi l
itarilybutwonpol iti
cally .
Negati
v eef fect s
 The Mau- Mau upr ising was a di sast ert o Keny ans atl eastmi litari
ly.The
mov ementwascr ushedandAf ri
canswer edef eat edhencet her ebel l
ionwas
shor tlivedduet ot hemi li
tar ydef eatsuf fer edbyAf ricans.
 Theupr isingcl aimedt housandsofl ives.Ov er13, 000Af ricans, 100whi tesand29
Asiansper isheddur ingt hewar .Manyoft heAf ricanswhodi edwer enotact ual ly
freedom f ight er s.
 Theupr isingl edt ot hecr eat ionofconcent rat i
oncampsasani sol ationi stpol icy
adopt edbyt heBr i
t i
sh.Af ricansmai nlyofki kuy uandMasaior igi
nf acedhar sh
condi tionsi nt hesedet ent ioncampsduet of ami neandst arvat i
on,di seasesand
otherpr obl ems.Mostoft hem di edandwer epar toft he13, 000t hatt hewar
claimed.
 To not ei st hati nt hewakeoft heupr ising,t heBr iti
shcar ri
ed outcount er
rev olutionar ymeasur es.Theydecl ar ed ast at eofemer gencei n1952 whi ch
l
ast edunt il1956.Dur ingt hisper i
od, av astnumberofAf ricansmai nlyki kuy uand
someMasai ,embuandmer uwer ear rest ed,t orturedandi mpr i
sonedorputi n
det ent i
on camps. Al lt hese occasi oned psy chologi calt ort
ure and human
suf fer i
ng.
 Manypol iti
ci ansandot herKeny anssuspect edofcol l
abor at i
ngwi tht heMau- Mau
fi
ght erswer ear rest ed.Amongt hem wer eJomoKeny atta,Gen.Chi na,Ki mat hi
andot herki kuy upol iticians.Theysuf fer edl ongper i
odsofdet enti
onupt o1960.
Ot her slikeKi mat hi wer econv i
ctedandexecut ed.
 Consequent l
y ,t heupr isingdi sruptedt heeconomyandscar edawaysomeoft he
whi teset tl
er s.Thecat tle,f arms,pl ant ation,homest eads,shopset cet erawer e
dest r oyed dur ing t he war .Thi s was an economi c setback t ot he col oni al
gov er nmentasi tdisr upt edagr icultural andi ndust r i
alpr oduct ion.
 Itshoul dbenot edt hatAf ricansandAsi ansal sol ostpr oper tyduet oinsecur i
ty
dur ingt heupr ising.Thesei ncludedgar densbei ngdest roy edandbusi nesses,
especi allyinNai robi andNai vasha.
 Pol iti
cally ,ther ewasat empor aryset backonAf ricannat ional i
sm causedbyt he
l
ossofsomeoft hepat riotsort hei ri mpr i
sonmentf ori nstanceKi mat hiand
Keny atta.Thedemandf orAf r
icanf reedomsandr ightst her eforedecl ined.
 KAUasapar tywasbannedwi thherl eader ship,andf orsomet i
me,t heki kuy u
l
ostt hei rent husi asm andl eader ship.Theywer er eplacedbyupcomi ngpol iti
cians
from ot heret hni cgr oupssuchasOgi ngaOdi ngaandTom Mboy a.Bot hoft hese
wer eLuo.
 Fur ther mor e,t her e was a del ay i nt he t ransi t
ion t oi ndependence.Mor e
par ticular l
y,t he Br itish expl oited t he ki kuy u el ement s by pr omot i
ng t ribal
sent iment s among di f f
erentet hnic gr oups agai nstt he ki kuyu.The pol itical
par tiest hatemer gedl ikeKANUandKADUr ef l
ect edt ribalandr egionalr oyalties.
Theywer eant agoni sticandhost ilewhi choccasi onedf utur epol i
ti
cal conf li
cts.
 Besi des,t heupr isingf ractur edt heKeny anssoci etyev enamongpeopl eoft he
samet ribe.Longaf tert hesuppr essi on,f ami li
esandcl ansr emai neddi vided
alongl oy alt i
esandMau- Maugr oups.I tbecamedi ff
icul ttohav eauni tedf r
ont
agai nstt hecol oni aladmi nist r
at i
on.

The f act orst hatf acili


tated t he gr owt h ofnat ionalism i n Keny aincluded t he
fol
lowi ng:
ReferenceQuest ions:
1.Exami net hef act orsthatf acilitatedt hegr owt hofKeny annat i
onali
sm
2.Accountf orther iseofnat ional ism i nKeny aby1963
3.Di scusst hef actor sthatf aci l
itat edt heat tainmentofKeny anindependencei n
1963
 Theemer genceoft hei ndependentAf ricanchur chesi nKeny ainfl
uencedt he
pol i
ticalstruggles.Theact i
v i
tiesoft heScot ti
shmi ssionari
esi ntheareasar ound
kiambu,Nai robi,mer uamongot her sr ai seddi scontentmentf r
om t heAf r
ican
conv er t
s.Besi des,Af r
icanswant edt omai ntainanAf ri
cancul tur
alheritage.Thi s
influencedt hem t oest abli
sht hei rownchur cheswhi chlaterbecamesi gni ficanti n
mobi li
zingpol i
tical acti
v i
stsespeci all
yi nki kuy ul and.
 Theear li
erpol iti
calor ganizat ionsi nKeny ai nfluencedt hedesi reforpol i
tical
freedoms.Pol it
icalassoci ationsl iket heKeny aAf ri
canUni on( KAU)andt heot her
mi noror ganizationsest ablishedont r
iball inesmobi l
izedmassesagai nstt he
col onialactiviti
esi nKeny a.Ev ent hought heywer elesssuccessf uli
nt heear l
ier
year s,theylaidaf oundat ionf ort hedev elopmentofnat i
onalism inKeny a.
 TheBr i
tishcol oni alactivit
iesi nf luencedt hedesi r
ef orindependencei nKeny a.
Thecol oni algov ernmentadopt edapoort ax ationpol i
cy,andest abl ishedal and
commi ssi on t hatwor sened t hel and pr obl em i n Keny a.Theseamong ot her
coloni alpol icieshar denedt hehear tsofAf ri
canst or esentf oreignr ul e.Tomake
mat ter swor se,such pol i
ciesf av our ed t hewhi teset tler satt heexpenseof
Africans.Ther efor e,Af rican gr iev ances agai nstt he col oni alpol ici es wer e
witnessedt hr ought hei rst ruggl ef ori ndependence.
 Wor ldWarI Ihadapr of oundef fectonKeny annat ional i
sm.Thewarpr oduced
Keny anex- ser vicemenl ikeKi mat hi ,Kaggi aandI tot e.Upont hei rr et ur nt oKeny a
theseex- ser v icemenengagedi nv i
ol ence( throught heMau- Maumov ement )t o
struggl ef ori ndependence.Theywer econcer nedwi tht heunf ai rpol iciesoft he
Briti
sh,unempl oy mentl ev elsandt hecost lybutpoorst andar dsofl i
v ingoft he
Africans.Tonot e,t heaf termat hofWor ldWarI Isaw t hei ncr easedcol onial
expl oitat ion and whi ter aci sm whi ch aggr iev ed Af ri
cans t o demand f or
i
ndependence.
 Consequent l
y ,t he Mau- Mau upr ising of 1952- 55 was a si gn of Af ri
can
discont ent mentagai nstBr it
ishcol oni alism.Ev ent houghAf r i
cansl ostmi li
taril
y;
political ly,successwasont hei rsi de.Theupr i
si ngcheckedt hecol oni alpol icies,
l
edt opol iticalr efor msl i
kei ncr easedAf ri
canr epr esent ationandr angt hebel lt o
the col oni almast erst hatAf ri
cans i n Keny a wer e pol itically mat ure f or
i
ndependence. No- wonder t he y ear s af ter Mau- Mauwi tnessedpol it
ical
dev elopment st hatf inal l
ybr oughti ndependencet oKeny a.
 The emer gence ofKeny an el ites i nfluenced i ndependence st r uggl es.These
i
ncl udedJomoKeny atta,Ogi ngaOdi nga,andTom Mboy aamongot her s.The
eli
tes condemned col oni alism,demanded f orpol iti
calr efor ms whi le some
engagedi npr e- i
ndependencedi scussi onswi tht heBr i
ti
shcol oni al ist s.Amongst
them wer esomet hatwer ev otedt ot heLEGCOandbecameamout hpi ecef or
Africandemands.
 Thedesi ret or ev iveandmai nt aint heAf r
icancul tur al heritagei nKeny ai nf luenced
national ism i nt hecount ry.Theact i
v it
iesoft heScot ti
shmi ssi onar iesi ncent ral
Keny at oget herwi tht heBr it
ish col oni alpol ici eswer egr adual lyer odi ng t he
cultur alpr act icesi nKeny a.Thi scr eat edawar enessamongKeny anr adi cal st o
demandf ori ndependence.
 Thepooreducat ion sy stem i n Keny aanger ed Keny anst o demand f orsel f-
gov er nment .Theeducat iongi v ent oAf r
icanswasmor ei nf er i
ort ot hatacqui red
bywhi tesandAsi ans.Theunempl oy mentl ev elsi nKeny aandt hedi sadv ant aged
posi tionofAf ricanswer eal lat tribut edt ot hepooreducat ionsy stem adopt edby
theBr i
t i
shcol oni alists.Ther efor e,t hedesi ref orequaleducat ionoppor tuniti
es
i
nf l
uencedKeny anst oengagei npol iti
cal act i
v i
ties.
 Consequent l
y ,thecont inueddomi nancyofKeny abyt hewhi teset tler sandt heir
racistpol i
ci esi ncreasedAf ri
cangr iev ances.Thewhi teset tler smonopol izedcash
crop pr oduct i
on and al lt he- ¬ot herpr ofitabl eagr i
cul t
ur alv ent ur esl i
kecat tle
ranchi ng.Theyownedmostoft hel andi nt hecount rysideanddi scr imi nated
Africansf rom pol iti
cs.Thedesi ref orequalpol iticalr i
ght si nf l
uencedt hegr owt h
ofnat ional i
sm i nKeny a.
 Thecont ribut i
onofpol i
ticalpar ti
esl edt oi ndependenceat tainmenti nKeny a.The
parties l ike t he Keny a Af rican Nat ionalUni on ( KANU)and Keny a Af ri
can
Democr at i
cUni on( KADU)mobi li
zedmassest oengagei nant i
-col oni alst ruggl es.
KANUuni tedKeny aagai nstt ribalsent i
ment s.Thepopul ar ityofKANUputheri n
ani nf l
uent i
al posi tiont ol eadt heKeny anst r uggl ef ori ndependence.
 Theact iviti
esoft radeuni onsi nKeny acannotbeunder est imat edi nt heKeny an
agitat ion f or i ndependence. Li ke i n Tangany ika,t he t rade uni ons wer e
organi zat ionsbywor ker sandpr of essi onal st odemandf ort hei rr i
ght s,bet ter
soci alwel far eandwor kingcondi t i
ons.Howev er,t henegat iver esponsebyt he
coloni almast ersi nf l
uencedt radeuni onst oengagei npol i
ticalact iviti
eswhi ch
hadaposi tiv eimpacti nt hest ruggl ef ori ndependence.
 Ther ol eoft hepr essi nf luencedt hegr owt hofnat ional i
sm i nKeny a.Newspaper s
l
ike 'Saut iy a Mwaf ri
ka' ,' Keny an weekl ynews' ,et cet era hel ped t o sensi ti
ze
massesont hecol onial at rocitiesandt heneedt ost ruggl ef orindependence.
 Thechar ismat i
cr oleofJomoKeny at tabr oughti ndependencet oKeny a.Keny atta
spentmosthi s educat ion day s abr oad wher e he was abl et o at tend t he
Manchest erconf er ence i n 1945.Keny attat urned KAU i nt oav ibrantKANU,
engagedi nmobi li
zat i
onf ort heMau- Mauupr i
singwhi chl edt ohi sar r
estf or
sev en y ear s.Ev en i n pr i
son,t hei nf luenceofKeny at tawasst illf el tamong
Keny answhi chmot ivatedt hem t oopposecol onial i
sm.
 The i mpact of t he Manchest er conf erence i nfluenced t he st ruggl e f or
i
ndependencei nKeny a.Keny attaf rom Keny awasamongt heAf ricandel egat es
at t he Fi fth Pan Af rican conf erence. The conf erence pr ocl aimed t ot al
i
ndependenceofAf r
icanst at esandt hecompl eteer adi cationofai lf ormsof
coloni aloppr essi on.Ther esol utionsatt heconf erencewer emuchf elti nKeny a
upont her et urnofKeny at t
ai n1946.
 Theat tainmentofi ndependencebyI ndi ai n1947l edt ogr owt hofnat ional i
sm i n
Keny a.I ndi an i ndependence f rom t he Br i
tish mot ivated Keny ans t o empl oy
simi l
armet hodofposi tiv er esist anceagai nstt hesamecol onialmast er.I ndia
alsoext endedassi stancet ot heKeny annat i
onal i
st sdur i
ngt hepr ocessoft he
struggl ef ori ndependence.
 Thei ndependenceofGhanai n1957l edt ot hei ncr easedi ndependencest ruggl es
i
nKeny a.Ghanawoul dl at eror gani zet he' Al lAf ri
canPeopl e'
sConf er ence' in1958
wher eKeny ansl ikeTom Mboy aat tended.Mboy acl aimedt heAccr aconf erence
wasa' redef initionofAf r i
ca'consequent l
y ,thei ndependenceofGhanaf rom t he
Briti
shi ncr easedpr essur eont hecol oni almast ert oi nitiatepol iti
calr efor mst hat
putKeny ansi nthei ndependencemood.
 Impactoft heI tal o-Ethiopi ancr i
si s( 1935- 41)mot ivatedKeny annat i
onal ism.The
It
alianson est abl ishing t heiri mper ialism i n Et hiopiai mpl ement ed di ctat orial
policies by l and gr abbi ng,i mpr isonmentofAf rican pol i
t i
calact i
vist s,ov er
taxation,et c.whi chpol icieswer esi mi lart ot hosei mpl ement edbyt heBr i
tishi n
Keny a.Ther esponseoft heEt hiopi anst oI talianscol onialism mot iv atedKeny ans
tor i
seupagai nstt heBr itishcol oni al ruleandt hewhi teset tl
ercommuni ty.
 Ther oleoft heUni t
edNat ionsOr gani sat i
on( UNO)i nfluencednat i
onal ism i n
Keny a.TheUNOest ablishedt hey ear s1950- 60asadecadeofdecol oni zat i
on.
Dur i
ngt hi sper iodcol oni almast erswer eexpect edt opr epar et heircol oni esf or
i
ndependence.TheKeny ansusedt hi schancet opet iti
ont heBr i
ti
sht ot heUNf or
theirsl owr eact ioni npr epar ingKeny af ori ndependence.TheKeny anst her ef ore,
usedt heUNasapl atfor mt odemandf ort heiri ndependence.

Thecont ributionsofKeny at
taint hestrugglef ort
hei ndependenceofKeny a
ReferenceQuest ions:
1.Exami net hecont ri
butionofJomoKeny attatothedecol onizati
onofKeny a
2.Assesst her ol
eofJomoKeny att
aint her i
seandgr owthofKeny annationali
sm
JomoKeny attawasbor nasJohnKamauWaNseny ii n1893atNsendai nKi kuyu
l
and.Heat tendedmi ssionaryeducat ioni n1914bef oretravell
ingt oLondonf or
fur
therst udiesi n1931.Hewaspol it
icall
yknownt oKeny ansbyhi spopul arname
Kenyatta( Keny a'
sl i
ght).Hisr oleinthest r
ugglef orKeny ani ndependencewasas
fol
lows:
 Keny attawasanact i
vi
stf ortherightsofwor ker sthr
ought heKi kuyuWor kers
Organi zati
on.He t herefore,became t he voi ce oft he oppr essed Keny an
wor kers,wher ehedemandedf orbet terworki ngcondi ti
onse. g.betterwages
andhousi ngf acili
ties
 Heaccept edt hepostofsecr et ar ygener al ofKi kuy uCent ralAssoci at ion( KCA)
i
n1928.Themai nobj ect iveofKCAwast of i
ghtf orKi kuyu- landl ostt ot he
whi teset tlers.I twasdur inghi swor kwi thKCAt hatheabandonedhi sor igi nal
nameKamauf orKeny atta.
 Keny at tarepr esent edt hedemandsofKCAt ot hecol oni alsecr etar yi nLondon
i
n1929.Dur i
nghi sv i
si tt oLondon, Keny attademandedt hecol oni alsecr etar y
toinf l
uencet her et ur nofKi kuy ul ostl and.
 Dur i
nghi sst udi esi nEngl and,Keny at tawr ot eal i
t erall
ypol i
ticalbook" Faci ng
MountKeny a",whose i deas cr eat ed pol iticalawar eness oft he st ate of
coloni alrulei nKeny a.
 JomoKeny attaat tendedt he5thPanAf ricanConf erencei nNov ember1945at
Manchest er.Dur ing t he Manchest erconf er ence,Keny at t
ai nt er act ed wi th
otherpr omi nentpanAf ri
cani st sl ikeNkr umah,Padmor eandDuBoi s.The
Manchest erconf er ence t her ef orei nf l
uenced hi m t ot urnt o Keny a and
participatei nt hest r uggl ef ori ndependence.
 Consequent l
y ,Keny at tar et ur nedt oKeny ai n1946andi mmedi atel yr eplaced
JamesGi chur uasl eaderofKeny aAf ri
canUni on( KAU) .Keny attausedKAUt o
demandf ort hedecol oni zat ionofKeny at hroughposi ti
ver esist ance.
 Dur i
ngt hemau- mauupr ising,Keny at tawor kedasanunder groundmember
whoset askwast omobi lizef undsf rom t hepet tyt rader si nNai robi.Hi s
associ at i
onwi thmau- mauf ight erst hr eat enedt heBr iti
shcol oni al i
st s.
 Keny at tabecameanact iv istf ort her ight sofKeny ans.I n1951, hepr esent eda
memor andum t ot he col oni algov er nmentdemandi ng f ort he r ights of
Keny ans.
 Keny at tawassuspect edbyt hecol oni algov ernmentasacol labor at oroft he
mau- mau whi ch l ed t o hi s ar resti n 1953.Hi s ar resthowev er ,caused
sent i
mentamongKeny ansandi ncr easedpol iti
calpr essur eont hecol oni al
gov ernmentt odecol oni zeKeny a.
 WhenKAUwasr ev olut ional isedi nt oKeny aAf r
icanNat i
onalUni on( KANU) ,
Keny at tawasel ect edaschai rmani nabsent i
aoft henew par ty .Thi swasa
cleari ndicat ionoft hei nf l
uenceofKeny at taont heKeny ansev ent houghhe
wasi n pr i
son.Such i nf luenced waswi tnessed when member sofKANU
refusedt of or m agov er nmenti n1961af terwi nni ngt hepr e- independence
electiondemandi ngf ort her el easeofKeny att af i
rst .
 Keny at tal ed t he del egat ion t hatat tended t he second Lancast erHouse
Conf er ence i n London i n 1962.Thi sf ollowed hi s appoi ntmentt ot he
l
egi slative counci li nt he same y ear .At Lancast er,t he i ndependence
const ituti
onofKeny awasdr af t
ed.
 Keny at tal ed KANU t of or m a coal ition gov er nmentwi th Keny a Af rican
Democr aticUni on( KADU)i n1962.Thi scoal iti
ongov ernmentsett hepacef or
self-gov ernancei nKeny a,
 JomoKeny at tal edKANU t ov ictor yi nt hei ndependenceel ect i
onsofMay
1963.He wentahead t of or m an i nt ernalgov ernmenton June 1,1963
attainingt het itl
eoff irstpr imemi ni st er.
 Asl eaderofKANU,Keny at taaccept edt hei nst rument sofi ndependenceon
December12,1963 and became t he f irstpr esidentoft he i ndependent
gov ernmentofKeny a.

The r
ole ofKenya Afr
ican Nat
ionalUni
on (
KANU)i
nthe st
ruggl
eforKeny
an
i
ndependence
Ref
erenceQuest
ions:
1.Towhatext entdi dt heKeny anAf ricanNat ionalUni on( KANU)cont ribut etot he
att
ainmentofi ndependencei nKeny a?
2.Explaint hei nf l
uenceofKANUt ot hest ruggl ef orKeny ani ndependence
 KANU wasf or medi nMar ch1960,byAf ri
canmember si nt hel egislative
counci ldomi nat edbyt heKi kuy u.KANUr epl acedKAU,whi chhadout dated
ideasandnocl earpr ogr am ofachi evingKeny ani ndependence.Howev er,the
cont ribut i
onofKANUi sdi scussedbel ow:
 KANUdesi gnedacl earpol iticalpr ogram ai medatat tainingi ndependencef or
Keny a.Thi sPr ogr am i ncludedbr ingingal ltribesonboar d,i ncr easeddemand
forwor kers'r ight s and i ncr eased pr essur e on t he col oni algov ernment
throughpol it
ical di scussi ons.
 The par ty demanded f ort he r elease ofKeny an pol iticalpr i
soner s who
included Jomo Keny atta.Ther eleaseofpol iticalpr i
soner si ncr eased t he
capaci tyofKANUt oat taini ndependence.
 Thr ough pr omi nent pol iticians l ike Jomo Keny atta, t he KANU gav e
char i
smat i
cr el ationshi pt ot hest rugglef ori ndependence.Thr oughKANU
politi
ci ans,i twaseasyf ort hepar tyt o mobi lizemassest hroughoutt he
count ryandsensi ti
zedt hem t oj oint he: political struggl e.
 TheKeny aAf ricanNat i
onal Uni oni dent i
fiedher sel fwi tht henat i
onal problems
int hecount ry.Thepar tyi ncr easedpr essur eont hecol oni algov ernmentt o
ensur e soundi ng l and r efor ms. KANU al so condemned t he col oni al
gov er nmentandt hewhi t
eset tlercommuni t yf orabusi ngt heAf ri
cancul ture.
 Thepar tycutacr osset hnicl inest hroughoutt hepr ocessofmobi l
izat i
on.The
leader s of KANU encour aged nat i
onal uni t
y dur i
ng t he st ruggl ef or
independence.Shet heref or e,condemned t heBr i
tish pol iciesofensur ing
disuni tyamongKeny ans.
 The KANU wor ked t o ensur e economi c emanci pat ion of Keny a.She
condemnedt hecol oni alpol icyofdi scrimi nat ingAf ri
cansf rom t heeconomi c
activitiesoft hecount rynamel yagr i
cultur e,t radeandcommer ce.Thi swon
thepar typopul ar i
tyofmasses.
 TheKANU or gani zedpol iticalcampai gnst hr oughoutKeny a.Dur i
ngt hese
campai gns t he l eader s of KANU spr ead ant i-
col onialpr opaganda and
encour agedt hemassest oj oint hest r
uggl ef ordependence.
 Theact ivitiesofKANUi nspi redt hef or mat i
onofot herpol iti
calpar t
iesl ike
Keny aAf r
icanDemocr ati
cUni on( KADU) .Theemer genceoft hesenewpar ti
es
increased t he Af rican pr essur e on t he col oni algov er nment t o gr ant
independencet oKeny a.
 TheKANUwasgr eat lyopposedt of eder alism i nKeny a.Thepar tydemanded
fort heest ablishmentofauni tarygov ernmentf orf eart hatf eder ali
sm woul d
wor sent r
ibal nat ional i
sm andr egional i
sm i nKeny a,
 Leader sofKANUpar ti
cipat edi nt hesecondLancast erHouseConf erenceof
1962.Att hi sconf erence, thei ndependenceconst itutionofKeny awasdr afted.
Thismot i
vat edt hemoodKeny anst oachi ev ei ndependence.
 TheKANUf ormedacoal i
t i
ongov ernmentwi thKADUi n1962.Thi swast he
fir
stgov ernmentdomi nat edbymaj orityAf ricans.Thecoal iti
ongov ernment
pav edwayf ort hei ndependenceofKeny al at eri n1963.
 Thepar typar ticipat edi nt hepr e-independenceel ect i
onsof1961and1963.I n
1961, KANUwonmaj or i
tyseat s( 19)but ,ref usedt of orm agov ernmentbef or e
Keny at tawasr eleased.I n1963,KANUwonmaj orityoft heseat si nt heMay
elections.
 The KANU f or med an i nt er nalgov ernmenton June 1,1963 wi th Jomo
Keny at taast hef irstpr imemi nister.Thi sgov er nmentpr epar edgr oundf or
Kenyatofi
nall
yachievei
ndependence.
 Thepartyrecei
vedt hei
nst
rumentsofi ndependenceonDecember12,1963
wit
hJomoKeny at
taaspresi
dent.Thismarkedt hecol
l
apseofBr
it
ishcol
onial
rul
einKenya.

THEI NDEPENDENCESTRUGGLESI NTANGANYI KA( 1945-


61)
TanganyikawasaGer man colonyfrom 1895 unt
il1919.Tanganyikawasthen
transf
err
edtothe
LeagueofNat i
onsasamandatedterr
it
oryfol
l
owingthedefeatofGermanyi
nWor l
d
WarI . Bri
tai
nwasgi
venadmi ni
str
ati
vemandateoverTanganyi
kaonbehal
fof
theLeague.

AfterWorl
dWarI I
,Tanganyi
kawasputundert hetrust
eeshipcounciloftheUnited
NationsOr
gani
zati
on(UNO)wi thBr
it
ainrecei
vi
ngfullmandateovertheterr
it
oryasa
tr
usteepower
.
ThepeopleofTanganyi
kareject
edthesecondstuntofcoloni
ali
sm undertheBriti
sh
andbegan st
ruggl
ingforsel
f-
rul
easear l
yas1945.Howev er
,independence
onlycamebyin1961.

Thepat hofTangany i
ka'
si ndependencewasv erydrast
icandsmoot hcompar edt o
thatofUgandaandKeny awhohadpr oblemsespecial
lyofethnicsub-nat
ional
ism
andi nter
naldisuni
ty.In1945,t woAf ri
canswer eelectedtothemember shipof
Tangany i
ka nati
onalassembl y( l
egisl
ati
ve council
).This was fol
lowed by t he
establi
shmentofaconst i
tuti
onalcommi t
teetodesignaconsti
tut
ionforTanganyika.

I
n 1945,t he UN mi ssi
on visit
ed Tangany i
ka and recommended t hatBrit
ain,
admi ni
steringTangany i
kaonbehal foft heUNO shoul dprepar ethecountryfor
i
mmedi atei ndependence.The UN mi ssion had ori
ginall
yf i
xed t he datefor
Tangany ika'sindependenceonMay1,1961,but ,duetobur eaucracy,Tanganyi
ka
att
ainedonl yinter
nalself-
governancewithKambar ageJuliusNy erer
east hepri
me
minister.Tangany i
kawasdecl aredfull
yindependentonDecember9, 1961,whenthe
Bri
ti
shcol onialgovernmenthandedov ert heinst
rumentsofpowert oTangany i
ka
Afr
icanat i
onal uni
on(TANU) .

FACTORSFORDELAYEDGROWTHOFNATI ONALI SM INTANGANYI KA


ReferenceQuest i
ons
a)Accountf ort hedel ay edindependenceofTangany ika
b)Exami nethechal l
engest ot hei ndependencest r
uggl esinTangany i
ka
 Thel ar gesi zeoft hecount ryl edt othedel ayedgr owt hofNat i
onal ism.The
vastgeogr aphicalsi ze ofTangany ika made i text r
emel y hardf ort he
Nati
onal istst ot ravelacr osst hecount ryt osensi ti
zeandmobi l
i
zemasses
especiallyint hecount r
y sidet or i
seupagai nsttheEur opeancol onialists.
 Poort r anspor tandcommuni cationnet workinTangany i
kaledt ot hedel ay ed
growth ofnat ionali
sm.The col onyofTangany ika had l ow i nfrastruct ure
devel
opmenti .
e.ther oadnet wor kwaspoorwi thsomear easinaccessi ble.It
wasdi ffi
cul tfornat i
onal iststot r
avelfrom coast alareasl i
keDar -
es- Salaam t o
i
nteri
orar easl i
kekar agwei nthewest ,Kili
manj aroar easi nthenor thandt o
theextremeSout hal ongt hebor derwithMozambi que.Thi sl i
mitedt hespr ead
ofnational i
st i
cideas.
 Hi ghlev elsofi l
lit
eracyaf fectedt hestrugglef orself -
ruleinTangany ika.Dur ing
thecol onialper i
od,Tangany ikahadf ew educat edpeopl ewhower emost l
y
concent ratedi nt ownsandmi ssioncent ers.Themasseswer ei gnor antof
thei
rright sy etnationalisticliteraturewasi naccessi ble, bytherural popul ace.
 Ext r
emepov ertyamongTangany ikanscausedeconomi char dshi pshence
hinder ingt hef or cesofnat ional i
sm i nTangany ika.Tangany ikahadt hemost
backwar deconomyi nEastAf ricawhosepopul at i
onwaspr edomi nant lymade
upofpeasant swhopr act icedsubsi st enceagr i
cul tur ewi thv eryl i
ttlet osel l
.
Suchapopul at i
onwasunabl et ocont ri
but et onat ional ist i
cact iv i
ties,whi ch
affect edTangany i
ka' sr oadt oi ndependence.
 Failur eoft heear li
erv iol entat t
emptagai nstEur opeanr ulecausedahi ccupt o
Tangany ika's dr eam f orsei f -
det er mi nat ion.Bet ween 1905 and 1907,t he
peopl eofSout hTangany ikawhoi ncl udedPogor o,Wangi do,andmat ambi
stagedanunsuccessf ulmaj i-maj iupr i
singagai nstt heGer mans.Thedef eat
oft hemaj i
-maj ibyt heGer mansdemor ali
zedt hepeopl eofTangany ikahence
affect ingt hei rquestf orpol iti
cal freedom.
 Theexcl usionofAf ricansf r
om pol iticalpar ticipat iondel ay edt hegr owt hof
nat i
onal i
sm i nTangany ika.Ger mancol onialist sandl at ert heBr itishdespi sed
thepeopl eofTangany ikaanddeni edt hem i nv olvementi npol i
ticaldeci sion-
maki ng.Ver yf ew Af ricanswer egi venadmi nistrat i
v epost si nt hecol oni al
gov er nmenty etont heov er all;Af ricansl ackedv ot ingr ight s,whi chmeant
affect edpr epar at ionsf orsel f
-rul e.
 Theopposi ti
onf rom t heBr iti
shcol oni alistsal sodel ay edt hei ndependenceof
Tangany ika.Whent heBr itisht ookov ert heaf fairsofTangany ikaonbehal fof
theUni tedNat i
onsOr gani zat ion,t heywer enotpr epar edf ort heact iv i
tiesof
TANU.Br i
tain encour aged Af ri
cans agai nstTANU t of orm t he Uni ted
Tangany ikapar tyUTPi n1956.Towor kagai nstTANU.
 The i mpr isonment and r estr i
ct ion of TANU l eader s al so del ay ed t he
i
ndependenceofTangany ika.Besi dessuppor tingact ivitiesagai nstTANU, the
Briti
shusual l
yr oundedupandar r
est edanumberofTANUl eader st heyev en
used t o cl ose TANU br anches and i n 1957,Ny erer e was st opped f rom
addr essi ng any r ally.Thi s negat ivel y af fect ed pol iticalmobi lizat ion and
delay edt hei ndependenceofTangany ika.
 The t ribaldi ver sityoft he Tangany ika al so del ay ed t he i ndependence of
Tangany ika.Asa het er ogeneousst atecomposed ofdi fferentt ri
besand
cultur algr oups, Tangany ikaf acedchal l
engest owar dsf ost er ingnat i
onaluni ty,
whi chwasdesi rabl et oboostnat ional i
sm.I tt ookt imebef or eKi swahi lipl ay ed
av er yi mpor t
antr olei nboost ingnat ional isticst r
uggl esi nt hecol ony .
 Thei nt r oduct i
onofamul ti-raci alpol icybyt heBr itishi n1951wasanot her
obst acl et ot hedecol oni zat i
onpr ocessofTangany ika.TheBr iti
shi nt roduced
apol icyt hatpr ov i
dedf ort her epr esent ationofal lt her acesofAf rican,Asi an
andWhi teatal ll ev elsofadmi nist rat i
on.Thi snew pol icyaf f
ect edAf r i
can
i
nt erest sespeci al lyt hedemand f ori ndependence,whi cht heAsi ansand
whi tesr el uctant lysuppor ted.
 Themandat oryst at usaccor dedt oTangany ikadel ay edt hedecol oni zat ion
process.Fol l
owi ngt hedef eatofGer mani nWor l
dWarI , Tangany ikabecamea
mandat edt erri
tor yoft heLeagueofNat ionswi thBr itai nast hecar et aker .Thi s
mandat or yst at usofTangany ikaundert heBr it
ishwasf ur therconf irmedby
theUNO i n1945.Tonot ei st hatt heVer saillesset tl
ementof1919had
recogni zedsov er ei gnt yoft er r
it oriesf ormal l
yunderGer manoccupat ion,but
Lloy dGeor geofBr i
tai ndecl ar edt hatt her esol utionappl iedt oonl yf or mer
Ger man t erritor ies i n Eur ope. Thi s ev ent ual ly del ay ed Tangany ika's
i
ndependence.
 Lackofcapabl el eader s att he i ni tialst ages ofi ndependence st ruggl es
delay ed t he decol oni zat ion ofTangany ika.Bef ore emer gence ofJul ius
Ny erer e,Tangany ikal ackedcapabl e,char ismat icandf or esi ghtedl eader st o
mobi lize masses and st irt hem t owar ds sel f -
rul e.The i ndependence
movementi
nTanganyikaonl
ygather
edmoment um af
tertheemer
genceof
Nyer
ere,
whowentaheadtoachi
evesel
f-
rul
efort
hecountr
y.

FACTORSTHATFACI LITATEDTHEI NDEPENDENCEOFTANGANYI KA


ReferenceQuest ions:
1.Exami net hef act orsf ort heear lyi ndependenceofTangany i
ka
2.Discusst hef act orst hatf acilit
at edt hegr owt hofnat ional i
sm i nTangany ika
 Absenceoft ri
balnat i
onal ism f av our edt hei ndependenceofTangany ika.The
col onyhadnosi ngl et ri
beoret hni cgr oupt hatwaspower fulenought ocl aim
cont rolov ert hepol iti
csoft hecount ryl i
kei twasf orBugandai nUgandaand
Ki kuy uf orKeny a.Byt het i
meoft hei ndependencest ruggl e,t hedi fferent
ethni cgr oupsi nTangany ikai .e.t heSukuma,Masai ,Yao,t heMakonde,t he
Ny amweziandChaggaet cet er a,wer eweakandnoneoft hem coul dt hreat en
thenei ghbour st ocausest ateconf li
cts.Besi des,t hev ari
ouset hnicgr oups
wer espr eadt houghtTangany i
kawi thoutaconcent r
at edset tlementf ora
par ticul art ribe.Duet ot hi s,t het ribeswer eabl et ouni teagai nstt heBr iti
sh
col oni alsy stem, whi chenabl edTangany ikat oat t aini ndependencebef or et he
ot herEastAf ri
canst ates.
 Ther oleofKi swahi liasacommonl anguageamongt hepeopl eofTangany i
ka
hel pedt oqui ckeni ndependence.Ki swahi l
icr eat eduni t yamongt hev ar ious
tribes and t hisf aci l
it
ated communi cation.Par ties l i
ke ( t
he TANU)used
Ki swahi lit omobi liset hemassesi nt opassi ver esi stancesl ikest rikesand
demonst rations.Ther efor e,Ki swahi licompr omi sedt hel anguagedi ffer ences
inTangany ika, andt hishel pedt henat i
onal istst ohav egoodor gani sat i
ont hat
enabl edt hem t oat taini ndependence.Ki swahi l
ihadbeent hel ingua- franca
rightf rom t heday sofAr absatcoastal lthr ought ot het imeofGer manand
Br iti
shr ul e,whonev erimposedt hei rr espect iv
el anguagesunt ot hepeopl eof
Tangany ika.
 Thel essonsl ear ntf rom t heear lierr esi stancesagai nstGer manr ulemot i
v ated
thedemandf or- dependence.Themaj orr ebelli
onswer et heHeher ebel li
on
andMaj iMaj iupr i
si ng( 1905- 07) ,buti npar ti
cular ,thel at terwasi nstrument al
inbr i
ngi ngi ndependencet oTangany i
ka.Theupr isingsuni tedt hev ar ious
ethni ccommuni ti
esmost l
yi nSout hernTangany ikal iket heNgoniandt he
Mpondeagai nstt heGer mans.Thought heGer manscr ashedt heMaj iMaj i
upr i
si ng,t he uni ty and or gani sat ion shown by t he t ri
bes ofSout her n
Tangany ikai nspi r
edt henat ional isticst ruggl e.I tt aughtt henat i
onal istsi n
Tangany ikat hatt heat tainmentofi ndependencecoul dbesuccessf uli fnon-
viol enceandpassi v er esist ancear eused.Thenewgener ation- nat i
onal ist si n
Tangany ika l ed byJul ius Ny er er e empl oy ed non- v i
ol ence i nt he st ruggl e
agai nst t he Br it
ish,whi ch conv inced t he col oni al mast ers t o gr ant
independencet oTangany i
kaear liert hanUgandaandKeny a.
 Absence of r eli
gi ous conf licts i n Tangany ika f av our ed i ndependence
at tainment .Ev ent houghChr ist i
ani t yandI slam coexi stedi nt hecount ry,t his
wasnev eradi vi
siv ef act ort hatwoul dhi nderuni tyandpr operor gani sat i
on
agai nstBr iti
sh col onialism.I nst ead,t he Musl ims i nt he coast alr egi ons
wor kedcl osel ywi thChr istiansi nt hei nter i
ort oachi ev ei ndependence.Thi s
wasi ncont rastwi thUganda,t heSudanandNi ger ia,wher er el igionpl ay eda
maj orr ol ei n di viding peopl e dur ing t he st r
uggl ef ort he i ndependence.
Pol iticall eader sl ike Jul ius Ny erer e wor ked hand i n hand wi t
h Musl im-
count erpar ts,t o achi ev ei ndependencef orTangany i
ka.I nf act ,theent ire
Tangany ikapopul aceaccept edNy er ereaCat hor ict ol eadt hest r
uggl ef or
independence.
 Ther oleoft radeuni ons( wel far eassoci ations)t hathademer gedaf t
erWor ld
WarI Iaccel er atedt hei ndependenceofTangany ika.Tangany i
kahadv er y
strong t radeuni onsoff ar mer s,t eacher sand ot herci v ilser vant s,whi ch
engagedi nt hest ruggl ef ori ndependence.Theseassoci at ionsi ncludedt he
Kili
manj ar oNat ivePl ant ersAssoci at ionandt hemosti mpor tantoneast he
Tangany ikaAf ricanAssoci at ion( TAA) .I nanat temptt or aiset hewel far eof
ther espect ivev ar i
ousgr oupsofpeopl e,t heset radeuni onsengagedi nnon-
violentpr otest sl ikesi tdownst r
ikesandpeacef uldemonst rations,whi ch
great lyt hr eat enedcol oni alr ulei n.Tangany i
ka.Theact i
v itiesoft radeuni ons
especi al lyt he ( TAA) ,f or med i n Dar -es- Salaam i n 1929 mot i
v ated many
disgr unt ledandf r
ust ratedwor ker si nTangany i
kat oj oi nt hest ruggl ef or
i
ndependence.The TAA cut acr oss t he di fferent et hni c gr oups and
encour agedt oget her nessi nt hest ruggl eagai nstf orei gndomi nat ion.
 The r ol e of t he Uni ted Nat ions Or gani sat i
ons ( UNO) accel erat ed t he
i
ndependenceofTangany ika.I n1946,Tangany ikawasputundert heUN
trusteeshi pcounci l,whi chent rust edr et aint ogov er nTangany i
ka.TheUNO
wasant i-coloni alandwentaheadt oputpr essur eont heBr i
t i
sht opr epar e
Tangany ikaf orsel f-rul e.Thebodyaccept edJul iusNy erer et ousei tsGener al
Assembl yasapl atfor mt odemandf ort hei ndependenceofTangany ika.The
UNsentav isi ti
ngmi ssiont oTangany i
kat osuper visepol iticaldev elopment s
enhanced by t he Br i
tish i n pr epar ing Tangany ika f or i ndependence.
Consequent l
y , theUNpr essur izedt heBr i
tisht oendt heircol oni ali nfluencei n
themandat edst at eofTangany ika.
 TheTangany ikaAf ricanNat ionalUni on( TANU)pl ayedar ol ei nt hesuccessof
thest r
uggl ef ort hei ndependenceofTangany ika.Af t erel ect i
ngJul i
usNy er ere
ast hepr esidentoft heTangany ikaAf ri
canAssoci ationi n1953, Ny erer ewent
aheadt ot ransf or mt heassoci at i
oni ntot heTANUwhi chwasconf irmedon
July 7, 1954. The obj ect iv es of t he TANU i ncluded achi eving t he
soci oeconomi c wel far e oft he peopl e ofTangany i
ka and abov e al lt he
demandi ngf ort hei mmedi at ei ndependenceofTangany ika.TheTANUuni ted
the v ar i
ous et hni c gr oups i n Tangany ika agai nst t he Br itish col oni al
admi nist rati
on.
 The pr esence of abl e l eader si n Tangany ika wor ked i n f av our f or
i
ndependence.I npar ticularwasJul iusNy er erewhobecameakeyf igur ei n
the st ruggl ef ori ndependence.Af tergr aduat i
ng f rom Maker er e Col lege,
Ny ererewentt oEngl andf orf ur therst udi esbef oreher et ur nedt oTangany ika
i
n1953.I mmedi at ely ,Ny er erewasappoi nt edt hepr esidentofTangany ika
Af r
icanAssoci at ion( TAA) ,whi chhel at ert ransf ormedi nt ot heTangany ika
Af r
icanNat ionalUni on( TANU) ,amasspol iti
calpar tyt hatst ruggl ed f or
Tangany ika i ndependence. Ny erer er epr esent edt hepeopl eofTangany ika
dur i
ngt hei ndependencenegot iationswi tht heBr iti
shcol oni aladmi nist rator s,
l
edaccept edt hei nst rument sofpowerf rom t heBr it
ish.
 Theabsenceofast rongset tlercommuni tyal soaccount edf ort hequi ck
decol oni zat ionofTangany ika.Byt heendofWor ldWarI Iandt heaf ter mat h,
therewer easmal lernumberofwhi teset t
lersi nTangany ikacompar edt o
Keny a.Thi smeantt hatt her ewasnowhi teobj ect i
ont ot heAf ricandemand
fori ndependence,andwasanoppor tuni tyf orTangany ikat oat tai nsel f-
rul e.
Hence,t hef actt hatTangany ikawasnotaset t
lercol onyqui ckened her
processofi ndependenceat tainment .
 Theunf ai rcol oni al pol iciesawakenedt hepeopl eofTangany ikat odemandf or
i
ndependence.TheBr iti
shcol oni alistsi nTangany i
kagr abbedl andf rom t he
Af r
icans,t ri
edt oenf or cepl ant at i
onagr i
cul tureandot herr el atedev i
lsl ike
heav yt axat ion.Suchpol i
ci esanger edAf ricanswhower ei mposedofheav y
fi
nesbecauseofr esi sti
nggr owi ngnew cr opswi thnew f ar mi ngt echni ques
broughtbyt hecol oni alists,suchascompul sor ysoi lterracing.Thesepol icies
gener ated fearand hat red ofAf ri
cansagai nstcol onialism and t hiswas
exploitedbynat ionalist slikeNy ereret omobi liset hemassest odemandf or
i
ndependence.
 Ther oleofRi char dTur nbul l(1958- 61)accel erat edt hei ndependencepr ocess
ofTangany ika.Tur nbul lwas appoi nt ed as t he new Br iti
sh gov ernorof
Tangany i
kawi thinst r
uct i
onst opr epar eTangany ikaf orindependence.Hehad
previouslybeent hechi efSecr et aryi nt heKeny ancol onialgov er nmentatt he
ti
meoft heMauMaur ebel li
onandhewasdet ermi nedt oav oidsuchr el
at ed
havoc i n Tangany i
ka.He became co- operat ive and est ablished a cl ose
rel
at i
onshi pwi thJul iusNy erer e.Tur nbul lhelpedal ottosel ltheTANUi nt he
UNO, whichwashel pf ul int heear lyadv ancementofTangany ikasel f-
rule.
 Thei mpactoft heMauMau( 1952- 56)waspar tl
yr esponsi blef ort heear ly
i
ndependenceofTangany ika.Becauset heMauMauwasanant i
-coloni al
uprisingt hatwasv erydest ruct iv eandexpensi vef ort heBr it
ish,t heynev er
wishedt oexper ienceanot herr ev oltoft heki nd.I twasbecauseoft hist hat
Turnbul lwas appoi nt ed gov er norofTangany ika due t o hi s Mau Mau
exper i
ence.Thust oav oidsuch,t henew gov er norwasi nst ruct edt opr epar e
Tangany i
kaf ori ndependence.
 Thekabakacr i
si s( 1953- 55)i nUgandahad at hreateni ng i mpactont he
colonialgov er nmenti nTangany ika.Thoughi toccur redi nUganda,t heev ent
hadapr ofoundi mpactt hatcr eat edawar enesst ot hecol oni algov ernment
thattheAf r
icansi nEastAf ricawer epol i
tical
lymat ur etoat t aini ndependence.
Thecr i
sisweakenedt heBr it
ishposi tionont hef ormat i
onoft heEastAf ri
can
federationandi nstead,t heyi nitiat edpol iti
calconcessi onst hatpr eparedt he
atmospher ef orTangany ika'si ndependence.Fr om t heef fect soft heKabaka
cri
sis,theBr i
tishl earntt ocooper at ewi thAf r
icansi nTangany ikaasawayof
avoidingpol iti
cal conf lictsi nt het rust eeshi pterritory.

JULIUSNYEREREKAMBARAGE
ReferenceQuest i
ons:
1.Explainthecont r
ibutionofJul iusNy er
eretothedecol onizationofTangany ikaby
1961
2.Assesst her oleofJul i
usNy erer
ei nthest rugglef ort hei ndependenceof
Tangany i
ka
Nyererewasbor ninMar ch1922i nBut i
amav il
lage,Musomadi stri
ctsoutheastof
LakeVi ctor
iat oChiefBur i
toNy erereoftheWazanakiet hnicgr oupandhi sei ght
h
wifeKambar age.Ny ererelivedhi slif
einat raditi
onalset ti
ngwhi chenabledhi m
acquireskil
lsoftraditi
onall eadershi
p.Hewentt oMwi sengepr imaryschool,Tabora
secondaryschool andl aterMaker ereColl
egeinUganda.

 In1945,Nyerereattendedt hef i
fthPanAf ricancongr esst ogetherwi t
hot her
Afri
cansli
keJomoKeny att
aandNkwameNkr umah.Onhi sret ur
nf r
om t he
confer
encein 1947,l i
keNkr umah,Ny ereredemanded f ort hei mmedi ate
i
ndependenceofAf ricaandhopedt oleadTangany ikat oindependence.
 In1949,Nyerer
eleftf orfurtherstudi
esatEdi nbur gh( Scotland)andobt ained
aMast er
sofAr tsinhi story,economicsandphi losophy .Thest udiesabr oad
widenedthemindandcommi tmentofNy ereret ot hest rugglef orself
-rule.He
ret
urnedtoTangany ikain1952wi thast rongdesi ret oendBr i
tishcolonialism
i
nTangany i
ka.
 NyererewaselectedPr esidentoftheTangany ikaAf r
icanAssoci ati
onin1953.
TheTAAwasbasi callyfi
ghtingforAfricanci vilrightsandi mpr ovedwel fareof
Afri
canworkers.Wi t
ht his,Ny er
ererepresent edt hesy mbolofchar i
smaand
forwar dl ooki ng,whi ch qual it
ies woul d hel pt o conf r
ontt he expl oitative
policiesoft heBr itish.
 Becauseofhi sst rong- zealandl ov et owar dsi ndependence, Ny erer eusedhi s
l
eader ship qual itiesand ski ll
st ot r
ansf orm t heTAA i ntot heTangany ika
Af r
icanNat i
onalUni on( TANU) ,whi chbecamean" alli nclusiv e"andr adical
masspol itical par tyt hatwoul dhel pint hemobi l
isationofmassesf orself-rule.
 Asal eaderoft heTANU,Ny erer ei nfluencedt hepar tyt oadoptpeacef ul
means( paci fi
cr esi st ance) ,i
nor dert oav oidconf li
ct swi ththeBr i
tishcol oni al
admi nistrator s.Thus,Ny erereor gani zedandl edwor ker sst r
ikesandst reet
demonst rat i
onsal l ai medatshowi ngAf ricangr i
ev ancesagai nstcol onialrule.
 In 1955,Ny erer e accept ed t he pr esidencyoft he TANU.He i mmedi atel y
consol i
dat edt hest r uggl ef orbet terwel fareoft hepeopl eofTangany ika;but
abov eal lthei ncr easedmember shi pofAf ricanst ot hel egislat i
v ecounci l
.
 Ny ererel edt heTANU t opet iti
ont heBr it
ishcol oni aladmi nist r
at orstot he
UNO wi t
h an i nt ent ion ofachi ev i
ng i nternat i
onalconcer nt owar ds t he
i
ndependence ofTangany i
ka.The l eader ship and act iviti
es ofNy erere
i
nf l
uencedt heUNO,especi allytheTr ust eeshi pCounci lt ohav edi recti nterest
i
nTangany i
ka' sadv ancementt owar dssel f-
deter mi nat ion.
 In1957, Ny er erej oinedt hel egislat i
veassembl yandwasi mmedi atelyelect ed
Presi dentoft heassembl y .Inashor twhi lehowev er ,Ny ererest eppeddownas
Presi dentoft hel egi slati
v eassembl ybecauset hisposi ti
onwasboundt o
hinderhi s. demandf ort hei mmedi atei ndependenceofTangany ika.
 Bet ween1958and1960,Ny ererel edt heTANUt ol andsl idev ictor i
esi nt he
l
ocalel ect i
ons.Af tert heAugust1960el ect i
onswher et heTANUwonsev ent y
oft hesev ent y -one( 70outof71)seat sint heLEGCO, Ny ererewasmadeChi ef
Mi nisterhence,gi v inghi m anupperhandt ouset hegov ernmentt odemand
fort hei ndependenceofTangany ika.
 Theact iv
itiesofNy er er et hrought heTANUmount edmor epr essur eont he
Briti
shcol oni aladmi nist r
at orstogr antTangany ikaani nt ernalaut onomy( self-
gov ernment ),whi chwasdecl aredi n1958.Ny erer ebecamet hef ir
stPr i
me
Mi nister.Thi snewposi ti
onmot ivatedhi mt odemandf ort ot ali ndependence,
whi chwasgr ant edonDecember9, 1961.
 JuliusNy er er eest abl ishedacor dialr elationshi pwi thSi rRi char dTur nbul lthe
coloni algov er norofTangany i
ka( 1958- 61) .Tur nbul lwasf orwar dl ookingand
wentahead t o suppor tNy erere's act i
ons;he ( Tur bul l)wor ked wel lwi th
(Ny erere)unt il thel astst agesoft hei ndependenceofTangany ika.
 Ast hePr esi dentoft heTANU,Ny erer eaccept edt hei nst rument sofpower
from t he Br iti
sh col onialgov ernmentofTangany ika.He consequent ly
establ i
shedt hef irsti ndependentAf ricangov ernmentf orTangany ika.
THEROLEOFTANGANYI KAAFRICANNATI ONALUNI ON( TANU)
ReferenceQuest i
ons:
1.Towhatext entdidtheTanganyikaAf r
icanNat ionalUni on(TANU)cont ri
buteto
the attai
nmentofi ndependenceinTangany i
ka?
2.Expl ai
nt he infl
uence ofTANU t ot he strugglef ort he independence of
Tangany i
ka
TheTANU wasamasspol iti
calpar t
yt hatwasf oundedont heJul y7,1954.It
evolv
edf rom theexisti
ngpopulartradeuni on,theTangany i
kaAfricanAssociat
ion
(TAA).Itwasfoundedwi thJuli
usNy erer
easi tsfi
rstleader.TheTANUwasf or
med
alongthesamepr i
nci
plesofthe Conv entionPeopl e'sParty(CPP)oft heGoldCoast
underNkrumah.I twasaimedatachi eving socio-economicwelfareofthepeople
ofTangany i
ka,promotingunit
yandcr eati
ngaspi ri
tof nati
onalism t
oachieve
i
ndependencei nTangany i
ka.

TheTANUpl ay edamaj orr ol ei nt hest ruggl ef ort hei ndependenceofTangany i


ka
asseenbel ow:
 Fr om t hebegi nni ng,t heTangany ikaAf ri
canNat i
onalUni onadv ocat edf oran
i
ncr easei nt henumberofAf r
icanseat si nt heLegi slativeAssembl yand
gov ernment .Thi s woul d gi ve Af ricans an upperhand i nv ot i
ng agai nst
colonial ism.
 I n1954,t hepar tyut il
izedt heposi ti
onoft hecount r
yint heUNTr ust eeshi p
Counci lt odemandf ort hei ndependenceofTangany i
ka.Thepar t
ymade
demandst ot heUNO t oqui ckent hei ndependencepr ocessofTangany ika.
TheTANUconv i
ncedt heUNOmi ssi ont ov i
si tTangany i
kai n1954, whi chv i
sit
camei n1955.Consequent ly,t heTANUi ssuedapet it
iont ot heUN v isiti
ng
mi ssi
ont oputpr essur eonBr itaint ogr anti ndependencet oTangany i
ka.
 TheTANUpr omot eduni tyoft hev ar iouset hni cgr oupsi nTangany ikawi tht he
aim ofachi ev ingsel f
-rule.Member shi pt ot hepar tywasgr antedt oal let hni c
groupsl ikeNy amwezi ,theMakonde,t heSukuma,andt heMpondewi thno
discrimi nat ion.The maj ormedi um ofcommuni cation f ort he TANU was
Kiswahi li
,whi chst rengt henednat ionaluni tycont rar ytoet hnicnat i
onal i
sm
dur i
ngt hepr ocessofdemandi ngf ori ndependence.
 Consequent ly,t heTANUadopt edpassi ver esi stanceandnon- violentmeans
ofdemandi ngf ori ndependence.Themeansi ncludedpeacef ulst r
ikesand
demonst r at
ionsandnegot i
at ionswi tht hecol oni algov ernmentt hatmadet he
Br i
ti
sht oacceptt hepol i
ticaldemandsoft heTANU.OnDecember9,1961,
theBr itisht ransf erredt hei nst rument sofpowert ot heTANUl eader ship.
 The TANU l eader ship est ablished br anches of t he par tyt hroughout
Tangany ika,whi chhel pedt oqui ckent hedecol oni zati
onpr ocess.Af terher
transfor mat ionf rom t he( TAA) ,t heTANUt ookov erallt heTAAupcount ry
branches.Thepar tyther ef ore,usedt hesebr anchesscat teredt hroughoutt he
count ryt ospr eadant i-col onialpr opagandat hatenabl edhert osucceedi nt he
struggl e ofi ndependence.The par t ybr anches eased t he t ask ofmass
mobi lizat ion.
 Consequent ly,t he TANU i dent ifi
ed i tselfwi tht he peopl e's pr obl ems i n
Tangany ika,whi cht hePar tyusedi ni t
spl ant ot urnt hemassesagai nstt he
Br i
ti
shcol onialgov ernment .Inanef fortt owi nt hepeopl esofTangany ikaand
theirsuppor t,t hepar tyal li
ed wi tht hemassest o condemn t hecol onial
gov ernmentf ort hev ariouspr obl emsi nTangany ikal i
kel ossofl and,l ow
pricesf ort hef armer s'pr oduceandl ackofqual it
yeducat i
onf orAf r i
can
children.Thepar tyhencewonsuppor toft hemassesandev ent uallyf or ced
theBr itisht ogr anti ndependencet oTangany ika.
 TheTANUgav echar i
smat icr elationshi pandacl earpol it
icalpr ogr am t hrough
JuliusNy er
ere,whi chwer ev itali nt hei ndependencest ruggl e.Ny ererehad
unique l eadershi p ski ll
s and qual iti
es;he was sof tspoken and l ived in
har mony wi th ot herpol i
ticalact i
vists.Such l eadershi p made t he TANU
popul aramongt hemassesi nTangany ikaandt hemasssuppor ttot heTANU
act i
v i
ti
esmadet her oadt oi ndependencei nTangany ikasmoot her .
 Thepar tyalsosetupacl oser elat i
onshi pwi tht r
adeuni onsi nTangany i
kat o
struggl eagai nstBr iti
shi mper i
al i
sm.Thi swonsuppor tofwor ker sf ort he
TANUandi ncreasedherpopul arity,thiswasev identi nsuchawayt hatby
1958,t hepar tyhadmor et hanaquar termi l
li
onmember s.TheTANUequal ly
embr acedt hev aluesoft radeuni onsl ikedemandi ngf orimpr ov edwel f
ar eof
masses.Theal l
ianceoft heTANUwi tht radeuni onsf orcedt heBr i
tisht ogr ant
dependencet oTangany ikai n1961.
 Thr ought heski l
lsandwor ksofJul iusNy er ere,theTANUest abl ishedagood
wor kingr el
ationshi pwi thGov er norRi char dTur nbull.Fr om t hest artofhi s
regimei n1958,Gov ernorTur nbul lwasi nfluencedbyt heTANU t oadopt
relativelymoder atepol iciesi nadmi nisteringTangany ikacompar edt ohow
othercol onialgov er norsadmi nist eredUgandaandKeny a.
 TheTangany ikaAf rican Nat i
onalUni on est abli
shed acl osel i
nkwi tht he
Conv entionPeopl esPar t yofKwameNkr umah, whichwasi nst rument alint he
i
ndependencest ruggl ei nTangany i
ka.Nkr umahwentaheadt oext endmor al
adv icet oJul i
usNy erereaswel lasi nf l
uenci ngt hepar t
yt oadoptt hepol icyof
non- violencet hataccel er atedi ndependencei nTangany ika.
 Thepar typar ti
ci pat edi nt hel ocalel ectionswher esheachi ev edl andsl i
de
victories.Bet ween1958andI 960,el ectionst ot heLEGCO wer econduct ed
andt heTANUwont heseel ect i
onsmaj orityseat sandl etmanyoft heTANU
represent at
ivesbecomemi nist ersi nt hecol onialgov ernmentandt heLEGCO
andconsequent lyNy ererebecamet heChi efMi nister
.
 TheTANUcal l
edf ort hei mmedi atei ndependenceofTangany ikaf ollowi ngt he
l
andsl i
dev i
ctoryi nt he1960el ect ions.Thepar t
yunderChi efMi nisterNy erere
Af r
icani sed theci vi
lser viceand i nt roduced aspeci alt raining schemet o
accel erateTangany ika'spat ht oi ndependence.
 TheTangany ikaAf ricanNat i
onalUni onaccept edt hei nst rument sofpower
and l ed Tangany ikat oi ndependencet hatwasgr ant ed byt heBr iti
sh on
December9,1961.TheTANUl eader shipwentaheadt oest ablisht hef ir
st
i
ndependencegov ernmentf ollowi ngt heat tainmenti ndependence.

CLASSASSI
GNMENT:

Tor esearchont hecareerandachi evementsofNy erere(1961-85)


Guidingquest ions:
1.Expl aint he r ol
e ofJul ius Kambar age Nyerer
ei nt he soci
al,pol
iti
caland
economi cdev elopmentofTanzani a
2.Towhatext entdi dJuliusNyerere'sl
eadershi
pbenef itt
hepeopl eofTanzani
a?
3.Exami net hecont ri
butionofJuli
usNy ereretothehistoryofTanzaniaupto1985
4.Assesst heachi evement sofJuliusNyererebetween1961and1985
5.Howf ardi dJul i
usNy erer
econtribut
et othedevelopmentofTanzani a?

THESOCI
ALI
STPROGRAMMEI
NTANZANI
A(1967-
1985)

THEARUSHADECLARATI ON/UJAMAAPOLI CY
TheSocial
istprogrammei nTanzaniawasi nt
roducedbyPr esi
dent
,MwalimuJuli
us
KambarageNy ererethr
oughtheAr ushadeclarat
ion.TheArushaDeclar
ati
onwasa
whi
te paper( bl
ue-pri
ntdocument)addr essed tot he members ofthe Nat
ional
Execut
iveCounci
l(NEC)ofTANUatt
hepar
tyheadquar
ter
sinAr
ushaonFebr
uar
y5,
1967.

This document announced a dev elopment pr ogramme, whi ch emphasi zed


nati
onal
izat
ionoftheeconomy ;i
t’
sf i
nancial,manufacturi
ngandt radinginsti
tut
ions
andcall
edtoanendt heaccumulationofpr i
vatewealthbyl eadersint heruli
ngpar t
y
andthegovernment.I
nhisspeech,Ny er
ereinformedt heNECt hatTanzani awasat
waragainstpovertyandext er
naldependenceandsuggest edt hatt heonl yway
Tanzani
anscouldwi nthiswarwasbyadopt ingasoci alistappr oach,hencet he
ArushaDeclar
ati
on.Hef urt
herstressedt hatthepolicywoul dpr omot eordev elop
Unit
yandbrother
hoodamongTanzani ans.

TheAr ushadecl ar
ati
onbecameaconst ituti
onalamendmentwhi chgav epr i
ori
tyto
rur
aldev el
opmentandt heneedt out i
li
zedomest i
cot herthanf or ei
gnr esources.
Thissocial
istprgramme( Arushadeclaration)wasi mpl ementedt hr ought heUjamaa
poli
cyorschemewhi chenf orcedthepr inciplesofv i
ll
agisati
on,nat ional
izati
onand
famil
y-hood/communai i
sm ( col
lecti
venesst owardsachi ev
ingnat ionalgoals).The
conceptofUj amaa(f amily
-hood)wasl aunchedmai nlyint her ur alareas.Itwas
basedoncr eati
onofcommunal( ujar
naa)v il
lagesast hemaj orpr oduct ionunitsof
Tanzania.The Uj amaa v il
l
ages ensur ed t hatTanzani ans pract i
ced co- operativ
e
far
mingt hr
oughcommunal shar i
ngofr esour ces.

FACTORSFORTHEADOPTI ONOFARUSHADECLARATI ON/UI AMAA( SOCI ALISM)


INTANZANI A
Ref
erenceQuest ions:
a) Accountf ort heAr ushaDecl arationi nTanzani ai n1967
b) Discusst hef act orsf ort hei ntroduct ionofsoci alism i nTanzani a
 Ny er er edesi redt opr omot esel f-reli
anceanddef endt hei ndependenceof
Tanzani a.Accor di
ng t o TANU l eader shi p,i twas i nev i
tabl et o break t he
coloni alumbi l
icalcor d,pr eventneo- col oni alism and st op dependenceon
foreignai d.
 Thegov ernmentofTanzani awant edt oi ni tiatepeopl e'sef for
tt owar dssel f-
helppr oject s, withoutusi ngf i
nancesf rom t hegov er nment .Itwasonewayt o
Africani zet heeconomyofTanzani aandal soencour agemasspar ti
cipat i
on
towar dsdev elopment .Ny ererest at edt hat ,i twer et hepeopl ewhobr ought
aboutacount ry'sdev elopmentbutnotmoney .
 Pr esi dentNy erere opt ed to Af rican soci alism as a means ofpr omot i
ng
national integr ati
on( unity),brother hoodandt oget her nessi nTanzani a.Tohi m,
soci alism woul dassi stt odest royt hecol oni al sy stem basedonr ace, t
ribeand
rel
igi on.Nat ionaluni tywas i mpor tanti n mobi l
izing masses f ornat i
onal
defense,st abili
tyandst at epl anni ng.Itwast hr oughAf r
icansoci ali
sm t hat
i
ntegr ationwoul dbeencour agedbet weeni sl ander s( ofPembaandZanzi bar )
andmai nl andset tl
ers( Tangany i
ka) .
 Thedesi ret omobi l
izel abourf orincr easedpr oduct i
v i
tyledt ot headopt i
onof
Africansoci ali
sm i nTanzani a.Soci ali
sm woul dhel penhancet hei deaof
collect ive par ti
cipation and ef f
ect ive use ofr urall abournotonl yf or
sust ainabl ef oodpr oduct ion,butal sot ocur bdownt hehi ghl evelspov erty
amongmasses.
 Thegov ernmentofTANUadopt edsoci ali
sm wi thami ssiont oext endsoci al
ameni ties( ser vi
ces)t ot hemassesi n Tanzani aespeci allyt hosei nr ural
setting.Thesesoci alser viceswer et ohel pupl iftthest andar dsofl ivi
ngoft he
rur
al massesi nTanzani aasameanst odi scour ager ural-
ur banmi grations.
 Ny er er ewant edt ocr eateanegal i
tari
ansoci ety( cl
asslesssoci ety)whi ch
woul densur eequaloppor tunitiesandr esponsi bili
tiesf oral lTanzani ans.For
thi
scase,soci al ism wast ohel pdest royorbani shsoci alcl assesespeci ally
betweent her i
chandt hepoor .
 Ther ewasaneedt of ightandel imi nat epov erty,ignor anceanddi seasesf rom
theTanzani ansoci et y.Ny er erecl ear lyst atedt hatt hebasi cwarofTanzani ans
wast hewaragai nstpov er tyi.e.i twaspov ertyt hatcausedal lpr oblemsi n
Tanzani ai ncludi ngr elianceonf orei gnsuppor t.Af ricansoci alism wast ohel p
i
nmobi lizingmassesf orspeci f
icpov er tyall
ev iati
ont asks.
 Ny ererewant edt or e-est ablisht heTanzani ansoci etybasi ngont her ootsof
theAf ri
cant r
adi tionalsoci etyoff ami ly -
hood.Ny erer ewant edt heTanzani an
massest olivet oget herandwor kt oget heri nacommunal set t
ing.
 Africansoci alism i nTanzani awoul dactasanav enueorst rategyt opr omot e
communalpr oduct iont hroughco- oper at i
vef armi ngi nt heUj amaav il
lages.
Emphasi swast obeputonagr i
cul tur alact i
v i
tiest oensur eempl oy mentt oal l
Tanzani ans
 Consequent l
y ,Af rican soci ali
sm woul d helpt o est ablish sel f-
gov erning
communi ti
esi nTanzani a.Thi swoul dbet hrought hev il
iagisationpr ogram or
the est abl i
shmentand set tl
ementofpeopl ei n Uj amaa v il
lages whose
l
eader shi pwoul dbeempower edbyt hegr assr oot smasses.
 PresidentNy erer ewant edt opr omot ei ndust ri
aldev elopmenti nTanzani a.He
want edt oensur ef ul
lut il
izationoft hel ocalagr iculturalresour ceswi thout
i
mpor ting r aw mat erials.I ndust rializat i
on woul d al so enhance i mpr ov ed
agricultur alout puti nt hel ongr un.
 Ny ererewasf rust ratedbyhi s5y ear sdev elopmentpl anof1964- 69whi ch
fai
ledt oat t
ractsuppor tandi nv est mentcapi t
alf rom t hecapi tali
stwor ld.He
henceadopt ed t heAr ushaDecl ar ation asameanst o at tracteconomi c-
sympat hy f rom t he communi stwor ld.Ny erer e was i mpr essed by t he
communi stsuccessi nchi naaf terhi st ouroft hecount ryi n1965andhe
thoughthi s soci alisti deas coul d cause Chi nese at tention t owar ds hi s
dev elopmentpl ans.

Otherr
easonsf ort headopt i
onofsoci ali
sm i nTanzani aar ecov eredi ntheaims
andobjectivesoft heAr ushaDecl aration
Aimsandobj ect i
vesoft heUj amaapol i
cy( Arushadecl arati
oni nTanzani a)
 Soci ali
sm i nTanzani awasai medatcr eatingacl asslesssoci ety(egali
tari
an)
 Tocementnat ional unityandbr otherhoodi nTanzani a
 Toensur ebet t
eruseofl abourandi ncreaseagricultural producti
on
 TheAr ushadecl arat
ionwasal soannouncedt opr omot eself-
reli
anceand
defendt heindependenceofTanzani a
 Soci ali
sm i n Tanzani a woul d hel p t o pr event neo- coloni
ali
sm and
consol idatei ndependence
 TheUj amaapol i
cywasadopt edt omobi l
izemassesf ornat i
onaldefenseand
dev elopment
 Toer adicatepov ertyfrom Tanzani a
 Ny erereai medatensur i
ngindust r
ialdevelopment
 TheAr ushadecl ar ati
onwasi ntendedt oupl if
tpeopl e'
sst andardsoflivi
ng
 The Uj amaa pol icywoul d ensur et hatt he Tanzani an societyhav ef ood
secur it
yander adicatef amine

Pri
nci
plesofUjamaapol
icy
Famil
y-hood(
communali
sm)
Famil
y-
hoodwoul dpr
omoteco-
oper
ati
onandsel
f-
hel
pspi
ri
tamongTanzani
ans.I
t
wasi mposedf
rom above"throught
heChamaChaMapi ndi
zi(
therul
i
ngpar
ty)and
governmentof
fici
als.Pr
esidentNyerer
eassumed thatthepoli
cycoul
d achi
eve
respecti
nsociety
,coll
ecti
veownershipofproper
tyandobl i
gat
iontoworkasa
communi t
y.

Theweaknessofthepr
inci
pleofcommunal
ism wasthatnofeasi
bil
i
tyst
udywas
car
ri
edouttowhet
hert
heUjamaapoli
cywassui
tabl
eorunworkabl
e.

Vil
lagisati
on
Thisi nvolved encouragi
ng masses t or el
ocatet o systematicall
y government
establi
shedv il
l
ages,invol
vedcr eationofUj amaal ocalcommunalgov er
nment sby
thepeopl eandgov ernment.Thegov er
nmenthenceest ablishedUj amaav i
ll
age-sas
coll
ectiveorcooper ati
veproducti
onuni ts,andgraduall
yencour agedTanzani ansto
settl
ei nt hese vi
ll
ages from ur ban areas. Vi ll
agi
sati
on was v ol
untaryatt he
beginning,unti
laround1970whenNy erereinit
iat
edOper ati
onDodoma"t hrough
whicht hepeasantsinDodomawer erepatr
iatedtoUjamaav ill
agesinphases.

Simil
arcampaignslike"Operat
ion Dodoma"wer est arted i
n ot
herar easoft he
countr
y.However,
thepoli
cyofvoluntaryvil
l
agi sati
onwassl owast hepeasantswere
notwill
ingtomove,thiswaswor senedbyt hegener aleconomiccr i
sisof1973-74
resul
ti
ngf r
om dr
ought,ri
singoi
lpricesandt hei nternati
onalrecession.Thi
sf or
ced
thegovernmentt
oembar koncompul sor
yv i
llagisati
onf rom November1973.About
fi
vemi l
li
on(5,
000,
000)peasantswer eforcefullymov edt oUjamaav ill
agesbetween
1973and1976.

Nati
onalisati
on
I
nanat temptt omaket heeconomyi ndi
genous, t
hegover
nmentnationali
zedforei
gn
i
nvestment sandthemaj ormeansofpr oducti
on.By1972,capi
tali
ntensi
vefarming
hadcomet oanendi nsomepar t
soft hecountry
.Mor ethan50% oft hesi sal
pl
antati
onswer etakenawayf rom priv
ateowner s.By1974t hecoffeeestatesof
Kil
i
manjar owereinthehandsofUj amaav il
lages.

Socialameniti
es
Thisprinci
pleensuredthatsocialserviceswer eextendedt otheujamaav i
llages.
These servi
ces incl
uded feederroads,r ur
alwat er
,pr imaryschools and health
faci
li
ti
es.Theser vi
ceswer eprovi
dedf orgraduall
ybyt hegov ernmentorthel ocal
communi tyauthori
ti
es.About40% oft hev i
llageshadco- operat
iveshopsthrough
whichthegov er
nmenttargetedthedisappearanceofprivateret
ail
ersi
nsomepl aces
l
ikeDodoma.

Si
nglepart
ydemocr acy
ToenhancethegoalsofUjamaa,Ny er
eredeclaredaonepar tysyst
em ofgovernance
i
nonFebr uary5,1967,Tanzani
awasdecl aredaSi ngl
ePar t
ystateunderChama
ChaaMapi duzi(CCM).TheCCM wasar evolut
ionarypartyformedthrought he
mergeroft he Tanganyi
ka Afr
ican NationalUni on (TANU),the rul
i
ng par t
y of
mainl
andTangany i
kaandt heShiraziPar
ty( ASP),ther ul
i
ngpar t
yofZanzibarand
Pembaisl
ands.

ACHI
EVEMENTSOFTHEUJAMAAPOLI
CY

Referencequesti
ons:
a.Howsuccessf ulwastheArushaDecl
arat
ioni
nthesoci
o-economi
candpol
it
ical
developmentofTanzani
a?
b.Howf arwastheujamaasystem i
nf ul
fil
li
ngtheobj
ect
ivesofAfr
icansoci
ali
sm i
n
Tanzani
a?
c.Assesstheachi
evementsofsocial
ism inTanzani
abetween1967and1985
d.ExaminetheimpactofAfr
icansoci
al i
sm onthepeopl
eofTanzania

Poli
ti
cal
 TheUj amaapol icyl edt ot hecr eationofast rongnat i
onalandpeopl e’sar my ,
theTanzani anPeopl esDef enceFor ce( TPDF) .Thear mywasmadeanat ional
institutionwhi chwasr e-equi ppedandr e- associ atedwi thnat ionalv alues.The
armyof ficerswer ebot hsol dier sandpol iti
ciansont hesi deofgov er nment .It
wasapeopl e'sar mymor et hanapr of essi onalar mysi ncei twast rainedf or
notonl ywar sbutal sof orusei nt hedev elopmentpr ogr am.Thenat ionalar my
hasbeenl oy alt oanyel ect edl eaderi nTanzani a,ser vingt hei nt erest soft he
nation.TheTDPFar myt her eforemadeTanzani aanoasi sofpeaceand
stabi l
ity,whi chex plai nswhyTanzani ahasnev erexper iencedaci vilwaror
mi l
itarycoup.
 Soci alism i n Tanzani a consol i
dat ed nat ional ism among t hemasses.The
policyencour agedmasspar ticipat ioni nt heaf fairsoft hecount rywi thout
restrictions.Toachi ev et his,pol i
ticaleducat ionwasi ntr oducedi nschool s,
coll
egesandot heri nst itut ionsofeducat ion.I twasgi venemphasi si nt he
nationalser v i
ceandi nt heTanzani anpeopl e'sdef ensef orce( TPDF) .Much
emphasi swasal soputoni mpr ovingt hebehav iouroft hesoci alistl eader sso
thatpeopl ecoul dl ear nf rom t hem.Pol iticaleducat i
onwasal so- emphasi sed
inuj amaav illagesasabasi sf orpr omot i
ngnat ional ism andpat rioticf eelings
amongTanzani anst owar dst heirnat ion.Tanzani answer ecal ledupont owor k
toget hert opr omot et hei nt er est soft hei rnat ion.Acasei npoi nt,Tanzani ans
great lysuppor tedt hei rgov er nmentandt heTPDFi nt hewaragai nstAmi nof
Uganda( 1978- 79)af tert heAmi nat tackedt heTanzani anKager apr ov ince.
 TheAr ushadecl arationt her ef orei ntroducedal eader shi pCODEwhi chwas
obser vedbysoci ali
stof ficial sandal lt heCCM l eader si nTanzani a.Soci alism,
inTanzani agav et hemassesr elativedemocr acy , i
nt heuj amaav il
lages, l
ocal
leader swer eel ect edbyt hegr assr oot speopl et hr oughuni ver salsuf frage
(secr etbal l
ot ).Thi smeantt hatl eader swoul dser vet hei nt erest sofmasses.
Tanzani ahassi ncehadef ficientl eader spr oducedbyt heCCM,t hepar tythat
hasmanagedst at eaf f airsi nTanzani asi ncei tsi ncept ioni n1967.
 TheAr ushaDecl arat i
onmadeTanzani aapopul arnat ionnotonl yi nAf r i
cabut
the wor l
d ov er .Af ter1976,Tanzani a became a " pol iticalMecca"wher e
social i
st sf rom al lov ert hewor ldf lockedt hecount ryt oseet heAf rican
challenget ocapi t
al i
sm.Mar tinMer edi th,i nhi sbook" TheSt ateofAf ri
ca"
quot esPr ofessorGor anHy den,anacademi catt heUni v ersityofDar- es-
Salaam t ohav ewr ittent hat“ Tanzani abecameapol iticalMeccaf orl i
ber al
and soci alistpr ogr essi ves f rom al lov ert he wor ld,anxi ous t o see a
chal l
enget oneo- capi tal i
sm. ”
Soci
al
 Thepol icysucceededi nest abl i
shi nguj amaav i
llages.By1976about7000
ujamaav il
lageswer eest abl ishedwi thov er13. 5mi tionpeopl ei npopul at i
on
especi al l
yi nMwengeandLi ndi vi
llages.
 Consequent ly,as a r esul toft he v i
llagisat ion pol icy ,l abourpr oduct ivity
increased.Muchoft hewor kwasdoneoncommunalbasi swher epeopl e
wor kedhar der .Thi sl at erl edt oincr easedf oodpr oduct ioni nanat temptt o
ensur ef ood secur ityi n Tanzani a.Ny erer e st ressed t hatUj amaa v i
ll
ages
woul dbei nt roducedonl yonav olunt arybasi s.Hewasadamantt hatnei ther
compul sionnorcoer cionwoul dbeusedt oest abl isht hem.Auj amaav ill
agei s
av ol unt aryassoci ationofpeopl ewhodeci deont heirownf reewi l
lt ol iv e
toget herandwor kt oget herf ort heircommongood.
 TheUj amaapol i
cyl edt ot hegr owt hofur bancent ers.Manyoft heuj amaa
villagesl at erdev elopedi nt omasst owns.Soci alism i nTanzani ahadai medat
pr omot i
ng r ur aldev elopment .Ther eset t
lementofTanzani ansi n Uj amaa
villagesandt het ransf ormat ionofr uralar easbecamet hebasi sofsoci al i
sm,
asmember sofUj amaav illagesengagedi ncommunalpr oduct ion,mar ket ing
off ar m pr oduct sandpr ov isionofheal thandeducat ionser v ices.Ur bani zing
ujamaav i
llagesr educedont hepr obl em ofr ural-ur banmi grat i
on.
 Soci alism i nTanzani aledt ogov er nmentcommi tmentt opr ov isionofsoci al
ser v i
ces.I nt hecount ryside, at tempt swer emadet opr ovidesoci alser v i
cest o
peasant si nt heuj amaav illages.Theser vicesi ncl udedcl eanwat eri nr ur al
areas,school s,f eederr oads,heal thcent er s,t oment ionbutaf ew.These
ser v i
ceshel pedt oi mpr ov eont hel ivingst andar dsoft hemassesi nTanzani a
especi all
yi nuj amaav il
lages.
 Thr oughuj amaa,l iteracycampai gnswer el aunched.Ther ewasi ncr eased
stat ef undi ngi nfor m ofschool s,books, st rategi cr eferencel ibr ar i
es, et cet er a,
from pr imar yt o uni versi tyl ev el.Publ icl i
br aries and schoolbooks wer e
accessi blet o ev er ybody .I n 1973,schoolf ees i n pr imar yschool s wer e-
abol ished.Thi sl ed t ot he i ntroduct i
on ofuni v ersalpr imar y educat ion
desi gnedt omeetnat i
onali nter ests.Theschemeal soenabl edmanypeopl ein
Tanzani at oacqui readv ancedski llsi npr oduct i
on.I nt heuj amaav illages,
peopl ewer et rainedi ncar pent ry,br i
ckl ay i
ng,br idgeconst ruct ionandot her
vocat i
onalski ll
s.Agr i
cul t uraland adul teducat ion was al so encour aged.
Ther ef oret hepol icyhel pedt or educeont heunempl oymentl ev el s,impr ov ed
thequal ityofl ifeoft her ur al popul ationandpr omot edsel f-reliance.
 Soci alism l edt oasoci o- cul turalr ev olutioni nTanzani aast hecount rywas
transf ormed cul tur all
y.Uj amaav il
lagesf aci litated t hespr ead and useof
Kiswahi liasanat ionall anguage.Thesev i
llagespr ompt edcul tur alf usionand
wer ei dealf orpr ogr amsofpol iticalsensi t
izat ion.Ther esul twasgr eat er
nat ionaluni t
yandst abi li
ty .Thussoci alism i nTanzani acement ednat i
onal
uni ty .Kiswahi liadopt edandusedi nUj amaav ill
agesuni tedov er130et hni c
gr oupsi nTanzani a.Nat ionaluni tyr educedet hni ccl ashesandencour aged
nat ional ident ification.
Economi c
 The pol i
cy achi ev ed sel f-reliance i n Tanzani ai nt he i nitialy ears ofi t s
oper at i
on as Ny er ere at tempt ed t o check on neocol oni ali nf l
uence.Hi s
gov er nmentt r i
edachi ev ingeconomi cpl anni nganddev el opmentbyut ilizing
l
ocalr esour ceswi thoutf or eignassi stance.Besi des,Jar naar epr esent eda
radi calat temptt of orgeanAf ricani deol ogy .Ast hedr eamsandexpect at ions
ofi ndependencef aded,Jul iusNy erere'ssoci alistexper imenti nTanzani a
stoodi tasabeaconofhopet hatAf ricami ghty etf i
ndar out et of indt heki nd
ofnew soci et yt hatnat ional istl eader soncei magi ned.Theneedf orsel f-
reliancemeantt hatTanzani awoul dhav et or el yl essonf orei gnai d.Ny er er e
clai med,i ti s st upi dt or el y on money as t he maj ori nst rumentof
dev elopmentwhenweknow onl yt oowel lt hatourcount r yi spoor .I ti s
equal l
yst upi d,indeedi ti sev enmor est upi d,f orust oi magi net hatweshal l
ri
dour sel vesofourpov er tyt hr oughf i
nanci alassi stancer at hert hanour
financi alr esour ces. .
.Fir st l
y , weshal lnotgett hemoney .Ther ei snocount ry
i
nt he wor ld whi ch i s pr epar ed t o gi ve us gi fts orl oans,orest abl ish
i
ndust ri
es,t ot he ext entt hatwe woul d be abl et o achi ev e al lour
dev elopmentt arget s...
 Landwasnat i
onal izedandr edi st ri
but edt ot hepeasant s,whi chr educedl and
anger .Thegov ernmentembar kedonar eset t
lementpol icywher el andwas
nat i
onal ised and r edist r
ibut ed t o peasant si nt he newl ycr eated Uj amaa
vill
agesl ikei nmwengeandLi ndi ,t husput tingmor el andundercul tivat i
on.
Manyi sl ander swer eal sor elocat edt onew set tlement sont hemai nl and.
Howev er , ther ewasl imi tedpr i
v at eowner shi pofsomepl ot sal lowed.
 Thepol icyl edt oincr easedagr icul turalpr oduct iont hroughUj amaav il
lagesas
thecount ry'spr oduct ionuni t
s.Gov ernmentencour agedt hepr oduct ionof
cassav a,mai ze,gr oundnut s,r ice,beans,soy aandot herf oodcr opswi thai m
ofat taini ngf oodsecur ity.Thi swasasar esultofco¬oper at ivef ar mi ngand
communalagr i
cult ure.Thegov er nmentunl eashedagr i
cul turalt echnocr at s
who t aughtpeasant sbet terf ar mi ng met hods.By1978,t hecount rywas
expor ti
ngmai zegr aint ohernei ghbour sandbey ondduet ot heagr icul t
ur al
boom.
 Thepol icyl edt otheest ablishmentoft hecooper at ivesoci etiest hroughwhi ch
thegov er nmentassi stedf ar mer swi thi ncent ivesl i
kef er t
ilizer s,pest i
ci des
and i mpr ov ed seeds.The gov ernmentf ullysuppor ted t he f ormat ions of
cooper at iv esoci etiest hroughwhi chr ur alf armer smar ket edt hei ragr icul t
ur al
producet oav oi dexpl oitationandcheat i
ngofi ndi vidualf armer s.Thepol i
cy
l
at erl edt onat i
onal i
zat i
onofal lmaj ormeansofpr oduct ion.I n1976, thest ate
nat i
onal izedcooper ativesandsetupst atecor por ationsl i
ket heNat ional
mi ll
ingco- oper ationf orf oodcr opsandt heNat i
onal cof feeboar d.
 TheAr ushaDecl arat ioncondemnedl azi nessandencour agedhar dwor ki nt he
Ujamaav ill
ages.TheUj amaapol icyemphasi zedt het radi tionalAf ricanv alue
ofcommunalwor k.I temphasi zedt hev i
ew t hatev eryonewasawor kerand
discour aged i dleness and l azi ness.Pr esidentNy er ere emphasi zed t hat
Tanzani awasatwarwi thpov er ty ,diseaseandi gnor anceandt hati nor dert o
ri
dTanzani aofbackwar dness,t herewasneedf orcol l
ect i
v eef for tf rom al l
sect ionsofTanzani anmasses.Consequent ly,t hepol i
cyl edt ocr eat ionof
empl oy mentandt aughtt hel ocal show t omanaget hei rownaf fairs.Thi si n
turnl edt o3spi ri
tofsel f-
reliancei nt hecount ry.
 The Uj amaa pol icy i ncr eased empl oy mentoppor t
uni ties f ort he peopl e.
Thr ought heencour agementofsel f -helppr ojects,gov ernmentwasabl et o
prov ideempl oy mentoppor tuni tiest oal l
.TheUj amaapol i
cyemphasi zedt he
traditionalAf r i
canv alueofcommunalwor k.I temphasi zedt hev iew t hat
ev erybodywasawor keranddi scour agedi dleness, henceempl oy mentf oral l
.
Thegov er nmentemphasi sedpr operandmaxi mum ut il
izat i
onofr esour ce
utili
zat ionasameansofmi ni nisi ngonunempl oy mentl ev el si nTanzani a.The
pol i
cyencour agedmassest oengagei nagr icultur easasol ut i
ont ol ackof
j
obsbyf ar mi ngal l idlebutcul tivabl el andi nt hecount r y.
 TheUj amaapol icypr omot ed r elat i
v ei ndust rializat ion i n Tanzani a.Smal l
scal ei ndust ries emer ged usi ng agr i
cul ture pr oduct s as r aw mat erials,
produci ng hi ghl y demanded f ori t
ems i nt he uj amaa v il
lages l i
ke hoes,
fertil
izer s,and pest icides.These i ndust ries al so pr ov ided empl oy ment
oppor tuni tiest ot hepeopl eofTanzani a.Consequent l
y ,thesoci alistpol icyi n
Tanzani a l ed t o t he i mpr ov ement and pr omot ion of i nf rast ruct ure
dev elopmenti nt he count r yf ori nst ance f eederr oadswer e cr eat ed and
dev elopedi nt heUj amaav illages.Rai lwayl i
nesar eal soext endedt odi f
f erent
par tsoft hecount ry .Asar esul tagr icul turepr oduct ionwasencour agedduet o
thei mpr ov edt ranspor tnet wor ks.
 TheUj amaapol icyl edt ot heconst ruct ionandcompl et ionoft heTazar a
railway .Ev enbef or e1967, theneedf oranot heroutl etf ort heZambi ancopper
wasseenasanecessi ty.Onl yChi nahowev erwaswi l
li
ngt ounder taket he
bui l
dingoft her ailwayt ol inkDar -es- sal aam wi t
ht heI smbi ancopperbel t.The
rai
lwaylinehadt hepot enti
alofopeni ngupsout hernTanzani af oragr
icul
tural
expansionandt heexpl oitationofvaluablemineralssuchascoal .
 TheAr ushadecl arati
onat tempt edtor educeincomei nequalit
yi nTanzania.
Foll
owingt heAr ushadecl arat
ion,TANU l eaderswer enotal lowedt oearn
mor ethanonesal ar y,neithercouldt heyholdshar esinanypr ivat
ebusiness
nortoempl oywor kersandhav ehousest ober ented.Thisr educedthegap
betweent herichandt hepoorandencour agedequal i
tyofmassesasdesi red
byNy erere.Aprogr essivet axati
onsy stem wasal soest abl
ishedbyNy er
ere's
governmentwi thtaxexcept ionsextendedt olowincomeear ners.
 TheAr ushadecl arati
onat tempt edtor educeincomei nequalit
yi nTanzania.
Foll
owingt heAr ushadecl arat
ion,TANU l eaderswer enotal lowedt oearn
mor ethanonesal ar y,neithercouldt heyholdshar esinanypr ivat
ebusiness
nortoempl oywor kersandhav ehousest ober ented.Thisr educedthegap
betweent herichandt hepoorandencour agedequal i
tyofmassesasdesi red
byNy erere.Aprogr essivet axati
onsy stem wasal soest abl
ishedbyNy er
ere's
governmentwi thtaxexcept ionsextendedt olowincomeear ners.

FAILURESANDSHORTCOMI NGSOFSOCI ALISM I NTANZANI A


Economic
 Inashor tt ime, Tanzani af ai ledt omai ntai nsel f-
rel i
ance.Thecount r
ywasv er y
poorandcont inuedt oheav il
yr elyonf oreignai dagenci es,whi chpr omot ed
dependencesy ndr omei nTanzani a.TheAmer i
cansandl atert heWor ldBank
extended l oans f or nat ionaldev elopmentPr ogr ams by t he Tanzani an
gov er nment .Asaconsequence,t hedebtbur denescal atedwor sened,whi ch
under mi nedt heeconomi candpol iti
cali ndependenceofTanzani al eadi ng
per pet uat ionofneo- col onial ism.
 Consequent ly,t hepol icyst rai nedt hebudgetofTanzani a.Wi tht hev igor ous
vil
lagi sat ionPr ogr am of1973- 76,v irt
ual lyal argepopul ationofTanzani aof
almost13. 5mi ll
ionwasmov edi nt onear l
y8000uj amaav il
lages.Ev ent hough
thei nt ensi onofv ill
agi sat i
onwast ogi veev eryoneaccesst osoci alser v
ices
li
keschool sand di spensar ies,i nr eal i
ty,t hest ateused al lt heav ail
abl e
resour cest of i
nancet hisambi tiouspr oject .Theweakeconomi cst andof
Tanzani amadet hegov er nmentunabl et osust aint hepr oject ,whi chl edt o
bankr upt cyandl eadingt opr ov i
sionofpoorser vi
ces.
 Nat ional izat ionofpr i
v at eest atesandpl ant ati
onswascount er -
of fensi ve.I t
causedi mbal ancesi npr oduct ionl eadi ngt oat remendousf alli nagr i
cul tur al
out put .Pr oduct ionofagr icul turalgoodsdecl i
nedast hepeasant st ookl ong
toomeett hemoder ndev el opmentdemands.Thepeasant sconcent rat edon
product ionoff oodcr opst oav er t( solv e)f ami net husl eav ingl ittl
et imet o
grow cot ton,t obacco,si saiandot hercashcr ops.Thedwi ndl ingl ev elsof
agr i
cul tur alpr oduct ionwer ewor senedbyt heout breakofdr oughtbet ween
1974and1975.Gov er nmenti nter vent iondur ingdr oughtnev ersav edt he
situat i
onasquant iti
eshar v est edr emai nedl ow.
 Wi thint he gov ernmentand Chama Cha Mapi nduzi( the r uling par tyf or
Tanzani a) ,theev i
lsofcor r upt ionandsmuggl i
ngbecamedeep- root ed.These
economi cpr obl emscoupl edwi t
hpoorpl anni ngbyt hegov er nmentwor kedt o
discr edi tt he uj amaa pol icy .Consequent l
y ,the gov ernmentof f
ici als and
soci alist l eader s became compl etely i neffect ive i n t he pr ocess of
consol idat ing soci alism i n Tanzani a as t hey concent rat ed much on
accumul at i
ng weal tht hrough dubi ous means.They l ived l uxur ious l i
f e,
becamev er yar rogantanddr ov eexpensi veBenzcar st hatt hepeopl er eferred
tot hem as" Wabenzi ."i nt hel ongr un, theuj amaapol icybecamei r
relev ant.
 Ujamaaf ailedt oupr ootcapi t
al i
sm f rom Tanzani a.Thepol icyl eftcommunal
farmi ngt oexi stsi debysi dewi thsomepr i
v atehousehol dpl ots.Someoft he
holder sofpr i
v at epl ot sofl andbecamepet tybour geoi sies( capi talist s)att he
expenseofcol leagueswhoaccept edt oset tlei nUj amaav ill
ages.Tanzani a
wasal sosur roundedbycapi talistnei ghbour si .
e.Keny aandUgandat her efor e
capi talisti nf l
uencef rust rat edsoci alistexper imenti nTanzani a.
 Africansoci al i
sm r et ar dedt heeconomi cpr ogr essofTanzani a.Thepol icy
fail
edt oer adi cat epov er tyast heeconomyshr unkatanav er ager at eof5%
perannum bet ween1970and1985.By1974,t hegov ernmenthadf ailedt o
cont rolt hedecl iningpr icesofagr icul t
ur eat30%,whi chgr eat lydemor alized
communalf ar mer s.Thr oughoutt hecount r y,t her ewasacut eshor tageof
spar epar tsf oragr icul tur alandi ndust r
ialequi pmentwel last het ranspor t-
i
nf rast ruct ur ehadal sost ar tedt odecay .Wi thi nadecadeaf t
er1967,mor e
thanhal foft he330st at eownedent erpr i
seswer ei nscandal ousl yi nef ficient .
By1980, Tanzani awasmassi v elyi ndebt s.
 Indust ri
al izat ion r emai ned on smal lscal e wi th poormanagement .The
i
ndust r
iesest abl ishedwer emai nlyagr o-basedandmanypr oducedi temsf or
domest icconsumpt ioni nuj amaav ill
age.Thegov er nmentpai dl essat tent i
on
toi ndust rialpr oduct ionf orext er nalmar ket s.By1976,t herewasshor tageof
spar epar tsf ori ndust r
ywhi chcont i
nuedt ohamperi ndust r
ialpr oduct ion.The
gov er nmental locat edasmal lper cent ageoff undst odev el opt hei ndust ri
al
sect orsi ncehermaj oref f
or twasputonagr icul ture.Tanzani at her efor e,
remai nedbackwar d, lar gel ydependi ngoni mpor t edi ndust ri
al product ion.
Soci
al
 Theuj amaaschemef ailedt oensur ef oodsuf ficiencyi nTanzani a.Wi tht he
creat ionofuj amaav i
llagesaspr oduct ionuni ts,t heov eral lout putoff ood
cropsr oseonl yby2. 1%bet ween1970and1982.Howev er,thi sr at ewasv ery
l
owcompar edt ot hehi ghpopul at i
ongr owt hr at eof3. 5%perannum.Assuch,
theTanzani anpopul ationsuf fer edf rom f oodshor t agewi thi nt hel ongr un
whi chr esul tedi ntof ami ne.Fami necat astrophecoul dmost lybear esul tof
establ ishi nguj amaaset tlement si nmost lycl imat ical lyhar shar easy ett he
gov er nmentr el iedont hem ast hemaj orf oodpr oduct ionuni tsoft hecount ry .
 The pol i
cy pr omot ed l aziness among Tanzani ans.Thi s was because
communalf ar mi ng,communalowner shi pofl andandt hev il
lagi sat ionpol icy
reducedont hepeopl e'si ni ti
at ivet owor k.Assuch,t hegov ernmentwas
strained t o cat erf ort he i dle popul ation t hr ough pr ov i
sion oft he basi c
necessi ties.I nacandi dspeechi n1977ent itled' TheAr ushaDecl ar at ionTen
Year sAf ter ,Ny er erecompl ainedbi t t
er lyoft hei nef ficiency ,i ndi fferenceand
l
azi nessofmanager sandwor ker si nst ate- runent er prises.Hest at ed,' Iti s
essent ialt hatweshoul dt ight enupouri ndust ri
aldi scipline.Sl acknessat
wor k, andf ai lur et ogi veahar dday '
sef forti nr et ur nf orwagespai d, isaf or m
ofexpl oi tat i
on. ..'
 Owi ng t oi tsi nbui ltcont r
adi ctions,t he Ar usha Decl arat i
on i gnor ed t he
peopl e's wi llsi nce t he masses wer e notconsul ted i nt he dr af ting and
i
mpl ement ationoft hesoci alistpol icy .Int hesameway ,settier si nt heuj amaa
vil
lageswer enev eri nv ol vedi ndeci sionmaki ng.Thepol icywast husdi ctated
andi mposedont heTanzani ansf rom aut hor itiesabov e.Itwasunwi sef orthe
gov er nmentandpar tyof ficialst or egar dpeasant sascompl et elyi gnor antand
backwar di nt hewakeofi ntroduci ngandsust ai ningt heuj amaai deol ogy .I n
themor epr oduct ivear easl i
ket heChaggar egi onont hef oot hillsofMt
Kili
manj ar o,t hepol icywasv er yunpopul ar.Famer si nt hemor epr oduct ive
areasf el tt heywoul dear nmor eont heirownt hant heUj amaav il
lages.
 The Ar usha Decl ar ation exposed t he gov er nment 'si nef fect iveness i n
prov idingadequat esoci al ser vicest ot heTanzani ansl ivingi nUj amaav il
lages.
Manyoft heuj amaav ill
ageswer eov er crowdedandhencef er til
egr oundsf or
diseases,ov er grazi ng,soi ler osionandot herr elatedpr obl ems.Ther ewer e
poorser vices.Mostr ur alar easi nTanzani awer enoteasi lyaccessi ble.The
roadswer epoor ,mar ket sandpubl icwel faref acili
tieswer enotav ailablei n
Ujamaav ill
ages.Basi ccommodi tiesl i
kepar affin,sal t,soapandsugarwer e
oftenshor tinsuppl y.Thussoci alism l edt ohumansuf feri
ng.
 Thepol icyofv ill
agi sat ionwasnew and poor lyimpl ement ed.I nit
iall
yt he
peasant swer er eluct antt ol eavet hei rancest rallandf orcul turalr easons.
Manydet est edt hei deal ofabandoni ngpr iv ateplot sforcommunal set tl
ement .
Compul sor yv il
lagi sat ion adopt ed bet ween 1973 and 1976 was mor e
unpl easantt ot hepeasant s.Apar tfrom t hest rainedpr oper ty ,somepeasant s
wer emadet oabandonmor ef er ti
lear easf orpoorset tlement .Thi sal so
causeddi sast rousef fect sonagr icul turalout putf orsev eraly ear s.Amongt he
yout hs, uj amaav i
llageswer enotat tract ivet hust heyf l
ockedt ot ownsi nlar ge
number s.Manyf or eignobser v
ersbel ievedt hatt hev ill
agi sat ionpr ogramme
waspushedt ooqui cklyandf orcef ully.
 Forcef ulv il
lagi sat i
onadopt edbyt hegov er nmentofNy erer epr ovedt obean
ecol ogi caldi sast er.For est swer er eclai medt oest abl i
sht heuj amaav i
ll
ages.
TheUNagenci esest i
mat edt hataboutat hirdofTanzani awast hreat enedby
deser t
ificat ionduet ot hehi ghl ev elsofdef orest ation,ast hegov ernment
clear edf or estst ocr eat emor euj amaaset t l
ement s.Manyoft hesmal lfor ests
i
nKi gomaandSougezawer ecutdownt oest ablishuj amaav i
llages.Thi s
affect edt heenv i
ronmenti nTanzani a.
 Soci alism di l
ut ed t he educat i
on sy st em ofTanzani a.I tmost l
yst ressed
element ar yeducat i
onatt heexpenseofhi ghereducat ion;secondar yand
univer sityeducat ionwasal mosti gnor ed.Theel ement arysy ll
abusputmuch
emphasi s on agr i
cul tur aleducat i
on wi thl ess concent ration on ot her
vocat i
ons.Thei nt roduct ionofuni versal educat i
oncompr omi sedt hequal i
tyof
educat ionast hegov er nmentf ailedt oest abl i
shmor ef aci li
tiest odecongest
the ov er whel mi ng number si n cl assr ooms. Educat i
on mat erials wer e
i
nadequat e;t he wel farei n uj amaa school s was appal ling as pov er t
y
env elopedt heMuwal imus( teacher s).ManyTanzani ansdeci dedt or etain
theirchi ldr enofschoolgoi ng-ageathomet opr ov idel abouroncommunal
farms.
 The Ar usha Decl ar ation l ed t ol oss ofsecur i
ty ov ert hei rl and by t he
Tanzani ans.Many Tanzani ans wer ef or ced t o abandon t hei r or i
ginal
settlement st hathadf ertilel andsast hegov ernmentshi ftedt hem t ouj amaa
vil
lages.Ther esi stanceagai nstt hegov ernmentpol icyofv il
lagi sationwasan
anticipat i
onbyt hemassesofl ossofl and.Landi nt heuj amaav il
lageswas
communal l
yownedascont rar ytopr ivat eowner ship.Besi des,l andi nuj amaa
vil
lagesl i
keMwengewasv eryunpr oduct i
veandcongest ed.Manyoft he
l
andl essy out hsdet est ed'communi sm andl eftt hecommunalv il
lagesf or
towns.

Pol
it
ical
 Theadopt ionofasi nglepart
ypol i
ti
calsy
stem throughChamaChaMapi nduzi
destroyedt hepi l
l
ar sofdemocr acyinTanzania.Ny erereexhi
bit
edf eatureof
anaut ocraticleaderwhenheabol i
shedtheoper ationofallpoli
ti
calpar ties
apartfrom t heCCM.Theadmi nistr
ati
onofNy ererear r
est
edanddet ai
nedal l
thosethatei theropposedt heuj amaapolicyorcr it
icizedthegovernmentf or
implement i
ngsoci ali
sm.By1985,t heCCM gov ernmenthel dmor epol i
ti
cal
pri
soner sthant heapar t
heidregi
mei nSouthAfrica.
Assi
gnment :
1.Assess the impactoft he Arusha Declar
ati
on on the pol
it
ical
,soci
aland
economicdev el
opmentofTanzania
2.Describethefeatur
esofNy er
ere'
ssocial
ism
3.Examinet hechall
engestosocial
ism i
nTanzania
4.Accountf ort
hefail
ureoftheUjamaaschemei nTanzaniaby1985

THE1964ZANZI BARREVOLUTI ON
TheZanzi
barrevol
utionwasoneoft hemostdr amaticev
entsinthehist
oryofAfr ica.
Theeventwasbor noutoft heincr
easedupheav al
sont heisl
andsofZanzibarand
Pemba,adj
acenttot hecoastalboundaryofmai nl
andTanganyika.Thetwoislands
shar
emanyt hingsincommonast hei
rhistoryandpoli
ti
calsetupar eint
ert
wi ned.
Bothwereoncecol onisedbyt hePersi
an-Arabs,t
hePor t
uguese,theOman- Ar abs
andlat
ert
heBr i
ti
sh.

TheBr it
ishwhower et hel astcolonialmast er
soft hei slandsgr antedi ndependence
toZanzibaronDecember10,1963,t woday sbeforethedecol onizat i
onofKeny a.At
the1962const i
tut i
onalcongr essi nLondon,anagr eementwasr eachedt hatthe
Sult
anwoul dassumet her oleofaconst it
uti
onalmonar chthough,wi thpower sto
appointanddi smi ssmi ni
sters.The1962const ituti
onalconf erencei nLondonwas
heldint hemont hofMar ch.Dur i
ngt heconf erence,themai npar tiesi .
e.theAf ro-
Shir
aziPar t
y(ASP)andt heZanzi barNat i
onalPar t
y( ZNP)askedf ori ndependence
forSept emberandOct oberr especti
vel y
.Thedi ff
erencewast hatt heZNPant ed
i
ndependence wi tht he gov er nmental r
eadyi n power ,the (ZNP- ZPPP coal i
ti
on
3overnment).Dur i
ngt hesameconf er ence,member sofopposi ti
onl edbyShei -
ch
Abeiaar umeoft heAf ro-Shir
aziPar ty( ASP)accept edt hatconst itutionalarti
clesto
protectthe"i
nori
tiesoft hecount rywoul dbedeal twitht owardsindependence.

Ther i
seofani nexperi
enced33y
earsoldSultan,Seyy
idJamshidBinAbdullah,who
succeededhisfatherSult
anSeyyi
dAbdullahBinKhalif
amadei timpossi
blef ort
he
governmenttofulf
il
lthepromi
sesmadeatt he1962LondonConf er
ence.Khali
fahad
beensicklyandweakdur i
ngthei
nsti
tut
ionalconfer
enceinLondonandlaterdiedon
July1,1963.

TheZNP- ZPPPgov er
nmentcamet opoweraf t
erthegener alel ecti
onof1961.The
constit
uti
onwasdr awnbySi rHi ll
aryBl ood;itprov i
dedf ormaj ori
tyseatsinthe
Legisl
ativ
eAssembl ybyelection,andami ni
ster
ialsystem fort heExecut i
veCounci
l.
Outoft hetwenty
-two(22)electi
v eseatst hatwerecompet edf ori nthe1961electi
on,
theZanzibarNationalPart
y( ZNP)at tainedni ne(9)seats;t heZanzi barandPemba
PeoplesPar t
y(ZPPP)wont hree( 3)seat swhi l
etheAf roShi raziPar ty(ASP)wonten
(10)seats.The(ZPPP)laterspl i
twi t
ht woseat sgoi ngtot he( ZNP)Bi doneseatto
the(ASP) ,l
eadi
ngt oaneleven-to-el
even( 11:11)seat sacqui si
tionf orthe(ASP)and
the(ZNP) .AseatforPembawascr eatedbutt heAr absoft he( ZNP)al legedl
yri
gged
theelecti
ontowint hePembaseat ,

Theincr
easedpoli
ti
calconf l
i
ctsinZanzibarledt othebr eakawayofSheikhAbdul
RahmanMohammed( Babu)from theZNPpar tyandf ormedhi sownUMMApar ty.
Babuhadpoli
ti
caldisagreementsandconf l
ict
ingideologi
eswi thSheikhAl
iMuhsin
Barwani
,thel
eaderoft heZNP.Babuwasast rongsuppor t
erofcommuni sm whil
e
Muhsinwasanti-
communi sm.I nthesamecase,AbedKar umeoft heASPblamed
Sul
tan Jamshi
df oract i
vel
y partici
pat
ing i
n politi
cs by suppor t
ing t
he Arab
dominat
edtheZNP.
Thecooper ati
onbet weenSul tanJamshi dandt heAr absoft heZNP awakened
nati
onali
sm oft heAf r
o-Shir
azipeople.Undert heirASP,t heAfro-Shirazicondemned
theZNP-ZPPPgov ernmentt hathadassumedpowert hroughasecondcoal i
ti
ont hat
madet hem r ecei
vethei ndependenceofZanzi barf r
om t heBri
ti
sh.Thecoal iti
onof
theZNP-ZPPPwasest abli
shedf ol
lowingthe1963i ndependenceel ectionsofJul y8-
15,1963t hatsawt heASPat tainedeleven(11)seat sfrom Zanzi
barandt wo(2)from
Pemba:t heZNPwonel even( 11)seatsinZanzi barwhi letheZPPPat tai
nedsi x(6)
seatsfr
om Pemba.TheZNPandt heZPPPcombi nedt oassumeat otalofeighteen.
(18)Seatsoutof31t hatwer econtestedinthelegi sl
ativeassembly ,thusincreasing
thegri
evancesofAf r
o-Shir
azi.

Ther efore,theZanzi barrev olutionwasanupr i


singoftheAf ro-shir
azi .Itledt othe
ov ert
hrowoft heAr abdomi nat edgov er
nmentofSul t
anSeyy i
dJamshi dBi nAbdul lah.
Theupr isi
ngoccur redbet weenJanuar y11and12,1964andwasspear headedbya
shr ewdUgandanofLangior igin,fiel
d-mar shalJohnOkel l
o.Okel lohadgonet othe
i
slandsasacasuall abour eri n1952att heageof21.Shor tly,hejoinedt hepol i
ce
forcesi nPembaandwasoneoft hev ict
imsoft heretr
enchmentpol icyoft heZNP
gov ernmentunderShei khMohammedShamt eandSheikhAl iVuhsinBar wani .John
Okel l
o or ganised a gr oup ofpat ri
otici slanders who wer e pr edomi nant ly ex-
pol i
cemen ar med wi th stones,st i
cks,ar rows and bows,and l ed a bl oodless
rev ol
utionagai nstt heAr abdomi natedgov er nmentofZanzi bar .Ther evol utionari
es
attackedandcapt uredZi waniar mour y,whi chgav ethem possessi onoff i
rearms.
Theyl aterat t
ackedandcapt uredMt onipolicepost ,andreleasedal lthepr isonersin
thecel l
s.Wi tht heacqui sition ofar ms,t hebl oodl
essr evolution escal ated into
violencecompr i
singmassacr ingofAr abs,andl ooti
nganddest ructionofal ltheir
proper tyandbusi nesses.

Thecausesoftherevol
uti
onther
efor
earetobefoundi
nhi
stor
ical
,pol
it
icaland
soci
o-economi
cfact
ors,
whichi
ncl
udedthef
oll
owi
ng:

ReferenceQuestions:
1.Accountf ort
heoutbreakoftheZanzi baruprisi
ngin1964
2." Racism wasprimari
l
yr esponsibl
efortheZanzi barupri
sing."Di
scuss
3.Towhatext entwasSul tanJamshi dSey yidresponsibl
ef orthe1964Zanzibar
rev
olution?
4.Di scussthecausesoft he1964Zanzi barrevolut
ion
5, How f arwasBr i
ti
sh coloniallegacyr esponsibl
ef ort he1964 upr
isi
ng in
Zanzibar?

 Theconf li
cting historyont hei slandsofZanzi barand Pembamadet he
revolut i
oni nevit
able.Zanzi barandPembawer ei nhabi t
edbypeopl eofdi verse
ori
ginsandcul tures.Themaj or
itywer eAfricans( Afro-Shirazi)totalingtot wo
hundr edandf i
ftythousands( 250, 000).Theyset tl
edont hei sl
andspar t
lydue
toslav et radecar ri
edoutbyt heAr abs.Ont heot herpar t,t
heAr abswer eov er
fi
ftyt housands( 50,000)andwer econsi deredf oreigner s.Theyhadassumed
thest atusofmast er-hoodandi mposedt heirdomi nationonAf ricans.The
i
slandshadt heShi razipeopl ewhocl ai
medt obet heor i
ginalinhabi t
ant sof
thei slands.Theywer edescendant sofi ntermar r
iagesbet weent hePer si
an-
ArabsandAf ri
cansatt heEastAf ricanCoast .Itwer ether efore,theconf l
ictsi n
values,cust omsandt raditi
onswhi chexi stedbet weent heAf ri
cans( Af ro-
Shiraz i)andAr abst hatcausedt heZanzi barupr ising.
 Consequent ly,thehi st or
icalinferiori
tyofAf r
icansl abel edont hem byt he
Arabshaunt edt hem andhencet heydesi r
edf oraf undament alchange.The
Africanswer est i
llaggr iev edbyt hesl av eryandsl av et radepr act icesagai nst
them byAr abs.Wor sey et ,t heAr absandAsi anscont inuedt odi sgui set he
Africans and S' niraz;as descendant s ofsl av er y.The Af r
o- Si raziwer e
mi str eat edanddespi sedbyt hef or ei gner soft heMi ddl eEastwhosepr i
deand
arrogancei nf luencedt hem t ot ur nt het abl esagai nstt hegov er nment .The
Afro- Ar abr elat i
onswer ei njuredf rom t heol dday sofsl av er ywhenAf ri
can
per sonal ity was subj ect ed t o humi l
iat i
on by t he Ar ab sl av e- lords.Unt i
l
i
ndependence, Africansst ill crav edt or est or et hei rt aunt eddi gni ty.
 Thel ongper iodofpol iticaldomi nat ionundermi nor it
yAr abr ulemadet he
Zanzi bar ir ev olut i
oni nev i
tabl e.Zanzi bar iandPembai slandswer eunderAr ab
aristocr acysi ncet heday soft heest abl i
shmentofOmanr ul ebySey yidSai di
i
nt he1840s.TheAr abar istocr acy( Ar abdomi nance)wasmai nt ainedbyt he
Britishcol oni alistswi tht hei rpol icyofi ndi r
ectr ule.TheBr i
tishused t he
Busai diAr absascol oni alagent si nont heZanzi barandPembai slands.Thi s
reinf or ced t hemast er -
ser vantsi tuat i
on bet ween t heAr absand t heAf ro-
Shi raz i.Thi swasexper i
encedi npol i
ticaladmi ni st ration, int hepar l
iamentand
thepol icef or ces.Suchpol iti
caldomi nat ionar ousedant i-
Ar absent iment si n
Zanzi bar .TheAr abpol iticaldomi nat ioni nZanzi barconv incedAf ricanst hat
establ ishmentofanAf ricanst at ebyconst i
t utionalmeanswasbyal lmeansa
dream, thust heyov erthr ewt heZNP- ZPPPcoal itiongov er nment .
 Raci sm wasanot herf act orbehi ndt heAf ro-Shi r aziupr isingont hei slandsof
Zanzi barandPemba.TheAr absi nZanzi barconsi der edt hemsel v esasuper ior
racecompar edt ot heAf ricanandt heShi razi ,Thi sf eelingwasst rengt hened
byt hehi st oricalmast erdom oft heAr absov ert henon- Ar abs.TheAr abs
discour aged cl ose i nt egr at ion wi tht he Af r
ican popul at ion al though one
mar ried acr oss r aces.Pol it
icalaf filiations r elat ed t or aci ali dent i
fication
causedt hemaj orpol i
t i
cal pr obl emst hataf fect edhumanr elat i
onsi nZanzi bar .
TheAf r i
canpopul ationwasmadef eeli nf erioranddi scr i
mi nat ed;Af ri
cans
wer e deni ed educat ion and access t o hi gh-ranki ng posi tions i n
gov er nment /publ icser viceandt hepol ice.Ther ev olut i
onwast her ef or eai med
atbr eaki ngt hesuper ioritycompl exoft heAr abs.
 TheAr abr ulewasoppr essi v eandar bitrar yi nconduct .I nabi dt omai ntain
stronggr ipov ert hegov er nment ,t heAr absappl iedr ut hlessmeasur esand
usedhar shl awst ogov er nt heI slands.Ont heev eoft her ev ol ution, ther uling
regimel edbyt heZNP underMohammedShamt eandAl iMuhsi ndeni ed
politicalopponent st her ight st ot rav elout sidet hecount ry.Thoset hatwer e
target edwer emai nlyt heAf ro-Shi razi par t
ymember sespeci al l
yAbedKar ume.
TheAr abt reat mentofAf ricanswast her efor enotconduci vet ot hecr eationof
fri
endshi pbet weent het wo r aces.Thi shi gh- har denedconductmadet he
revol ut ioni nev itable.
 The f or mat i
on ofpol iticalpar ties exhi bi ted t he pol iticaldi ffer ences i n
Zanzi barl eadi ngt ot heev ent st hatcausedt her ev olution.Duet ot her aci al
andeconomi cconf li
ct s,t heAr abs,Af r i
cansandShi raziest ablishedpol it
ical
mov ement sl iket heAr abassoci at ion,t heShi raziassoci at i
onandt heAf ri
can
Associ ation.I nDecember1955,t heZanzi barNat ional istPar tywasf or med
with- ember sf r
om t heAr abAssoci at i
onandaf ew oft heShi r
azi .Thepar ty
wasf oundedbyShei khAl i Muhsi nBar wani .Duet ot het hr eatoft heZNP( Ar ab)
domi nancei npol iti
cs,t heAf ricanandShi raziAssoci at i
onsuni tedi near ly
1957t of or mt heAf ro-Shi raziUni on( ASU)l edbyShei kh- oeidKar umeof
Zanzi bar .I nPembat heASU wasr epr esent edbywasShei khMohammed
Shamt eHamadi .
 Duet opol iticaldi fferencehowev er ,t heASU spl i
twi thShei khMohammed
shamt e Hamadif or mi ng t he Zanzi barand Pemba Peopl e Par ty( ZPPP)
toget herwi thShei khAl iShar iffi nDecember1959.I nt hesamey earand
mont h,Shei khAbedKar umeandShei khDaudiMohamoudf ormedt heAf ro-
Shiraz iPar ty(ASP) .Thenewpar iti
esl edt oi ncr easedpol i
ticalhost ili
tyont he
i
slandsofZanzi barandPemba.I nt he1961gener alel ect ion, theASPwont en
seat s,t heZNPni neseat sandt heZPPPonl yt hr eeseat s.Thi swasf ol l
owed
byaspl i
ti nt heZPPPwi thoneseatgoi ngt ot heASPandt woseat st ot he
ZNP.Ther i
valr ybet weent heZNPandt he–ASPbecamebi tterwhent heZNP
all
egedl yconspi redwi thSul tanSey yidJamshi dt ot aket hePembaseatand
assumeacl earmaj orityi npar l
iament .Thi sl aterpav edwayf orpol it
ical
conf usi on and v iolence i n Zanzi barshor tly bef orei ndependence,whi ch
prepar edgr oundf orar ev olution.
 Thel andgr iev ancesi nfluencedAf ricanst or i
seupagai nstt heAr abs.Landi n
Zanzi barandPembawasunf ai rl
ydi st ributed.TheAr abmi nor ityalienat edl and
i
nt hemostpr oduct ivear easwher et heyest abl ishedl argepl ant ati
onsof
clov esandcocoanut .Ont heot herhand,t heAf ricanswer econf i
nedi nsemi -
Aridr egi onswi t
hpoorsoi lsandl owr ainfal l
.ManyAf ri
cansbecamesquat ters
ast heAr absscr ambl edf ormor el andt oest abl ishpl ant ationsonwhi ch
Africanswer ef or cedt oof fert heirl abour .Thel andgr iev anceswer est rong
amongt heZanzi bar iswhol ostt hei rancest ralar east ot heAr abs.Thel and
conf lictwaswor senedbyt heev ictionofAf ri
cansquat ter si nZanzi barbyAr ab
l
andl or dsbecauset heynev ersuppor tedt heZNP.
 Thepol i
cyoft heAr abset t
ler sext ract ingl abourf rom t heAf ri
canpopul at ion
i
nZanzi barl edt ot heZanzi bar iupr ising.Formor et hanacent ury, t
heAf r
icans
l
abour edf ort heAr absunderi nhumancondi tions,Thepol iti
calf eelingsof
Africansagai nstt heAr abswer epar tl
yi nfluencedbyt hei rdesi ret obr i
ngt oan
endf or cedl abourunderwhi cht heysuf feredf rom t hecol oni zat ionofZanzi bar
byt heOmanAr absunderSey y i
dSai dbi nSul tan.Ast heHadi mu- Shi razilost
theirl andt ot headv anci ngAr abs, t
heAf ri
canswer ef orcedt ohoeandhar vest
l
abouronpl ant at i
onsest abl ished byt heAr abs.Hence,t heAf ri
cansand
Shiraz iuni tedagai nstt heAr abmi nor itygov er nment .
 Economi cgr i
ev ancescont ribut edt ot hespi ritofr ebel lioni nZanzi bar,whi ch
wasanI slandofi nequal i
ty .Thesoci o-economi cpy rami dofZanzi barhad
maj or ityAf ricansatt hebot tom,t heI ndo- Paki st anii nt hemi ddl eandt he
mi nor ityAr absatt het op.TheAf ricanswer eeconomi cal lymar ginal i
sedand
expl oited;t heysuf fer edatt hehandsoft heAr absandAsi answhoenj oyeda
privileged posi ti
on on t he i sl ands.The Asi ans cont rol led commer ce and
fi
nance,keyposi tions i nt he ci v i
lser vi
ce and a r elat i
v e quant it
yoft he
count ry '
sweal thy .Vastweal thywashowev er ,ownedbyt heAr abswhoal so
cont rol ledt hebi ggestshar eofl and.TheAf ri
canswer ekeptatt hebot tom, t he
maj or ityofwhom ov erbur denedbyt hesub- ser v ietter olet heypl ay edf ort hei r
Arabmast ersandAsi ans.I tshoul dbenot edt hatwhi let heShi r
aziwer e
mai nl ypeasant sandf isher men,t hemaj orityoft heAf ricanswer epor ter s,
l
abour er sanddomest i
cser vant s.Thei nfer i
oreconomi cposi ti
onoft heAf ro-
Shiraz icausedt heirr ebel l
ionagai nstt heSul tan' sgov ernment .
 Thef al lint hepr iceofcl ov esont hewor ldmar keti ncr easedt her acialconf li
ct
bet weent heAf ro- Shi raziandAr abs.Theeconomi ccondi ti
onsont heI sland
wer enotgoodf r
om t heev eoft her ev olut i
onduet ot hef allint hepr i
ceof
clov esont hewor ldmar ket .Wi thr educedr evenues, thegov er nmentcutdown
expendi turesonsoci alser vices,i ncr easedt axes,whi l
esomeschool swer e
closed.Manyci vilser v antst hati ncl udedt eacher sandpol iceof ficerswer e
l
aidof f( ret r
enched)andt hosewhor emai nedwor king,t heirpay ment swer e
reduced.Thedr ast icf al lint hepr i
ceofcl ov es,t hechi efexpor tf orZanzi bar
wor sened t heunempl oy mentpr obl em among t heAf ro-Shi raziand hence
affect edt hei rwel far e.
 Thedi smi ssalofAf r i
cansf rom t hepol icewasanot herbl undermadebyt he
ZNP- ZPPF gov ernmentl edbyPr imeMi ni sterMohammedShamt e.The
gov ernmentdi schar gedt hepol iceof ficer sf orf eart hatt heywer esy mpat het i
c
tot heopposi ti
on.Thegov er nmentdi smi ssalofAf ricanpol iceof fi
cer swas
alsoai medatest abl ishi ngapol itical lyl oy alpol icef or ce.Ther et renched
Africanof ficial sbecameunempl oy ed,f rust rat edandt hei rgr i
ev ancesagai nst
theAr abdomi nat edgov er nmenti ncr eased.Theybecamesy mpat het ict ot he
revolut ionar iesanoutoft hiscont ext ,JohnOkel lor ecr uitedmanyoft hem i n
ther ev ol utionar yf or ce.Ther et renchmentofAf r
icanpol i
ceof ficer scameat
thet imewhenaf act i
onoft heZNPl edbyShei khMuhammedAbdulRahman
(Babu)br okeawayt of or mt heUmmaPar t
y .
 Pol i
ti
calf r
ust rat ion oft he Af ricans was anot herf act ort hatl ed t ot he
1964Zanzi bar ir ev olut ion f ollowi ng t he 1961 el ect ions t ot he l egi slat i
ve
assembl y ,nopar tyat tai nedmaj or i
t yseat si npar liament .Anot herel ect ion
wasor gani sedi nJunet hesamey ear ,wher et heASPandt heZNPwont en
(10)seat seachandt heZPPP onl yt hr ee( 3)seat s.TheAr abdomi nat ed
par t
ies( ZPPPandZNP)f or medacoal iti
onandwer ei nvitedt oest abl i
sha
gov ernment .TheAr abcoal iti
onal sowont he1963i ndependenceel ect i
ons
withei ght eenseat sofapossi blet hirty -one, twel v
ef ort heZNPandsi xf ort he
ZPPP.I nt hi scase,t heAr absr etai nedpol i
ticalpowerandpr ivilegesatt he
expensesofAf r i
cans.TheASP suppor tersgotscar ed oft heZNP- ZPPP
coal i
tiongov ernmentt hatt ookov eraf teri ndependence.Thef ai l
ur ebyt he
ASPt oachi ev epol i
t i
calpowerbyconst it
ut ionalmeansmadet her ev ol ution
i
nev itabl e.TheCanadi anl egaladv isert ot heASPThomasFr anksuppor ted
Afro-Shi razichoi cef orv iolenceongr oundt hatt heconst ituti
onalmeansi st he
bestopt iont oachi ev epol i
ticalf reedomsbutwher et her ei snooppor tuni ty,i
t
i
sj ust ifi
abl et oov er throwt hel aw.
 Mi strustandsuspi ci onofAf ricansagai nstt hedemocr at i
cmeasur esoft he
Arabmi nor itygov er nmentf orcedt hem t oef fectar ev olut i
on.TheAf ricans
fearedpr otect i
onf rom t heZNP- ZPPP coal iti
ongov ernment .Theyhadnot
suppor tedt heZNPf orsol ongandt her efor e,suspect edhar sht reat mentl i
ke
arbitrar yi mpr isonment and pol iticalassassi nations by t he ZNP- ZPPP
coal i
tion gov er nment .The Ar ab gov ernmenti nt he same way f ear ed
retali
at ionf rom Af ricansi ftheywer et oacqui repol i
tical poweri nZanzi bar .On
theot herhand,t heAf ricanl eader swer eaf raidoft hepossi bler est rict i
ve
measur est owhi cht heZNP- ZPPPcoal i
tiongov ernmentwoul dr esor ttoi nits
effortt osuppr esst heASPmember sandsuppor ter s.Consequent ly,Sul tan
Jamshi di mmedi at elybegani mpor tingmi l
itar yhar dwar et ot hesuspi cionof
Africans,and r esor ted t o aut hor itar ian measur es ofsuppr essi ng Af rican
opposi tionasameanst omai ntai nhi mi npower .TheAf ro-Shi raziwer eonl y
sur eofsecur ityonl yi ft heyt hr ewawayt heAr abgov ernmentandest abl ished
anAf ro-Shi r azi Par tygov ernment .
 TheBr iti
shcol oni all egacyi ndi rect lycont ribut edt ot heZanzi barr ev olution.
Dur i
ngt hecol oni alper iod,t heBr itishr egar dedt heAr absast het radi tional
rulersofEast er nCoast ali slands,r emai nedi nsensi tiv et opopul ardemands
forpol iti
calr ef or ms,andi gnor edt heneedf orposi ti
v echangesi nt hel and
tenur esy stem.Thi sBr i
t i
shgest ur epr eser vedt hepower sandweal thofAr abs
att heexpensesofAf ricans.Ev enatt het imeofdecol onisat ion,t heBr i
t i
sh
exhibi tedr aci ali nsensi tiv it
ywhent heyhandedov ert hei nstrument sofpower
tot heZNP- ZPPP coal ition.JohnOkel i
oi dent if
iedt hatt heBr itishgr ant ed
i
ndependence t o Tangany ika undert heirgr eatpr esi dentMwal imu Jul i
us
Ny erer e but t o t he i slands of Pemba and Unguj a ( Zanzi bar ),t heir
i
ndependencewasamer eexchangef rom Br i
tishr ulet oAr abdomi nance.The
Brit
ishwentaheadt opr ot ectt heAr abmi nor itygov er nment .
 Consequent ly, thepr emat urehandi ngov erofi ndependenceandpoorpol i
tical
planni ngbyt heBr i
t i
shandt heAr absl edt ot heZanzi bar iupr ising.TheBr itish
andAr abswant edt ot ransf ormt headmi nistrat i
v esy st em oft hei slandsi nto
const itut i
onalmonar chi sm.Thei ndependenceofDecember10,1963was
char act erisedbyt her ecogni ti
onofZanzi barasanAr abst at ewhi chmaj or it
y
Afri
cansopposed.TheASPmember shadr esent edi mmedi atei ndependence
basing on cl aim t hatt he Af ro- Shi raziwer e pol i
tical ly weak t or ecei ve
i
ndependence.The r ev olut ion t her efor e,ai med atacqui si ti
on ofgenui ne
i
ndependence.The Af ri
cans made i tcl eart hatt heynev erwant ed sel f-
gover nmentf orZanzi barbutapur elyAf ricansel f-gov er nment .
 Religious conf licts al so i nf l
uenced a desi ref orchange on Zanzi barand
Pembai slands.TheZNP- ZPPPAr absbl amedmember soft heASPf orbei ng
agent sof .Chr ist i
ani ty ,andcal ledt hepar t
yaChr istianor gani sat ionwhose
maj orai m wast oconscr i
ptMusl i
msi ntoChr istiani ty.Member soft heASPon
theirpar tblamedt heAr absf ori mposi ngI slam onAf ricansagai nstt hei rwi sh.
Thisi soner easonwhyJohnOkel l
oor gani sedanAf ricanf or ceagai nstt he
Arabmi nor i
tygov er nment .
 Thear abisat ionpol icyoft heAr absont hei slandsofZanzi barandPemba
caused Af r
ican gr iev ancest o st age up a r ev olut i
on.The pol icyi nv olv ed
maki ngal lsect or sl iket heci vilser viceandt hepol icef orceAr ab- or i
ent ed,
wher eal lpost sofi nf l
uence,r anksandpr omot ionswer er eser v edf orAr abs.
Thepol icyofAr abi sat ionl edt ot hedi scr imi nat ionofAf r i
cansi nempl oyment
andpol iti
cs.Theef fect ivenessoft hepol icywasf urtherwi tnessedwhent he
Arabs i mposed Ar abi c on t he i slander s,whi ch caused much di scont ent
amongstt heAf ro- sni razi ,whol ookedatt hepol icyascompl et eel i
mi nat i
onof
Afri
cancul t
ur al andcust omar yv alues.
 Thepoort axat ionsy st em, whi chheav il
ysqueezedorcr eamedof fthemeager
resour cesoft hei slander si ncr easedAf ri
cangr iev ances.TheAr absandt he
Asianswhoenj oy edaneconomi cupperhandwer el esst axedandot her swer e
exempt edf rom pay ingt axdues,i ncommer ce,t heAf r i
canswer eunabl et o
compet e wi thf or eign i mpor ters because t hey enj oy ed t ax br eaks and
subsi diesf r
om gov er nment .Thedepr i
v alofeconomi cpowert hroughdubi ous
taxat i
onmadeAf ricanst odesi ref ori mmedi atechange.
 TheAf ro-Shi razior gani sedar esol utiont oaccesssoci alser vices.TheAr abs
andt heBr i
tisht otal lynegl ectedAf ricansandi ntent ional l
ydepr ivedt hem of
thenecessar ysoci alser vices, whi chi ncl udededucat ion, sanitar yandhousi ng
facil
ities.Thei sl ander swer edeni ededucat ionbecausei twoul dmaket hem
consci ousoft hei rsoci o-economi candpol iti
calneeds.Educat ionwasmade
tooexpensi v ef orAf ri
canst oaf for d.Duet opoorsani t
ar yandheal th,an
estimat ed t hirt een t housand Af ricans had di ed by1964.Thi s made t he
Zanzi barr evol ut ioni nev itabl e.
 Exter nalf orcesi nspi redt henat i
onal i
st si nZanzi bart or ebel .By1964,many
Afri
can st ates had acqui red sel f-rule and i ndependence.The Af ricans i n
Zanzi barconsi der edt he1963i ndependenceasasham ( Uhur uwawaar abu)
becauset heybel iev edt heyhadnoty etr egai nedt heirf reedom.I tisal sot rue
tosayt hatt heZanzi bar isboost edbysy mpat hyandsuppor tfrom t heAf ricans
i
n Tangany ika and t heirl eaderJul ius Kambar age Ny erere.On achi ev ing
i
ndependence,Tangany i
kaexper i
encedr apidpol i
ticalt ransf or mat ionsand
const itut i
onalchangest hatf av our edt hei nt erest sofmasses.Suchr ef orm
wer el acki ngi nZanzi barandPemba.Ny er erei deal lysuppor tedt heZanzi bar i
s
tor ev ol tashel ookedf orwar dt oest abl i
shi ngauni onbet weenmai nland
Tangany ikaandt hei slandsofZanzi barandPembai nt oasupr anat ion.
 TheZanzi bar iupr i
singwasi nfluencedbyf or
cesofsoci ali
sm.Becauseof
Brit
ishinf l
uence,t heAr abspr acticedcapi talism basedoni ndividualmot ives,
wher etheyandt heAsi ansdomi natedresour cesl i
kelandandal l
t heeconomi c
acti
v i
ti
es,y ettheywer et hemi nor i
ty .Thepeopl eofZanzi barandPemba
hencepr ef err
edt or ever set hetrendbyer adicatingracialinequalities, promot e
prosperityf orallandensur eapr ogressi vet axati
onsy stem.Suchi deaswer e
i
nfluencedbysoci alism andwer eencour agedbyl eadersl ikeMohammed
Babuoft heUMMApar ty.
 Thel eader shipofJohnOkel lo,anex- poli
ceof f
icerinPembacont ributedt o
the1964r evolution.Johnokel l
owasaUgandani mmi grantwhoset tl
edi n
Pembai nmi d-1950.Hewasat t
ract edbyt heASPandl aterbecameami nor
ASP- of
ficialinasmal lvill
ageofVi tongoz i.Hi ssufferi
ngatt hehandsoft he
Arabscont ri
buted t ot hehat r
ed agai nstt hem.I n1963,Okel lo mov ed to
Zanzibarwher eher ecr ui
ted agr oup ofmi l
i
tantASP suppor t ersand ex-
poli
cemeni ntohi sr ev olutionaryf or ce.Ar medwi thst ones,pangas,spear s,
sti
cks,ar rowsandbows,t her ev olut i
onariesmov edwi thdet er mi nationt o
causeaf undament alchange.Hecapi tal
izedont hegr i
evancesont heI slands
andt heconf l
ictsamongpol it
icalpar tiestol aunchasuccessf ul rev oluti
on.

Factorsthatf av our edt hesuccessofr ev olution


Referencequest i
ons:
1.Accountf ort hesuccessoft heZanzi barr esolut i
onof1964
2.Exami net hef act or st hatl edt ot hesuccessofnat ional i
stsi nt he1964Zanzi bar
revol
ution
3.Assesst hecont ribut ionofJohnOkel lot ot hesuccessoft heZanzi barupr i
sing
 Thei solat i
onoft heAr abgov er nmentbasedi nZanzi bart owncont ri
butedt o
thesuccessoft her evol ution.I nt hemomentoft hecr isis,t heZanzi bar
gov ernmentdi dnoteasi l
yr allyi tssuppor tersf orsel f-def ense.TheBr i
tish
adv i
sor swhower ei tsal liesi nZanzi barwer et oof ew anddi dnotof ferany
immedi ate assi st ance.Fr om t he ear lypl ans oft he r ev oluti
on,t he Ar ab
gov ernmenti nZanzi barwasnotawar eofJohnOkel lo'sar rangement si n
Pemba.Ev enwhent her evolut ionar ies,cr ossedt oZanzi bari n1963;t hey
assembl edatapr ear rangedpl acei nt heAf ri
canquar terunnot i
cedbyt he
author i
ty.TheZNP- ZPPPgov er nmentwast herefor et akenbysur prise.The
gov ernment consi der ed t he ASP l eader ship as t he st r
ongest pol it
ical
opponent .Thust heAr ab gov er nmentf ail
ed t o uncov ert hest rategiesof
Okel lo'sr ev olut ion,whi chhesecr etlyor gani zed.Whent her ev oluti
onar ies
mov edoutf oract ion, thegov er nmentwasunawar e.
 Okel lo'sr ev olut ionar yl eader shi p,phy sicalcour age and ment alabi lity
cont ributedt ot hesuccessoft heZanzi bar '
snat ional i
sts.Okel l
owasabl et o
plan,or gani seandl eadt her ev olutionar yf orcesbecausehekeptt heASP
leader shipi gnor ant .Okel losucceededi nmobi li
zinganumberofZanzi bar i
national ists,most lyther et r
enchedpol iceof ficers,andi ntiatedt hem agai nst
theAr abar ist ocr acy.Consequent l
y,t hepeopl eofZanzi bardi dnotr eject
Okel loandi nst eadl ookedathi m ast heirsav i
our.Theygav ehi mt hechance
toexpl oitt heirr aci alsent iment sagai nsttheAr abs.JohnOkel lodi dwhatt he
Zanzi bar isf ai led t o do;hebecameaf oreign l iberatori n af oreign land.
Howev er,int er msofr ace,Okel lowasmor eofaZanzi bar inat ionalt hant he
Sultanwas.Hesy mbol isedt hepur ityofAf r
icancauseunl ikemanyot her
Zanzi bar is.TheAf ricansandAr absont heI slandshaddi v ergentcul turesand
reli
gions.I nal l,Okel l
owasani dealper sonal i
tyt ol eadast ruggl ef orsoci al
andpol i
tical sov er eignt yoft hei slander s.
 Thechoi ceoft hedayoft her ev ol ut i
onf av our edi tssuccess.Januar y11, 1964
wasadayofcel ebr at i
ngRamadhan( Eid- day ):ast heAr abswer ebusywi t
h
fest iv ecel ebr ations,t her ev ol ut i
onar iesassembl edi napr e-arrangedpl acei n
the Af ri
can quar t er s,bef oret hey af fect ed a successf ulr ev olut ion.The
secur i
tyi nZanzi barwasnotonal er twhi l
et her evol utionar iest ookadv ant age
oft heef f i
ci entpr e- ar rangedmeansoft ranspor t( Ar abbusesandLor ries)t o
mov eswi ftl
yandov er throwt heSul tanadmi ni strat i
on.Thus, thet imi ngoft he
rev ol utionf ort heni ghtofJanuar y11- 12,aweekbef or et heant icipat eddat e
forAbei dKar ume' sr ev olutionpl otwor kedi nf av ourofOkel loandhi smen.
 Thecapt ur eofZi waniar mour yandMt onipol icepostbyOkel loandhi smen
gav et henat i
onal ist schancet or ear m andsecur emoder nweapons.Thusby
themor ni ngofJanuar y12, 1964, ther ag- t
agar myofOkel lopr eviousl yar med
wi thbowsandar rows,spear s,pangasandst i
ckswer et henbet terequi pped,
mor eor gani sedandconf ident .Thi st iltedt hebal anceofmi li
tar ypoweri n
fav ourofAf ricans.Theat tackoft hegov er nmentamour yandt hesei zur eof
weaponswast hus, themostcr uci al f act ori nt hesuccessoft heconf ront ation
andov er thr owoft heol dZanzi bar i Sul t anat e.
 Themassi v esuppor tenj oy edbyt her ev ol utionar iesi nZanzi barandPemba
fav our edt he successoft her ev ol ution.Thei sl ander swer ebi tter ,readyt o
smashandgr ab.Mostoft hem wer eeconomi cal l
ydi scont ent ed.Thi sexpl ains
whyOkel lowasabl et omobi liset hem i ntoar ebel li
on.Whenhi sr ev ol ut i
onar y
armyat t ackedt heMt onipol i
cest at ion, manyAf ricanswer eat tract edt oswel l
i
tsr anks.Whennewsoft her ev olut ionr eachedt heASP suppor ter s,t hey
brokei nt oj ubi lat i
ons.Theywentonr ampage,t hrew t heirwei ghtbehi ndt he
rev ol ution,embar kedonl oot i
ngAr abandAsi anhomesandbusi nesses,and
mur der edsomeoft hem, gener al,t her ev olut ionsucceededpar tl
ybecauset he
Ar abmi nor ityr egi meundert heZNP- ZPPP coal itionwasunpopul art ot he
maj or ityoft hei slander s.
 TheAf r
icangr iev ancesandhat redagai nstAr abexpl oi t
ationandoppr essi on
had r eached a boi ling poi nt .The Af ro-Shi raziwer el ongi ng f orabsol ute
freedom andsel f-det er minat i
onf r om t heAr abs.Thei rgr iev ancesi ncl uded
ruthl essnessoft heAr abgov er nmentl andal i
enat ionandf oreignmonopol yin
the ci v i
lser vice.The gr i
ev ances pr ov ided f er t
ile gr ounds f or Af rican
det er mi nat iont ooustt heAr abdomi nat edgov er nmentatal lcost .Okel l
oi nhis
wor dsment ionedt hathegav emucht houghtoft hepol iti
calpr obl emsoft he
blackAf ricansi nZanzi barandbyt heendof1962;hehaddeci dedt hat
rev ol utionwast heonl ysol ut i
on.
 The i slands ofZanzi barand Pemba wer e smal lwhi let he Af ro- Shi razi
popul ationwasr easonabl ei dent i
cal .TheAf r i
canswer eal lknownt oeach
other and t his f aci li
tat ed communi cat ion and cooper at i
on f or t he
effect ivenessoft her evolut ion.Hencef orth,Okel loeasi l
yi dent ifiedpot ential
mi litant samongt hev il
lager sandt heex- pol i
ceof ficerswhol aterf or medt he
cor eofhi sr evol ut i
onar yar my .
 Thenumer ical( popul ation)adv ant agemadet hesuccessoft her ev olution
i
nev itabl e.The Af ricans out number ed t he Ar abs and I ndo- Paki stanii n
summat i
on,and t his popul at ion adv ant age oft he Af ro-Shi raziov ert he
for eigner sandt hei rcommongr iev ancesmadet her ev olutionasuccess.The
Af ricanst ot aledbet weent wohundr edandf ift ythousandsandt wohundr ed
andsev ent yt housands( 250, 000- 270, 000)compar edt ot hef iftyt housand
(50, 000)Ar absandt went yt housand( 20, 000)I ndo- Paki stanis.
 Theuseofr etrenchedpol iceof ficer senabl edt hesuccessoft her ev olut i
on.
Duet ot hei r gr eathat redf ort heAr absandhadt hedesi r
et or ev enge
agai nstt hem.Ther et renchedpol iceof fi
cer shadmi l
itaryski llsandexper i
ence,
wer eawar eoft hesecur itymat tersofZanzi barand abov eal lknew t he
weaknessesoft heAr ab r egi me.Theyhencef or med a pi ll
arofOkel l
o' s
evolut ionar yfor ceandenabl edOkel lot or aidandcapt ur eZi waniar mour yand
Mt onipol i
cepost .Tonot ei st hatokel lowasal soanex- pol iceof ficerf rom
Pemba.
 TheescapeofSul tanSey y i
dJamshi dBi nAbdul laht oget herwi thhi sPr ime
Mini st erShei khMohammedShamt eandMuhsi nenabl edt hesuccessoft he
revol ut i
on.TheAr abl eader sf ledt oBr i
taint hroughTangany ikai nf earof
fall
ingi nt hehandsofr adi calr ev ol utionar ies.Thei rf lightdi scour agedand
demor ali
sedAr abr esi st anceduet ol ackoft opl eader shi p.Thi spowerwasan
adv ant aget oOkel lo'sment oscor esuccessagai nstt heAr abs.
 Theweaki ntelli
gencenet wor koft heAr absr ender edt her evol ut i
onasuccess.
TheAr abadmi nist rat i
oncoul dnotdet ectOkel l
o'smov ementf rom Pembat o
Zanzi bar .Okel lo cont inued at tendi ng t he Ar ab meet ings and somet i
mes
pray er s unnot iced. The Ar ab i nt elligence was not consci ous of t he
under ground Af r
ican act iviti
esand onl yconcent rat ed on popul arpol iti
cal
organi zationsespeci allyt heASPandt heUMMApar ty ,itwast her ef oreacl ear
atmospher et omobi li
zeandcar ryoutr ev olut i
onar yact ivitiesunnot iced.
 Thesecr etpl anni ngbyJohnOkel lomadet her ev olut ionasuccess.Okel l
o
organi zedt her ev ol ut i
oni ndependent ly,wi thouti nv olv ingt hel eader shipof
popul arpol it
icalpar ties,ASPand- nr naPar ty.Het ookt heASPl eader shipby
surpr ise;hesecr et l
yor gani sedt her ev ol utionaway3m t hei rsi ght .Okel l
owas
awar eoft heASPact ivi
tiesandbi tter nesst hatcr eat edgov er nmentspi ci
ons.
Het her efor e,nev eri nv olv edt heASPi nhi sr ev olut i
onar ypl ans, whi chkeptt he
revol ut i
onar yact ivitiesawayf rom t hegov er nmentscene.
 TheZanzi barupr i
si ngpar tl
ysucceededduet osuppor tf rom t hemai nland
Tangany ika.Ny er ere' smor alsuppor tt ot heZanzi bar ir ev olut ionar i
eswas
i
nf l
uencedbyhi ssoci alisti deas.Hewasdr ivenbyt hedesi ret oest abl i
sha
unionbet weenmai nl andTangany ikaandt hei slandsofPembaandZanzi bar .
Zanzi barnat ional i
st swer ef ur therst rengt henedbyf or eignsy mpat hyf rom
Ugandaand Moz ambi que.Ext ernalsuppor tmai nlyhel ped t o sust aint he
revol ut i
onar ygov er nmentf rom t het i
meOkel l
oi nv olv edt heASPl eader shi p.
Tonot ei st hatt heASPhadal sopl ot tedt oov er thr ow t hegov ernmentof
SultanJamshi dandMohammedShamt eandhadsol icitedf orsuppor tf rom
amongot hersour cesmai nlandTangany i
ka.Whenv iol enceescal atedshor tly
afterOkel l
owassi del i
nedf rom l eader shi p, Karumer ecei vedaboutahundr ed
policemenf rom Tangany ikat ohel pr est or elawandor deront hei sl and.
 Consequent l
y,t he r ecogni ti
on oft he ASP r ev olut ionar y gov er nmenti n
Zanzi barsust ainedt hesuccessoft heZanzi bar is.Shor tlyaf tersani tywas
restor edi nZanzi barandPemba,t heASPl eader shipembar kedonsoci ali
st
policiest hatdr ew t heat tent i
onoft hecommuni stwor ld.I nMar ch1964,t he
newZanzi bar igov er nmentannouncednat i
onal izat ionofmaj orf act or sofl and,
butespeci all
yl andanddecl ar edZanzi barandPembaaonepar tyst ate.I n
response,t heUSSR,Chi naandEastGer manypr ocl ai medr ecogni t
ionoft he
ASPgov er nment ,whi chat tract edt heWest er npower s,t heUSAandBr itaint o
foll
owsui t .
 Thei ncompet enceandi nst abi l
ityoft heposti ndependentAr abgov er nment
facili
t atedt hesuccessoft her ev ol ution.TheZNP- ZPPPcoal i
t i
ongov er nment
wasdomi nat edbymi nor ityAr absandnev eri nv olv edt heAf r o-Shi razi .They
i
gnor edt hepopul ar ityoft heASPt hathadwont hei ndependenceel ect ionsby
mor et han54%.Theweaki ntelligencenet wor kandt hei nef fect iv epol icef or ce
betray edt hegov er nment .TheAr abar istocr acywast ooconser vativeand
narrow- mi ndedandt hust ookt heAf ricanpot ent i
alf orgr ant ed.TheAr abs
were al so over¬confi
dentand forcef
ull
y beli
eved thata mast er
-ser
vant
sit
uationi nZanzibarcouldcont
inueunchall
enged.Theywereshockedwhen
theAf ro-Shi
raziorgani
zedar evol
uti
onshortlyaft
erindependencefrom the
Bri
tish.

THEROLEOFJOHNOKELLO
ReferenceQuest ions:
1.Assesst her ol eofJohnOkel loint hesuccessoft he1964Zanzi bar iupr ising
2,"JohnOkel l
owaspr imar ilyr esponsi bl ef ort hesuccessofZanzi barr ev olution. "
Discuss
 Okel l
of or medandor gani sedar ev olutionar yf or cet hatef f ectedar ev olution
toov er thr ow t heAr abar istocr at icr ule.Hewascer taint hatanAf r
icansel f-
gov er nmentwasonl ypossi blet hr oughar evol ution.
 He gav e shr ewd and cour ageous l eader shi p and det er mi nat ion t ot he
rev olutionar ycommandar medwi thr udi ment ar yequi pmentsuchasspear s,
sticks, arr owsandbows, whi chmot ivatedt hem t oef fectachange.
 Okel l
ol edasuccessf ulexpedi tionont hegov er nmentar mour yatZi wani .Thi s
enabl edt her ev olut i
onar iest oobt ainandcont rolweaponst hatenabl edt he
successf ul capt ur eoft heMt oni pol i
cepost .
 JohnOkel locommandedr espectandpopul ar i
tyf rom hi sf or merZanzi barand
PembaPai nt er'sUni on,someofwhom wer er ecrui t
edi ntot her ev olut i
onar y
force.
 Ev enamongt hemasses,Okel io' sr evol ut i
onwaspopul ar.Hecapi tali
sedon
thecommongr iev ancesont hei sl andsandt hi sat tractedmaj orityoft heAf ro-
Shi raz itowel comet her ev olut ion.
 Hewaspopul aramongt heAf ro- Shi razi Par tymember s, andt heYout hLeague.
Thus,t her ev ol ut ionr ecei vedpol i
ticalr ecogni tionf rom t hepopul arpol it
ical
organi sat ions.The ASP member s car ried much hat ed agai nstt he Ar ab
mi nor ityr uleont hei sl andsofZanzi barandPemba.
 Okel l
omanagedt oor gani set her evol utionawayf rom t heASPl eader shi p,
whi ch par t
lyt ook t he Ar ab Gov er nmentby sur pr i
se.He or gani sed t he
rev olutionwi thoutcausi ngal ar m andsuspi cionf rom t heAr abgov ernment
thatconcent rat edont hebi tt
eract iviti
esoft heASPl eader s.
 He ef fect i
v ely used t he ex- ser v icemen of Wor ld War I Il ike Gener al
Mohammedwhost illhar bour eddi ssat isfact ionagai nstt heAr absandt he
British.
 Okel l
owasanex -
pol i
ceof ficerf rom Pemba,whor ecr uit
edandmadegr eat
useofhi sf el l
owr etrenchedpol iceof ficer st hathadst ronghat redagai nstt he
raci stAr ab Gov er nment .The ex- pol ice of ficer sf ormed t he backbone of
Okel l
o'sr ev olut i
onar yf or ce.
 Hi sphy si calpr owessandambi tioncar r i
edhi mt ol iber at et heoppr essed
isl
ander sofZanzi barandPemba.Hewasdet ermi nedt or est or ethedi gnityof
Africans,t hei reconomi cst at usandachi ev eanAf ri
cansel f-gov er nment .The
gov er nment si nt her egi ondet ai nedhi mf orf earofhi sr evol utionar ypr owess.
Elsewher e,t her estoft hepol i
t icalpar tiesi ncl udi ngt heZNPandt heZPPP
wer ebanned.
 TheAr absandAsi ansl ostt hei rl i
v esandal otofpr oper tydur i
ngt hechaos
thatf ol lowedt heov erthr owoft heZNP- ZPPPcoal i
tiongov er nment .I nt heci ty
ofZanzi bar ,manyASPsuppor t er swentonr ampage,mur der i
ng,l oot i
ngand
dest r
oy ingAr abandAsi anbusi nessesandshops.
 ManyAr absandAsi answer eki l
leddur i
ngt hechaos:t heydi edi nt housands.
TheASPsuppor t ersmai nlycar riedoutt hebr utalact sofr ev engeagai nstt he
Ar abmi nor ityandt heI ndo- Paki stani s.Someoft hepr omi nentZNP- ZPPP
pol it
ici answer ear rest ed and det ained.Theact sofv i
ol encebyAf ricans
scar edt heAr absandaconsi der abl enumberoft hem f ledt oexi lewhi l
eot her s
becamef ugi tives.Consequent l
y ,duet of earf ort hei rl i
v es, manyoft heAsi ans
andAr absl ef tt hei slandsofZanzi barandPembaandsoughtr ef ugei nt he
nei ghbour ing count ries especi allyKeny a whi le ot her s wentbackt ot hei r
cradl el and.
 Soci al ly,Ki swahi lir epl acedAr abi cast henat i
onalandof ficiall anguage,whi l
e
religiousl iber ali
sm wasenhanced.TheASPgov ernmental lowedI slam and
Chr istiani tyt ocoexi st .Howev er,Isl am r emai nedt hemai nr eligionpr act iced.
Tonot ei st hatJohnOkel lowaspar tl
ysi del inedf rom t heZanzi bar ileader shi p
becauseofChr istianbackgr ound.
 Consequent l
y ,racialdi scr i
mi nat i
onescal at ed.Theact sofr ev engebyt heAf ro
-Shi r
aziagai nstt heAr absandI ndo- Paki st aniwer edr ivenbyr aci sm.Howev er,
thenewASPgov er nmentt riedt omi nimi ser aci alpr ejudi cebyest ablishi nga
mul t
i-soci alsy stem i nt hesoci o-economi csetupt hatembr acedal lraceson
theZanzi barandPembai sl ands.TheAr abswer ef air l
yr epr esent ed.
 Thenew Af ro-Shi razigov ernmentt ookar api dst ept oAf ricani set heci v i
l
ser viceandt hear medf or ces.TheAf ricani sat ionpol icyai medatcount er -
play ingt hear abi sat ionpol i
cybyt heol dAr abmonar chicalr egi me.I thel pedt o
reduceont hel ev elsofunempl oy mentamongt heAf ro-Shi razi .
 Ther ev ol ut i
onr ecei vedi nter nat i
onalr ecogni ti
onf rom t hesoci ali
stcount ries
oft heSov i
etUni on and Chi na and l atert heUSA and Br it
ai nr eluct ant ly
acknowl edgedt her ev ol ut i
onar ygov ernmentofAbei dKar umeandt heASP.
 The r ev ol ut i
on pav ed way f ort he uni on ( feder at i
on)bet ween mai nl and
Tangany ikaandt hei slandsofZanzi barandPemba.Thus, theUni tedRepubl i
c
ofTanzani awasbor nonApr il24,1964.Thi swasanat temptt of ul f
illt he
attempt sofJul i
usNy er eret of orm cl oserpol i
tical uni onamongAf ri
canst at es
i
nt hespi ritofPanAf riani sm, Ny er erebecamet hepr esidentoft heFeder at i
on
wi thShei khAbei dKar umeasf irstv i
cepr esi dentandRashi dikawawasecond
vicepr esi dent .I nt heaf termat hoft heuni on,Tanzani acameundersoci al i
st
i
nf luencepr omot edbyJul iusNy erere.Radi calmeasur eswer eadopt edt o
reducecl assdi ffer ences, whi chexi st edi nZanzi barandmai nl andTangany ika.
 Freecompul sor ypr imar yeducat ionwasi nst it
ut edt or educet hel ev el sof
i
lli
t eracy i n Zanzi barand Pemba.I ll
iteracy had been one oft he soci al
menacest hataf fect edt hezanzi bar ist ot heext entofst agi ngar evol ut ion.
Tangany ikabecameaspr i
ngboar df ort hepr ov isi onofmoder neducat iont o
theZanzi bar is.
 Ther ewasani nfluxofi sl ander st omai nlandTangany ikaei therduet ot hel and
pressur eont hest ands,ori nsear chf orj oboppor tuni ti
es.I tcoul dal sohav e,
beenadel iber ategov er nmentpol icyt oi ntegr at emai nlander sandi slander s
asameansofnat ionbui ldingt hroughnat ional uni ty.
 TheZanzi barr ev ol ution consol i
dat ed Af ri
can mi l
itarism i nt hepol iticsof
Zanzi bar ,itst rengt henedt heposi t i
onofAf r i
cansi npol itics,whokeptt ot he
bar rel ofgunsasameanst osaf eguar dt hei rright sandf reedoms.

RWANDAREVOLUTI ONOF1959
Rwandawasf i
rstaGermancol onybutwashandedov ert
otheBel
giansaft
er
GermandefeatinWorl
dWarI .Rwandatheref
orebecameamandat
edt
errit
oryf
or
theLeagueofNati
onsbutundert
hesuper
visi
onofBelgi
um.

Bel
gium t
her
efor
eext
endedherr
uleinRwandaup-
to1962andpropagat
edthe
oppr
essi
onofthemaj
ori
tyHut
uwhoformed85%oft
hepopul
ati
onbytheminor
it
y
Tutsiwhofor
med14%ofthepopulat
ion.In1959,t
heoppr
essedHut uraiseupi
na
rebel
li
onagai
nstt
hemi
nor
it
yTutsioppresser
sandthei
rBel
gium count
erpart
s.

CAUSESOFRWANDAREVOLUTI ONOF1959
 LongTut sidominati
onofRwanda’ spol
it
ics.Foralongtimeevenbeforecolonial
rul
eRwandawasdomi natedbyaTutsiari
stocr
acyheadedbyaKi ngwiththet i
tl
e
of“Mwami ”andunderhim waschief
sandsubchi efswhower eallTut
si.Allthe
admini
strativej
obsandpr iv
il
egesbel
ongedt otheTutsiandthe1959revul
otions
was intended tor emov e Tutsidomination in poli
ti
cs and ensure equal
part
ici
pationofallet
hnicgroupsinRwanda.

 Gri
ev ancesoverlandallocationi nRwandawasunf airtotheHutudur
ingcolonial
ti
meev enbefore,landwasr esponsibi
li
tyoft heTut sit
heygrabbedgoodl and
fr
om t heHutuandmadet heHut ut opaytaxesforthelandandinsomecasest he
Tutsiwhower epast or
alistsgr azedthei
ranimal sonHut ufi
eldsandcrops.Such
sufferi
ngoftheHut uspar kedof ftheRwandar evol
uti
on1959.

 Belgium coloniall
egacy .Duri
ngcol onialr
uleofBel gi
an’
st hepolicyofconquer ,
divi
deandr ulewasusedi nwhichthemi nori
tyTut siwereelevatedattheexpense
ofthemaj orit
yHut u.TheTutsiwer eusedbyt heBel gi
um colonialcounterparts/
partnersaschi ef
satal ll
evel
s.Theyi mpliment edtheunfaircolonialpolici
esl i
ke
taxcol l
ect
ionandl abourmobilizat
ion,occupi
ed83%ofal lpostsinjudiciary
,civil
servicesofotherdepar tment
s.Asar esul
t,theTut ubecamedi scontetendt hus
the1959r evoluti
onRwandawasi nt
endedt oest abl
ishanew gov er
nmenti n
whicht heHutuwoul dalsobenef i
t.

 Theuseoff orcedlabouragai nsttheHutubytheTut sialsocausedt he1959


RwandaRev oluti
on.Duringcolonialrul
eandevenbef
or e,t
heTut siusedtof orce
theHut utosuppl yfr
eel abouronbot hpri
vat
eandgov ernmentprojectsl
iker oad
constructi
onandanot herpublicworks.Thesupervi
sionofl abourwasr uthless
andinsomecasesHut upr egnantwomenwoul devenhav emi scarri
ageswhi l
e
carr
yingoutf orcedlabour.Thi scausedal otofdiscontentamongt heHut u
makingt hem tocarryoutar evolut
ion1959.

 Thei mposit
ionofhi ghtaxesbyt heTut siadmini
str
atorsandt heirBelgium
counter
part
st owardstheHut u,al
socausedt heHututostageanuprisi
ngin1959.
TheHut uhadt opayhi ghtaxest ot heTutsiandtheBelgium yetthemet hodsof
col
lecti
on wer e al
way sruthl ess and in some cases peopl e’
s property got
destr
oyedandconf i
scatedf ornon- paymentandt hosewhot otal
lyfail
edt opay
hadtosupplyl abourforal ongt ime.I twassucheconomi cexploi
tati
onoft he
Hututhati
nstigatedthem t
oj oi narev ol
uti
onof1959.

 Thecul turalarroganceoft heTut sialsocausedt he1959Rwandar ev


olut
ion.
TheTut sitookt hemselv estobemor esuper i
ortotheHutuandclai
medt hatthey
wer edescendant sofKi ngSolomonwi t
ht heconnecti
onstoQueenShebaof
Ethiopi
a. Att hesamet i
met heyclaimed a connecti
on t
ot heChweziand
batembuziwhohadr uledthei nter
claust
ri
ner egi
mebef or
e1500. TheTut si
discouragedi ntermarri
ageswi tht heHut uandr ef
usedtoeatt hesamest aple
foodandcl ai
medt hatt heyhadaGodgi venrightt
oruleRwandawiththeHutuas
theirservants.Thistypeofet hnicarr
oganceoft heTutsimadethe1959Rwanda
revolut
ioninev i
table.

 Thedeat
hofMwamiMut ar
aI I
IinJul
y1959al
socausedtheRwandarevol
uti
on
Ki
ngMataraI
IIaTut
siwhodiedinJul
y1959hadnoheir.TheBel
giansandthe
Hutuhadagr eedthatthi
swoul dbeanoppor t
unit
ytot r
ansf
orm Rwandaf r
om a
monarchytoar epubl
icbutdur i
ngtheburialoftheking,theTutsifor
cedt he
Belgi
anpresi
dentgeneraltodeclareMut
ara’
shalf-
brotherKi
geziasthenewki ng
to Rwanda. The Hut u who weretri
ed oft he Tutsidominat
ed monar chy
demonstrat
edandt heywer eki
l
led.Thi
sforcedtheHut utot
akeupar msagainst
theTutsi
.

 Ther oleoftheCat holi


cChurchinRwanda.TheCat hol
i
cChur chplay
edar ol
ein
ari
singHut unat i
onali
sm i
nRwanda.I n1959,agroupofcat hol
icpri
estsledby
Archbishop who wr oteapast orall
ett
erdemanding forfairtr
eatmentto be
accordedtot heHutu.Besidestheycondemnedi
nequali
tiest
hatexist
edbetween
theHut uandt heTutsi. Thustheinfl
uenceoftheCat hol
i
cChur chhelpedto
arouseHut uawar enessaboutt hei
rri
ghtswhower ethenencouragedtor ebel
againsttheTutsiin1959.

 Theemer genceofHutuel i
tes.By1959whent heRwandar ev oluti
onbr okeout
theHut uhadbeenmobi l
izedbysomeel i
teslikeGregorykaibandaandJuv enal
e
Haby ar
imana. They came t or eali
zed thatt he only way t hey could save
themselvesfrom t
heTutsidomi nati
onwasbycar r
yingoutar ebelli
on.Theyal so
formedHut upoli
ti
calor
ganizationsliketheMuhut usocietytoadv ocat
ef orHutu
ri
ghts. BesidesHutueli
tespr esentedmani festotot heUN v isiti
ngmi ssionto
Rwandai nwhichtheydemandedf orfairtreatmentandoncesuchdemands
weren’tnotmetbyt heTutsiandBel gi
ans.Theymobi l
i
zedf el
low Hut ut orebel
againsttheTutsi
1959.

 Ther ol
eoft heNy abi
ngiculturealsocont ri
but edt ot heoutbreakofthe1959
Rwandar evol
uti
on.TheNy abingiculturewhi chwasspeci fi
call
ystrongamong
theHutui nNor
thernRwandaandwasar eli
gio-politi
calprot
estmov ementwhich
hadalway si
nsti
gatedt
heHut ut orebelagainstf oreigninf
luenceandoppressi
on.
The1959Rwandar evol
uti
onwast herefor
ei nfl
uencedi ni t
soutbreakbyt he
cult
uralandspi
ri
tualmovementoft heNy abi
ngi culture.

 Ther ol
ei ntheGi t
aramamassacr esoft he1959RwandaRev olut
ion. I
nthi
s
part i
culari
nci
dent,agroupTutsiethnicminori
ti
esassi
stedbytwocommandant s
attackedHut uhomest eads,destr
oy i
ngpropertyandkil
li
ngscor esoftheHutu
tr
ibesmenatGi t
arama.TheHut uinselfdefenceandintheret
ali
ationagai
nstt
he
Tut siandthei
rBelgi
ancounterpart
s.

 Therewasalsot heoutbreakoff ami nei nRwandai nthe1940’s.Inthe1940’ s


Rwandawashi tbysi xseasonsoff ami ne.Thiswasbr oughtaboutbyt hef act
thatt
heHutuwer etheonesbeingf orcedt ogrowcashcr opsli
kecoffeemeani ng
theyspentt
heirval
uabletimeincashcr opsgrowingatt heexpenseofgr owing
foodcropsmoreovertheBelgiancol oni
algov ernmentandt heTutsiari
stocracy
seemednotbot her
edt osolvethef ami neproblem inRwandat husmaki ngt he
1959revol
uti
oninRwandai nevi
table.

 Ther ol
eoft heUNO i n1957.TheUN sentacommi ssi
ont oRwandaasa
mandat edterri
toryunderBel gi
um.TheUNv isit
ingmissi
onwast henpr esented
withamani f
estobyagr oupofHut ueli
tesl edbyGr egoryKayibanda.They
demandedequaloppor tunityi
neducati
onpubl i
coffi
ce,admini
str
ati
onandcal led
forimpr ovementi ntheirsocialeconomi c condi
ti
ons.The UN t hen made
recommendat i
ons which condemned col onial
ism and call
ed upon col onial
mast ersli
keBel gium tocar ryoutref
ormsandoncesuchr ef
ormswer enot
carri
edoutt heHutuuprisingbecameinevi
table.
 Socialsegregat i
onagainsttheHut ubyt heTut
sial
sol edt ooutbreakofthe1959
Rwandar evoluti
on.TheBel giansgavethebesthospitals,housesandschool s,
to
theTutsiandonl yaf ewchi l
drenoft heHutuwenttoschoolandi nsomecases
droppedoutbecauseofl ackoff ees.TheBelgiangover nmentnev erbotheredto
educatetheHut ubecauset heywer eseenasmer elabor ers.Thusthedesi reby
theHututohav eequali
tyi
nsoci alservi
cesli
keseducationandheal thsparkedof f
theHutuupr i
singof1959.

EFFECTSOFTHERWANDAREVOLUTI ON
 Ther evolut
ionmanagedt oendt helongTutsidomi nationatRwandapoli
ti
cs.
Thust heoccurr enceofthe1959Rwandar evoltbr
oughtt oanendoftheTutsi
ari
stocracyunderMwamiKi ganiI Ithe Hutu also gotchance to cont
rol
Rwanda’ spoli
ticsf i
rstunderpresidentGregoryKay ebanda(1962–1973)and
whenl aterJuvenal Habyari
manawhor ul
edRwandaaspr esi
dent
.

 Therevol
tendedwi thapopul
arfeudalsystem t
hatexi
stedi
nRwandaforso
l
ong.Accordingly
,landwasre-
distri
but
edwi t
hHutualsogotchancetoown
l
andf orthefir
sttime.Thesocial,pol
it
icalandeconomicstr
uctur
eswere
repl
acedbydemocr at
ici
nst
it
uti
ons.

 Ther ev ol
uti
onpavedwayf orRwanda’
si ndependencewhichwasgr ant
edon
st
1 Jul y1962byBel gi
um.Af t
ertherevoluti
ontheBelgiansst ar
tedgranting
polit
icalconcessions (r
eforms)t othe Hut u. Forinstance in 1960,t he
Belgiansor gani
zedelecti
onswhi chforcedoutt heTutsimonar chychi efl
y
positions and postsin admi ni
str
ati
on wer e al
so extended tot he Hut u
subsequent l
y Rwanda got t heirindependence as a r epubl
ic.Gr egory
Kay i
bandaasRwanda’ sfir
stpresi
dent.

 Ther ev
oluti
onalsoupli
ft
edt hesocialeconomicstatusoftheHut u,soci
all
y
theybecameemanci pat
edast heybecamet hei
rownmast ersotherthanthe
slav
eoft heTutsi
.Dur i
ng ther egi
meofHaby ari
mana1973 – 1994,t he
governmentconcentrat
ed on soci alservi
ces li
ke educati
on and health
expandedandwer epromoted.Ef for
tsweremadet ocombatf aminethrough
agri
cult
uralr
efor
mswhi chincreasedfoodproducti
on.

Negat
iveeffects
 The revoluti
on incr
eased the refuge crisisi n neighbouri
ng count
ri
es li
ke
Uganda,Congo, BurundiandTangany i
kat ot heext entthatby1994,t
herewere
aboutthr eemilli
onTut sirefugeesint hegr eatlakesr egi
on. A partfr
om
becomingabur dentothehostcount ri
es, theseref ugeesbecameasour ceof
poli
ti
calinstabi
l
itywherevertheysettl
edliket heent erahamweofCongo.

 Ther evolut
ion al
so l
ead t
o massivelossofli
vesduet o calcul
ated and
del
iberatemassivemassacreoftheTutsi
.Theywerebutcheredandhunt ed
down f r
om camps wher et hey wer
el i
vi
ng whi
ch i
ntr
oduced politi
cs of
genocideinRwanda.

 Therevol
utionled tothefor
mationofgueril
l
agr oups/organi
sat
ionsin
nei
ghbori
ngcount r
iesfori
nst
ancetheTutsiwhof l
edtoBurundif
ormeda
guer
ri
ll
agr oupknownast hecockroach,andalsoRPFwhichoccasional
l
y
l
aunchedattacksontheHut
uledgover
nmentbackhome.

 I
tledtot hepeppet
uat
ionofdict
ator
shi
pinRwandafr
om thev er
ystar
tof
Gregor
y kai
yi
banda’
sr ul
ein 1962.Dict
ator
shi
prev
ealed i
tsel
fin pr
ess
censorshipandwhenKay ibandadeclar
edhi msel
fastheonlycandidatetorun
forpresidenti
nanel ecti
on.Heal soarrestedanumberofj ournali
stswho
negoti
atedt hefaminesituat
ioninRwandawhenJuv enalcamet opoweri n
1973,heal sobannedallopposi
ti
onpol i
ti
calpart
iesandt hi
swasdi ct
ator
ship
atit
swor st.

 Therevolut
ionworsenedtri
balt
ensionandhat r
edbetweentheTutsiandt he
Hutu. Thisevenmani fest
editsel
fi nneighbour
ingcountr
iesli
keBur undi
wheresoldi
ersovert
hrewtheHutu,kil
l
inganumberoft hem i
ntheprocess.In
1972inturnmadetheHut uinRwandat oki
l
l t
heTutsi
.

 Ther evol
tledt
ointroduct
ionofpol
iti
csofgenoci
deinRwanda.TheHutu
whoassumedpol i
ti
calpoweraf t
ert
her ev
oltembar
kedonaprogr
ammeof
prosecuti
ngtheTutsiandt hi
scont
inuedforalongti
meallmovi
nginthe
Rwandagenocideof1994

 Therevel–pr omotedneo–col onial


i
sm inRwanda.TheBel gium whower e
theformercoloni
almaster
satRwandaandt heFr enchtooladvantageofthe
poli
ti
calcri
sisinRwandaandtheycont i
nuedinf
luencingthesocial
,economic
andpolit
icsofthecount
ryunderthepret
extofpacifyi
ngthecountry.

THE1990–1994GENOCI DEINRWANDA/REVOLUTI ON/I NVASI ON


TheRwandaI nvasionbegani n1990Oct ober
,whent heRPAC( RwandesePeopl e’s
ArmyFr ont)launched an i nvasi
on f rom Uganda undert he leadership ofFr ed
Rigyemaal t
houghhewaski ll
edl at
er. Apeaceagr eementwasr eachedbet ween
Haby ar
imanaandRPAi nAugust1992,buti twasshor tl
i
v edsinceHaby ari
mana
bl
ockedt hereturnofTut sii
nthemi l
i
tar yactonandon6th Apr
i i
l1994,Haby ari
mana
and Cy pr i
an Nt abyamira and pr esi
dent of Bur undidied i n a pl ane cr ush.
Subsequent lywidespr eadv i
olentactionswer eor ganizedbyt heHut uagai nstthe
Tutsiwhichusher edingenocideandt hiswasf ol
lowedbyt hev i
ctor
yoft heRPFi n
July1994.

CAUSESOFTHERWANDAGENOCI DE
 For mati
onoft hecockroachmov ementi
ntheRPF.Thi
swasaguer i
l
lagroup
oftheTutsir
efugeesinBurundiwhodetest
edthenewHut
uleader
shi
p.Itlai
d
afoundati
onfortheformati
onoft heRPFwhichmadet
heRwandainvasi
onof
1990–1994i nevi
tabl
e.

 Longtermtradit
ionalhatr
edbetweentheTutsiandHutu.Thishatr
edwas
evi
dencedinNy abingicul
tur
e,therel
i
giousprot
estmov ementamongthe
Hutuwasasi gnthatthetwotri
beswereopposedtoeachother.Thi
smade
theHututobegi nhuntingdowntheTut sii
nwhatwasr ef
err
edtoasthe
Rwandagenocide.

 Tutsicultur
alar rogance,i tshouldbenot edthattheTut sial
wayscar r
ied
themselvesassuper ior,bel
iev i
ngthemselvesashavingdiv
inepowerstorule
overtheHutur efusingt oeatt hesamest apl
efoodast heHutuandprohi
bit
ing
anyf or
m ofi ntermar ri
agebet weent hetwot r
ibes.Thismadet heHutut o
defertotheTut sileadingtot hegenocideof1990–94.

 Thedictat
or shipofHutuleaders.Kayi
bandawhowast hef ir
stpresi
dentof
Rwandapr acticedt
ri
balinj
usti
cesagainsttheTutsiminori
ti
es.Lateri
n1973
whenHaby arimanacamet o power,heconsoled t
hepr ess,arrest
ed and
det
ainedTut siwhoweresuspect edtobeanti–Hut uleadershipt
hroughthe
Tutsihad al so gov
erned Rwanda i
n a si
mil
arway . They cal
l
ed f
or
consti
tut
ionalanddemocrati
cref
ormscausi
ngtheRwandai
nvasi
onof1990
–94.

 The massi v
e massacre oft he TutsibyHaby ar
ima. The wars ofHut u
l
eadershipwer echar
acterizedbyrev engeagainsttheTutsi–Hutuleaders
cal
ledfortheex-t
erminati
onoft heTut sii
nthe1970,80sandnearl
y1990’
st o
theTutsitheartofdeli
berateexter
minat i
onoftheirracef
orcedt
hem topick
uparmsagai nstt
heHut uin1990.

 Habyarimanar efusedtoal l
ow theTut sitor et
urnhome.Hecl ai
medthat
Rwandawasov erpopulatedtheandt herewasnor oom forTut
siref
ugees
from exi
le.Thi
scausedr esent
mentamongt heTutsiexi
l
eesandcompelled
them topursueami li
tar
ist
icapproachagainsttheHutubetween1990–94.

 Thedeat hofHaby ar
imanai n1994waswhatspar kedof ft
hegenoci
de.When
Haby ar
imanaandBur undi’
spr esi
dentCypri
anNt aryamiradi
edi naplane
crush,Habyar
imana, deaththerefor
eservedasat err
ibl
eblowtotheHutuwho
forfearoft heirown l i
ves began ki
ll
i
ng ethnic Tutsi
. However,ital
so
faci
li
tatedt
hev i
ctoryoft heR.P.FwhotookcontrolofKigal
i.

 The weaknessesoft he O.A.


U.Itfail
ed to end the r
ival
riesthatexist
ed
betweenthetri
balgr
oupsandt owipeouttherebelact
ivi
ti
esbr eezedinsome
ofthemembercount r
iesl
ikeRwanda,Bur undiandZaire( DRC)( Pani
c)/a
bl
indeyet othemissi
onari
esy eti
twasf or
medt oensuret hattherewereno
ci
vilwar
s,itwasaweakbody ).

 Fai
l
ur ebytheUNO todiff
useethni
ctensionbet weent
heHutuandTut si
.
Hardl
ydidtheUNOint
erf
ereint
hepolit
icalcr
isisi
nRwanda.I
tther
efor
ejust
watchedonastheHut
uandTutsiki
ll
edeachot her
.

 Pol i
ti
calharassmentoftheTutsii
nmostcountri
es.ManyTutsir
efugeeswho
fl
edt oneighbori
ngstat
el i
keUganda,DRCwereregardedasasecurit
ythr
eat.
PresidentOboteevencalledfort
heirr
epat
ri
ati
oninZaire,t
heywereregar
ded
as weal t
h plunder
s. Itf or
ced t
hem to seektor etur
n home hence t
he
revol
ution.

 Economicandsocialhardshi
psuffer
edbyt heTut siinexile. Theywer e
employedi
nlowesteem j
obsast oi
l
etcleaner
s,ti
l
lersoflandandher dsman.
Thusthedesi
ret
heendt hissuff
eri
ngandr evi
vetheirpr
eciousstatusmade
the1940–94rev
oluti
oninevit
abl
e.

 Theri
seofcharismat i
cTut
sileader
sel
it
eslikeRugyemaFred,PaulKagame
andBihy
enyezi
et c.whohadacquir
edmil
i
tarytr
aini
ngandwhoappearheaded
thef
ormati
onofR. P.FmadetheRwandarev
oluti
onof1990–94i nev
itabl
e.

CONSEQUENCES/EFFECTSOFTHEGENOCI DES
 TheTut siregai
nedpoli
ti
calpowersi
nRwanda. TheR.P.
Fthentookov
er
power
,fi
rstunderpr
esi
dentPast
eurBi
zi
mungul
aterPaul
Kagame.

 Pr
esidentJuvenelHabyari
mana died i
nthe pl
ane cr
ush at
tackKar
ambe
ai
rportt
hislef
tapowerv acuum whichwasexpl
oit
edbytheR.P.Ft
opeopl
e
whowentt hr
oughtheHuturegi
mefrom power
.
 I
tint
ensi
fi
edt
heref
ugeecri
sisinnei
ghoughi
ngcount
ri
esli
keUganda,Zai
re
(
DRC)whil
eot
her
ssoughtpr
otect
ioni
nU.S.AandWest
ernEur
ope.

 I
ti nt
ensi
fi
edneo-colonial
ism inRwandat oreigngovernmentli
keBel
gium,
FranceandUSAbegani nt
er f
eri
ngdirect
lyi
nt heinter
nalaff
air
sofRwanda
underthepref
ectofextendingreli
efandhumani t
ari
anandinordert
opacify
Rwanda.

 Thecrisi
sexposedtheweaknessesoftheUNO anditsdoublestandar
ds.
Thisworl
dpeacekeepi
ngbodyportr
ayedalukewar
m at
ti
tudeasfi
ghti
ngand
genoci
deunt
oldinRwanda.

 Ital
soexposedtheweaknessoftheOAUasamemberst at
eofthebodyt
ook
sidewi
ththeethni
cdi
ffer
encesandacti
vi
ti
esofr
espect
ivet
ri
bes.

 A UN tri
bunalwasest abl
ishedbasedinAustr
ia,Tanzani
a,in1966sever
al
personsresponsibl
eformastermindi
ngt
hegenocidewereti
redi
ncourt
sand
othersweresentencedtodeath.

 At r
uthandreconci
li
ati
oncommi ssionwasestabl
i
shedinRwandatohelp
bri
ngharmonybetweentheTut
siandt heHut
usandtohel
pthet
wogroupsof
peoplet
ofor
getthepastandmovef orwar
d.

 I
tcausedalotofpol
i
tical
inst
abi
l
iti
esi
nthegr
eatl
akesr
egi
onf
ori
nst
ancet
he
R.
P.Fsupport
edAntiMovementfor
cesi
nD.R.
C.

THE1969LI BYANCOUP
Libyaatt
ainedherindependencein1951fr
om Ital
y.Itwasgivenindependence
partl
ybecauseofi nf
luenceoftheUNObutal sopart
lybecauseofPr o-
Western
kingcoul
dkeptt hesovi
etUnionoutofLi
byahadbeenfoundinthenamesofKi ng
Idri
s

TheLi byancoupof1969waspl annedandcar ri


edoutbyt hef r
eeUni onist
st
Organizati
ons(FUOs)on1 Sept ember1969andi twasl edbya29y earol d
majorMaummerGadaf fi
.Thecoupt ookplace10yearsaftert
heyhadbegunt o
pl
anf oritwhileGadaff
iwasstil
lasecondaryschoolstudenti
nt hedeserttown
ofSebhai nwhichtheFreeUnioni
stOrgani
zati
ons(FUOs)ov erthrewtheLibyan
Monar chyunderKi
ngIdri
s1.

CAUSESOFTHECOUP
 KingI dri
swaspr o-
westernandPr o-USAwhenhebecameheadofst ate,he
continuedt oall
ow theAmer icanst ousewheelusairf
iel
dont heoutskirtsof
TripoliwhichtheAf ri
canshaddev el
opedduri
ngt hewor l
dwar11.Heal so
approv edwheni tbecameat rai
ninggroundforNATO andi npart
icularfor
Amer icanlongrangebomber sst udentsprot
esttheneruptedinoppositi
ont o
theex ploi
tati
onofwheel us.Theyhadbeenempower edbyt heNasser i
sm &
PanAr abi
sm whichforcedthem toquest i
onI
dri
scloset i
eswitht
hewest .

 TheLi byancoupof1969wasal soar esul


tofKingIdr
ismisguidedeconomi c
poli
cies. Forinstancein1967hi sgov er
nmentattemptedtomoder nizeits
operationsbybri
nginginforei
gnt ecnocrat
sint
othecabinetandcivi
lservants,
att
empt swerealsomadet oenl argeandequipt hearmy . However,these
ref
ormswer emi norandt ool atetomeett hepeople’
sexpect at
ionshence
makingLi byancoup0f1969i nevit
able.
 By1961.Ki ngIdri
s’governmenthaddev elopedsy mptomsofcor ruptionand
briberyespeciall
yaf t
ert he di
scover
yofoi li n Libyaint he 1950’ sthi
s
cor r
uptionhadbeenpr ompt edbyanemer gingmi ddlecl
asswhi chabusedi t
s
highof ficeplacementf orbusinessf ortunes,t heyi nv
estedtheiri l
l-
got
ten
weal t
hi npropert
yandl argeestatesandnot hingwasdonet oimprov eonthe
i
ndust ri
alsectorofLiby a.Consequentlysocialism begant odevelopont he
Industri
alsectorofLibyanconsequent l
ycol oniali
sm begant odev elopwhich
thent ooktheform ofacoupbyGadhaf i
’sf r
eeuni onistoff
icersi
n1969.

 Theinfluenceofsocial
ism amongLi byanst
udentsandjuniorarmyof f
icers.
Theywant edLibyanr
esourcesl
ikealltobesharedt
othebenefitofLi
byansas
awhol e,thust heLiby
ancoupnot esunderGadhafiintendedt ocreatea
soci
ali
stsocietybasedont heQuranandi nl
inewit
hthe1952soci al
istrevolt
i
nEgy ptstart
edbyNasser.

 Theexpl oitationofLi by a’
soi lresour cesforeigner swasal soanot hercauseof
the 1969 Li byan case. Thi s was neo- coloniali
sm ati t
s wor stand was
resentedbyt hef reeuni onistofficer sl
edbyGadhaf i
.Af tert hediscov eryofoil
i
nLi by ainthe1950’ st herewasani nfl
uxofAmer icansandBr it
ishwhocame
toLi byatot akeadv antageoft hesenewdi scover i
es,Ki ngi drisdi dnot hi
ngto
stopt he expl oitati
onofLi byanoi lresour
cesbyf or ei
gncompani es.Social
i
st
agitatorsther eforeemer gedi nLi by awhowant edt hei
roi lresour cest obefar
thebenef itoft heLi by anpopul ationasawhol e. Thusf ail
urebyt heIdri
s
admi nist
rationt opr eventexpl oit
at ionofLibyanoi lresour cesbyf or ei
gnersled
totheLi byancoupof1969.

 Gadhafi’
sambi ti
onf orpoweralsoencouragedhi
mt ostageacoupinLibyain
1969. Hi sambi t
ionhadst art
eddur i
nghi ssecondaryschooldayswhile
studyi
ngi nt hedeser ttownofSebha. Heev enabandonedhi suniv
ersi
ty
studi
esandj oi
nedami lit
aryski
ll
stoenabl ehi
m stageasuccessfulcoup.
Gadhafi’
sr easonedt hatt hemili
tar
ywarwast hebestwayt o achi
evea
revol
uti
on,het herefor
espent10y earspl
anningonhowt oovert
hrowtheIdr
is
governmentinLi bya.

 TheLi byanmonar chywasaut omat icandr uledbyt hedictatorshi


pofKi ng
Idr
isIwhor uledbycli
queofdesput es.Thegov ernmentbecamedomi natedby
atribunalcl i
queofnobl esandf amil
yf r
iends.Theki ngonlycont rolledthe
cabinett hrough the help ofthe prime mi nist
erand wi t
hinay earaf t
er
i
ndependencet hegov ernmentbanned t hepr ogressi
veNat ionalCongr ess
Partyfort heallegedcrimeofwinninganel ectionthiswasdi ctat
orshipatits
worst,asi tuati
onwhi chGadhaf icapit
ali
zedandst agedacoupagai nstthe
Idr
isgover nmenti n1969.

 Theinfl
uenceofNassai sm andtheArabi
sm amongy oungeducat
edLibyans.
Theywant edLiby
at otakeinit
sr i
ght
fulpl
aceamongt heArabcountri
esand
toacheiv
et hisNassertrai
nedGadaffiasarevol
uti
onist
.ThismadeGadaf fi
wantt obr i
ngasoci alchangei nLi
by ali
kethatbroughttoEgy ptbythe
Egypt
iancoupof1952.

 Thei nf
luenceofIsl
amicfundamentali
sm alsocrushedthe1969Libyancoup
thr
ough Li byan of
fi
cers who staged t he 1969 Li
byan coup had been
i
nfluencedbyt hewaveofIslami
cpur i
ficati
onthatwassweepingacrossthe
Arabwor ldattheti
me.ThusGadaf f
ifarmor ethanNasserofEgyptint
ended
tocreateaf ull
y-
fl
edgedIsl
amicstatefoundedont hestri
ctpri
nci
plesofthe
Qur
an,
hencel
eadi
ngt
otheLi
byancoupof1969.

 TheLibyancoupof1969waral sostagedwi ththepur


poseofbr ingingabout
moderni
zati
onandt ransf
ormati
onoft heLi byansoci
etybybatteringoft he
l
ivesofLiby
ansasGadhaf ihimselfwrot
e;“Oursoulswer einresultagai nst
thebackwardnessenv el
oping oursoci
et yitsland wherebestgi ftsand
ri
ches and were being l
ostthrough plunderand againstt he i sol
ation
i
mposedonourpeopl einatt
emptt ohol ditbackf r
om thepat hofAr ab
peopl
e…”

 Theinf
luenceofear li
ercoupsinAfri
caalsoi nf
luencedtheoutbreakoft he
1959Li
by ancoupi .
e.the1963coupinTogo,1965coupi nAlgeri
aandCongs,
1966coupi nNigeri
aandGhana.Thecouppr ovi
dedapower fuli
nspirat
ionto
theUni
oni stOffi
cerLibyaandcamet oreal
i
zet hatt heonl
ywayt heycould
causeasoci al
changeinLibyawasthr
oughacoup.

 Gadhafialsostayedacoupi n1969wi ththeaim ofcorr


ect
ingNati
onalUnity
Gadaff
iwasbor ninSir
teandJalloudcamef rom Oasi
sareaofFezzan.They
werethereforedeter
minedtobr i
ngallLibyanstoget
hertostr
ivef
orNat i
onal
Uni
ty. Thiswoul denablefullutil
i
zat
ionofLi bya’
sresour
cesbyal lpeopl
e
i
ncludi
ngt hoseindesertar
eas.

 Thephy si
calweaknessofKingIdr
isser v
edt oencourageacoupi nLibyain
1969.Becauseofhi sphysi
calweaknesspowerhadshi ft
edt ohisyounger
brotherAbdulAzizwhoal sodidnothingtocontai
nt heactiv
iti
esofthefree
unionistoffi
cers. TheFUOswer eev en abl
eto capturer adi
o st
ati
on of
Benghaziandt hemili
tar
ycoupofGur nadewi t
hveryli
ttl
eresi
stancefr
om the
I
drisar my.

REASONSFORTHESUCCESSOFTHE1969LI BYANCOUP
 Thel ongperi
odofst r
ategicplanningwhi chwasstartedbyGadhafi19y ear
s
beforethecoupt ookplace,aftersecondaryschool,Gadhaf
ijoi
nedami l
i
tar
y
academi cpurposelytoequi phimsel fwi t
hthenecessaryskill
st ostatea
successfulcoup.Asignif
icantnumberofGadhaf i
’sclassmateatthemi l
i
tar
y
academy ,theclassthatgr aduatedin1963l ikeMaj orJal
loudwer ekeyin
planningfort
hecoupleadingt oitssuccessin1969.

 Therewasalsot her ol
eoft hefragi
lemili
tar
ystr
engthoftheLibyanar my
off
icer
swhohadj ustemergedfr
om defeatduri
ngt
heIsraeli
nvasi
onin1967.
Commonl yknownast hesixday’swar. Suchmili
tar
yweaknessofLi byan
for
ceswasabl essingtothefr
eeunioni
stoff
icer
swhothensucceededinthei
r
coupin1969.

 Thest rategicdayof1st and2nd Nov ember1969t hatwascl oserfort he


stagi
ngoft heLibyancoupandi tl
edtoi t
ssuccess.Itwasadaywel lknown
by the FUO’ s when Ki ng Idris was outoft he count
ry and report
edly
hospit
alizedi nTurkey.Besides2nd September1967waswhenLi byaJunior
Armyof ficerswer etobepost edforcoursesinBri
tai
nthusthecouppl ot
ters
andlit
tl
er esistanceleadi
ngtot hei
rsuccess.

 Thehi ghdegreeofsecrecyexhibi
tedbythef r
eeunioni
stoffi
cer
salsohelped
forthesuccessi ntheircoup.Theyf or
medacel lorgani
zati
ont omaintai
n
secrecyandbesides,theydeniedthemselvescer
tai
nent er
tai
nmentlikeni
ght
clubandal coholbutconductedthemselvesinsuchawayt hattheydidnot
at
tr
actat
tent
ionofsuspensi
onandf
rust
rat
ethei
rcouppl
ans.

 Theassist
anceoffer
edbyNassertotheLibyancoupplott
ersal
soledtothei
r
success.NasserofEgyptstar
tedinf
luenci
ngGadhaf iandhisfol
lower
st o
carr
youttherevol
uti
onandgavethem subst
anti
alsupport
.

EFFECTSOFTHELI BYANCOUP
 Itl
edt otheintr
oductionofagui di
ngphil
osophyoft he3rd uni
ver
saltheory
(I
slamicsoci
ali
sm)whi chrepl
acedwhatGadhaf f
irefer
redtoasdi scr
edited
doctr
inesofcaptai
nandcommuni cati
on.I
nt heeffectofthetheor
yadopt ed
for
msofcul t
uralpol
it
icalandeconomicnat
ional
ism inLi
bya.

 Thecoupusher edinani ndustri


alrev olut
ioni nLiby a.Thiswasachi eved
throughaf i
vey earplanin1976.In1980whenemphasi swasputonindust r
ial
dev elopmenti nheav yandl ightindustries.Thought hepopulat
ionofLi bya
wasal owthousandoff orei
gnmanager sandt echnoratswererecui
tedf r
om
thewestandI slamiccount r
iesandot hersf r
om nei ghbouri
ngcountri
esl i
ke
Tuni siaandEgy ptallref
ineri
es,chemical ,al
uminum, plasti
c,cementandf ood
processi ngindustri
eswer esuccessfullyestablished.Mostoft hem werer un
byst ateagenciesalmostent irel
yexcludingthepr ivat
esector.

 Ther evol
uti
onal soledtoincreaseinoilproducti
oni nLibya.I
nfactLibya
th
becamet he5 l eadi
ngoilpr
oducerintheOPECoi l
.Producti
onhiti
tspeakin
theear l
y1970’ sin Li
bya’
soi lreser
vequadr apped. By1980 pr oduct
ion
capacit
ywas2. 5mi l
li
onbarr
elsperdayandby1973Li byahadbecomeev ery
i
nfluencti
almemberoft heOPEC.Theoi lsectoraloneaccountedforabout
50%ofLi byaG.D.P

 TheLi
byancoupusher edinat
ransportrev
olut
ion.Roadsfrom di
ff
erentparts
wereimprovedasar esul
tofthecoup.Thi simpactedpositi
vel
yonot her
i
nfr
astr
uctur
elikeschoolandhospit
als.Thisimprovedont heinf
rastr
ucture
r
d
ofl
ocalLi
byanmakingLi by
amodelofall3 worldcountr
ies.

 Li
byaalsor egi
ster
edsuccessinfoodsecur i
ty.Thiswasduet othefactthata
l
otofemphasi swasputont heagr i
cul
turalsector.By1980Libyawasal ready
sel
f-suf
fi
cientandwasnoti mporti
ngfoodst uffs.Thiswasagr eatfactorfor
economicandpol iti
cali
ndependenceforexampl ecer ealpr
oducti
onj umped
fr
om 40,000met ri
ctonesin1969to200,000met r
ictonesby1978.

 TheLiby
ancoupalsousher edinl andref
orm pol i
cyinLiby a.Thef orm ofland
recl
amati
on. Thi s was t hrough irri
gation around t he Jaf fara Plains.
Affor
est
ati
onwasal soundert akentopr ov i
dewi ndbr eaksandr educesoi l
erosi
on.Besidesl
ivest
ocki mpr ovementski l
lswer ealsounder taken.Duet o
suchdevelopmentsmallhol dingandco- operati
vesbenef i
tedf rom allthe
devel
opmentastheycarri
edoutmar keti
ngonpr ovi
dingfer t
il
izer
s.

 Therewast ransf
ormati
onandi mprovementi nLiby
a’ssoci
alser
vicesl i
ke
healt
handeducationforexamplef
reemedi ci
newaspr ovi
dedtoal
lLibyans.
Eventual
l
yTBcasesdr oppedbymor ethan80%.I n1971educati
oni nLibya
wasmadef r
eeandcompul sor
yandt hi
sincreasedonthenumberofschool
goingchi
ldr
en.

 The1969Li
byancoupalsor
esul
tedi
ntowomenemancipati
onLibyamor
e
thanAr
abst
oreelev
atedwoment ol
eader
shi
pposi
ti
ons. Actual
l
ywomen
becamemor epr
efer
redt
omanaget hei
nnerpr
esi
dent
ial
guardofGadhaf
iand
dominatedtheLiby
ancivi
lser
vices. Thi
swasunhear dofinotherArab
count
ries.

 TheLi byancoupal sol


edt oreducti
onofi ll
i
t eracyratesofthecountry.This
wasmadepossi bl
eduet ot heprovisionoff reeeducat i
onf r
om primaryto
universi
ty.Thiswasachievedduet ocentral
izedpl anningandmanagementof
oilresources. Theproceedsf r
om oi lweret henusedt oprovideeducat
ion
requir
ementf ortheci
ti
zenoft hecountry.

 TheLi byancoup also led t


o usheri
ng inacultur
alrevi
val.From 1969 a
processofcul t
uralrevi
valwasembar kedonwhichinvol
veddest r
oyi
ngall
formsofi mportedideol
ogyf r
om thewestandeast.TheIslamicwaswi del
y
adapted.Alcoholwasser i
ousl
yprohi
bitedtheRomanscri
ptwasbanned.

 The1969Li byancoupl edtot heriseofnewi deol ogyofJamahiry


a( afarm of
Isl
amicsoci al
i
sm)Jamahi r
yacamet omeant hest ateofthemasseswher e
peoplewer edi r
ectl
yananswer abletot heaspectoft hei
rcountry. The
governmentt hen recognized law admi nist
rat i
on ofLi bya was then re-
str
uctured and waspy r
ami dalin nature ofl eadershi
p where powerwas
concentrat
edinthehandsoft helocalpeopleandnott hecentr
algovernment.
Allt
hey ear
swer einvol
vedinLi bya’sconst
itut
ion.

 Thecoupalsopromot eddict
atorshi
pduringthereignofGadhafi
.Allpoli
ti
cal
powerswererestedinhim byLibya’
sconsti
tuti
on.Therefor
eGadhafibecame
Li
byaandLi byabecameGadhaf itotheextentthatLi
byansbeli
evedthatthey
coul
dn’tsur
viv
ebey ondGadhafi.

 Gadhaf
i’
srul
ebecamecont r
over
siali
nsuppor
ti
ngrebelacti
vi
tiesi
ncountr
ies
l
ikeChadwerehesupportedtheFRONLINATrebel
sagainsttheTombalboye
andTheNRAr ebel
sunderMuseveni
.

NATI ONALISM I NPORTUGUESEAFRI CA


Portugalwast heearl
iestcol oni
almast eri
nAf r
icabutthelasttoleav e.Por
tuguese
col
oni esi
ncl udedMozambi que,Angola,GuineaBi ssau,CapeVer de,SaoTomeand
Pri
ncipe.ThePor tugueseusedr epr
essivemet hodstoadmi nist
ert hesecolonies,
whichpartlydel ay
edt heirindependence.Africansusedpeacef ulmeanst odemand
fortheirindependencebutf ai
l
ed.Theyt her eforeresor
tedtoar medr esi
stances
againstPortuguesecol onies.

Thef
act
orst
hatdel
ayedi
ndependencei
nthePor
tuguesecol
oni
esi
ncl
uded;

ReferenceQuest ion
1.Accountf orthedelayedi ndependenceofGui neaBissau/Mozambi que/Angol a
2.Exami net hechal l
engesf acedbynat i
onali
stsinGui neaBissau/Mozambi que
/Angolaint hestrugglef orindependence
3.Discusst hepr oblemsaf fectedbyt hePAI GC/FRELI MO/MPLAi nthestruggle
againstPor t
ugueseadmi nistration
 ThePor tugueset reatedt heircoloniesasov erseasterri
tories,whichdelayed
theiri
ndependence.I n1951, thePortugueseleaderDonSal azarsmuggledt hi
s
issueofAf r
icancol oni es,tober egardedas' overseast erri
tori
es'i
ntot he
Portugueseconst itut
ion.I tther
efore,becamei ll
egaltogr anttheseprovinces
independencewi thoutamendi ngt heconstit
uti
on.
 Thepr esenceofast rongspynet wor ki nt hePor tuguesecol oni esdel ay ed
thei ri ndependence.Por tugalhadast r ongef ficientandcoer civesecr etpol ice
known as PI DE t hatpenet rat ed t he ant i-Por tuguese act iv i
ties.The PI DE
ar rest edanddet ained,t or tur edandsomet i
mesassassi nat edAf ri
canl eader s;
Edwar doMondl aneofMozambi quewasel imi nat edi n1968whi leAmi lcar
Cabr aiof Bi ssau i n 1973.Such act ivities of t he PI DE af fect ed t he
i
ndependencest ruggl esi nPor tuguesecol oni es.
 The mi l
itary super iority oft he Por tuguese cont r i
but ed t ot he del ay ed
i
ndependenceofPor tugueseAf rica.Por tugalwasmi li
tar il
ypower fuli nher
or gani sation,t rai ningandequi pmentcompar edt ot hel i
ber at i
onmov ement s
i
nhercol onies.I twast her ef or e,di fficultf orAf ri
canst ohav eaf astmi li
tar y
vict oryov ert hePor tuguesecol oni al admi nist rat i
on.
 Por tugalpossessed af ew col oni esi n Af rica,whi ch shewascapabl eof
cont rol l
ing,unl ikeot hercol oni almast ersl ikeBr itainandFr ance.Att hesame
time due t o possessi on ofa f ew col oni es,Por tugalwas notwi l
ling t o
sur renderanyoft hem f ormaj or lyeconomi c mot ives,and t hi s del ay ed
i
ndependenceoft hesecol oni es.
 Thesuppor trecei vedbyPor t
ugalf rom t heNor thAt lant i
cTr eatyOr gani sation
(NATO)wasaset backt oi ndependenceat tainmenti nPor tuguesecol onies.
Duet of earofcommuni stor ient edl iber ationmov ement si .e.t hePopul ar
Mov ementf ort heLi ber at ionofAngol a( MPLA) ,t heAf r
icanI ndependence
Par tyf orGui nea Bi ssau and Cape Ver de ( PAI GC)and t he Mozambi can
Liber at i
onFr ont( FRELI MO) ,theNATOsuppor tedPor t
ugali nf orm ofmor al,
financi aland mi litary ai d.Thi s weakened Af rican r esi stance wher eas
Por tugueser ulewasst rengt hened.
 Lackofexposur et onat ional istici deasamongt heAf ri
cansi nPor tuguese
col oni es del ay ed t hei ri ndependence.Af ricans wer e deni ed anyext ernal
cont act s;l i
ber alpr essr epor t
sandl iter atur et hatappear edant i-col oni alwer e
banned whi l
e ex ter nal ,j our ney s bynat i
onal i
stl eader s wer el imi ted.The
Por tuguesehadaccesst oAf ricanmai l
sandt elegr amst hatl eftt heAf ri
cans
att hemer cyoft hecol oni al mast er s.
 Lack of const itutional av enues t o enabl e i ndependence at tainment
cont ribut edt ot hel at edecol oni sat ionofPor tugueseAf rica.Af ricanswer enot
giv en anychancet o par tici pat ei n pol i
ticalaf f
air s,t her ewasno Af ri
can
par liament aryr epr esent at ion and y etAf ri
can pol iticalor gani sat i
ons wer e
out lawed.Al lthesehi nder edt hedev elopmentofnat ional ism i nPor tuguese
Af rica.
 Theconser v ati
v er uleofDr .DonSal azar( 1928- 68)del ayedt hei ndependence
ofPor tuguesecol oni es,DonSal azarwasnotpr epar edt ogr antanyf r eedom
toAf ricansi nPor tuguesecol oni es,andwasopposedt oanyl iber ali deas,
whi chwoul df av ourmaj or i
t yr ul ei nPor tugueseAf rica.Hi sr egi mewor ked
agai nstAf ricani ndependence.
 Ther ut hlesspol iciesofPor tugueseadmi ni st ratorswer eanot herf act ort hat
del ay ed decol oni sat ion of Por tuguese col oni es i n Af r
ica.The col oni al
aut hor itymer cilessl ysuppr essednon- vi
ol ent -demonst rations,pr ot est sand
str i
kesbyAf r
icans.Aboutf orty -ni neLour encoMar quesdockwor ker swer e
shotdeaddur ingast rikei nMozambi que, fiftyBi ssaudockwor ker swer eal so
shotdeadi nast rikei nGui neaBi ssauwhi leaboutt wohundr edAngol answer e
killedi ndiscr imi nat el yf orpr ot est ingagai nstt hear restandpubl icf loggi ngof
Agust inho Net o.Such measur es di scour aged Af ricans f r om engagi ng i n
nat ional i
st i
cact ivities.
 Intr oduct ionofr ehabi li
tat ioncent er s( reser v es)byt hePor tuguese; thesel ater
becameconcent rat ioncampswher enat ional istsandot herpeopl esuspect ed
ofsuppor ti
ngnat ional ist i
cact ivit
ieswer et aken,i nter r
ogat ed,t or tur edand
somet i
meski lled.Thesef or t
ifiedv ill
agesi ncludedonei nt heZambeziv alley
wher e Mozambi cans wer e cur tailed i nl arge number s.The Por t uguese
coloni aladmi nist rat or sf orcef ul l
ymov edAf ri
canst of orti
f i
edv il
lagesast hei r
homes ar id-gar dens wer e dest roy ed.Thi s scot ched ear th pol i
cy deni ed
Africanf reedom f ight er saccesst oshel ter ,food,i nfor mat ionandanyot her
assist ance.
 The i ncr eased depl oy mentofPor t uguese t roops ata t ime Af rican i n
Por tuguese col oni es expect ed i ndependence;Por tugal ,i n her count er -
revol utionar yappr oachdepl oy edmor et roopsi nAf ri
ca, t
ost rengt henherhol d
untot hesecol oni es, aswel lascont ainAf ricannat i
onal istact iviti
es.Ther efor e,
thepr esenceofl ar genumber sofPor tuguesesol dierst hr eat enedAf rican
national ism.By1970,Por tugalhadaboutt wohundr edt housandsol dier si n
Africa.
 The economi c adv ant age ofAf rican col onies t o Por tugaldel ay ed t hei r
i
ndependence.The at tai nmentofi ndependence byt hese col oni es coul d
depr ivePor tugalofasour ceofeconomi cpowerandshewoul dl oseher
middl eman- shipr ol ebet weent hepr oduct soft hesecol oni esandt hemul ti-
national si nEur ope.I twasbecauseoft hi seconomi cadv ant aget hatPor tugal
mai nt ainedhercol oni es.
 Consequent ly,t heeconomi cweaknessofPor tugaldel ay ed i ndependence
attainmenti nPor tuguesecol oni es.Por tugal ,duet ohereconomi cdi sabi lit
y
coul dnotl ookf or war dt ot hepr ospectofmai ntaininganeo- col oni ali nf l
uence
i
ncaseshegr ant edi ndependencet ohercol oni es.Hereconomi csi tuat i
on
thusmadePor tugal tocont inuecont r
ol lingherAf ri
cancol oni esdi rect l
y .
 The nat ur e oft he Por tuguese educat ion sy stem was a di sadv ant age t o
Africans.The sy st em pr ov i
ded an i nf erioreducat i
on t hatonl y pr epar ed
Africans t o accept t he wor k of Por t
uguese.The Por tuguese cul t
ur e
i
ndoct ri
nat edAf ricanst obel iev et hatanyf orm ofr esist ancewasanact
agai nstgov ernment .Thi seducat i
onnev ergav eAf r
icanst echni calski ll
sand
i
ntel l
ect ualabi litiesandt hus, didnotcr eat epol iti
calawar eness.Thepr esence
ofal ar gei l
literat eAf ricanpopul ationt hatwaspol i
ticallyasl eepandi gnor ant
tocondemnandf ightagai nstcol oni alism del ayedAf r
icanl i
ber ation.
 Thedi videandr ul epol icyoft hePor t ugueseaf fect ednat ional i
sm i nher
coloni es.Thecol oni alaut hor iti
est ri
edv er yhar dt odest roynat ionaluni t
y
withint he r espect ive col onies;i n Angol a,t he Por tuguese r ecr ui ted t he
(Ov i
mbundu)i nt hesout hagai nstt he( Bakongo)i nnor th.I nGui neaBi ssau,
thePor tuguesewor senedet hni cr ivalr ybet weent heFul aandt heBal ant e.I n
Mozambi que,t hePor tuguesei nfluencedt heant i
-Makondeet hni cism.Thi s
coloni al pol icyr et ar dedAf ricanl iber ation.
 Consequent ly,t he pr esence ofet hni c nat i
onal ism i n Por tuguese Af rica
favour edPor tugueser ul ei nAf rica.Maj ort ribalgr oupsi nAngol af ori nst ance,
theBakongo, Ov i
mbunduandMbunducoul dnotr econci l
eamongt hemsel ves.
From Gui nea Bi ssau,t he Ful a coul d notuni te wi tht he Bal ant e whi l
ei n
Mozambi que,t heMakuawer ehost il
et ot heMakonde.Suchet hni cconf licts
wor kedi nf av ourofPor tuguesecol oni alism.
 The r ole of t he Cat hol ic Chur ch di scour aged Af r
ican nat ional ism i n
Por tuguesecol oni es.TheCat hol i
cChur chhadant i
-national i
st icsent iment s
and r egar ded t hel iber at ionmov ement sast erroristgr oups.TheCat hol i
c
Chur cht her efor e, pr eachedagai nstnat ional ism, whi chaf fect edi nt hepr ocess
ofdecol oni sat ion.
 Theuseofpeacef ulmeansbyAf ricansandt hedel ayedmi lit
ar yappr oach
mai nt ainedPor tuguesecol oni alism i nAf r
ica.Af ricanst ookl ongt or esor tt o
armed r esistance,t he onl yl anguage t he Por tuguese coul d seemi ngl y
under stand.The Af ri
cans i n Por tuguese col oni es empl oy ed non- violent
met hodsl i
kedemonst rat i
onandst ri
kes,whi chcoul dnotef fect ivelyy iel
d
i
mmedi ater esults.Onmanyoccasi ons,t hePor tugueser espondedt ot he
Afri
cannon- v i
olentr at herr ut hlessly ,whi chdel ay edi ndependence.
 Absence ofcapabl e nat ional istl eader s att he i niti
alst ages;Por t uguese
coloni esl ackedcapabl e,v isionar y,char ismat i
candcour ageousl eader swho
coulddr i
v ethei rcount riest oi ndependence.I twasonl ypossi bl ei nmi d- 1950s
whenmenl ikeAgust inhoNet oofAngol a,Ami lcarCabr alofGui neaBi ssau
and Edwar do Mondl ane ofMozambi que r ose t ot he pol iticalscene t hat
progr essi v eeffor tstowar dsi ndependencewer er ealised.
 Lackofef fectivei nter nalbasesf ort hel iber ationmov ement sdel ay edAf rican
i
ndependence.Thel iber ationmov ement soper ated mai nlyf rom exi l
e,t he
MPLA had i ts bases i n Congo Zai r
e and Congo Br azzav i
lle,t he PAI GC
oper at edf rom Fr enchGui neawhi l
et heFRELI MOoper atedf rom Tanzani aand
Mal awi .Thenat i
onal istmov ement st her ef ore,hadl essi mpactoncol oni al
author i
tiesespeci al
lyatt hei rini ti
alst ages.
 Theweaknessoft heOr gani sat ionofAf ricanUni ty( OAU)af fect ednat ional i
sm
i
n Por tuguese Af ri
ca.Si nce t he OAU f ormed i tsl iberat i
on commi ttee t o
suppor ti ndependenceat tai nmenti nAf r
ica,t hecommi t t
eeonl yr emai ned
theor et i
calasi tmader esol ut i
onst ocondemncol onialdomi nat ionbutt ook
l
ongt ot akeact i
onagai nstEur opeancol oni ali
sm.Thi sdel ay edi ndependence
i
nPor tuguesecol oni es.
 Thedoubl est andar dsoft heUni tedNat ionsOr ganisat i
on( UNO)f rust r ated
Afri
canef fortst owar dssel f-rulei nPor t
uguesecol onies.TheUNO v erbal ly
react edandi mposedsanct ionsonPor tugalbutt ookl ongt ot akeact i
on.
Member -statesoft heUNO;whower eal somember soft heNATOext ended
fi
nanci aland mi l
it
ar y suppor tt o Por tugalagai nstt he Af ri
can l i
ber at i
on
mov ement s.Thi sweakenedt hest ruggl ef ori ndependencei nPor t uguese
Afri
ca.
 The f ormat i
on of t he " t ri
umv irate al li
ance" st r
engt hened Por t uguese
admi nistrat i
oni nAf ricaagai nstmaj orityr ule.Theal li
ancecompr isedofDon
SalazarofPor tugal,Ver woer dofApar theidSout hAf ri
caandI anSmi thoft he
UDIgov ernmenti nSout her nRhodesi a.Thepar tnerspl edgedassi st ancet o
eachot her ,toshar est rat egi esandr esour cest osuppr essAf ri
cannat ional i
sm
i
nt hei rr espect ivecol oni es, inawayofconsol i
dat i
ngwhi temi nor ityr ule.

CAUSESOFTHELI BERATI ONSTRUGGLESI NPORTUGUESECOLONI ES


Refer
enceQuest ions:
1.Di scusst hef actorsfort heout breakoft heliberationwari nGui neaBi ssau/
Mozambi que/ Angola
2.Accountf ort he out break oft he armed r esistance in Gui nea Bissau /
Mozambi que/Angol a
3.Whydi dthePAI GC/FRELI MO/MPLAdecl arewaragai nstPor tugueser ul
e
i
n1963/1964/ 1961r espect i
vely
 Af terAfri
cansi nPortuguesecol oni
esf ailedtoachi eveindependencet hrough
peacefulmeans,t heyr esortedt omi l
it
ar i
sm.I nAngol a,thear medr esi
stance
wasl edbyt heMPLA underAgust i
nhoNet o( 1961- 75),inGui neaBi ssau,
Ami l
carCabr aland t he PAI GC led t he liberation war( 1963- 74),and in
Mozambi que,t he warwas l aunched by t he FRELI MO underEdwar do
Mondl ane( 1964-75).Sev eralfactorsaccount edf ortheout breakofl i
berati
on
war si
nPor t uguesecol oniesandt heseincl uded;
 ThePor t
uguesepr eferredt omai ntai
nt heircoloni esasov erseaspr ov i
nces,
whi ch caused t he l i
ber at ion war s.The 1951 const itution of Por tugal
conf irmed Por tuguese col oni esi n Af rica asov er seascol oni esand t hus,
i
ndependencei nt heset er ri
t or i
eswoul dbeav iolat ionoft hePor tuguese
const itut i
on.Af ri
cansempl oy edv iolenceagai nstt hePor tuguesecol oni al i
sts
i
nor dert obr eakt hecol onial umbl ical cor d.
 Thebr utalsuppr essi onofAf ricannon- v iolencepr ot est scont r i
but ed,t ot he
out br eak ofLi ber at ion war si n Por tuguese.I n 1956,ov ert wo hundr ed
Angol answer eki ll
edorwoundedf orpr ot est i
ngagai nstt hear restandpubl i
c
floggi ngofAgust inhoNet o; i
nt hesamey earaboutf or ty -
ni nedockwor ker sat
Lour encoMar queswer eshotdeaddur i
ngast rike,andi n1958,f iftyBi ssau
dockwor ker swer eal soshotdeaddur ingt hei rst rike.Thi sbr ut alr esponset o
peacef ul act ionsi nci t edAf ricansi nt ov i
ol entr esi stances.
 Lackofconst itutionalav enuesofachi ev ingi ndependencef orcedAf ricanst o
decl ar e waron t he Por tuguese admi nist rator s.Af r
icans i n Mozambi que,
Angol aandGui neaBi ssauwer edeni edpar ti
cipat ioni npol iti
calaf fairsandy et
thePor tugueseconst i
tutiondi dnotpr ov idef orAf ricanmaj orityr ulei nt hei r
respect ive col oni es.The Por tuguese nev ergav e Af ricans par liament ar y
par ticipat ion t o enabl et hem pr esentt hei rgr i
ev ances.I twas t her efor e,
necessar yf orAf r
icanst or esor tt oar medr esi stance.
 Por tuguesecol onialdi ctat orshi pconv incedAf ricansi nPor tuguesecol oni es
tof ightf ort hei rindependence.ThePor tuguesecol oni alaut hor itiesi nAngol a,
Mozambi queandGui neaBi ssausuppr essedf reedomsofpr essandassembl y
andbannedAf r i
cansf rom engagi ngi nanypol iticalact iv i
ties.TheAf ricans
wer e aggr iev ed so much t hatt hei rant i-col oni alsent iment sl ed t ot he
emer genceofmi litantnat ional ism.
 The act i
v i
ties oft he Por t uguese secr etpol i
ce ( PI DE)cont ribut ed t ot he
out br eakofl iber at ionwar si nPor tuguesecol oni es.ThePI DEcar riedout
i
nhuman act i
ons agai nstAf ricans,whi ch i ncl uded ar bitrary ar restand
humi liat i
onofAf ricanl eader st hr oughpubl icf loggi ng.Agust i
nhoNet owas
tor t
ur edandf loggedbyt hePI DEaccompl i
ces.ThePor tuguesesecr etpol icy
wascomi ssi onedt oki llAf ricanssuspect edofcausi ngsecur ityt hr eat st ot he
col oni aladmi nist ration.Theoper at i
onsofPI DEi ncr easedAf ri
cansent iment s
toPor tuguesecol oni al rule, whi chpr ov okedar medr esi st ances.
 Incr eased depl oy mentofPor tuguese t roops i n Af ri
ca ata t ime when
i
ndependencewasexpect edcausedt hel i
ber at ionwar si nt hePor tuguese
col oni es.I n1960,t hePor tuguesedepl oy edabout60, 000sol di er si nAngol a
and ov er70, 000 i n Mozambi que and Gui nea Bi ssau r espect ively .Thi s
conv incedAf ricanst hati ndependencecoul dnotbegr ant edt ot hem ona
silverpl ata.Hence, Af ricanswer ei nsi ght edi nt oar medr esi stance.
 The est ablishmentofr ehabi l
itat ion cent ersi n Por t
uguese Af rica caused
ar medr esi stancesagai nstt hePor tuguse.ThePor tuguesecol oni alaut hor i
ties
est abl ished r ehabi litat i
on cent er s as pr ev ent ive measur e agai nstmasses
ext endi ngassi st ancet onat i
onal ist s.Thecent ersl at ebecameconcent r ati
on
camps wher e al lsor ts ofbr ut alt reat ment s,t or tur e,i nter rogat ion and
somet imes assassi nat i
ons wer e admi nist ered agai nstAf ricans i nt hese
camps.Af ricanshat edPor tuguesebr ut alityhence,t hei rr ebel li
onagai nstt he
Por tuguesecol oni al admi ni st rat or s.
 Thef ormat ion ofl i
ber ation mov ement sbyAf ricansi n Por tugueseAf rica
pr epar edgr oundsf orar medst ruggl es.Thef or mat ionoft hePAI GCi nGui nea
Bissaui n1954, theMPLAi nAngol a1956andt heFRELI MOi nMozambi quei n
1962enabl edt henat ional istst omobi l
iset hemassesandt hus,decl ar edt he
guer ril
lawar far eagai nstt hePor tuguesecol onial gov ernment s.
 Thedesi ref orpol iticali ndependencecausedt heout br eakofl i
ber at i
onwar s
i
nPor tugueseAf rica.Duet ounr ealisticcol oni alpol iciesandf ailur et oachi ev e
politicalpar ti
ci pat ion, Af r
icansdev elopedagr eatsenseofnat ional ism, whi ch
forcedt hem t ot akeupar msagai nstt hePor tuguesecol oni al mast er s.
 Influenceoft heMar xi sti deol ogy( soci alism)i nPor tugueseAf ricacausedt he
l
iber at i
onwar s.Thei deol ogywasant i
-i
mper ialism andspr eadmi litarism asa
strategyagai nstf or ei gndomi nat i
on.Thi si nspi redAf ricanst ousef or cet o
l
iber at et hemsel ves hence l iber at i
on war s.Lat er ,t he Af ri
can l iber at i
on
mov ement sr ecei v edsuppor tf rom communi stst at es.
 Influenceoft hei ndependentnei ghbour ingst at escont ri
but edt ot heout br eak
ofl i
ber at i
onwar si nPor tugueseAf rica.Thei ndependenceofCongoZai reand
Brazzav ill
ei nspi red Angol a,Gui neaConakr yand Senegali nspi r ed Gui nea
Bissau whi l
eTanzani aand Zambi ahad an i mpacton Mozambi que.The
i
ndependentnei ghbour ingst atespr ov i
dedmor al eandf i
nanci alpl usmi l
itar y
suppor t;and gav e ext ernalbases t o Af ricans i n Por tuguese Af ri
ca t hat
i
nspi r edt hem t of ightf ori ndependence.
 Ther ol eofnat ional isticl eader swasanot herf act orf ort hel iber at ionwar si n
Por tuguesecol oni es.Agust inhoNet oofAngol a,Ami l
carCabr alofGui nea
Bissau and Edwar do Mondl ane of Mozambi que mobi lised t he peopl e,
prov idedcour ageousandv isionar yl eader shi panddecl ar edguer ri
llawar f
ar e
agai nstt hePor tuguesecol oni al aut hor i
ties.
 The pol i
cyoff or ced l abourwasanot hercause f ort he out breakoft he
l
iber at i
onwar s.Af ricanwor ker si nGui neaBi ssau,Angol aandMozambi que
wer ef orcedt oof ferl abouronpubl icwor ksl iker oadsandi nf rast ruct ur eas
wel las on set tl
erpl ant at i
ons wi th meagerorno pay mentatal l.The
oppr essi v ePor tuguesel abourpol icywasmuchr esent edbyAf ricansandt hus
forcedt hem t owagewar sofl i
ber at ionagai nstt hecol oni alaut hor ities.
 Thecol oni altaxat ionsy stem cont ribut edt ot heout breakofl i
ber at ionwar si n
Por tuguese col oni es.The Por tuguese col oni alaut hor ities heav ilyt axed
Africansy ett hemet hodsoft axcol lect ionwer ecr uel .Taxdef aul terswer e
arrest edandpubl icl yf logged.Theexpl oitat iv ePor tuguesef iscalpol i
cyf or ced
Africanst odecl arewaronPor tugueseaut hor iti
es.
 High l ev els ofpov er ty among Af ricans cont ribut ed t ot he out break of
l
iber at i
onwar si nAf ricanPor t
uguesecol oni es.Pov er tyr esul tedf rom l ackof
empl oy mentoppor tuni ties,l owpr i
cesofAf ricanpr oduce,l owwagesandt he
pooragr ar i
an and f iscalpol i
cies empl oy ed by t he Por tuguese col oni al
aut hor i
ties.Af ri
cansbl amedt hePor t
uguesecol oni alist sf ori mpov er ishing
them hence,cont r i
but ingt ot her iseofmi litantnat ional ism i nPor tuguese
Africa.
 High l evel s ofcor rupt i
on among t he Por tuguese col oni aladmi nist rator s
cont ribut ed t ot he out br eak ofl iber ation war s.The Por tuguese col oni al
officialswer et oocor rupti nt axcol lect i
onandpr ov isionofci vilser vices.They
askedf orbr ibesf rom Af ricansubj ect s,somet imescoer ci vel y.Cor r upt ionand
mi suseofcol oni aladmi ni strat i
v eof ficespr ov okedmi li
tantnat ional ism i n
Por tugueseAf rica.
 Lackofempl oy mentoppor tuni ti
esf orAf ricansl edt ot heout breakofar med
resist ancesi nPor tuguesecol oni es.Al lj obsi ncl udi ngt axidr i
v i
ngandof fice
clerksandmessenger swer er eser vedf ort hePor tugueseonl y.Af ricanswer e
onlyf orcedt owor konpl ant ations;t hel andt enur esy stem wor senedt he
unempl oy mentpr obl em si nceAf ricansl ackedl andt opr act iceagr icul tur e.
Unempl oy ment f rust rat ed Af ri
cans and caused t hei r r esent ment
agai nstPor t
uguesecol oni alism, leadi ngt ot heout breakofl i
ber ationwar s.
 Theeducat i
onsy st em i nt hePor tuguesecol oni esconv incedAf ri
canst opl ot
fora change.Af ricans hat ed t he educat ion sy stem t hatdeni ed t hem
i
ntel l
ect ualadv ancementandt echni calski l
lsbutonl ymadeencour agedt hem
toappr eci atePor tuguesecul tures.Thus,i nf l
uenci ngAf ri
canst owagewar
againstcol oni alism soast oi mpr ov eont heeducat ionsy stem.Al lt hegood
school sr an by t he gov ernmentwer er eser ved f orwhi te chi ldr en whi l
e
Afri
cansat tendedt hef ew mi ssionar yschool st hatwer escat teredi nr ur al
areas.
 The r aci al ar rogance ( raci sm) of t he Por tuguese pr ov oked mi li
tant
national ism amongAf ri
cans.ThePor tugueseconsi der edt hemsel vessuper ior
humanscompar edt otheirAf ricansubj ect s.Thi sexpl ainswhyt heyt ri
edt o
i
mposeonAf r i
canst hepol icyofassi mi lator( assi mi lat i
on) .Theassi mi l
ados
wer ef av our edmor eandaccor dedt hesamepr i
v i
legesast hePor tuguese
settlers.ThePor t ugueseset t
lersi npar ticul arr esent edanypl ansf orAf rican
advancement .Raci al discrimi nat i
onbyt hePor tuguesef orcedAf r
icanst of i
ght
forindependence.
 ThePor tuguesepol icyoff orcingAf ricanst ogr owcashcr opscausedAf rican
resistancesagai nstt hePor t
uguese.Theeconomi cmot i
vesoft hePor tuguese
madet hem f orceAf ri
canst ogr ow cashcr opsont hei rsmal lest atesatt he
expenseoff oodcr ops.ThePor t
uguesei nf l
uencedAf ricanst ocl eart heirfood
gardens and pl antcot ton,cof fee and t obacco.Att he same t ime,t he
Portuguesecol oni alistsf ixed pr icesf orcot ton pr oduced byt heirAf rican
subject s.Thi sunpopul arcot tonpol icyi nf l
uencedt he( Mal ange)r ebel li
oni n
Angol a,whi ch l at erspr ead t o ot herpar ts oft he count r
y .The Af ri
cans
expr essed t hei rdi ssat i
sf action t ot he Por tuguese by f i
ght ing f ort hei r
i
ndependence.
 Presenceoft heNor thAt l
ant i
cTr eatyOr gani sation( NATO)i nt hePor tuguese
coloni es aggr iev ed Af ri
cans t of i
ghtf ori ndependence.Por tugalbei ng a
memberoft heNATO al lowedmember soft heNATO t oest abl i
shmi litar y
basesandi nv est ment si nherAf ri
cancol oni es.Ther ef ore,Af ricanswer enot
onlysubj ect edt oPor tuguesecol onialism butal sot oi mper ialism oft heNATO
power s.Hence,t heNATOpower sofBr itain,Bel gium andFr ancet urnedt he
Portuguese col oni es i nto dumpi ng ar eas f ort heirgoods.Theychar ged
Afri
cansexor bi tant ly, f
orcingt hem t or ebel .
 Thel andal ienat ionpol icybyt hePor tuguesecont ribut edt ot heout br eakof
l
iber ationwar si nt heircol onies.ThePor tugueseembar kedonasy stemat i
c
l
andgr abbi ngpol icyai medatest abli
shi ngpl ant ationagr i
cul ture.TheAf ri
cans
wer el ef tl andl esswhi l
eot her swer emadesquat tersonwhi teownedest at es.
Thel andl essAf ricanswant edt or egaint heirl ostl andhencet heyengagedi n
armedst ruggl es.

FACTORS FOR THE SUCCESS OF LI


BERATI
ON STRUGGLES I
N PORTUGUESE
AFRI
CA

Ref
erenceQuest ions
1.Accountf ort hedef eatofPor t
ugueseadmi ni
strat
ionbyPAI GC/FRELIMO/
MPLA
2.Exami net hef actorsf ort hesuccessofi ndependencest ruggleinGui nea
Bissau/Mozambi que/ Angol a
 Thef ormat i
onofl iberati
onmov ementsanduseofar medr esist
anceagainst
the Por t
uguese admi nistr
ati
on enabled the decoloni sat
ion ofPor t
uguese
colonies.Thel iber
ationmov ementsi.e.t
hePAI GC( est abli
shedi n1954),the
MPLA( establi
shedi n1956)andt heFRELI MO( establ ishedi n1962)resorted
touseofmi l
itari
sm agai nstthePortugueseaf terfailur eofpeacefulmeans.
Such mi l
itar
y appr oach scor ed signi
fi
cant achi ev ement s agai
nst t he
Por tuguesebot hmi litaril
yandpol itically .
 Theef fect ivemi litaryst rategiesadopt edbyl i
ber at i
onmov ement sl edt ot he
successoft hei ndependencest ruggl es.Thel iber at i
onmov ement sal way s
attackedt hePor tuguesesi mul taneousl yi nsev er al placesandonmanyf ront s.
ThePor tugueset roopswer econst ant lyont hemov eduet oAf ri
canat tacks.
The Af ri
can guer ri
lla mov ement s used sur pr ise guer ril
la at tacks and
ambushesagai nstt hePor tuguesegov er nmenti nstallations,admi ni st rative
post s, mi litar ybasesandwhi teset tl
ement sandpl antat i
ons.
 Thel i
ber ationmov ement scar riedoutmassmobi li
sat ionandr ecruitment .Itis
fort hi scaset hatt housandsj oinedt hemov ementandst r engt henedt he
mi l
itar ycombat s.Massr ecr uitmentpopul ar isedt hei ndependencest ruggl es
and enabl ed t hemov ement st o mat cht hePor tuguesei ncr eased mi l
itar y
troopsi nt hei rrespect ivecol oni es.
 Themov ement sr ecr uitedwomenwhopl ay edasi gnificantr olei nt hest ruggl e
agai nstt hePor tuguese,Women wer er ecogni sed and gi v en posi t i
onsof
responsi bilityint heci vil,politi
calandmi litar yser v i
ce.Theyact edasnur sest o
thewounded,gav eespi onagei nf ormat i
onont hePor tuguesest rategi esand
prov idedf oodandot hersuppl iesdur i
ngt hewar s.
 The mi l
itar y gai ns scor ed by t he l iber ation mov ement s’ f av our ed
i
ndependencei nPor tugueseAf rica.By1974,t hePAI GCwascont rol li
ngt wo
thirdofGui neaBi ssau,t heMPLA cont rol l
edonet hirdofAngol awhi let he
UNI TA andt heFNLA hadbot hscor edsomel i
t tl
esuccessi nAngol a.The
FRELI MOhadal sosecur edat hirdofMozambi quebyt het i
meoft heLi sbon
Coup.Such mi litaryv ictor i
eshad weakened t hePor tuguesei nf av ourof
freedom f ight er s.
 The r ef or ms i nst i
tut ed by t he l iber ation mov ement si nt heirr espect ive
terri
tor i
es enabl ed t he success of l i
ber at i
on war s. The mov ement s
establ i
shed l iber at ed zones i n whi ch masses wer ei nvol ved i n deci si
on-
maki ngandl eader shi patgr assr oot s.Themov ement sest abl i
shedel ement ar y
school sandheal thcent er st opr ov idef reeeducat i
onandheal thser v i
ces
respect i
vel y.Such r eforms won t housands ofmasses t o suppor tt he
i
ndependencest ruggl es.
 Thecont inuousr epr essi vemet hodsoft hePor tuguesehar denedAf ri
cansand
raisedt hei rdet er mi nat iont oachi ev esel f-r ule.ThePor t
ugueseest abl ished
forti
f i
ed v ill
ages and concent rat ion camps wher e masses wer e pushed.
Af r
icanhomesandgar denswer edest roy ed.Af ricanswer eal soi nter rogat ed,
tortur edandsomet imeski ll
ed.Al lt hesecostt hePor t
ugueset hei rpopul ar ity
andi nst eadpopul ar i
sedt hel iber at i
onst ruggl es.
 The f ormat ion oft he CONCP al liance by t he l i
ber ation mov ement si n
Por tugueseAf ricast rengt henedt hei rst ruggl eagai nstcol oni al rule.TheMPLA,
PAI GCandt heFRELI MOf ormedt heCONCPal li
ancet hroughwhi chl iber at i
on
l
eader sdi scussedandshar edi deasandst rategi es,whi cht heyempl oyed
agai nstt hePor tuguesecol oni aladmi ni str at i
on.Theco- oper ati
onoft hese
l
iber at ionmov ement sagai nstt hePor t uguesecol oni aladmi nistrator shel ped
toweakent hepi ll
ar sofcol onial i
sm i nt hei rr espect ivecount r
ies.
 Thesi mul taneousoccur renceofl iber at ionwar scont ri
but edt ot hel iber at i
on
ofPor tugueseAf rica.TheAngol anwarst ar tedi n1961;i nGui neaBi ssau,t he
warbegani n1963whi let heFRELI MOl aunchedt heMozambi canwari n1964.
Thef actt hatt hesewar sbr okeoutal mostatt hesamet imet remendousl y
weakenedt hePor tugueseadmi nist rationeconomi callyandmi l
itarily.I twas
har df ort hePor tuguesecol oni algov er nment st oef fectivel yf ightanddef eat
Af r
icansont hr eef ront s.
 Thewi thdr awaloft heNATOf rom Por tuguesecol onialt er ri
tor i
esweakened
thecol oni aladmi nistr ation.Por tugalcoul dnol ongeraccessf inanci aland
militar yassi st ance,whi ch had keptherst rong agai nstt heAf ri
cans.The
withdr awaloft heNATOt her ef or eexposedt hePor tuguesei nabi li
tyt osust ai
n
Africanr ev olut i
onar yst rat egi es.
 TheLi sboncoupof1974wasaf i
nalbl owt oPor t
uguesel eader shipi nAf rica.
Thecoupl at erbr oughti nay oungsoci al istmi litarygov ernmentl edbyAnt onio
deSpi nol a, whor epl acedconser vat iveCaet ano.Thenewmi l
itarygov er nment
engaged t he PAI GC,MPLA and t he FRELI MO i n peace t al ks. The
i
ndependencedi scussi onsi nLi sbonl edt oi ndependenceofGui neaBi ssaui n
1974, Angol aandMozambi quei n1975r espect ively .
 Thecol lapseoft het ri
umv irat eal li
ancewast ot headv ant ageofAf ricans.Thi s
gang oft hr ee had t he Por tuguese col oni alr egi me underDon Sal azar ,
apar thei dgov ernmentofVer woer dandt heUDIgov ernmentofI anSmi th.The
all
iancehadst rengt henedmi nor ityr ulei nSout her nAf ricaandhi nder edt he
progr essofAf ri
cannat ional ism i nt her egi on.Thecol lapseoft het riumv i
rate
all
iance( thegangoft hr ee)weakenedt hePor tuguesecol onialadmi nistrat i
on
i
nf av ourofAf ricani ndependence.
 Africansi nPor tuguesecol oni esmi ni mi sedet hnicr ivalriesandencour aged
nationaluni tyagai nstt hePor tuguesecol oni aladmi nist ration.TheMPLAi n
Angol a,t hePAI GCi nGui neaBi ssauandt heFRELI MOi nMozambi quewer e
thekeymov ement si nensur i
ngnat ionaluni tyi nt heirr espect i
v estat es.They
wer eabl et or ecr uitf reedom f i
ght er sacr ossal ltri
besandt hi sweakenedt he
Por tuguesemi l
itar yst rategi esagai nstt heAf ricans.
 Thei ndependenceofnei ghbour ingst atesr espect ivelybr oughti ndependence
toPor tuguesecol oni es.SenegalandGui neaConakr yassi st edt hePAI GCof
GuineaBi ssau,CongoZai reandCongoBr azzav illesuppor tedt heMPLAof
Angol a,whi le Tanzani a and Zambi a suppor ted Mozambi que's FRELI MO.
These i ndependentnei ghbour i
ng st at es al lowed l iber ation mov ement s of
Por tuguese Af rica t o est abl i
sh ext ernalbases and headquar tersi nt heir
count ries; andext endedassi st ancet ot hef reedom f ight ers.
 Thef av our abl egeogr aphi calset tingswer eanadv ant aget ot hesuccessof
i
ndependencest ruggl esi nPor tugueseAf rica.Gui neaBi ssauwascov ered
withmangr ov eswampsandt hi ckBamboof orest s,Mozambi quehadagood
thi
ck f or est -cov erespeci ally nearNi assa and Nt et e whi l
e Angol a was
adv ant aged wi th a coast al -l
ine.Thi s geogr aphi calset ting pr ot ect ed t he
guer rillasf rom t hePor tugueseheav ygunsandar mour edv ehi cl
esandatt he
samet imeenabl edf reedom f ight er st ol aunchguer r i
llawar fareat tacksand
ambushes.
 Ther ol eoft heOr gani sat ion ofAf r i
can Uni tyenabl ed t heat tainmentof
i
ndependencei nPor tugueseAf ri
ca.Fr om t het imeofi tsest abli
shmenti n
1963,t heOAUt ookar adi calappr oachagai nstt hecont i
nuedexi st enceof
foreignr uleont hecont inent .Thr oughherl i
ber ationcommi t
teei nTanzani a,
theOAUr ecogni zedandsentf i
nanci al,mor alandmi litaryassi stancet ot he
PAI GC,FREL1MOandt heMPLA.TheOAUwentaheadt ocal lforsanct ions
agai nstPor tugal forherf ail
ur et odecol oni seAf ri
ca.
 Thecont r i
but i
onoft heUni tedNat ionsenabl edt heAf ri
cansuccessagai nst
the Por t uguese.The Uni ted Nat i
ons Secur ity Counci lcondemned t he
cont inuedcol onialdomi nat ioni nPor tugueseAf r
ica,i mposedeconomi cand
politicalsanct ionsagai nstt hePor t uguesecol onialr egi meandt hreat enedt o
throwPor tugaloutoft hegener alassembl yi fshef ailedt odecol oni seAf rica.
TheUni tedNat i
onsal sor ecogni sedt hel iber at i
onmov ement sinPor t
uguese
Africaasnat ional mov ement s.
 Thesuppor tf r
om t hecommuni stwor l
denabl edt hesuccessofi ndependence
i
nPor t uguesecol onies.Thecommuni stsuppor tcamef rom Chi na,t heUSSR,
andCuba,i ti ncludedmi l
itar
yt raini
ng,mi l
it
aryl ogist
ics,financialassi stance
andt hesoci ali
sti deol ogyagai nstimper i
ali
sm.Thecommuni stassi stance
enabledt hedecol onisationofPor tuguesecol oni esinAf r
ica.
 Ablel eadershi pdur i
ngt hest rugglef ori ndependencel edt ot hedef eatof
Port
uguese col onialism,i n Mozambi que,t he FRELI MO was f i
rstled by
Edwar doMondi aneandaf terhisassassi nationi nFebr uary1969, andSamor a
Micheal t
ookov er.InGui neaBi ssaut hePAI GC, wasf i
rstledbyAmi lcarCabr al
andaf terhisassassi nationi n1973hi sbr ot herLuizCabr alt ookov er.In
Angola,t heMPLAwasunderAgust inhoNet o.Thenat ionali
stl eadershipt o
the li
ber ati
on mov ement s secured bot hint ernaland ext ernalsuppor tto
sustaint heliberationwar s.Thel eader swer eal soinfl
uent i
alingiv ingcour age
anddet erminationt ot heindependencest ruggle.

THEI NDEPENDENCESTRUGGLEI NANGOLA( 1961- 74)


Ther oleoft hePopul arMov ementf ort heLi ber ationofAngol a( MPLA)
ReferenceQuest ions:
1."TheMPLAwaspr i
mar il
yr esponsi blef ort hedecol oni sat ionofAngol a. "Di scuss
2.Assesst her oleoft heMPLAi nt heAngol anst ruggl eagai nstPor tugueser ul e
The MPLA wasf ormed i n 1956 wi thI ll
idio Tom Al v iresMachedo ast he f ir
st
president .Lat eri n1958,Agust inhoNet ot ookov erast hel eaderoft hemov ement .
Therewer eot hermov ement st hatf oughtf orAngol ani ndependence,TheNat ional
Union f orTot alI ndependence ofAngol a( UNI TA)f ounded i n 1966 wi t
h Jonas
Savimbiasi tsl eader ,andTheNat ionalFr ontf ort heLi ber ati
onofAngol a( FLNA)
underHol denRober t
o.I twashowev er ,thePopul arMov ementf ort heLi ber at ionof
Angol a( MPLA)t hatpl ayedal eadi ngr olei nt hel iberat i
onofAngol a.
 The mov ementpr ov i
ded t he necessar yl eader ship agai nstt he Por tuguese
coloni alr ulei nAngol a.Thr oughAgust inhoNet o,t heMPLA gav echar ismat ic,
respect abl e,cour ageousand dependabl el eader shi p.TheMPLA had a cl ear
visiononhowt oachi ev eAngol ani ndependence, whi chat tr
actedmasspopul ari
ty.
 TheMPLAwasabr oad- basedmov ementandt hisf aci li
tatedt hesuccessoft he
war .Themov ementcutacr osset hni cbar r
ier sandsoci aldi vi
si ont hati ncr eased
herpopul arit
yandst rengt hov erot hermov ement s.TheMPLAbecamepopul ar
amongt heMbundu, Ov i
mbunduandBakongo.
 TheMPLAwasabl et oest abl i
shext ernalbasesi nt henei ghbour ingst at esof
CongoZai re,CongeBr azzav i
lle,Zambi aandNami bia.Fr om t hesebases,t he
MPLAl aunchedat tacksandexpedi tionsagai nstt hePor tuguesecol oni al r
ul e.
 Themov ementwasabl et ouni teandcoor dinat et hepol iti
calandmi li
t arywi ngs.
Thisl edt omor ecommi t
mentdur ingt hest ruggl ef ori ndependence.
 I tappeal edt ot heUni teNat i
ons( UN)f orsuppor tandsy mpat hyt owar dst he
Angol an cause agai nstt he Por tuguese i mper i
alism.The UN r esponded by
imposi ngsanct ionsagai nstPor tugal ,aimi ngatweakeni ngherhol dont oAngol a.
 TheMPLAwonr ecogni t
ionoft heOr gani sationAf ricanUni ty( OAU)andt hr ough
it
sl i
ber ationcommi ttee,t heOAU ext endedf inanci alandmi lit
ar ysuppor tto
facili
tat et heact ivi
tiesoft heMPLAagai nstt hePor tuguese.
 Themov ementadopt edsoci alism,whi chenabl edhert ogetsuppor tf rom t he
communi stwor l
d.Communi stst at esl i
ket heSov ietUni onandChi naext ended
suppor tt heAngol ansi nf orm ofmi l
itaryar msandt r
ai ning.Thesuppor tfrom t he
communi stwor l
dst rengt henedt heact iviti
esoft heMPLAagai nstt hePor tuguese.
 TheMPLAco- oper atedwi t
ht hePAI GCofGui neaBi ssauandt heFRELI MO of
Mozambi quet of or m t heCONCP al li
ance.Thr ought heCONCP al li
ance,t he
li
ber ation mov ement s shar ed st rategies and l ogist ics agai nstt hei rcol oni al
mast er.TheCONCPr educedt hePor tuguesecol oni al i
nf luencei nAf rica.
 The MPLA l eader ship pr ovided educat i
on t ot he Angol ans.The mov ement
suppor tedt heAngol anst ogof orf ur t
herst udi esinEur opeespeci al
lyRussi aand
Por tugal .Thi smadeMPLAmor epopul aramongt hemasses.
 Itencour ageduni tynotonl ywi thint hemov ementbutal sot hr
oughoutAngol a.
Unitywasqui tesi gnifi
canti nt heliber ationwaragai nstPor t
uguesei mper ial
ism.
 TheMPLAexhi bitedacl earpol iti
calpr ogram, whichwonhersuppor tathomeas
wel las i nt ernationalsy mpat hy .The pol it
icalpr ogr am oft he MPLA was
signif i
canti nf acilit
at i
ngt hewaragai nstt hePor tuguese.
 TheMPLAl eader shipr ecruit
edandt rainedAngol ansi nguer ril
lawar faret actics.
Ther ecr uitsi ncr easedact ivi
tiesofsabot ageagai nstPor tuguesepr ogr amsand
strategi es.
 Consequent ly,themov ementenr olledwomeni nherr anks.Womenwer egi ven
posi tions ofi nf l
uence,and wor ked as nur ses,cooks and i nfor
mer st ot he
freedom f ight ers.Theyal sopr ovidedf reedom f i
ghter swi thessent ialsuppl ies,
whi chwer ei mpor tanttor unbot ht hemi li
taryandpol i
ticalwings.
 TheMPLAor gani sedandl aunchedsuccessf ulguer ri
llawar fareattacksagai nst
thePor tuguesecol onialadmi nistration.By1974,t hemov ementhad scor ed
mi l
itar ygai ns, wi that hirdoft henat ioni nherpossessi on.
 TheMPLAl eader shi psensi ti
sedt hemassesofAngol aont hecol oni
al evil
soft he
Por tugueseadmi nistr
at i
onandt hebenef it
sofi ndependence.Thesensi ti
sation
l
edt oi ncr easedmassr ecruitmenti ntot heliber ati
onst ruggle.
 Consequent ly, t
hemov ementcondemnedandexposedt heev il
sandat r
ocitiesof
thePor tuguesecol onialadmi nistration.I nt hepr ocess,t hePor t
uguesewer e
discr editedi nAngol aandout side.

CONTRI
BUTI
ONSOFAGUSTI
NHONETO

ReferenceQuest ions:
1.Exami net her oleofAgust inhoNet oi nt hest ruggl eforAngol ani ndependence
2.Whatwast hecont ri
but ionofAgust inhoNet ot ot hedecol onisat ionofAngol a?
AgustinhoNet owasbor nanAngol annat ional isti n1922t oaMet hodistpr iesti n
Bengo,a smal lv il
l
agei nr ur alAngol a.Hewasa gr aduat eofmedi ci
nei nt he
Universi
tyofLi sbonandj oinedt her anksoft heMPLAi n1958.Dr .Net oplay eda
greatroleint hel iberationofAngol a.
 Agust inho Net o pr ov ided t he necessar yl eader ship dur ing the l i
ber ation
struggl e.Hi schar acterwast hatofcour age,v i
sion,char ismaanddedi cat i
on,
andt hiswonhi m suppor tfrom thef reedom f ighters.
 Dr .Net owr ot
epoemsandar ti
clesaboutt hesuf feringandhopesofAngol ans.
Thepoemscr eatedpol iti
calawar enessamongt heAngol ansandt hus,t hey
rebelledagai nstPor tuguesecol oni al rule.
 Net oledt heAngol ancausewi t
hadel egat i
ont oLi sbonwher ehepr esent eda
petiti
ont ot hePr t
uguesegov ernmentappeal ingf orapeacef ulsoluti
ont ot he
Angol andemandf orpol iti
calrefor msandi ndependence.
 Dr . Net o or gani sed demonst rations and st rikes agai nst Por tuguese
imper iali
sm i n Angol a.He and Ant oni o wer e behi nd t he Angol an cot ton
wor kers'st ri
ke i n Mal ange.The ef f ects oft he Mal ange st rike groomed
violenceamongt heAngol ansagai nstt hePor t
uguese.
 Dr .Agust inhoNet opr ov idedacl earpol i
tical program f orindependence, whi ch
attractedbot hdomest icandf orei gnsuppor tfortheAngol ancause.
 Agust inho Net or epr esent ed t he Angol an cause t ot he OAU and won
recogni tionoft heAf ricangov er nment s.TheOAU wentaheadt opr ov ide
mor al,f i
nanci alandmi litaryassi st ancet ot heMPLAagai nstt hePor tuguese.
 Dr.Net oappeal edt ot heUni tedNat ionst oi nterv eneinf avouroft heAngol an
cause.Member soft heUNgener alAssembl ywentaheadandcondemnedt he
Por tuguesecont inuedexi stencei nAngol a,whi let heSecur ityCounci l
imposed
sanct i
onsonPor tugal .
 Agust inhoNet owasauni fyi
ngf act ori nAngol a.Hepr omot eduni tyofal lthe
groups and ov ercame et hnic bar ri
er st hatwoul d hinderi ndependence
attainmenti nAngol a.
 Hel edt heMPLA t oest ablishext ernalguer ri
llabasesi nt henei ghbour i
ng
count ries.TheMPLA est ablishedbasesi nCongo Zai r
ef rom wher et hey
l
aunchedexpedi tionsagai nstthePor tuguesecol onialadmi nistr
ation.
 Agust inhosol i
citedf orsuppor tfrom t hecommuni stwor l
d.Thr oughhi seffor t
,
the USSR and Chi na ext ended assi stance t o Angol ai nf orm ofmi l
itary
equi pmentandt r ainingwhi chsust ainedAngol anst r
uggl eforindependence.
 Net ol edt her ecr uitmentandt r
ainingofAngol anmassesi nguer ril
lawarfar e
tactics, tost rengt hent hest ruggleagai nstt hePor tuguese.
 He successf ullyor gani sed and l aunched an ar med st r
uggl e againstt he
Por tuguesecol oni al ruleinAngol at hr ought heMPLA.
 Net or ealisedt her oleofwomenandhencer ecr uitedthem i nbot ht hemi l
itary
and pol iticalwi ngs oft he MPLA as f ight ers,nur ses,cooks and spi es
(i
nf ormer s).
 Net ol edt heMPLAt of or mt heCONCPal l
iancewi t
ht hePAI GCofGui nea
Bissauandt heFRELI MOofMozambi que.Theal lianceenabl edt hepar tnerst o
shar est rat egiesandl ogisticsagai nstt hePoet uguese.
 Dr.Net ol edt heMPLA t odi scussi onswi tht henew Por tuguesesoci alist
gov ernmentofAnt oniodeSpi nola.TheLi sbondi scussionsl edt othef inal
i
ndependenceofAngol aonNov ember11, 1975.
 Net or ecei vedt hei nstrument sofi ndependencef r
om t hePor t
ugueseand
establ i
shedt hef irstindependentgov er nmentofmaj ori
tyAf r
icansi nAngol a.

THELI
BERATI
ONWARI
NGUI
NEABI
SSAU(
1983-
74)

Therol
eoft
heAf
ri
canI
ndependencePar
tyf
orGui
neaBi
ssauandCapeVer
de
(PAI
GC)

Refer
enceQuest ions:
1.Assesst hecont r
ibut i
onoft hePAI GCt ot hedecol oni sat ionofGui neaBi ssau
2.Towhatext entdi dt hePAI GCi nfluencet heGui neanst r
uggl eagai nstPor tuguese
i
mper i
alism?
TheAf r
icanPar t
yf ort heIndependenceofGui neaBi ssauandCapeVer de( PAIGC)
wasanat i
onal istmov ementf or medi n1954byAmi l
carCabr al
.Itsmai nagendawas
toachiev eindependencef orGui neaBi ssauandt hei slandsofCapeVer de.The
PAIGCpl ayedt hef ollowingr ole:
 ThePAI GCappeal edt ot heur banwor ki
ngcl ass,t hepet tyricht radersand
pri
mar yt eacher swhof or medt hepi l
laroft hel iberat i
onst ruggle.Thi smi ddl
e
cl
asspr ov i
dedl eader shipandf i
nancial assistance.
 ThePAI GCunder t
ookcar efulplanningandpr epar ationfort hewart oensure
i
tssuccess.I trecruit
edf reedom f i
ght ersandt r
ai nedt hem inguer ri
ll
awar f
are.
 Theor gani zati
onest ablishedext ernalbasesi nGui neaConakr yf rom wher e
att
ackswer emadeont hePor tuguesecol onialgov ernmenti nGui neaBi ssau.
 ThePAI GC l aunchedasuccessf ular medst r uggl eagai nstt hePor tuguese
colonialadmi nistrat
ion f r
om 1963.The ar med st r
uggl e weakened t he
Por t
ugueseeconomi callyandmi li
tar
ilyandpav edwayf orindependence.
 ThePAI GCl eader shi por gani zedandi nv olvedi ndemonst rat i
onandst ri
kes,
whi chwer eai medatopposi ngt heoppr essi vePor t uguesecol oni alpol iciesf or
exampl e, the1959dockwor ker sst rikei nBi ssau.
 ThePAI GCl eader shi pmobi li
zedpeasant rysuppor tt owar dst hest ruggl ef or
i
ndependence.Thepar tyopenedupbasesi nBal ant eandFul ar egi ons.Thi s
i
ncr easedmasssuppor tt owar dst hest ruggl ef orl i
ber at i
on.
 Thr oughAr nilcarCabr alandl at erLui zCabr al,thePAI GCpr ovidedchar ismat i
c
l
eader shi pt ot hest ruggl ef ori ndependence.Thel eader sdedi cat edt hei rliv es
andcar eerf ort henat ional cause.
 Themov ementef fect ivelyco- ordi nat edt hepol it
icalandmi litar ywi ngs;ev en
af tert heassassi nat ionofAmi lcarCabr ali n1973,t hemov ementr emai ned
i
nt actandl edGuni eaBi ssaut oi ndependencei nt hef ollowi ngy ear .
 The PAI GC sol icited f or mi l
itar y suppor tf r
om t he communi st wor l
d.
Communi stpower sl i
ket heUSSRandChi naappr eci at edt hesoci alistout look
oft hePAI GCandt hus,gav emi li
tar yequi pmentandt rainingt ot hef r eedom
fight ers.Theassi st ancef rom t hecommuni stbl ocwasi nstrument alf ort he
successoft hewar .
 Themov ementr ecor dedmi lit
ar ysuccessagai nstt hePor tuguese:by1974, the
mov ementcont rolledt wot hirdsofGui neaBi ssau.I nMay1973,t hePAI GC
ambushedandcapt uredt hePor tuguesest rongestmi litar ybaseofGui lder .The
PAI GCmi l
itar yv ict oriesgr eat lyweakenedt hef ight i
ngspi r
itoft hePor tuguese
troops.
 ThePAI GCl eader shi pef fect ivel yest abl i
shedandor gani sedl iber at edzones
wi thinGui neaBi ssau.Thepar tyl eader shippr ovidedgr assr oot sdemocr acy ,
freeuni ver salpr i
mar yeducat ionandf reemedi calcar et hroughconst ruct ions
ofschool sandheal t hcent resr espect i
v ely.Ther ef or msl i
ber at edzoneswon
popul ar ityoft hemassest owar dst hest ruggl e.
 ThePAI GCl eader shi pr ecr uitedwomeni ntoi tsr anks.Thewomenwor kedas
i
nf or mer s,f ight ers,nur sesandpr ov i
der sofessent i
alsuppl ies.Ther oleof
womenwassi gni fi
canti nt hesuccessofi ndependenceat tainmenti nBi ssau.
 Theor gani sat i
onsentt hey out hwi ngmember sabr oadf orf ur t herst udi esi n
mi litaryandt echni caleducat i
on.Mostoft hem wer esentt oSov ietUni onand
Al ger i
a.Al lt hiswasai medatst rengt heni ngt hemi litar yor gani sat ionoft he
PAI GC.
 ThePAI GC l eader shipent er edi nt ot heCONCP al liancewi tht heMPLA of
Angol aandt heFRELI MO ofMozambi que.TheCONCPal li
anceenabl edt he
PAI GC t o acqui rel i
ber at ion st rategi es and ot her l ogi stics t o dest r oy
Por tuguesecol oni alism.
 Thepar tyenabl edt heacqui sitionofi ndependencet hr oughencour agi nguni t
y
dur ingt hest ruggl ef ori ndependence.ThePAI GC pl ay edal eadi ngr olei n
mi ni mi zinget hni cr ivalrybet weent heBal anteandt heFul a.Nat ionaluni t
y
wor kedi nf av ouroft hei ndependenceofBi ssau.
 Thepar tyal so par ticipat ed i n di scussi onswi t
ht henew soci al i
stmi l
i
t ary
gov ernmenti n Por tugall ed by Ant oni o de Spi nol a.The i ndependence
discussi onsi nev it
abl yl edt ot hei ndependenceofBi ssaui nSept ember1974.
 ThePAI GCwonsuppor tandr ecogni tionoft heOAU.Thr oughi tsl iber at i
on
commi ttee,t heOAUext endedf inanci alandmor alassi st ancet ot hest ruggl e
fort hei ndependenceofGui neaBi ssau.
 Itpet i
tionedt hePor tuguesecol oni aladmi nistrat i
ont ot heUNSecur i
tyCounci l
andwonr ecogni ti
onf rom t heUNGener al Assembl y.

THE ROLE OF AMI


LCAR CABRALI
N THE LI
BERATI
ON STRUGGLE OF GUI
NEA
BI
SSAU

ReferenceQuest ions:
1.Assesst hecont ribut i
onofAmi l
carCabr al tot hedecol oni zationofGui neaBi ssau.
2.Discusst her oleofAmi l
carCabr ali nt hest ruggl ef ori ndependencei nGui nea
Bissau.
Ami l
carCabr al wasanagr onomi stbypr ofessi on; hewasbor ninCapeVer de, st udi ed
andwor kedi nLi sbonbef or er et ur ningt ol eadt hei ndependencest rugglei nGui nea
Bissau.Hi sr ol ei nt hest ruggl ef ori ndependencewasasf oll
ows:
 Asanagr onomi st,Cabr alwasi nv olvedi nanagr i
cul t
ur alcensusconduct edby
the col oni aladmi ni strat i
on.The census exposed hi m t ot he mi ser able
condi ti
onsofhi speopl e, andf or cedhi mt ocondemncol oni alism.
 Cabr almobi lisedmassest of or mt hePAI GC;amov ementt hatl edt hear med
struggl eagai nstt hePor tuguesecol oni al i
sts.
 Hemobi lisedt hesmal lwor kingcl assandpet tyt rader st ogi v efinanci aland
mor al assi stancet ot hePAI GCagai nstt hePor tuguesecol oni al oppr essor s.
 Ami l
carCabr ali nfluencedt heest abl ishmentoft hePAI GC headquar ter si n
Gui neaConakr ywher et hemov ementr ecei vedconsi der ablesuppor tf rom t he
Gui neanl eaderSekouTour e.
 Cabr alwonl oy altyf rom t hecommuni stwor l
df rom t hest artoft hel i
ber at ion
struggl ei n1963.Thi senabl edt hePAI GCt or eceiv econsi der ableassi st ance
from Chi na, Cubaandt heSov i
etUni oni nf orm ofmi li
tar yweaponsandt raini ng
whi chst rengt henedt hef reedom f i
ght er sagai nstt hePor t
uguese.
 Cabr alsentt hePAI GCmember soft hepol i
ticalandy outhwi ngst ot heUSSR
andChi nat obeeducat edi nMar xisti deol ogyandt echni calski lls.Ont hei r
retur n,t hepol it
icalt raineesi mpr ov edont hest rategi esoft hePAI GCagai nst
thecol oni alist s.
 Ami l
carCabr alappeal ed t ot he UNO t oi mpose sanct ions agai nstt he
Por tuguese col onialadmi nistrator sf or f ailuret o gr ant Gui nea Bi ssau
independence.
 Hewont hesuppor tandr ecogni tionoft heOAU andt hr oughi tsl i
ber at ion
commi ttee, t hecont i
nent albodyext endedf inanci alandmi l
itar ysuppor ttot he
PAI GC.
 Ami l
carCabr algav et hel iber ationmov ementchar ismat icl eader shi p,whi ch
was i nfluent iali n mot ivat i
ng and i nst i
ll
ing f ighting spi riti nt he Bi ssau
nat i
onal ist s.
 Cabr alr ecr ui ted women i nt ot her anksoft hePAI GC.Women wor ked as
informer s,f ight ersandpr ov ider sofbasi csuppl i
essuchasf oodandmedi cal
car e.
 Heencour ageduni tyoft heBal ant eandt heFul a, whichuni tywasi nst r
ument al
inweakeni ngPor tuguesecol onial admi nistrat ion.
 Ami l
carCabr alef f
ect i
vel ymobi li
sed t hel iber ated zonesi n Gui neaBi ssau
throughest abl ishingschool s, heal thcent ers, roadsandco- oper ati
vesoci et i
es,
whi chi ncr easedpopul arsuppor tf ort hePAI GC.
 Heef fect ivelyco- or dinat edt hemi li
taryandpol iticalwi ngsoft hePAI GC, whi ch
wer ei nf l
uent i
ali nt hesuccessoft hei ndependencest ruggl e.Ev enaf t
erhi s
assassi nat ionear li
eroni n1973,hi spr esencecoul dst il
lbef eltamongstt he
freedom f i
ght ers.
 Cabr all edt hePAI GCi ntot heCONCPal l
iance.Theal li
anceenabl edGui nea
Bissaut ogetr easonabl emot i
v ati
onandst rategi esf r
om hercount er -par ts,
Angol aandMozambi que.Theact i
v i
tiesoft heCONCPhel pedt oweakent he
act i
v i
t i
esoft hePor tuguesecol oni alistsi nGui neaBi ssau.
THELIBERATI
ONWARI NMOZAMBIQUE(1964-
74)
Ther
oleoftheMozambi
canLi
ber
ati
onFr
ont(FRELI
MO)

Ref
erenceQuesti
ons;
1.Examinet hecontr
ibut
ionoftheFRELIMOt othest ruggl
ef orindependencein
Mozambi que.
2.Howf arwastheFRELIMOr esponsi
bleforthedecolonizati
onofMozambi que?
TheFRELIMOwasf or
medi n1962inDar-
es-salaam undertheinfl
uenceofEdwar do
Chi
vamboMondl ane.I
twasacoalit
ionofMozar nbi
canpol i
ti
calmovement sinexil
e.

I
n1964,t heFRELI
MOwagedanar medr esi
stanceagainstthePortuguesecol
onial
administ
rat
orsin Mozambique.The contr
ibuti
on oft he FRELI
MO t owards t
he
att
ainmentofi
ndependencei
nMozambi quewasasf ol
l
ows:

 The Fr ontf ort he Li beration ofMozambi que (FRELI MO)est ablished i ts


headquar tersi nTanzani aatBagamoy owher eMozambi canf r
eedom f ighters
weret rained.
 Consequent ly,theFRELI MOl edamassr ecruitmentoff reedom f i
ght ersthat
weret rainedi nguer ri
ll
awar faret act i
cs.
 TheFRELI MOmobi li
sedandsensi tizedMozambi cannat ionalswhogav ef ul
l
suppor ttot hemov ementagai nstt hePor tugueseadmi nist rators.
 Themov ementmanagedt obeatt hespynetwor koft hePor tugueseand
openedupguer ri
ll
abasesdeepi nsi deMozambi quei nNt eteandNi assa.The
baseswer eusedt olaunchsur pri
seat t
acksont headmi ni str
ativeandmi li
tary
post soft hePor tuguese.
 Wi t
h mondl ane as pr esident ,t he FRELI MO pr ov ided char ismat i
c and
i
nf l
uent ial leader shipnecessar yf ort hestr uggleagai nstt hePor tuguese.
 TheFRELI MOwonsuppor toft hecommuni stpower sl iket heSov ietUni on,
ChinaandCuba,whoext endedmor alandmi li
taryai di nf orm oft rainingand
equi pment .
 Apar tf rom Tanzani a,theFRELI MOopenedupot herext er nalbasesi nZambi a
and Mal awi .The mov ementused t hese bases t o wage at tacks on t he
Portuguesecol onialadmi nistrationi nMozambi quef rom di f
fer entext ernal
post s.
 The mov ementest abl i
shed l i
ber ated zones wher e Mozambi cans wer e
empower edpol iti
call
yt oengagei ndeci sionmaki ngatt hegr assr oot s.The
FRELI MO est ablished heal th cent ers and el ement ar y school si nt hese
l
iber atedv ill
ageswher emassesenj oyedexempt i
onsf rom compul sor ytaxes
andot hersoci o-economi cbenef its.
 Theor gani sationdi dmucht oweakenet hnicism dur ingt hest ruggl eagai nst
thePor tuguese.TheFRELI MOi nst eadpr omot ednat i
onaluni t
y .Itr econci led
thef amousMakondewi thot hergr oupsi nt hecent r alandsout her nr egions
l
iket heMakua.Theuni tyofMozambi cansl edt ot hei rsuccessagai nstt he
Portuguese.
 InSept ember1964,t heFRELI MO wagedanar medr esi stanceagai nstt he
Portuguese col onial admi nistration i n Mozambi que. The Mozambi can
resistancet hroughmi lit
arism weakenedt hePor tugueseeconomi cal l
yand
mili
t aril
y .
 The FRELI MO won r ecogni t
ion f rom t he UNO as a nat ionalmov ement
represent ingt heMozambi cannat ionalcause.Hence,member soft heUNO
gavemor alandf i
nanci alsuppor ttot heFRELI MOandi mposedsanct ionson
Portugal .
 Despi tet hepr esenceofot hermov ement sli
ket heCOREMO,t heFRELI MO
wasout standingandt heref ore,wonr ecogniti
onoft heOAU.Thr ought he
l
iberationcommi t
tee, theOAUext endedmor alandf inanci alassistancetot he
FRELI MOt of undt hel iber ationst r
uggl e.
 TheFRELI MOent er edi ntot heCONCPal li
ancewi tht heMPLAofAngol aand
thePAI GCofGui neaBi ssau.TheCONCPenabl edt heliberationmov ement sto
sharemi li
taryst r
ategi esandl ogisti
cst hatweakenedt hePor tuguese.
 The mov ementscor ed mi litarysuccess agai nstt he Por tuguese col onial
admi nistration.I n December1972,t he FRELIMO mur dered ar ound four
hundr edPor t
uguesesol diersofAf ricanor i
ginandar oundni neteenpl anes
weredest royedatMueda,Themi l
itar ycausalti
esscor edbyt heFRELI MO
weakenedt hePor tuguesemi li
tar
il
y.
 TheFRELI MOr ecogni sedt her ol
eofwomenandr ecruitmentmanyoft hem in
thepol iti
calandmi l
it
ar yr anks.Womenser vedasspi es,f i
ghtersandnur ses
duri
ngt hel i
berat i
onst ruggl e.
 Themov ementhel ddi scussi onswi t
ht henewsoci al
istmi l
it
ar ygovernmenti n
Port
ugalof Ant oni o de Spi nol
a and an agr eement was r eached f or
Mozambi quet oat taini ndependenceonJune25, 1975.
 The FRELI MO l ed by Samor a Machel accept ed t he i nstr
ument s of
i
ndependencef r
om t hePor tugueseandest ablishedt hef ir
stindependent
governmentofmaj ori
t yAf ricans.

THEROLEOFEDWARDOCHI
VAMBOMONDLANE

Ref
erenceQuest i
ons;
1.Assess t he r ol e ofEdwar do Chi v ambo Mondl ane i nt he Mozambi can
li
berat ionst r
uggl e.
2. Expl aint he i nfluence ofEdwar do Mondl ane on t he deol onisation of
Mozambi que
 Edwar doMondl anei nf l
uencedt heest ablishmentoft heFRELI MO,whi chwas
amer geroft hedi ffer entpol i
ticalmov ement si nexi le.Hebecamet hef ir
st
presidentoft heFRELI MO.
 Heconsequent l
y,i edt ot heest abli
shmentofext ernalbasesi nTanzani a,
Zambi a and Mal awif r
om wher e at tacks wer el aunched agai nst t he
Por t
uguesecol onial admi nistrationinMozambi que.
 Mondl anel edt heFRELI MOt oest abli
shi nt er nalbasesi nMozambi quebehi nd
thei ntelligencenet wor koft hePor tuguese.Thei nternalbaseswer eusedt o
sabot age t he Por tuguese col oniali nstal l
at ions and mi l
itarypost sl ike at
Mueda.
 Hegav echar ismat icl eader shipt ot hel iber at i
onst ruggl eatt heinitialst age
especi allybet ween1964and1969.
 Hesuccessf ullylaunchedanar medr esist ancet hrought heFRELI MOagai nst
thePor tuguesei nSept ember1964.
 Hegav eacl earpol it
icalpr ogram f ort hel iber ationst ruggle,sucht hatev en
afterhi sassassi nat i
on,t heFRELI MO l eader shipr emai nedf ocusedt ot he
struggl ef orindependence.
 Edwar do successf ul l
ymobi li
sed and r ecr ui ted Mozambi can masses who
wer et rainedi nguer ril
lawar f
aret acti
cst of ightf orindependence.
 Mondl ane soughti ntervention oft he UNO i n Mozambi que foll
owi ng t he
delay eddecol onisat ionbyt hePor t
uguese.TheUN wentaheadt oi mpose
sanct ionsonPor tugal ,whichweakenedt hecol oni almast ereconomi cal l
y .
 Edwar do Chi
vambo Mondl ane commanded r espectf rom t he l
eaders of
i
ndependentAf r
icanstatesandt hrought heOAU' sl i
berationcommi tt
ee;they
extencedsupporttotheFRELIMOagai nstthePor tuguese.
 Edwar domobili
zedthesmal lbourgeoisieclassofpet tytracer
s.Worker sand
theeducatedtosupporttheli
berati
onst ruggleagai nstthePor t
uguese.
 Mondl anecal
ledforunityamongt hedifferentethnicgr oupsMozambi quein
ordertodefeatthePor t
uguese.Themaj oret hnicgr oupswer etheMakonde,
Via.kuaandTsonga.

ANGOLANCI
VILWARSI
NCE1976

Revisionquest i
ons:
1.Exami nethecausesandef f
ectsoft hecivi
lwarinAngol ain1975
2.Di scusst hef act
orsthatledt othecol l
apseofmassnat ionali
sm i nAngolain
1975
3.Accountf orthecivi
lwarinAngol aby1975
AssoonasAngol aregai
nedheri ndependencefrom PortugalonNov ember11,1975,
herjubil
ationwasshor tli
ved.ThenewAf r
icanledgov ernmentofmai nlytheMPLA
waspl ungedi nt
owarwi ththeUNI TA-FNLAal l
i
ance.Sincet hen,chaosr ei
gnedinthe
country.

TheMPLAgov er nmentatLuandaf i
rstunderAgust inhoNet oandl aterDosSant os
battl
edwi tht heUNI TAdomi nat edr ebelsl edbyJonasSav imbiandHol denRober to
from 1976.Theor iginoft hisci vilwarandt hef act orst hatpr ol ongedi tincl udedt he
foll
owing:
 Thecol oni alhi storyofAngol aledt ot heout br eakoft heci v i
lwar .Angol adur i
ng
thePor t
ugueser ulewasf ract uredbyt hecol onialpol i
cyofdi v i
deandr ulewhi ch
plantedt heseedofet hni cityandmi cronat ional i
sm.Thepol icyhei ght enedt he
pre-coioni alhat redamongt het ribesi .e.t heBakongo,MbunduandOv imbundu.
Angol ansbecamet iedt ot heirtriball oy alt
iest hant hecount ry .Thi sexpl ainswhy
theyf oughtal ongt riball i
nesdur ingt hewarofi ndependence.I tlateri nf l
uenced
theciv i
l war .
 Angol awasi nadequat el ypr epar edf ori ndependence.Af tert he1974coupi n
Lisbon,t hePor t
uguesegov er nmentwasi nahur ryt owi t
hdr aw f rom Af r
icaand
turnherat tent iont odomest icpr oblems.Att het i
me,Angol awasi nur gentneed
ofawel l-or gani sedpol ice,nat i
onalar myandci vilser vicet oensur easmoot h
transiti
on f rom col onialr ulet oi ndependence.Not hi ng was done by t he
Por t
ugueset oachi ev ethi showev er
.Consequent l
y ,theMPLA,t heFNLAandt he
UNI TAdecl aredi ndependencesepar atelyandr etainedt hei rregi onal armi es.
 Mi l
it
arizat ion oft he Angol an pol i
tics l ed t ot he ci v i
lwar .On t he ev e of
independence,t hef or merguer i
ll
agr oupshadest abl i
shedl argear mi est hatwer e
stronglyequi ppedandbat t
lehar dened.Not hingwasdonet odi sar mt hem as
agreedear lieri nI vor yCoasti n1974.Consequent l
y ,theMPLAr emai nedwi than
armedf or ceof1. 5mi l
liont roopsmai nlyi nt hecent r alr egi on.I nthenor th,the
FNLA r etai ned ov ersev en hundr ed t housand t roopswhi let heUNI TA woul d
mobi li
seaboutt womi l
l
ionespeci all
yi nt hesout her nr egi on.Fai l
uret odi sarmt he
li
berationmov ement smadei teasi erfort hecount ryt obr eaki ntoaci v i
lwar .
 Et hnicdi ffer encesf annedt hegr oundf ort heAngol anci v i
lwar .Asnot edbef ore,
ethnicism st ar tedl ongbef or ecol onialr uleandwaswor senedbyt hePor t
uguese
asast rategyt ogov er
nt hei rAngol ansubj ect sanddest roynat ionalhar mony .
Ethnicitycr eat edsuspi cions,mi st rustandt her eforecompr omi sednat ionaluni ty.
TheMPLAandherl eader shi pwer epr edomi nant lysuppor tedbyt heMbundu;t he
Ov i
mbundu bar ked UNI TA whi l
et heBakongo wer ebehi nd FNLA.Ther efore,
ethni cr ivalryf aci lit
at edt heci vilwar .
 Ideol ogi caldi ffer encesf urtherdi videdAngol ansandpr epar edgr oundf oraci v i
l
strife.Soonaf t eri ndependence,Angol awascaughtupi ncol dwarpol itics.The
MPLAasapar tyandgov er nmentwer eundercommuni sti nfluence,pat ronised
andsuppor t
edbyt hecommuni stst at esoft heSov ietUni onandCuba.Ont he
otherhand,t heUNI TAandFNLAwer ei ncl i
nedt owar dst hecapi t
al i
stwest ern
power s.Thi scr eat edi deol ogi calconf l
ict s,whi chf av our edt heci v i
lwar .The
Angol anci vilwart her ef ore,wasapr oxywar( foughtonbehal fofcol dwar
power s).
 Per sonalambi tionscont ri
but edt ot heAngol anci vilwar .Thi swasev identl ong
bef orei ndependence.Att hecent reoft hi swasgr eedf orpowerandcl ashof
per sonal i
ti
es.Agust inhoNet o, Hol denRober toandJonasSav i
mbiwer eunwi l
ling
tocompr omi sef ort hesakeofnat ionali nt erestanduni ty .Instead,t hepol i
tical
l
eader swer edr ivenbymi cro- nat ional ism andmi litar ism i nabi dt or et ainpol i
tical
office.
 Thechar acterandper sonal ityofJonasSav i
mbil edt ot heci vilwari nAngol a.
Sav imbi was uncompr omi sing and power hungr y,he r ej ected t he pr e-
i
ndependenceel ect ionsandt hesubsequentel ect ionst hatf ol l
owed.Sav imbi
pref er r
edami litar yappr oacht oapol i
ticalsol ut i
ont ot heAngol anpr obl em.Asa
war lor d,hehadaccumul atedmassi veweal thcour tesyoft heci v i
l war .Nowonder
henev err espect edt hecal lf rom t heUni tedNat i
onsandt heOAUf orpeacet alks
witht heMPLAgov er nment .
 Thei ndi scr i
mi nat ivepol i
cyandchar act erofAgust inhoNet omadet heci vi
lwar
i
nev i
t able.Hewasar rogantandegoi stic;hepr ef er r
ednott oshar et hepol i
tical
cakewi thl eader soft heFNLAandt heUNI TAwhohadpar t
lyhel pedt oweaken
thePor tuguesecol oni algov ernmentdur ingt hel iber ationwar .Nowondert hat
Net owasr eluct antf orapowershar ingagr eementandnev erconcent rateddur ing
thepeacet alkswi t
hJonasSav imbi .
 Weaknessanddoubl est andar dsoft heOAUescal atedt heci vi
lwar .Amongt he
princi plesoft heOAUwast henon- inter fer encei nt heaf fairsofamemberst ates;
hencet hecont inent albodywasr el uct antt oi nt er venei nt heAngol anquest ion.
Consequent ly, somemember soft heOAUl ikeMobut uofCongoZai resuppor ted
the UNI TA f or ces agai nstt he Angol an MPLA gov ernment .On t he ev e of
i
ndependence,t heOAU suppor t
edacoal itiongov er nmentofal lt hel iberat ion
mov ement sbutl atert ur nedoutt osuppor tt heMPLAgov er nment ,whi channoy ed
theFNLAandt heUNI TA.
 Failur eoft heNakur upeaceaccor d( pr ot ocol )of1974 wor sened pol iti
csi n
Angol a.Thepeaceagr eementi nKeny awassuppor tedbyt heOAUundert he
chai rmanshi pofKeny anpr esi dentDani elAr apMoi ;accor dingt ot heNakur u
PeaceAccor d,t heFNLA,MPLA andt heUN1TA wer et oagr eeonacoal ition
gov er nment bef ore democr atic el ect ions wer e or gani sed shor tly af ter
i
ndependence.Thecoal iti
ongov ernmentwashowev er,shor t-livedduet ot he
diver gencei ni nt erest samongt hel iber at ionl eader s.Thef ailureoft hepr oposed
coal isiongov er nmentl ai dgr oundf oraci vil war .
 Theeconomi cweal thofAngol al edt ot heci vi
lwar :Angol ai sendowedwi th
nat uralmi neral sl ikedi amondsandoi lt hatwer edi st ri
but edi nt hedi ff
er ent
regionsoft hecount ry.Thel iber ationmov ement scont rolledar easwi thmi ner al
deposi tsandt hi shi nder ednegot iationsf orapol iti
calset tlementt ot heAngol an
conf lict.TheUNI TAcont rolleddi amonddeposi tsi nKabi nda, whi chmadeSav imbi
awar lord.Consequent ly,theMPLAgov er nmentl edbyAgust inhoNet omadea
cont rov ersialmi ni ngdealwi thEur opeanmi ni ngcompani eswher et hemi ner al
retur nswoul dbenef ittheMPLAasapar tyt hant heent ir
enat i
onofAngol a.Ot her
l
eader sl i
keSav imbicondemnedt heMPLA agr eementwi thEur opeanmi ni ng
companies,whi
chcausedt hecivi
l war.
 ThedoublestandardsoftheUni t
edNat ionsOrgani
sati
onf acil
i
tatedthecivi
lwar
i
n Angola.The UN Secur ity Councilcondemned mi l
it
arism i n Angola af
ter
i
ndependence butmemberst ates oft he UN wentahead and sol d mi l
it
ary
equipmenttodiff
erentmil
itarygroupsinv ol
vedi
nt heci
vilwar .TheUSAcl osely
rel
atedwithJonasSav i
mbit hr
oughmi neralandarmsdeals, whichfaci
li
tat
edt he
str
engthoftheUNITA.
Theef
fect
soft
heci
vi
lwari
nANGOLA

Ref
erenceQuest ion
1.Assesst hei mpactoft heci vilwari nAngol a
2.Howdi dt heci v ilst rif
eof1975t o2002af fectt hepeopl eofAngol a?
 TheAngol anci vilwarpr olongedhumansuf fer ing.ThehopeofAngol ansenj oy i
ng
the f ruits ofi ndependence was dest roy ed.I nst ead,t he warcaused unt ol d
suffering, mi ser y, insecur ity, fearandot herr elat edef f ect s.
 Ar easonabl enumberofpeopl el ostt hei rl ivesi nt hewarwhi leot her swer el eft
withamput at edandmi medbodi es.Consequent l
y ,ther ewasmassi vedest ruct ion
ofpr oper tyt hati ncl udedhomest eads, gar densandot heri nf rast ruct ur es.
 Theeconomi cl i
f ei nAngol awasl efti nshambl es.I nt hewar -af fect edar eas,
agricultur ecamet oast andst ill,tradewasdi srupt edandi nt heend,r ampant
pover tyandscar cityofessent ialcommodi tieswer eexper i
enced.Thedi sr upt ion
ofagr icul tur el edt osev er ef oodshor tagei nsomer egi onsofAngol aespeci allyi n
thecent ral andnor thernr egions.
 Theci vilwarcaused heav ygov ernmentexpendi t
ur e:t he MPLAwast ed much
oft hegov ernment r ev enues on mi litary har dwar et ot he di sadv ant age of
other gov er nment depar tment s. Thi s ant agoni zed nat i
onal pl anni ng and
development .
 TheAngol anci v i
lwarl edt omassdi spl acementoft hepeopl ei nter nal l
yand
external ly.Manyoft heAngol anpeopl emov edandset tledi nt henei ghbor i
ng
statesespeci allyCongoZai reandNami bia,t hus,wor seni ngt her efugeecr isi si n
ther egi on.Byt het imeoft hecease- f
irei nt hel ate1990' s,t her ewer eov erf our
mi l
l
ionAngol anr ef ugeesset tledi nZi mbabwe, Zambi a, Zai re, andNami bi a.
 Duringt hecol dwarper iod, Angol abecameat heat reoft hei deol ogi calwaroft he
superpower s.TheUNI TAcameundert hei nf luenceofcapi talism andr ecei ved
aidf rom t heUSAandSout hAf ricawhi let heMPLAhadi nfluenceoft heSov iet
UnionandCuba.Ther ef ore,t heci v i
lwari nAngol awasapr oxywarf oughton
behal foft hesuperpower s.
 Angol a dur ing t he ci vilwarsuf f
ered f rom ext ernali nt er ference,whi ch l at er
promot edneo¬col onialism i nt hecount ry.Apar tf rom col dwarpower s,Por tugal
thef or mercol oni almot hert oAngol at ookadv ant ageofci vilwart ocont ainher
infl
uencei nt hecount r
y .Angol awasf or medt osel lherdi amondsandoi ltobi g
power si nexchangef ormi l
itar yequi pment .
 Thewarcausedmi lit
ar i
zat ionofpol iticsi nt hecount ry.Thecul tureoft hegun
becamedeepl yappr eciat edi nt hepol i
ticsofAngol a.Thi scompr omi sednat ional
secur itysi ncet hecount rysidewasl ef tatt hemer cyofMPLAsol dier sandUNI TA
rebels.
 Theci vilwari nAngol adi v i
dedt hecount ryf ur t
her .Theunr estescal atedt he
ethnict ensi on,whi ch af f ect ed nat ionaluni ty and f aci l
itat ed t he MPLA
dictator shi p.The MPLA gov er nmentt ried t of or ge uni t yt hrough pr omot i
ng
democr acybutal linv ain.DosSant osor gani zedel ect ionsi n1992whi chr esul ts
wer er ej ect edbySav irnbiongr oundsoft r i
balhat red.Fai lureofconst it
ut ional
democr acyf or cedDosSant os' gov er nmentt ousecoer ci vemeansi nt hegui seof
ensur ingnat ional har monyi nt hecount ry .
 TheAngol anci vilwardi videdt heOAUandbecameanobst acl et ot heconceptof
PanAf r
icani sm.Out si
deAngol a, member soft heOAUbecamedi videdasAf rican
gover nment sl iket heMobut uadmi nist rationsuppor tedt heci v i
lwart hrought he
aidi
ngt heUNI TAr ebel swhi leot her scondemnedsuchconspi racy .
 TheAngol anci v ilwardel ay edt hei ndependenceofot herst at esi nSout her n
Afri
caespeci al l
ySout hWestAf r ica( Nami bia)andSout hAf rica.Apar thei dSout h
Afri
camai nt ai nedher sel finSout h WestAf rica on cl aims ofpr ev ent ingt he
spr ead of communi sm f r
om Angol a.Consequent ly,Nami bi areceiv
ed
i
ndependence i n 1990 whi l
e South Afri
ca gai ned freedom f rom apar theid
domi nati
onin1994.
 Theci v i
lwarexposed t hedoublestandardsoft heUni ted Nationsand t his
discr edit
edt heinternati
onalcustodi
anofwor l
dpeace.TheAngol anci vi
lwar
becameaper sonalissueont heUNagendat hanani nt
ernationalproblem tobe
solv ed.Manyoft heUNmember sofWest ernEur opesuppor tedtheUNI TArebels
throught heNATO.
 Posi tivel
y,the wardr ew the att
enti
on ofi nternat
ionalagenci es l
ike t
he
Internat i
onalCommi tt
eeoft heRedCr oss,theUNI CEF,andt heUni tedNati
ons
HighCommi ssionf orRefugees.Theagenciescamei nduet othehumani t
ari
an
probl emshence,gav eassistanceinform off ood,medi cineandcl othestothe
victimsofwar .

THEMOZAMBI CANCI VILWAR( 1977-1994)


Mozambique j
ustl ike Angola succumbed to civi
lunr estafterregaini
ng her
i
ndependence fr
om Por tugalin 1975.The ci vi
lwarbr oke outbet ween the
MozambicanLiberat
ionFront(FRELIMO)governmentunderSamar aMachelandt he
MozambicanNationalResi
stance(RENAMO)r ebel
sofAlfonsoDhlakama.

Causes

ReferenceQuest i
ons:
1.Accountf ort heout breakoft heci vi
lwari nMozambi quei n1977
2.Exami net hecausesandconsequencesoft heMozambi canci vilwar
3.Accountf ort hecol l
apseofmassnat ionalism i nMozambi queby1977
4.Towhatext entwascol oni allegacyr esponsi blef ort heout br eakofci vi
lunr esti n
Mozambi quei n1977?
5.Howf arwast heFRELI MOgov ernmentr esponsi blef ort heMozambi canci vilwar
of1977?
 ThePor tugueseuseddi v i
deandr ulepol icyi nMozambi que.Theyencour aged
tri
bal i
sm i nt hecount rybyal lyi
ngwi t
hmi nor ityt ri
besagai nstt heMakonde.By
doingso, thePor tugueseai medatweakeni ngmassnat ional ism andi solatingt he
FRELI MO,whi chwasl edanddomi natedbyt heMakonde.ThePor tuguesedi vide
andr ulepol icyl eftnor oom f orauni tedcount ryati ndependence.
 Theunf airr epr esent ationi nt henew i ndependentgov ernmentcausedt heci v i
l
unresti nMozambi que.Ont heev eofi ndependence,t henew mi li
taryregi meof
Por tugalsi gned a t reatywi tht he FRELI MO i n Sept ember1974.The t reat y
excludedot hermi nornat ional i
stsgr oupsl i
ket heRev olutionar yCommi tteeof
Mozambi que ( COREMO) f rom t he pol iti
calset tlement . Thi s was f ur ther
rei
nf or cedbyt heunf airrepr esent ati
onoft hev ariousl iber ationgr oupsi nt henew
Angol angov ernment .Thedef eatedMozambi cangr oupsi nt he1975el ect i
ons
formedt heRENAMOt of ightagai nsttheFRELI MOgov ernment .
 TheFRELI MOgov er nmentpol icyofbanni ngot herMozambi canpol iti
calpar tiesi n
1977causedpol it
icalgr iev ancest hatescal at edi ntowar .Af teri ndependence,
Samor a'
sadmi nistrationt urned Mozambi quei nt o aonepar tyMar xistst at e.
Otherpol it
icalgr oups l ike COREMO wer e el i
mi nat ed f r om t he pol iti
cs of
Mozambi que.Thi s pol it
icalel iminat i
on ar oused sent i
ment s among masses
especi all
yt hosewhowant edamul ti-
par t
ysy stem ofgov er nance.I nanat tempt
tof ightf ort hei rright s,theMozar nbicansr esor t
edt ov iolenceandbl oodshed
throught heact i
viti
esoft heRENAMO.
 Aut hor it
ariani sm anddi ctator shipoft heFRELI MOcont ributedt ot heci vilunr est .
Despot i
sm waspr acticedf i
rstbySamor aMachelandl at ersust ainedbyJoachi m
Chi ssano.The FRELI MO admi ni st r
at i
on censor ed t he pr ess and per secut ed
l
iber ties of Mozar nbi cans.The aut hor itar i
an pol icies of t he i ndependent
gov er nmentannoy edt heMozar nbi canswhocher i
sheddemocr acy .Manyot her s
wer eoft heCat hol icChur ch, whi cht heFRELI MOgov er nmentr egar ded, ashost il
e
tohercommuni stpol i
cies.
 Mi l
itar ism i nt hecount ryf urni shedgr oundsf orpol i
ticalchaosi nMozambi que.
TheMozambi canwarofi ndependenceexposedt hemassest omi litar i
sm andt he
cultur eoft hegun.I twast her ef oreeasyt omobi lizemassesi nt oar ebel l
ion.Thi s
expl ai nswhyt heRENAMOwasabl et oest abl i
shbasesi nt hecount ry sidev ery
quickl y.
 Theambi tionsandgr eedf orpowerbypol iticall eader sl i
keAl fonsoDhl akama
wasanaddi tionalf act ori ncausi ngt heMozambi canci vilwar .Al fonsoexpl oited
thedi scont ent mentoft hepeopl eandwant edt ousemi li
tar ymeanst oachi ev e
politicalandmat erialbenef it
s.Het her efor e,or gani sedt heRENAMOf orcesand
l
aunchedawaragai nstt heFRELI MOgov ernment .
 Economi cf act or s occasi oned i nst abi l
ityi nt he count ry.I ndependence i n
Mozambi quef ailedt obr i
nganyt angi blebenef i
t st ot hemasses.Thecount r
y
suf fer ed f rom wi de spr ead pov erty and ot her r el ated pr obl ems l ike
unempl oy ment .The l iber ation warv et erans wer e di ssat isf i
ed wi tht he l and
distribut ion and t he agr arian pol icies pur sued by t he gov ernment .Outof
frust rat ions,somej oinedt heRENAMO f or ces.Ther ei snodoubtt hatbi t i
ng
pov er tyandunempl oy mentpr epar edf er ti
legr oundsf orar ebel lion.
 Ethni cdi ffer encesamongMozar nbi cansf rust rat ednat ionaluni ty.Mostoft he
peopl el ov edt hei rt ribesmor et hant hei rcount r
y .Manysubgr oupswer eagai nst
theMakondewhodomi natedt hegov er nment .Theseet hni cdi ff erenceswer e
reinf or cedbyr eligi ousconf li
ct sandcol oni al histor y .
 Conf li
ct si npol iticali deol ogydi videdt hecount ryf ur t
her . TheFRELI MO was
Mar xist( communi st )anddenouncedcapi tal ism inal li tsf or ms.I nt hei rdr eam of
buildi ng a soci alist st ate,t he FRELI MO adopt ed r adi cal measur es l ike
nat i
onal isat i
onoft hemaj orcapi talv ent ures.Thi si nfluenced manypr oper t
y
owner sandt her icht osuppor tt heRENAMOwhowassy mpat het ict ocapi tali
sm.
 Sout hAf ricapl ay edapr omi nentr olei ndest abi lisingt heMaput ogov er nment .
Apar tf rom t hef earofcommuni sm,t heapar t
hei dgov er nmenti nPr etor iawas
alarmedbyMozambi canr oleasaf ront linest at eandhersuppor tt ot heANC.
Thus,Sout hAf ricagav et heRENAMO f i
nanci alandmi litaryassi st anceasa
count ermeasur eagai nstt heFRELI MOgov er nment .
 Neo- col oni al i
sm had a hand i nt he ci vilwari n Mozambi que.Al though t he
Por tuguesepul ledoutofMozambi quei n1975,Por tugalcont inuedt osear chf or
i
nf l
uence i n Mozambi que.Some oft he Por t
uguese l ostt heircapi talatt he
expense oft he Mar xi stMozambi can gov ernment .Many ot her s dr eamtof
regai ni ngt heirpr ivilegesdur ingt hecol oni alper iod.Besi des,t hePor tuguese
gov er nmentwant edt oest abl ishaneo- col oni alinf luencei nMozambi quebuthad
noconnect ionwi thSamor a.Thi sf or cedt hePor tugueset osuppor tt heRENAMO.
 Thewarwasf av our edbyt heweaknessoft heOAUt hatwasi tsel fdi v idedby
i
deol ogi calconf l
ict s.TheOAUwasi nact iv epar tlyduet ot hepr inci pleofnon-
i
nt erf er encei nt heaf fairsoft hemembercount ry .Thi sat titudewasal sof ound
amongnei ghbour ingst at esofMozambi que.Ther ef ore, thei nef f
ect iv enessoft he
OAUpr ol ongedt heMozambi canci v i
lwar .
 The doubl e st andar d oft he Uni ted Nat i
ons cont ribut ed t ot he ci v i
lwari n
Mozambi que.Though t he UN Secur i
ty Counci lcondemned t he unr esti n
Mozambi que,and pl edged t o sol vet heconf li
ct ,no meani ngf ulr esul tswer e
achi ev edunt il1994.Tonot ei st hatsomeoft hemaj orpower sofUNl iket heUSA,
theUSSRandBr itainhadpol iticalandeconomi ci nt er estsi nMozambi que, whi ch
contri
butedtot hecivi
lanar
chy.
 Iti
sal soar
guedt hatt
hecivi
lwarinAngolahadani mpactonMozambique.Si
nce
thet woshar edsi mil
arcolonialexper
ience,therebell
i
onofSavimbiandt he
UNITAagai nstt heMPLAgov ernmentcoul dhaveinspi
redt
heRENAMO under
Dhlakamat ofightagainstt
heFRELIMOgov ernment
.

Ef
fect
soft
heci
vi
lwar

ReferenceQuest ions:
1.Assesst hei mpactoft heci vilwari nMozambi que
2.Howdi dt heci v ilst r
ifeof1977t o1994af fectt hepeopl eofMozambi que?
 Thewarl edt omassi v elossofl ivesanddest ruct i
onofpr oper ty.About1. 5mi ll
i
on
peopl eper ishedi nt hewarduet of ighting,f ami neandot herr elatedpr oblems.A
l
otofpr oper tybot hgov er nmentandpr i
vat ewasei therdest roy edordamaged.
 Ther ewaseconomi cr etar dat ion.Thewarhi nder edagr iculture,i ndust r
iali
sati
on
andscar edawaypot ent i
alf or ei gni nvest ors.TheFRELI MOgov ernmentdi verted
nat i
onalr esour cest osust aint hewar :t hemi li
tarybudgetmor ethant r
ippledat
theexpenseofsoci alandeconomi cneeds.
 Dur i
ngt hewar ,Samor aMachelwasassassi natedi napl anecr ashi n1986
Oct oberatt hebor derofMozambi queandSout hAf rica.Thought hecausest i
l
l
remai nsamy st er y,thebl amegoest othegov ernmentofPr etor iathatsuppor ted
theRENAMOr ebel s.
 The ci vilwari n Mozambi que f orced t he FRELI MO gov ernmenti nto heav y
bor r
owi ng t o compensat e economi c and soci alr etardat ion.The ext ernal
bor r
owi ngi ncr easedt hedebtbur denofMozambi queandl eftt hecount ryatt he
mer cyoft hei nt er national communi ty
 Theci v i
lwardel ay edt heconsol i
dat i
onofnat ionaluni tyandi ndependencei n
Mozambi que.Thi sisbecauset hecount rywasi ncr easingl ydependentonf orei
gn
power sf orassi stance, andt hi swor senedt heneo- col oni alpr obl em.
 The Mozambi can ci v i
lwarst rained r elations bet ween t he gov ernmentof
Mozambi queandapar thei dSout hAf r
ica.Wher east heapar theidr egimegav e
i
nt ensiv esuppor ttoRENAMO,t heMaput ogov ernmentcompl iedt hroughai dt o
theANC.Hence, count erbl ameswer edirect edt oei thergov er nment .
 Consequent l
y,t heMozambi canci v i
lwardel ayedt hel iberat i
onofSout hAf ri
ca.
TheMaput oandPr et oriagov ernment spl ay edabl amegamet hatmadet he
apar theidr egi met oconsol idat ehersuppor tt ot heRENAMO asapr eventive
measur et ot hesuppor tr ecei v edbyt heANCf rom t heFRELi MOgov ernment .
 Theci vilstr if
el edt ot hemi li
tar isationofMozambi canpol it
ics.Bet ween1977and
1994,t heFRELI MOandt heRENAMOusedt hepoweroft hegunt oachi evetheir
i
nt erest satt heexpenseoft henat i
onal cause.
 Theci v ilwarcompr omi sed nat ionaluni ty.Thecount rybecamei ncreasingly
fracturedduet oet hnic, pol i
tical andi deol ogical differences.
 Col dwarpol iti
cswaspr omot edi nthecount rybecauseoft heci vi
lwar .TheUSSR
andt heUSAsuppor tedt heFRELI MOandt heRENAMOr espect ivelyi nor dert o
sat i
sfyt hei ri deol ogicali nter est s.Thi swasaset backt oAf ricannat i
onal ism and
politi
cal dev elopmenti nMozambi quesi ncet heci v i
l strifebecameapr oxywar .
 Thewarcr eat edar efugeecr i
si si nSout hernAf ri
ca.Thousandsofpeopl emai nly
womenandchi ldrenmov edt onei ghbour i
ngcount r
iesofZambi aandSout h
Af r
icaf orsecur itypur poseandsur vival.Ot her sbecamei nter nallydispl aced.
 Posi ti
vel y,t heMozambi canci vilwarmadet hepeopl eofMozambi quet orealize
theiri dent ityand t hei mpor tanceofnat ionaluni t
yatt heexpenseofet hnic
nat i
onal ism.Af teral otofsuf fer i
ng,t hepeopl eputpr essur eont hegov ernment
toseekf orapol i
ti
cal solut i
onwi t
ht heRENAMOr ebels.
 Consequent ly,thewarl edt ointer nati
onali nt ervention.Or ganizati
onsl i
ket he
UnitedNat i
ons, theI nt ernat i
onal Commi t
teeoft heRedCr oss,theOr ganisationof
Afri
canUni tyandt heSout hernAf r
icanDev elopmentCommuni tyinter v
enedwi th
the hope ofsol ving t he Mozambi can pr oblem ami cably.Thi si nternational
pressurel ed t o peace t alksbet ween t he FRELI MO gov ernmentofJoachi m
Chissanoandt heRENAMOr ebelgr oupofDhi akama.Apeacef ulsol uti
onanda
cease-fireagr eementwer ereachedati n1994, whichendedt hecivilwar .
 TheRENAMOwast ransf ormedi nt oapol it
icalpar tyandhaspar ti
cipatedi nt he
l
astt hreepr esident ialel ectionst houghl osingal ltheat t
empt s.Consequent ly,the
RENAMO f ighters wer e i ntegrated i nto t he Mozambi can nat i
onal ar my.
Consequent ly,theRENAMOr ebelswer ei ntergratedi ntot henat i
onalf orcesand
thus,theMozambi canci vilwarwast hefirstsuccessf ull
yset tl
edci vilconf l
ictin
Afri
ca.
 Theci vilwarexposedt heweaknessesoft heOAUi ni t
sef fort
st ofindal asting
soluti
ont other ampantci vi
l warsont hecont i
nent .
 The Mozambi can ci v ilwarexposed t he doubl e standar ds oft he UN,Most
member soft hei nter nationalpeacekeepi ngbodycondemnedt heact ivi
tiesof
theRENAMOi nsabot agi ngpeaceandst abili
tyi nthecount rybutnev ertookany
meani ngf ulstepst oi ntervene.I npar ti
cular,member soft heUN f r
om West ern
Europe, whoco- oper atedundert heNATOsuppor t
edt heRENAMOr ebel sagai nst
theMar xistgov ernmentofMozambi que.

Cl
assassignment:
Di
scussthefact
orsthatf
aci
li
tat
edt
heendoft
heci
vi
lwari
nMozambi
queby1994

NATI
ONALI
SM I
NCENTRALAFRI
CA

THECENTRALAFRI CANFEDERATI ON1953- 63


CentralAfri
cawasdomi natedbyGr eatBri
taininhercoloniesofNorther
nRhodesi a
(Zambiasi nce1964),SouthernRhodesia( Zimbabwesi nce1980)andNy asaland
(Malawisince1963).Li
keot herpar
tsofAf r
ica,ther
egionwassi gni
fi
cantl
yaffected
bythewi ndofchangewhi chsweptacr osstheconti
nentf oll
owi
ngtheendofWor l
d
WarI Iin1945.Amongt heev entst
hatoccur redint
heper iodwasthef or
mat i
onof
theCent r
alAfr
icanFeder
ation(CAF).

TheCent r
alAfri
canFeder at
ion( CAF)wasaconst i
tuti
onalarrangementoft heBriti
sh
CentralAfri
can terri
tor
ies (protect
orates)ofNor thern Rhodesi a,Nyasaland and
SouthernRhodesia.Itwasal ooseuni onofthethreeBrit
ishcoloniesinCentra!Afri
ca
i
nit
iatedbyt heBrit
ishLabourPar tygovernmentunderPr imeMi nisterCl
ementAt lee.
Northern Rhodesia and Ny asaland wer e pr
edominant l
y Afri
can whi l
e Southern
Rhodesiawasef fecti
vel
yunderwhi t
eset t
ler
ssince1891.

Thepr oposalfortheestabl
ishmentoft heCAFwaspassedataLondonConf er
ence
of1950.SomeLabourpar li
ament ari
answerehowev er,opposedt othefeder
ati
onbut,
unfort
unately
,t heLabourgov ernmentlosttot heConser v
at i
vePar t
ywhocamet o
poweri nOct ober1951.Thei deaoff ederat
ingBr i
ti
shCent ralAfr
icawashence,
i
mpl ementedbyt heregimeofWi nstonChurchil
l,
PrimeMi nisteroftheConserv
ati
ve
Government ,
andhi sColoni
alSecr et
aryLyt
tl
etonOl i
ver
.

Theamal gamati
onofthethreeBri
tishCent
ralAfri
canProtectorateswasproposed
by the whites i
n Sal
i
sbury
,l ed by Muggins,and eagerly support
ed by thei
r
counter
partsinNort
her
nRhodesialedbyWel ensky
.Thi
swasacl eari
ndicat
iont
hat
t
hei
deaoft
hef
eder
ati
onwaspur
elyar
aci
stat
tri
but
e.

Thereasonsbehindtheformati
onoftheCent
ralAfr
icanFederat
ionevolv
edar
ound
thepol
it
icalandeconomicinter
est
softheBri
ti
shGov er
nmentononehandandt he
whit
esettl
ersinCent
ralAfr
icaontheot
her
.Theyincl
udedthefoll
owing:

Ref
erenceQuest ions:
1.Accountf ort hef or mat ionoft heCent ralAf ricanFeder at ion
2.Whydi dt hewhi tesofSout her nRhodesi apr oposeauni onwi thNy asal and
andNor ther nRhodesi a?
 Thedesi r ebyt hecol onialgov ernmentt or educeont hecost sofcol oni al
admi nistrat i
on i nt he cent ralAf rican r egi on l ed t ot he f or mat ion oft he
feder ation.Thecol oni alof fi
cei nBr itainbel iev edt hataf eder at i
oni ncent ral
Af r
icawoul df aci l
itat eeasyadmi nist rat i
oni nt her egi on.Theyl ookedatt he
balkani sat ion( div ision)oft het hreet err i
toriesasunwi sebecausei tincr eased
thecost sofadmi ni stration.Att hesamet i
me,t hewhi t
eset t
ler swoul dassi st
intheadmi nist rationofCent ralAf ricat hanr ecr uit i
ngadmi ni strat iveof fi
ci als
from Br i
t ain.Thef eder at i
onwashenceanat temptt onotonl yov er comet he
balkani sat ionofAf ricabutal sot or educeont headmi nist rat ivecost sbyt he
coloni al office.
 Consequent l
y,t he mer ger( amal gamat i
on)oft he t hree t er rit
or ies i ntoa
feder ationwasdesi gnedt of orgeuni tybet weent hewhi teset tl
er sandt he
Af r
icannat ives.Thecol oni algov er nmentf el tt hatt her aci alconf lictbet ween
whi tesandt heAf ricannat ivesi ncent ralr egi oncoul dbebr oughtt oanend
throughaf eder at ion.Thev iewwast hat ,wi tht ime, Af ri
canpol iti
calr ightsand
powerwoul dgr adual l
yev olv eunt ilt heywer epol i
t i
cal lyequalt oEur opeans, to
shar ei nt hegov er nmentoft hef eder at ion.TheBr iti
shgov er nmentwasal sot o
actast hewat chdogofAf ricani nt erest s,andensur et hatAf ricanpol itical
powerwasadv ancedi nst ages.Ther efor e,t heCAPwasai medatpr omot i
ng
racial i
nt egr ationofwhi t
eset t
lersandt heAf ricansi nBr it
ishCent ral Af ri
ca.
 Thef earoft hegr owi ngt ideofAf ri
cannat i
onal ism l edt ot hecr eat i
onoft he
feder ation.TheAf ricansi nt her egi onl iket hei rf el l
owsont hecont i
nentwer e
increasi ngl yr est l
essaf t
erWor ldWarI I.Theel i
tesandt heex- ser vicemenof
Wor ldWarI Iwer ei mpat ient l
ydemandi ngf orci v i
lr ight sandf reedoms.Thei r
agitat i
onst hr eat enedt ounder mi nepeaceandst abi lit
yi nt her egi on.The
Briti
shgov ernmentathomehopedt ocont ainmi litantnat ional ism ofAf ri
cans
throught hef eder at ion.TheBr iti
shset tlersi nt her egional sosuppor t
edt he
amal gamat i
onasadel iber ateat temptt o pr e-emptt heemer genceofan
Af r
icani ndependencemov ement .Theyr ealizedt hatt henat ur alandhuman
resour cesav ailabl ewoul dmaket hem economi cal lypower ful( l
ikewhi tesi n
Sout hAf rica)t or esi stal lmov est owar dsAf ricanmaj or i
tyr ule.Thef eder at i
on
woul dt her efor e,cont ain Af rican nat ional i
sm i n.Sout her n Rhodesi a and
prev entt he i mpendi ng i ndependence oft he pr otect or ates ofNor ther n
Rhodesi a and Ny asal and,- whi ch was per cei v ed as bei ng i nf luenced by
communi stf or ces.
 Consequent l
y, theaf termat h( impact )ofWor ldWarI Iinfluencedt hef ormat i
on
ofaf eder ation.Tonot ei st hatt hei deaofaf eder at i
onwasconcei v edbef or e
thewar t
ime( 1939- 1945)anddur ingt hi sper iod,ani nter -
t er r
itor ialsecr etar iat
was est abl ished i n 1941 t o encour age cooper ation bet ween t he t hree
terri
tor i
esofBr itishCent ralAf ri
ca.Thesecr et ariatwasl at err epl acedwi tha
strongerCent ralAf ricanCounci linJune1945.Thecounci lwoul dmeett wi ce
ay eart ocoor di nat eaf fairsl i
kemi gr antl abour( mov ementofwor kershad
beenr est r
ictedbyt her igi dPassLaws) .Thecounci lconsi st edoft het hree
gov er nor sandal eadi ngpol i
t i
ci aneach.Wor l
dWarI Ichangedt hepol i
cyoft he
Briti
shgov er nmentandi nfluencedt hem t osuppor tthedebat ef oraf eder ation
i
nCent ral Af r
ica.
 Thet hr eatposedbyt he1938Hi l
tonYoungCommi ssi oncr eat edani mpact ,
whi chmadet he,f eder ationofBr itishCent ralAf ricant er r
itor i
esi nev itabl e.
Thiscommi ssionheadedbyHi ltonYoungr ecommendedacl osercooper ation
between Nor ther n Rhodesi a and Ny asaland wi t
ht he Br iti
sh EastAf rican
terri
t or i
esi nt henor th.Thecommi ssi onsi ght edgr eatoppor tuni ti
esi nt hi s
cooper ation f or maj or it
y Af ricans of t he t wo Br i
tish Cent ralAf rican
prot ect or ates.Suchl inkupbet weent he' blackcol oni es' t
o( BritishEastAf rica)
i
nt henor t
hwasv iewedbyt heset tler si nSout her nRhodesi aasdanger ous.
Instead, theysuppor tedt hei deaofaCent r
al Af ricanf eder ation.
 Thepol iticalandeconomi cst at usacqui redbyt hewhi teset tlersi nt her egi on
i
nf l
uencedt hecr eationoft heCent r alAf r
icanFeder at i
on.Thewhi t
eset t
ler s
throughoutt hecol oni alper iodhadacqui redamast er yposi tion,whi chwas
nowbei ngt hreat enedbyt henat iveAf ricans.I nabi dt opr eser v et heirmast er y
status,t heset tler ssuppor tedaf eder ati
onwi thhopet hati twoul dpost pone
the emer gence of an Af rican l ed gov ernment .Thi sr aci st v iew was
champi oned bySi rRoyWel enskyi n Nor t
her n Rhodesi a and Si rGodf rey
Muggi nsi nSout hernRhodesi a.
 Thev ict oryoft heNat ional istPar tyi n1948i nSout hAf ricai nfluencedt he
format i
onoft heCent ralAf ricanFeder ation.TheNat ional istPar tyv ictor y
broughtt opowert heBoer sandt heirpol icyofApar thei d.Apar thei dscar edt he
whi tesi nCent r alAf ricawhower eofBr it
ishor igin.Theywer eawar eoft he
Dut chhat redt owar dst heBr i
tishespeci allyaf tert heAngl o- Boerwar s.To
cont ai nt heBeeri nfluencef rom spr eadingnor thwar dst heBr itishset t
ler s
suppor tedt hef or mat ionoft heCAF.
 Inar elat edv i
ew,t hecr eat ionoft heapar thei dsy st em i nSout hAf ri
cacoul d
hav ehadaposi tiveinf luenceont hecr eationoft heCent ral AfricanFeder at ion.
TheBr itishset tlersi nCent ral Af ri
cacoul dhav ebeeni nf luencedt osuppor tt he
Cent r alAf ri
canFeder ationaf tert hesuccessf ulcr eat ionoft hewhi temi nor i
t y
gov er nmenti nSout hAf rica.Thi sSout hAf ricanr acistgov ernmentgav ehope
toset tler sinCent ral Af ricaofapossi bl ewhi ter acistgov er nmenti nt her egi on.
 TheBr i
tishgov ernmentwant edt ocount ert heant i
-Br iti
shsent iment sposed
byt heAf ri
kaner sinSout hAf ri
ca.TheAf rikaner si nSout hAf ricahadwant ed
toest abl i
shcooper ationwi thset tler si nSout her nRhodesi aandencour age
them t ocutt ieswi thEngl and.Gr eatBr it
aint heref ore, appr ov edt hef ormat ion
oft heCent ralAf ri
canFeder at i
on( CAF)i nt henei ghbor hoodofSout hAf ri
caas
amul tiracialsoci etyt hatwassuppor ti
v eofBr i
tishgov ernmenti nterest s.The
i
deaofaf eder at ioni nt hecent ralregi onwashenceper cei vedaf tert hewhi te
settler sdecl i
ned( reject ed)t hepossi bili
tyt oj oinAf rikanerdomi nat edSout h
Africa.Tonot ei st hatl iber al si nbot hBr i
tainandSout her nRhodesi ast rongl y
opposedt her aci st( Apar thei d)sy st em i nSout hAf ri
ca.Set tl
er sl ikeMuggi ns
gotst rongmoment um t oshow t hemsel v esasst rongl iber alsagai nstt he
racistpol icyofSout hAf r
icawi thhopet hati nr et urnt heBr i
t i
shgov ernment
woul dacknowl edget hei deaoft heCent r
al Af ricanFeder at i
on.
 The r api d economi c gr owt h ofSout h Af ri
ca scar ed t he Rhodesi ans i n
Salisbur yt opushf oraf eder ation.Thesl ow gr owt hofSout her nRhodesi a' s
economy( revenues)cr eat edat hr eatf orapossi bl eeconomi ci nfluencei n
Briti
shCent ralAf ricaf rom apower f ulSout hAf ri
ca.TheRhodesi anshence
arguedt hatt hecopperr ev enuesi nNor ther nRhodesi awoul dgi vet hem a
commendabl eboostt oshunaway( bl ock)Sout hAf ri
cani nfluence.By1951,
Rhodesi anr ev enuesst oodatsi xteenandahal fmi llionpounds( 16. 5m) ,f ive
andahal fmi l
li
onpounds( 5. 5m)mor et hanNor ther nRhodesi aatel ev en
mi l
lionpounds; butNor ther nRhodesi awoul dannual lysav ear ev enuesur plus
off ivehundr edt housandpounds.Theset t l
er sofRhodesi awoul donl yaccess
thisr ev enuesur plust hr oughanamal gamat ionandt hiswoul dgi vet hem
economi cconf i
denceagai nstSout hAf ricaneconomi ct hr eat .
 Theeconomi ci nt erdependenceoft het hr eeBr itishcol oni esi nCent ralAf ri
ca
i
nf luenced t he emer gence oft he Cent ralAf rican Feder at i
on.Sout hern
Rhodesi awasl eadi ngi ni ndust r i
alandcommer ci alact ivitieswhi leNor t hern
Rhodesi awaspr oduct iv ei ncocoaandcoppermi ning.Bot hcol oni esdesi red
toex ploitt hecheapl abouri nNy asal and.Theset tler swi shedt ouset he
feder ationt oexpl oitt hemar keti nBr itain;at tractf or eigni nv est ment sand
mor eso,t hatt hel abourf or cei nNy asal andandNor ther nRhodesi awoul d
wor ki nt heZambi ancoppermi nesandRhodesi ani ndust ries.Theenl ar ged
stat e( feder at i
on)woul dhenceencour ageBr i
tishi nv est ment si nt her egi on,
whi ch woul d st rengt hen t he whi te domi nat ed st at e. Thi s economi c
prospect ivemadet hef eder at i
oni nev i
tabl e.
 Theot herar gumentf ort hef or mat ionoft hef eder at ionwasbasedont he
racistat titudeoft hewhi teset t
ler s.TheBr iti
shgov ernmenti n1938i ssuedt he
'
Bledi sloe Commi ssi on whi ch spentaboutt hr ee weeksi n Cent ralAf rica,
drawi ngf indi ngsaboutt hepossi bi li
tyofaf eder ation.Thef i
ndi ngsoft he
commi ssi onf av our edt heAf ricanposi ti
onagai nstt hef eder at i
onsi ght i
ng
l
imi ted numberofwhi tesi n Ny asal and and Nor ther n Rhodesi a,di ff erent
politicaloper atingsy stems,andsi ght i
ngr acialsegr egat ion,whi chcoul dbe
appl ied agai nstAf ri
cans.Nonet hel ess,t he r aci stset tl
er s pushed f ora
feder ationt ot hedi smayofAf ricans.The' Bledisl oeCommi ssi on' hadi nst ead
proposedt hatcooper at ioncoul donl ybepossi bl ebet weenNy asal andand
Nor ther nRhodesi awhohadmaj or i
tyAf r icansandl essset tler s.
 Theneedt ocr eat eanal ter nat ivear eaofi nv est mentl edt ot hef or mat ionof
theCent ralAf r
icanFeder ation.TheBr itishandSout hAf ricani nt er nat ional
capi talist swant edt hef eder at ionasanal t
ernat iv
ear eaofi nv est mentt o
escapepossi blenat i
onal i
sat ionbyt heAf rikaner saf tert hei rsuccessi nt he
1948 el ect i
ons.These ( British) i nv est or s wer e scar ed of l osi ng t heir
i
nv est ment s and capi tali n Sout h Af rica.They t her ef ore suppor ted t he
format ionofaf eder ationi nCent ral Af ricat oenabl et hem t ransf ert hei rcapi tal
andi nvest ment st oanewat mospher e.
 Thedesi rebyt hewhi teset tl
er st oshadeof fcompet itionoft heAf ricans
i
nf luencedt hem t osuppor tt hef ormat i
onofaf eder at ion.TheAf ricansposed
aneconomi ct hr eatot hert hanpol it
icalt hr ought hei ropi nions.Thi smot iv ated
them t of or mt radeuni onsl iket heAf ricanMi newor ker sUni onwhot oget her
withot herassoci at ionsl iket heLi ber alRhodesi anSel ect ionTr ustwor ked
agai nstt he ambi ti
ous l abourand economi c pol ici es oft he set tler s.I n
Nor ther n Rhodesi a,t he set tlers l ed by Roy Wel ensky f av our ed t he
amal gamat ion( f eder at ion)t osaf eguar dt hei ndust rialcol ourbar( i.
e.r aci al
discr imi nat ioni nt hei ndust r
ies)andt heposi ti
onofwhi t emi nor sasal abour
aristocr acy ( labourmonopol y );and as t he economi c act ivi
ties boomed,
compet ition emer ged bet ween whi tesand Af ricansov ert heempl oy ment
oppor tuni tiesav ailabl ei nt hemi ningandcommer cialsect or s.Toexcl udet he
blacks, ther aci stwhi tespr omot edt hei deaoft hef eder at i
on.
 The need t o expl oi tt he economi es ofscal ei nt he r egi on f av our ed t he
amal gamat ionoft het hr eeBr i
tisht er ri
t or i
esi nCent ralAf ri
ca.Tot hewhi tes,
thef eder at ionwasl ookedatasanav enuet oenj oyt heeconomi cbenef itsof
ther egi on.I nSal isbur y,t her ewasadesi ret oenl ar get hemar ketf ort heir
i
ndust r
ialcommodi t i
eswhi chi nt urnwoul di ncr easer ev enueandpr omot e
commer cialandi ndust rialpr oduct ion.Thef eder at i
onwasal sodesi gnedt o
open t he copperbel ti n Nor thern Rhodesi af ort he whi tes i n Sout her n
Rhodesi a,manyofwhom wer esuf feringf rom unempl oy mentandeconomi c
hardshi ps.
 Consequent l
y ,ther ewasaneedt opr omot eeconomi ci nf rastr uctur esi nt he
region.The f eder ation woul d enabl e pul lr esour ces ( capi tal)t o expand
transpor tand communi cat ion l i
nes,t o boostt rade and ot hereconomi c
activ iti
es.Thet ranspor t-
communi cat ionsy stem wasi nadequat ewi thonl y
singl e-track r ailway st o Cape,Bei ra and Lobi t
o Bay .The aut hor i
t i
es i n
Sout her nRhodesi awi shedt obui l
dal i
nef rom Sal isbur yt oLour encoMar ques
(onMozambi cancoast l
ine) .I ndeedt hisdev elopmentwasf inal i
sedi nt he
year soft hef eder ationwi thposi t
ivenegot iationsf orcheapert r anspor tr ates
wi t
h Bel gi an and Por tuguese gov ernment si n Congo and Mozambi que
respect iv ely.
 Ther ewasanur gentneedt oconst ructH. E.P.st ationst oboastt hei ndust ri
al
pot ent ialoft her egi on, andt hiswoul deasi l
ybef aci li
tat edt hroughcr eat i
onof
af eder at ion.Thet hr eecol oni esl ackedhy droel ect ricpowerbecausei twas
expensi vet ohar ness( pr oduce) .Bet ween1940and1950, powerconsumpt i
on
especi allyi n Sout her n Rhodesi a had i ncr eased by f iv ef olds ( 5t imes) .
Consequent l
y ,oft he80, 000 t onsofcoalneeded f ort hecopperbel ti n
Nor ther n Rhodesi a,onl y54, 000 t ons woul d be r ealised.Thi sf or ced t he
author iti
est opaymor ef orSout hAf ricanandAmer icancoal ;andsomet imes
payf orf irewoodt hreet imes( 3t i
mes)t hepr i
ceofcoal .Ther efor e,t her ewas
needt or epl acecoalwi thhy droelect ri
cpower ,whi chwasal sonecessar yf or
domest i
cuse.For tunat ely ,R.Zambeziandhert ri
but arieswer ei ndul gedwi th
the pot ent iali nf orm ofwat erfalls.Onl ya f eder ation coul d at tractt he
necessar yf undsf orH. E. P.st ations.
 Thei ncr easedi nf lux( exodus)off or ei
gnset t
lersf rom Br i
taincr eat edt he
desi ret osecur emor el andf orset tlement ,whi chl edt ot hecr eationoft he
Cent ralAf ricanFeder at ion.Thef eder ationwoul dpr ovideanoppor tuni tyf or
acqui ri
ngset tlerl andf ori ncr easi ngBr it
ishset t
lersi nt her egion.Ov er16, 000
whi tei mmi grant sset tledi nSout her nRhodesi aev eryy earandaf eder at i
on
woul dbeagr eatoppor tuni tyt oacqui ref ort hem enoughl andf orset t l
ement .
SirGodf rey Huggi ns,Pr ime Mi nist erofSout her n Rhodesi al ooked ata
feder at ionasameansofsecur i
ngt hemuchdesi r
edr ev enuest ocat erf ort he
wel far eoft her api dlyi ncr easi ngwhi teset tlementi nt hesout h.
 The whi te set tlersi nt he cent r alr egi on al so dr eamt of a pol itical
i
ndependencef rom met ropol itan( mot her )Br i
tain,t hus,t heypushedf ora
feder at ion.I n1923,t hewhi t
esi nSal i
sbur yacqui redani nternalaut onomous
statusf rom t heBr iti
shcol onialsecr etariati nLondon.Theywer eal lowedt o
hav eani ndependentl egi slatur e,pol ice,ar myandaf i
scalsy stem.These
settler swentf ur thert oschemef oraf eder ationi nor dert ochal lenget he
Br i
tish i mper i
alaut hor ity ov ert he r egion.Thei rcount erpar ti n Nor t
her n
Rhodesi ahadal sor eal isedt heneedt oacqui repol iti
calf reedom f r om t he
Br i
tishcol oni al of fice, whi chwaspossi blet hroughauni onwi t
ht heirf ellowsi n
thesout h.
 Ther olepl ay edbyAndr ewCohenf aci lit
at edt hef or mat ionoft heCAP, Cohen
wast hemosti nf l
uent i
alandpower full i
ber ali nt heBr iti
shcol oni alof ficeand
wasv eryi nf luent i
alatt he1950LondonConf er encewher et hei deaofa
feder at ion ofBr i
tish Cent ralAf rica was concei v ed.The conf erence was
attendedbycol oni alof fi
ci alsandci v i
lser v ant sf rom Br itishpr ot ect or atesof
Cent ralAf ri
ca,Cohensuppor t
edt hei deaof' mul tiraci alism/whi chwasa
part ner shi pbet weenAf ricansandwhi t
eset t
lers.Cohenst rongl yadv ocat ed
forthef eder
ationofcol
oni
alter
ri
tor
iesandthati
nBri
ti
shCentralAf
ri
ca,the
federat
ionwoul dcombineuni
tyandtheeconomicpr
ogressofbothAfr
icans
andwhi tesintheregi
on.

Thenat ureofthef ederalgovernmentinBr i


tishCentr
al Afr
ica
TheCent ralAfri
canFeder ati
onwasgov ernedundert he1953f ederalconsti
tuti
on.
Practi
call
y,thethreef ederalstat
eswer eheadedbyaPr i
meMi nisterwhosatatt he
headquartersi
nSal i
sbury,SouthernRhodesia.Duri
ngitsexistence,theCAPhadt wo
regi
mes,bet ween1953and1956andf rom 1956t o1963.Bet ween1953and1956,
thefederalgovernmentwasheadedbyPr emi erSi
rGodf r
eyHuggi ns( f
rom Southern
Rhodesia)andf rom 1956t o1963,thef ederati
onwasheadedbySi rRoyWel ensky
(fr
om Nor t
hernRhodesi a).

Thecapital(headquart
ers)oft hefederationwasest abl
ishedatSal isbur
y,Sout hern
Rhodesi
a.!tisherethattheaffairsofthef ederat
ionwer ecoor di
nated.
Eachfederalstatehadanassembl y(parliament),butthef ederat
ionhadanov eral
l
assemblyi n Sal
isbur
y.Int hesout h,theassembl ywascomposed oft hir
ty-f
ive
member seightofwhom wer eAf ri
cans.Someoft heseAf r
icanswer eappointedby
theCAPgov ernmentwhi l
eother swer eelectedbyt hewhiteset t
ler
s.

Eff
ectsofCentr
alAfr
icanFeder
ati
on
Refer
encequesti
ons:
1.Assesst hei
mpactoftheCentr
alAfr
icanFederati
ononAf r
icans
2. Examinetheachi
evementsoftheCentr
alAfri
canf eder
ati
onbetween1953and
1963
Thefederat
ionhadbothachi
evements(
positi
veeffect
s)andweaknesses(negat
ive
eff
ects)
.

Achievement s(positi
veef fects)
Thef ederat
ionbr oughteconomi cbenefi
tstot heregi
on,i
tcreat
edal argemar ket
,
whichinturnboost edi ndustri
alandagri
cult
uralout
put.Thi
seconomicprogresswas
mainlybenef i
ci
alt ot heset t
lersinSouther
nRhodesi awhower eassuredofr eady
marketfrom Ny asalandandNor ther
nRhodesia.

Thefederat
ionmoti
vatedt
hedomesti
cincome, whichj
umpedtothr
eehundr
edsi
xty
ni
ne( 369)mill
ionpoundsin1956from twentysi x(
26)mill
i
onpoundsin1953.
Economic boom was partl
y hel
ped by the improv
ed pr
ice ofcopper
,which
consequent
ly,r
emai
nedhighontheworl
dmar ket.

Thef eder at
ionled to Afr
icanset tl
ementamong maj ormi ni
ng,commer ci
aland
i
ndust ri
alcenters.Itwasanadv ant agef orAf r
icanst oexpl oi
ttheset t
lermar ket
.
Africanset t
lementledt oincreasedAf ri
canpr oduct i
oni nmai ze,gr oundnutsand
otherpr oduce.I n Nor
thern Rhodesi a,t he Afri
can f armers enjoyed benef i
ts of
i
mpr oved t r
ansportand communi cat i
on,whi ch led tot heext ension ofmoder n
agriculturalserv
ices.
"Thef ormationoft heCAPl edtocr eati
onofempl oymentoppor t
uniti
es.Af r
icans
whowor kedi nninesandwhi t
ecommer cialventuresreapedi ncreasedwagesand
salaries.Empl oymentofAfricansraisedt heirst
andar dsofliv
ing.

Tohar nessi
ndustr
ialpot
ent
ial
,theCAFgovernmentconst
ructedKaribadam on
RiverZambezibet
ween1955and1959.Thedam generat
edhy droel
ect
ricit
ypower
andconsequentl
yboostedindust
ri
almi
ningandothereconomi cacti
vit
iesinthe
region.
Consequentl
y,theconstructi
onofKaribadam onRi v
erZambezicr eat
edt helar
gest
manmadel akeinthewor l
d,whichbecameat ouri
statt
ract
ion.Thousandsoftouri
sts
from Eur
opeflockedtheregiontoseeLakeKaribawhich,t
ogetherwithVictor
iaFal
ls
fetchedext
rarevenuesforthefeder
algover
nment .

The federat
ion occasi
oned rapid growth i
n t er
ms of i mproved transpor
t,
communicati
on and urbani
zati
on.The i mpr
ovementdev el
opmentwas due t o
massi
veeconomi cboom andwhiteset
tl
ement.Sal
isburyexpandedandr esul
tedint
o
amoder nmul ti
-r
aci
alur
bansettlement
.Largehotels,theatr
es,recr
eationcenter
s
anduniv
ersit
ieswereal
soestabl
ishedwithmanyskyscraperserect
ed.

TheCAFgov ernmentembar kedonpr omotingeducati


oni nther egi
onwithmore
moneyal l
ocatedtot heeducat i
onsect or.Apar
tfrom establi
shi
ngschoolsinthe
feder
alstat
es,thegov ernmentestabli
shedamul t
i-
raci
aluniver
sit
yatSali
sbury
.The
educati
onpolicybytheCAFi ncr
easedt henumberofAf ricaneli
teswhower eto
championthestruggl
ef orAfr
icanfreedom.

Poli
ti
call
y,t
hef eder
algov ernmentallowedAf r
icanrepresentati
oni nthelegisl
ati
ve
assembly.Inthe Sout hern Rhodesia Afri
cans li
ke Joshua Nkomo and St anl
ey
Samkange wer e appointed tot he par l
i
ament .Orton Chi rwa and Nkumbi r
ano
(Nyasal
and)
,and Har r
yNkumbul a ofNor t
hern Rhodesia were member soft he
feder
alassembl y.Discri
minati
on in decision making int he federalparl
iaments
i
ncreasedAfri
cansent i
mentagainstthef ederat
ion.

The f ederati
on led tothe r ise ofmoder n Afri
can nationali
sm.I nt he northern
protectorates(Zambi aandNy asaland),Africannational
istsledbyKamuzuBanda
andHar ryNkumbul aprotestedv igorousl
yagai nstt hepr oposedf eder ati
on.They
ci
tedamast er-slaverel
ati
onshi pbet weenset t
lersandAf ri
cansint hef ederati
on.
Poli
ticalact i
vit
iesl i
kestrikesand pr ot
estsbecame wi despr ead led bypol i
ti
cal
groups l i
ke the Af ri
can Nat ionalCongr ess ofNor t
hern Rhodesi a( 1948),t he
Nyasal andAf ri
canCongr ess( 1944) ,andt heSout hernRhodesi aAf ri
canNat i
onal
Congr ess(1957) .Suchpoli
tical protectsi
ncludedtheCopper -
beltminewor kersstr
ike
of1956.
Negat iveeffects(shortcomi ngs)
Ref erencequest i
ons;
1.Accountf orthecollapseoft heCAFin1963
2.Whywast heCentralAf r
icanFederati
ondissolvedin1963?
3.Howf arwer et heeconomi cf act
orsresponsibl
ef ort
hecoll
apseoftheCAF?
TheCent ralAf r
icanFeder ati
onwasshor t-
li
vedduet oanumberofshor tcomings.
Thef ailur
es( shortcomings)oft hefeder
algov er
nmentcontri
butedtot
hecol l
apseof
thefeder ati
on.Theweaknessesoft hefederalgovernmentarethemainreasonsthe
federal st
atecoui dnotexis:bey ondtenyears(1953-63).

 The f eder at ion i gnor ed t he f or ces ofnat i


onal i
sm i n Cent ralAf rica.The
proponent soft heCent ralAf ricanFeder at ionwer eshor tsight ed, theyf ail
edt o
realiset hest rongwi ndofchanget hatsweptacr ossAf r i
cai nf luencedbyt he
endofWor ldWarI I.Goi ngbyt hei ri nt ensi ons,t heset tlersf ai l
edt oconsi der
the negat iv e posi tion ofAf ricans t owar ds t he f eder at ion,hence di d not
reconci l
et heAf ri
canf ear sandhopes.Ther efore,t hef eder algov er nment
encount eredst rongAf ricanr esist anceespeci allyi nNor ther nRhodesi aand
Ny asal and.I tt heref oreawakenedr at hert hancool eddownt hegr owi ngt i
deof
Africannat ional ism dur i
ngt heper iod.Demonst r
at i
onsandboy cot tsbecame
the or deroft he dayl ed byAf rican par ti
es.I n 1959,r iots emer ged i n
Ny asal andl edbyHast i
ngsKamuzuBanda,andspr eadt oNor t
her nRhodesi a
champi onedbyKennet hKaunda.
 Thewhi t esadamant lydeni edAf ricansmeani ngf ulpar t
icipat ioni nt hef eder al
affairs.Theycommi ttedapol i
ticalbl underwhent heyi gnor edconsul tations
witht hei rAf ricancount erpar tsi nt hepr ocessofdeci sionmaki ng,andt hi
s
exposed t he weakness of t he f eder at i
on i n encour agi ng mul ti
-racial
partner shi p.I nNor ther nRhodesi a,t hewhi tesal locat edt hemsel v esf our teen
seat s outoft went y-two i nt he l egi slat ive assembl y;i nt he sout h,t hey
i
ncr easedt hei rr epresent at iont of or ty-fourseat soutoff ifty-ni nei n1957.Thi s
privil
egedposi ti
onoft hewhi temi nor itywasunwi seatat i
mewhenAf ricans
expect edf reedom.
 Economi cal l
y ,t hef eder ationi ncr easedt hegapbet weent hewhi t
esandt he
blacks.Theeconomi cboom oft heear liery ear sbenef itedt hewhi t
esmor e
thant hebl acks.Ev eni nt hecount rysi de,t hewhi tef armer swhohadmor e
capi talandl andout -compet edt heAf ricanpeasant s.Thecol ourbari nmi ning
andi ndust rialsect or sdi scr imi nat edAf ricansf r
om gai nf ulempl oy ment .This
wast hecaseespeci all
yi nt hecopperbel t.
 Thecr eat ionofaf eder ationwor senedt hel andquest ioni nBr it
ishCent ral
Africa.Thel andpr obl em t her efor e,becamecr iti
calduet ot heest abl i
shment
oft hepoorl andowner shi psy stem"i ssuedbyt hef eder algov ernmentt hat
affect edAf ricansgr ossl y .Thecr eat ionofKar ibadam andt hemanmadel ake
displacedov er30, 000Af ricansf rom t henor ther nbankofRi verZambezi .
Elsewher e,t heheav yi nf l
uxofwhi teset t l
er si ntot her egi onandt her esul t
ant
economi cboom l edt of ur therl ossofl andbyAf ricanst ot hewhi t
es.Thi s
i
ncr eased( escal ated)t hel andconf lictbet weenAf ricansandt heset tlers.
 Ther ewasunequal di stribut ionofbenef itsamongt hef eder al stat es.Sout hern
Rhodesi agai nedmuchmor ef rom t hef eder ationt hanNor ther nRhodesi aand
Ny asal and.Apar tf rom har bour ingSal isbur yt heheadquar ter soft heCAF
gov er nment , thesout henj oy edmor ei nv est ment sfr om t her ev enuescol lected
todev elopt hei ndust ri
alandi nfrast ruct ur alv ent ur es.Cl oset oahundr ed
mi l
lionpoundsofcopperr ev enueswer et ransf erredf rom Nor t
her nRhodesi a
toboostt hei ndust ryi nSal isbur y .Kar ibadam wasal somor ebenef ici
alt ot he
sout ht hathadaheav ierpopul at i
onofwhi teset tl
ers.
 Thecr eat ionofaf eder ationi nt heBr itishCent ralAf ri
cashar penedt hecol our
bardi ffer ences.Thef eder at ionat tract edr enewedr aci sm asmor ewhi tes
set tledi nt her egi on, whi chwor senedcont act sbet weenAf ricansandset tler s.
Thewhi teset tler swer emor ear rogant ,int oler antandr aci stt ot hebl acks
compar edt ot hei rcol leagueswhohadst ay edi nCent ralAf r
icaf orsol ong.
Thi sant agoni sedt hecr eat i
onofapeacef ul mul ti
-raci al soci et y.Inmaj orci ties
l
ike Sal i
sbur y ,publ ic pl aces l ike hot els,t heat r
es,r est aur ant s and bar s,
Af ri
canswer epr ohi bited ent rance.Feder all eader sGodf reyHuggi ns,Roy
Wel enskyandMal venwer eev enmor epr oudandboast ful oft hei rcont rol ov er
Af ri
cansespeci allyt heirmi litar yst rengt h.
 TheCent r alAf ricanFeder at i
ondeni edAf ri
cansadv ancedandmeani ngf ul
educat ion.Byt het imeofi ndependencei n1964,Zambi apr oducedonl yni ne
hundr edandsi xty( 960)schooll eav er sannual ly.I nt hesout h,apr o- Af ri
can
Pr i
meMi nist erGar fi
eldToddwasr emov edandr epl acedbyEdgarWhi tehead
whoqui ckl yabandonedt heat temptt oenl argeAf ricanschool s.Thi smeant
thatv er yf ewAf ricansat tai nedmeani ngf ul educat ionqual i
ficat i
ons.
 The Cent ralAf rican Feder at ion empl oy ed pol it
icalsuppr essi on agai nst
Af ri
cans.Pol iti
calact i
v istsl ikeKamuzu, KaundaandNkumbul awer ear rest ed
andi mpr i
sonedaf terat tendi ngt heAl lAf ri
canPeopl esConf er ence( AAPC)i n
Ghana i n 1958. The ar rest of nat ional ists and banni ng of pol i
t i
cal
organi zat ionsl iket heNy asal andAf ricanCongr essandSout her nRhodesi an
Af ri
canNat i
onalCongr ess,howev er ,di dnotki l
lt hespi ritofr esi stancebut
i
nst ead Af rican nat i
onal ism wentunder ground f orsome t ime.Pol i
t i
cal
suppr essi onswer econsol idat edbyt hepassi ngoft wobi ll
s,' theUnl awf ul
Or gani zationsbi ll'andt hePr ev ent i
veDet ent i
onbi l
l'.Thebi llempower edt he
feder algov er nmentt o det ai n Af r i
can pol i
ticalact iv i
st s wi thoutt rialand
decl ar es t hei ract i
v i
ties unl awf ul.These bi lls pr ov oked opposi ti
on f rom
pol iti
ci ansandt hechur ch.
 Apar tf rom banni ngofpol iticalpar t
iesandar restofpol i
ticians,t hecol oni al
gov ernmentusedt her eact ivemeasur esagai nstAf ricanact iv i
st s.In1959, the
feder algov ernmentempl oy edf eder alt roopswhohar assedandar bi trarily
treat edAf ri
cansi nNy asal andf oropposi ngt her igidandunr eal isticf eder al
l
aws, whi chpr ohi bi tedAf r
icanwor kersf rom mov i
ngt ot ownsandr eser vedal l
wel l-pay i
ngj obsf orwhi tes.Ov ersi xhundr edAf ri
canswer ear rest edand
det ainedi ncl udi ngKamuzuBanda.Thear rest swer ef ol l
owedbyast ateof
emer gencyt hatescal at edAf r icanv i
ol encei nNy asal andi nwhi cht hef eder al
gov ernmentmur der edaboutt went ydemonst rat orsi nt heNkat aBay .Thi s
brut alconductat tractedcr iticism andcondemnat iont owar dst heCAFf rom
thepubl i
ci nEngl and.
 Thef eder alconst itutiondi senf ranchi sedmaj or i
tyofAf ri
canst hati s,t hey
wer edeni edt hev otingr ight s, itwasal sounwi set oent rustt hewhi t eswi t
ht he
mandat et ochooset heAf ricanmember st ot hel egisl ativeassembl y.I nst ead,
the pol iti
calmar ginalisat ion onl yst rengt hened Af rican pol iti
calagi tations
wi thint hef eder ation.
 Consequent ly,t he Af ricans r eact ed negat ivel yt owar ds t he f eder ation,i n
Ny asal andpol iticalor gani sat ionswer esetupt oor gani seAf ricanst owar ds
pol iti
calf reedom.Amongt hem wast heNy asal andAf ricanCongr ess( NAC)
l
edbyDr .Kamuz uBanda.Si mi lar l
y,i nt hesout h,Har ryNkumbul af ounded
Sout her nRhodesi aAf ricanNat i
onalCongr ess( ANC)whi lePaulKal ichi niand
Sol omonKal ulusetupt heUni tedI ndependencepar ty( UNI P)i nNor ther n
Rhodesi a.I nSout hernRhodesi a,t heCi tyYout hLeaguewasal sosetupt o
fi
ghtf ori ndependence.
Ot
herf
act orsf ort hecol lapseoft hef eder at ionapar tf rom itsf ailur esi ncluded;
 TheCAFencount eredconst antat tacksf rom ( outsi de)Cent ralAf rica.The
feder at i
onwasst rongl ycr i
ticizedatv ar iousPanAf ricanConf erences,t he
Afro- AsiaConf er encesandt heUni tedNat ionsGener alAssembl y.Thi sat tack
wasi ndirect lyacr i
ticism agai nstt heBr i
tishcol onialpol icyi nt heCent ral
Africanr egi on.Thusbesi egedathomeandabr oad, Br it
ai nopt edt ot er mi nate
theexper imentbydi sbandi ngt hef eder at i
on.
 Pressur e( publ i
copi ni on)f r om t heUni tedKi ngdom madet hecol lapseoft he
Cent ralAf rican Feder at i
on i nev itabl e.Theopposi tion t ot hef eder at ion in
Cent ralAf r i
ca was spear headed by t he LabourPar tyt hatl ostt ot he
Conser vativ ePar tyi nt he1951gener alel ect ions,i nt heHouseofCommons,
the LabourMember s cr i
t i
ci sed t he i nj ust ices oft he f eder algov er nment
towar dsAf ricansandsuggest edmot ionst odi smant let heCAP.Theposi t
ion
oft heLabourPar tywassuppor tedbyt heEngl ishci ti
zenswhocondemned
thecr eat ionoft heCent ralAf ricanFeder at ionasasel fi
shmov ebyEngl i
sh
settler si nt her egi ont odomi nat et henat iveAf ri
cans.Thepubl i
copi nioni n
GreatBr itai nsi ght edadecl i
nei nt hei mageoft hei rGr eatdemocr aticKi ngdom
ont hewor ldscenei ft heCAPwasnotdi sint egr ated.
 In Af rica,t he gr owi ng t ide ofnat ional i
sm and i ts success i n achi ev i
ng
independencef ormanyAf ricanst at esnegat ivelyaf fect edt hef eder ation.The
feder algov er nmentsabot agednat i
onal ism i nt her egi onatat imewhent he
restofAf ricawasi nt hemoodofi ndependence.I nBr i
tishWestAf rica,t he
Africansi n Ghana and Ni ger i
a at tai ned i ndependencei n 1957 and 1960
respect i
v ely .I nBr i
tishEastAf rica,Keny aengagedi nmi li
tarynat ional i
sm
agai nstt he col oni almast erbet ween 1952 and 1956 i nt he questf or
independence.Consequent ly,by1963,EastAf ri
ca was f ree f rom Br iti
sh
coloni aldomi nat ion.I twashowev ert hei ndependenceofGhana( 1957)and
theMauMaumov ement( 1952- 56)t hathadapr ofoundi mpactonAf ricansi n
Briti
shCent ralAf ricat or iseupagai nstt heset t l
erdomi nantposi tioni nt he
region.
 Ther i
set opowerofHar oldMacmi l
lanmadet hecol lapseoft heCent ral
AfricanFeder ationi nev it
abl e.Thechangei npol i
cyt owar dst hef eder ation
wasef f
ect edbyPr i
meMi nisterHar oldMacmi ll
anwhowasawar eoft he
sweepi ng' wi ndofchange'i nAf rica.I nNor ther nRhodesi a,hi sgov er nment
issuedanew const itutioni n1959l eadi ngt oi ncr easedAf ri
canpar ticipat i
on.
Lateri n 1960,t he gov er nmentofMacmi ll
an r el eased t he i mpr isoned
national ist sl ikeKamuzuBanda( Mal awi )andKennet hKaunda( Zambi a) .They
returned home wi th mor e her oism and popul arityt hatf anned Af r
ican
national ism.I n1962,Har ol daccor dedTr i
ni dadandJamai caaut onomyf rom
thef eder ationofWestI ndi es, whi chwasasi gnt hatt heCAPwasont hev erge
ofcol lapse.Thel iber alpol icyofMacmi l
ianwast of aci litatemaj orityr ul
ei n
theBr iti
shCent r al Af ricancol onies.
 Consequent ly,t he const itut i
onalchanges i ni t
iated by Br it
ainl ed t ot he
collapseoft heCent r
alAf ricanFeder at ion.TheBr iti
shgov er nmentsetupt he
Monckt on commi ssi on,whi ch r ecommended t he r ev ision oft he f eder al
const itut i
on and t he r i
ghtofeach member -statet o secede f rom t he
feder at i
on.I nDecember1962,Ny asal andbr okeawayf ollowedbyNor thern
Rhodesi ai nFebr uar y1963.Ther eaf ter ,t hef eder alasset swer eshar edout .
Ny asal andbecameMal awi af teri ndependencei n1964.
 Thewhi tesi nSout her nRhodesi ahowev err esol vednott ogr anti ndependence
tot hei rAf ricancount erpar ts.TheBr itishgov er nmental sol ef tAf ri
cansatt he
mer cyofmi nor itywhi tes.I n1965, thewhi tesi nSout her nRhodesi ai ssuedt he
Unil
ater
alDecl
arati
on ofIndependence (
UD1)as a means t
o per
pet
uat
e
(consol
i
dat
e)whiterul
eovertheAfri
cansi
nt hecount
ry.

Survi
valoft hef eder at i
onandt hedel ay edi ndependencei nBr itishCent ralAf ri
ca
Refer
encequest ions:
1.Accountf ort hesur v ivaloft heCAFupt o1963
2.Towhatwast heCAFanobst acl et ot hedecol oni zat ionofBr it
ishCent r al Af ri
ca?
 Thef eder algov er nmentusedr epr essi v emeasur esagai nstAf ricanpol it
ical
activist sandt hissabot agedAf ri
canpol iticalagi tat i
ons.ManyAf ricanpol it
ical
l
eader swer ear restedanddet ainedwhi l
eot her swer ebr ut allyt or tur edand
kil
ledf oropposi ngt hest upi df eder alar rangementI nNy asal and,ov ersi x
hundr edAf ricanswer ear r
est edanddet ai nedi ncl udi ngKamuzuBandawhi l
e
aboutt went ywer eki ll
edbyt hef eder alt r oopsi n1959f oropposi ngt her igid
and unr eal isticf eder all aws,whi ch di scr imi nat ed agai nstAf ricans.Thi s
gov er nmenthar assmentand t he decl ar at i
on oft he st at e ofemer gency
threat enedAf ri
candemandf orequal oppor tuni ties.
 Consequent ly,Af ricanswer edeni edpar tici pat ioni nt hef eder alaf fair s,whi ch
favour edt hesur vivaloft hef eder at ion,t hef eder algov ernmentf aci lit
ated
whi tedomi nat ionov erAf r i
cannat ivesi nt her egi on.Af ricanswer edeni ed
votingr i
ght swhi let hoseappoi nt edbyt hef eder alaut hor ityt ot hel egi slative
assembl yhadnosayi ndeci sion- maki ng.I nNor ther nRhodesi a,t hewhi t es
all
ocat ed t hemsel ves f our teen seat s outoft went y -t
wo i nt he l egi slative
assembl y; int hesout h, whiter epr esent at i
onwasi ncr easedt of ort y-fourseat s
outoff ifty -ninei n1957.Thi spr ivilegedposi tionoft hewhi temi nor it
ywas
unwi seatat imewhenAf ri
cansexpect edf r eedom.
 Thef eder algov ernmentsabot agedAf r
icancoal itionsagai nstwhi temi nor it
y
rul
ei nBr itishCent r
alAf r
ica.Theset tler sai medatpr ev ent i
ngAf ricansf r
om
unitingagai nstt hef eder at i
on.Bef or e1953,Af ricanshadcr eat edwel f
ar e
associ at ionsandpol i
ti
calmov ement st oagi t atef orequaloppor tuni t
iesi nt he
feder at ion.Thesei ncludedt radeuni onsl iket heAf ricanMi newor ker sUni oni n
Nor ther nRhodesi aandpar tiesl iket heNy asal andAf ricanCongr ess( 1944)
andt heNor t hernRhodesi anAf ricanNat ional Congr ess( 1948) .In1951, theAl l
AfricanConv ent ionwascr eat edi nSout her nRhodesi aasanAf ricani nitiative
agai nstt hef eder at i
on.Wi tht hecr eat ionoft heCAP, mostoft het radeuni ons
andpol iticalor gani sat ionsl iket hemi newor ker sUni onandt heNAC wer e
eit
herdi si nt egrat ed orbanned f r om oper at i
on.Thi s under mi ned Af ri
can
politicaldev elopmentanddeni esAf ricanst hechancet oest abl ishauni ted
political mov ementagai nstt hewhi tedomi nat edf eder ation.
 Raci aldi scr i
mi nat ionpr acticedbyt hef eder algov er nmentdeni edAf ricansi n
ther egi onmaj or ityr ule.Int hef iel dofeducat ion,t heAf r i
canswer edeni ed
meani ngf uleducat i
on,whi ch di scr i
mi nat ive pol icywast ransf er red t ot he
empl oy mentsect or .The whi tes cr eat ed ambi tious l abourand economi c
policiesi nt hemi nesandi ndust ries, whi chf av our edset tl
ermonopol y .Tonot e
i
st hatt he f eder ation ofBr iti
sh Cent ralAf ri
can t er ritorieswasai med at
excludi ngbl acksi nal ltheaf fair soft her egi on.Ther aci stsy stem oft he
feder at ion f rust rated Af rican economi c st at us and kept t hem i n an
i
mpov erishedst ate.
 Thef eder algov ernmentper pet uat ed i ncr eased i nf l
ux( exodus)ofEngl ish
settler s.Ov er16, 000whi tei mmi gr ant swer eset tl
edi nSout her nRhodesi a
ever yy earandt hesei ncreasedt hesuppor tbaseoft hef eder at ionagai nst
African maj or i
ty.Theywer egi v en l and and ot hereconomi cand pol it
ical
pri
v il
egesi n exchange f ort heirl oy al tyt owar dst he f eder alaut hor i
ty.Si r
Godf reyHuggi ns,f ir
stPr i
meMi ni st eroft heCAPassur edt heEngl ishset tl
er s
thattheirpopul ati
onwasameansofsecur i
ngwhi tedomi nancei nt heregi on,
whichwasundert hreatf r
om Af r i
canmaj ority.Thei ncr easedwhi teset tl
ement
i
nCent ralAf ri
cahenceaf fectedt hewel fareofAf r
icansandmadet hem
unabl etodef eatt hef ederation.
 Thedet ermi nat i
onoft hef ederalgov ernmentt omai nt aint hei ndependenceof
theWhi teset tlercommuni tydel ay edmaj orityrul
ei nBr i
t i
shCent ralAf r
ica.The
federalgov ernmentl eaderswer escar edofanAf r i
canmaj orit
yrul epr omot ed
by Macmi ll
an gov ernment ,whi ch woul d make whi te set tl
ersl ose t heir
super i
orstat ust ot henat iveAf ri
cans.Thi sposi t
ionwasmai nt
ainedbyr adi cal
whitesl i
keRoyWel enskyatt heLancast erConf erenceofDecember1960
duri
ng whi ch t he r epresentativ es oft he CAP gov ernmentr ejected t he
proposalbyt heBr it
ishimper i
alof fi
cef oranAf ri
canshar eint heaf fairsoft he
federati
onandl aterpav ewayf oranAf ricanmaj orityr ul ei nBr i
tishCent ral
Afri
ca.
 Theconser vativewhi teset t
lersexpl oited t heweaknessofsomeAf rican
nati
onal i
sts who cooper ated wi tht he f ederalgov ernment .The r adi cal
Afri
cansl i
keHar ryNkumbul aandOr ionChi rwaaccept edappoi ntment stot he
federalassembl yi nNor t
hernRhodesi aandNy asal andr espect ivelyandt hi
s
i
nsteadmadet hef eder ati
ont ol ookcr edible.InSout her nRhodesi a,Joshua
Nkomowasl aterappoi ntedt ot hepar l
iamenti nSal isbur y,whichmadehi m
poli
tical
lyincompet entt ocr i
ti
ciset hef eder algov ernment .TheAf ri
cansi nt he
federalassembl yhopedt ouseconst it
ut i
onalagi tationsi npar l
i
amentagai nst
whitesupr emacybutt heyot herwi sebecamepar toft hesy stem t heycr it
icised.

Classassi gnment:
Theabov ear eaf ew ofthef act
orst hatfacil
it
atedthesur vi
valoftheCAFand
delayedi ndependenceinBrit
ishCent r
alAfrica,i
ny ourrespecti
vegroups,i
denti
fy
anddi scussmor eonthissubject,
presentyourwor ktotheteacherforgui
dance.

FROM NYASALANDTOMALAWI

(NYASALANDROADTOI NDEPENDENCE1944- 1964)


Ny asaland( Malawisi
ncei ndependence)wasaBr i
ti
shcolonyandwasf eder atedtoa
whi t
edomi natedCent r
alAf r
icanFederati
ononOct ober1,1953.Theot hercol onies
i
nt hef ederati
onwer eNor t
her nRhodesia(lat
erZambi a)andSout hernRhodesi a
(Zimbabweati ndependence) .
Ny asalandwast hefi
rstterr
it
or ywit
hintheCentralAfr
icanFederati
ont oachi eveself
-determinationunderanal l-
Af ri
canadminist
rati
on.Thet err
it
oryof fi
ciallyat t
ained
autonomyf rom t hefederati
ononDecember12,1963t houghherr i
ghtt osecede
(breakaway )hadbeenr eali
sedear l
ieroni nDecember1962.Ny asalandbecame
Mal awion t he Nati
onali ndependence dayofJul y6,1964 l ed byt he Mal awi
Congr essPar ty(MCP)underDr .Hasti
ngsKamuzuBanda.

THEPROCESSOFNYASALANDSTRUGGLEFORI NDEPENDENCE
Ref
erencequesti
ons:
1.Examinet hest
epsthr
oughwhichNy asal
andwasdecoloni
sed
2.Discusstheprocesst
hataccel
erat
edMal awi
'
sattai
nedindependence

The poli
ti
cal dev elopments ( st
eps) which acceler
ated t he att
ainment of
i
ndependenceinNy asalandwereasf ol
lows:
 By1944,Af ricanswer edissati
sfi
edwiththesl
owpacebyt heBri
tishcol
onial
admini
strat
iont oinvolv
eAf ri
cansinpoli
ti
calpart
ici
pati
on.Asearlyas1944,
the Nyasal
and Af ri
can Congress (NAC) was f ounded;though it was
domi nat edbyel ites,t heest abl ishmentoft heNACwasast ept owar dst he
Africanst ruggl eagai nstwhi tedomi nance.
 In1953,t hewhi teset tler sofespeci al l
ySout her nRhodesi apushedf ora
feder at i
on i nt he Cent r alr egion,whi ch was conf irmed by t he Br itish
Conser vat iveGov ernmentofWi nst onChur chi ll.Thef eder at ionwasai medat
dest roy ingAf r i
cannat ional i
sm i nt her egi onandper pet uat ewhi tecont roland
domi nance.Theest abl ishmentoft heCent ralAf ricanFeder ationhowev er
awakenedmassnat ional ism i nNy asal and,whi chconsol idat edAf ri
canuni ty
agai nstal ienr ule.
 LackofAf ricanpr ogr essi nt henewl ycr eat edCent ral Af ricanFeder ationl edt o
i
ncr easedAf ricansent i
ment sespeci allyi nt hel at e1950s.Thi snat i
onal i
st
spiritamongt heAf ricansofNy asal andwaspr ompt edbyt her eturnofDr .
Hast ingsBandai nJul y1958.Bandai mmedi at elyt ookcont rolofNy asal and
AfricanCongr esst ochampi onAf ricani ndependence.
 Thei ncr eased Af ri
can pr essur emadet heBr it
ish col oni algov er nmentt o
succumbt oAf ri
candemands.UnderPr imeMi nist er ,Har oldMacmi llan,t he
Briti
shgov er nmentchangedherpol icyt owar dsCent ralAf rica,whi chl ater
favour edNy asal andandNor t her nRhodesi a.
 In 1956,Af ricans r ecei ved t hei rf i
rstr epr esent at ion i nt he Legi sl ative
Assembl y. Thi s f ollowed t he r equi rement s of t he 1955 const i
tut ion
establ ishedear lieri nNy asal and.Af ricanswer egr ant edf iveseat soutof
twent y-twoi nt heAssembl y.Howev er ,theNy asal andAf ri
canCongr ess( NAC)
opposedt hisunf airAf ricanr epr esent ation.
 TheAf ricansi nNy asal andi ncr easedt hei rst ruggl ef ori ndependencet hrough
de-campai gni ngt hef eder at ionandwhi temi nor it
yr ule.Theseant i
-feder at ion
campai gnshowev er ,bl edv i
ol encei n1959ast hewhi tegov ernmentempl oy ed
thef eder al troopst ov iol ent lysuppr esst heNACandt hei rsuppor ter s.
 Consequent ly ,theabov ei nci dentl edt ot hear restandi mpr isonmentofcl ose
tot wo hundr ed ( 200)Congr ess ( NAC)member s undert he gov er nment
'
oper at i
onsunr i
se' ;amongstt hem wasDr .Hast ingsKar nuzuBanda.About
fortyt of i
f ty-two Af ricans wer e al so shotdead i n Ny asal and dur ing t he
violencebyt hef eder al troopsmai nlyf rom Sout her nRhodesi a.
 PrimeMi nist erHar ol dMacmi l
lani ssuedt he' Dev lincommi ssi on'f oraf act
fi
ndi ng mi ssi on on t he pol i
ticalst at ei n Ny asal and.The commi ssi on
pronouncedNy asal andasa' pol icest ate'wher eAf ricanshadnor i
ghtt o
publ i
cal lydecl ar e suppor tt o pol iticalact i
v ist swho opposed gov er nment
policies.Thecommi ssi onal sof oundoutt hatt hev iolenceof1959wasa
resul tofgov ernmentact ivitiesagai nstAf ricans.Muchast heBr it
ishcol oni al
secr et aryandt heNy asal andgov er norBoy dLennoxbot hr eject edDev l
in's
fi
ndi ngs;t hef indi ngsboost edAf ricanconf idencet ocont inuedemandi ngf or
i
ndependence.
 TheDev lincommi ssioni nf l
uencedMacmi l
lant ochangehi spol i
cyonBr itish
Cent ralAf rica.Her epl acedLennoxBoy dwi thl ainMacl eodasgov er norof
Ny asal andi n1959.I ainMacl eod' sr egi mei nNy asal andhadgr eati nf l
uenceon
thesuccessofmassnat ional ism i nt hef eder al st ate.
 Maj orev ent soccur redi n1960;f irstMacl eodr eleasedpol i
ticalpr isoner si n
Apr i
l1960, thenot abl eonewasDr .Hast i
ngsKamuzuBanda.I nAugust1960,
anewconst itutionwasi ni ti
at ed.Thenewconst it
ut i
ongav eAf ricanst her ight
tov ot ewi thani ncr easedr epr esent at i
oni nt heLegi sl ativ eAssembl y.Twent y
outoft went y -ei
ghtseat si nt he( LEGCO)wer egi vent oAf ri
cans.Thi swoul d
giveani nt ernalgov ernmentt oNy asal andwi thanadmi nist rat i
onofmaj or ity
Africans.
 Int he same y ear1960,Pr ime Mi nist erMacmi l
lan i ssued t he ' Monkt on
commi ssion'wi th an obj ect iv
e ofr evising the f eder alconst it
ution.Af t
er
consul ti
ng wi tht he moder ate Af ri
can opi ni
on,t he commi ssion i nstead
recommendedt her ightofeachf ederalst atet osecede( breakaway ).This
pushedf orwar dt hechancef orNy asalandt obei ndependent .
 Pre-independenceel ectionst ot hewer eor ganizedi nNy asal andi nAugust
1961i nwhi cht heMal awiCongr essPar tywonal lthe20l owerr ollseat sand
twohi gherseat s.I ttheref or egav eAf ri
cansanupperhandi nt hest ruggl efor
self-gov ernment .Consequent ly,fiveAf ricanr epresent ativest ot helegi slati
ve
counci l,i ncluding, Banda wer e appoi nted t o t he execut i
v e counci l
(gov er nment ).
 In Nov ember 1962, t he Br i
tish gov ernment or gani sed t he London
const i
tutionalt al ksai med atdi scussi ng possi bi l
iti
esf ori ndependencei n
Ny asal and.Af ricansi ncludi ng Bandar epresented Af rican int erestsatt he
conf er ence.The r esultant ev ent of t he London conf er ence was t he
declar ation oft he r ightofNy asaland t o secede f rom t he f eder ation by
December1962.
 TheBr i
ti
shgov er nmenti nv i
tedAf ricansf orpeacet alks( Londont alks)in
Sept ember 1963. The t alks wer e domi nated by di scussi ons on t he
i
ndependenceofNy asaland.Thecol onialgov ernmentagr eedt oi nit
iat emor e
politicaldev elopment s( refor ms) ,whi chwoul dqui ckent hei ndependenceof
Mal awi .
 In Apr il1964,t he col oni algov ernmentor gani sed t he pr e-independence
elections.TheMal awiCongr essPar ty( MCP)wonal lt hef iftycommonr oll
seat s,ani ndicat iont hatt heMCP wast oest ablisht hef i
rsti ndependent
gov er nmenti nMal awi .
 The Br i
ti
sh col oni algov ernmentf inally handed ov ert he i nstrument s of
i
ndependencet ot heMCPundert hel eader shipofDr .Hast ingsKamuzuBanda.
Mal awi wasof fi
ci aliydecl ar edindependentont heJul y6, 1964.

Factorsthatf avour edthei ndependenceofNyasaland


Referencequest ions:
1.Expl ai
nt hef actor sforthesuccessofnat i
onal
ism i
nMalawi
2.Exami net hef actorswhi chledtothedecoloni
sati
onofNyasaland
3.Di scusst hef act or
st hatfavouredtheI
ndependenceofMalawi
Severalf act ors expl ai
n why Ny asal
and achiev
ed independence bef
ore
Norther nandSout hernRhodesia:

 Ther oleofcol onialeducat ionf acili


tatedt hei ndependenceofNy asaland.
Thr ought heLi vi
ngstoniaschool sest ablishedbymi ssionariest hewor ksofDr .
Dav idLi vingstone,Ny asalandhadt hebesteducat ionsy stem i nt hewhol eof
Br i
ti
shCent ralAfri
ca.ManyAf ricansl i
keKamuzuBanda,Al eke,Chi pember e,
ChiumeandChi rwaat tai
nededucat i
onf r om Livingstoniaschool s.Thi scl ass
ofeducat edAf ri
cansledt heindependencest ruggle.
 Ther oleofScot ti
shmi ssionar i
esst rengt henedAf r
icanconf i
dencet odemand
fori ndependence.I n1895,t hemi ssionar iesadopt edt hesl oganof" Afri
caf or
Af r
icans" .Thei racti
vit
iesinfluencedAf ricanst olookatt hesemi ssionar iesas
trustedf r
iends.Theyt heref
or e,collabor atedwi tht heScot tishmi ssionar i
es
who condemned Br i
tish col oniali
sm i nt he Cent ralAf rican r egion and
demandedf orequal statusforbot hAf r
icansandwhi tes.
 Ther iseandr oleofindependentAf r
icanchur chesi nNy asalandi nfluencedt he
growt hofnat ional
ism.Thef ir
sti ndependentchur chi nt hewhol eofBr it
ish
Cent ralAf r
icawasf oundedi nNy asalandbyJohnChi l
embwei n1915.The
politicians in Ny asaland admi red the act i
viti
es and achi ev ement s oft he
Af r
icanchur ches,whi chi nspi red t hem t o demand f orpol iti
calf reedoms.
Besi des,t hei ndependentchur chespr eachedf orequalt reat mentofAf ricans
wi t
hequal oppor tuni tiesgr ant edt oAf ricansi nt hef eder ation.
 The absence ofet hni c sub- nat ional ism i n Ny asal and cont r
ibut ed t ot he
successoft heiri ndependencest ruggl e.Ny asal andwasi nhabi t
edbymaj orit
y
Bant uspeaki nggr oupswi t hsi mi l
arl i
ngui sticchar acter istics.Thesegr oups
i
ncl udedt heYao,Mar adi ,LubaandNgoni .Ther ewasnot ribalgr oupt hat
claimed an upper hand i nt he i ndependence st ruggl e.Ther ef or e,t he
i
ndependenceofMal awi wasi nspi redbynat i
onal uni t
y .
 Thegeogr aphi cal si zeofNy asal andf av our edt heat tainmentofi ndependence,
Ny asal andwasal ong,smal landnar row st at e,whi chf av our edmobi l
ityof
nat i
onal istst hroughouti ndependencecampai gnsanddur i
ngt hepr ocessof
mobi li
sat i
onofmassesacr osst hecount r y.
 Thecr eat ionoft heCent r alAf ricanFeder at i
onst rengt henedt hedev elopment
ofnat ional ism i nNy asal and.Thef eder ationl edt ot hei ncreasedi nfluxof
whi teset t
ler sinCent ralAf rica.Thewhi teset tler spr act icedr acialsegr egat ion
i
nt her egi on.Thewhol ef eder alsy st em wasr acistwi thAf ri
cansdeni ed
politicalpar ti
cipat ion.Ny asal andwasest ablishedasasour ceofcheapl abour
fort hewhi tef ar msandi ndust ri
esespeci allyi nSout her nRhodesi a.Thi s
mot iv at edAf ricanhat redagai nstwhi tedomi nat ion,whi chhaddepr ivedt hem
ofpol itical par ti
cipat i
on.
 Theeconomi cinabi li
t yofNy asal andf av our edi ndependenceat tainment .The
Briti
shr eal i
zedl essr esour cet obeexpl oitedi nNy asal and.Besi des, t heWhi te
set t
ler shadv eryl i
ttlei nv est ment si nNy asaland,whi chwoul dmot ivat et hem
tokeept hecol ony .
 The r ol e ofDr .Hast ings Kamuzu Banda i nf l
uenced t he success oft he
i
ndependencest ruggl ei nNy asal and.Dr .KamuzuBandar et urnedf r
om Ghana
i
nJul y1958andbecamet hel eaderoft heNy asal andAf ri
cancongr ess( NAC) .
Af t
erhi sr eleasef rom pr isoni nApr i
l1960,Bandaaccept edt hel eader shi pof
theMal awiCongr essPar ty( MCP)t hr oughwhi chhemobi lisedmassest o
par t
ici pat ei npr e-independenceel ect ions,whi chl aterenabl edi ndependence
attainmenti n1964.
 Consequent ly,t he r ol e oft he Mal awicongr ess par ty( MCP)l ed t ot he
i
ndependenceofNy asal and.TheMCPwasf ormedi nl at e1959t or epl acet he
NAC,whi chhadbeenbannedbyGov er norLennox.TheMCPpar ticipat edi n
thepr e- independenceel ect ionsofApr il1964wher et hepar tyat tainedal lthe
fif
tyseat si nt hecommonr olloft hel egislat iveassembl y.Thi sl andsl ide
victor yenabl edt hepar tyt or ecei v et hei nst rument sofi ndependencei nJul y
1964.
 Ther ol eofPr i
meMi nist erHar oldMacmi ll
anwasaposi tivegest ur et owar ds
the i ndependence ofMal awi .Fol lowi ng t he 1959 v iolence i n Ny asal and,
Macmi llani ssuedt heDev linCommi ssi on,whi chr ecommendedt hepol iti
cal
oppr essi onofAf ricanst oend.TheDev linCommi ssioni nf l
uencedMacmi l
lan
toappoi ntMacl eodt or epl aceLennoxasgov ernorofNy asal and.Macmi l
lan
alsoi ssuedt heMonkt onCommi ssi oni n1960,whi chr ecommendedt her i
ght
oft he st ates oft he f eder at i
on t o secede.Ny asal and was t he f i
rstt o
breakawayi n December1962,and t hi s became a maj orst ep ahead of
i
ndependence.Macmi llani sr emember edf orhi swi ndofchangespeechi nt he
Sout hAf r
icanpar l
iament ,whi chi nspi rednat i
onal istsl i
keKamuzuBandat o
i
ncr easet hei rst ruggl ef orNy asal andi ndependence.
 Ther ol eofGov er norl ainMacl eodf av our edt hei ndependenceofNy asal and.
Iainr epl acedt heconser v ativ eLennoxasgov er norofNy asal andi n1959.He
releasedNy asal andpol i
t i
ci ansl ikeKamuzuBandai n1960,i nitiatedanew
const itution t hatgav e Af ricans t he rightt ov ot e and i ncr eased Af ri
can
repr esent at ioni nt hel egi slativeassembl yt ot went youtoft went y-eightseat s.
Macl eod or gani sed t he pr e-independence el ections wher e Af r i
cans
ov erwhel mi ngl yv ot edf ori ndependencei nApr il1964.
 Thecol lapseoft heCent ralAf ricanFeder at i
onmadet hei ndependenceof
Ny asal andi nev itabl e.I ti mmedi at elyf av our edt hesecessi onofNy asal and
from t hewhi tedomi nantf eder algov ernment .Thebr eakawayofNy asal and
from t he f eder alst at ei ncreased Af ri
can pol iticalpar ti
ci pat i
on,whi ch
mot ivat edt heirnat ional ism t oat t
ai ni ndependence.
 The i ndependence of t he nei ghbour i
ng Br i
tish col oni es i nf luenced
i
ndependenceat tainmenti nNy asal and.Thef ormercol oni esofBr iti
shEast
Af ri
ca l ike Tangany ika ( 1961)gav e hope and mot iv
at ion t o Ny asal and
nat ional ist st oi ncr easet hei reffor ti ndemandi ngf ori ndependence.
 Thei ndependenceofGhanaof1957i nfluencedpol iti
caldev elopment sin
Ny asal and,whi chl edt oi ndependence.Onachi evingi ndependence,Nkr umah
spokeoutt hatt hei ndependenceofGhanawasmeani ngl essi ft her estof
Af ri
cawasst illunderf or eigni nfluenceanddomi nat ion.Consequent ly,Ghana
andheri ndependencewasacl eari ndicat i
onoft hecol lapsingBr i
tishi mper i
al
empi rei nAf rica.I twashar df ort heBr i
tisht ot heref ore,r esistnat ional ism in
Ny asal and.
 Consequent l
y,t hei nf l
uenceoft heAl l-AfricanPeopl e'sCongr essof1958
mot ivat edt hei ndependenceofNy asaland.Nat i
onal i
stsl ikeKamuzuBanda
attendedt heconf er encei nAccr aGhana,whi chhadgr eati mpactont heir
pol it
icalpr of essi on.Onhi sr et ur nt oNy asal and,Bandahadov er whel ming
pol it
icali deas,whi chheusedi ncar ryingoutpol i
ticalact ivitiest hatl edt o
i
ndependence.
 Cr i
ticism f r
om t hei nt er nat ionalcommuni tyagai nstt heBr iti
shpol icyi nBr iti
sh
Cent ralAf ricaf av our edNy asal andi ndependence.TheUN gener alassembl y
condemnedt hedecl ar at ionofast ateofemer gencyi n1959anddemanded
fort her el easeofAf ri
canl eader s.Member soft heCommonweal thofNat ions
putpr essur eonBr i
tai nt odest royt heCAPandr ecogni zet her ightofeach
memberst at et osecedef rom t hef eder ation.TheCommonweal thi nf luenced
Britai nt oi ni ti
at et heLondonTal ksof1963, whi chl edt othepr e-independence
elect ionsi nJul y1964.
 The Br itish exper ience dur i
ng t he Mau Mau upr ising i n Keny a( 1952- 56)
fav our ed t he i ndependence ofNy asaland.The Br i
tish wer er el uct antt o
wi tness a mi litar yupr ising i n Ny asaland i nt he cause f ori ndependence
attai nment .Duet ot his,Pr i
meMi nisterHar oldMacmi liani ni ti
at edr adical
refor msl iket heDev linandMonkt onCommi ssi onswhoseact iv i
tiesf av oured
thei ndependenceofNy asal and.

Ther oleoft heMal awiCongressPar t


y( MCP)inthest r
ugglef orindependencei n
Nyasaland
Referencequest ions:
1.Assesst he contri
buti
on ofthe Mal awiCongressPar t
yt ot he struggl
ef or
i
ndependencei nNasaland
2.Expl aintheroleoftheMCPi nt
heat t
ainmentofindependencei nMal awi
TheMal awiCongr essPartywasf ormedi n1959tor epl
acet heNy asalandAfrican
Congress( NAC) .ItwasformedwithOr t
onChirwaasi tspresi
dent,andAl ekeBanda
asi t
sSecr et ar
yGener al.Themai n ai
m oft heMCP wast ofightforMal awi '
s
i
ndependence; i
tscontri
buti
onisnotedbelow:

TheMCPpr
ovi
dedl
eader
shi
ptot
hei
ndependencest
ruggl
einNy
asal
and,
fir
stunder
Ort
onChirwawhol
atergavewayt
oKamuzuBandain1960.
The MalawiCongress Par
tyrecr
uit
ed masses i
ni t
sr anks t
o br
ing about
i
ndependencei
nNyasal
and.

Thepar tydemandedt her eleaseofpol iti


calprisonerslikeKamuzuBandawhowas
i
mpr isonedi n1959andr eleasedi nApril1960.Ther eleaseofKamuzuBandaf r
om
detentionst rengthenednat ionali
sm inNy asalandasKamuzubecamet hel eaderof
theMCP.
TheMCPunderDr .Kamuzucampai gnedal lovert hecountrycondemningtheCent ral
Afri
canFeder at
ion.Itt herefore,campai gnedf ort hebreakawayofNy asalandf r
om
thef eder at
ion.Thi smadet heBr it
isht o acceptNy asaland t
o secedef rom the
federationin1963, hencepav i
ngwayf orMal awi'sindependencein1964.

TheMCPempl oyedthepressi
nt hest
ruggl
efort heindependenceofNy asal
and.The
part
yestabli
shedanewspapercal l
edtheMal awiNews,whi chwasusedt opasson
theant
i-
coloniai
messages.
Thepart
yusedmusi ct osensi
ti
seandpopularisethestruggleagai
nstthefederat
ion.
I
tencouragedsingi
ngofpopularsongscall
ingupont heAf r
icanstovotefortheMCP.
Thishel
pedt osecur emasssuppor tthathelpedt obr i
ngabouti ndependencein
Nyasal
andin1964.

TheMCPunderHast
ingsKamuzupart
ici
pat
edintheconsti
tut
ionaltal
ksof1960and
1962or
gani
sedinLondon:Thet
alkswereaimedatprepari
ngAf r
icansformajor
it
y
rul
e.

I
tpar t
ici
pat
edandwont hepr e-
independenceelecti
onsof1961,whichledtoan
i
ncreaseintheAfri
canparti
cipati
onint hegover
nment .Sev
enoutoftenposi
ti
onsin
t
he( execut
ive)weregiventot heMCP.Thi svi
ctoryconvi
ncedtheBri
ti
shtogrant
i
ndependencet oNyasal
andin1964.

TheMCPexpandedt helongneglect
edsecondar
yeducati
oninNyasal
and,whi
ch
madethepartypopularamong themasses.Thisfol
lowed t
heappoint
mentof
KamuzuBandaast
hei nt
ernal
aff
air
smi ni
str
y.

Itmobili
sedf
undstof
inancethei
ndependencestr
uggle.Thi
swasdonethr
ough
subscr
ipti
onbyit
smember saswel
lassel l
ingbadgesbeari
ngt
heimageofDr.
KamuzuBanda.

TheMCPr est
oredt
henati
veorl
ocalcourt
sinNyasal
andhencepr
omotingj
ust
iceat
thel
ocal
level
s,whi
chal
somadethepartypopul
aramongthemasses.

Itref
ormed t
he exi
sti
ng pr
oduce market
ing arr
angement
s hence r
educi
ng t
he
expl
oit
ati
onoft
heAfri
canfar
mersbythewhites.

Thecongressintr
oducedthepopul
arl
yelect
eddistri
ctcounci
l
s,whichr
eplacedthe
chi
efs.This promoted gr
assr
oots democracy t
hatmade t he MCP popularin
Nyasal
and.

The MCP par t


ici
pated int he 1961 pre-i
ndependence el
ecti
onswher et he part
y
att
ainedt wentyseat sint hel owerr ol
landt woint hehigherrol
l.Thiswasan
opportuni
tythatgracedAfricanst opromotetheiri
nter
estsfori
ndependence.
I
nDecember1963,af terthef ederat
ionwasf inal
l
ydissolv
ed,theMCPr eceiv
edan
i
nternalself
-governmentwi thDr .Hasti
ngsKamuzuBandaasPr i
meMi ni
ster.Banda
wentaheadt
opr
epar
eNy
asai
andf
ori
ndependence.

Thepartypart
ici
patedint
heApri
l1964pre-i
ndependenceelect
ionswhereitwonal
l
thefi
ftyseat
si nthecommonroll
.TheMCPwast her
efor
e,invi
tedtoestabl
i
shthe
fi
rsti
ndependentgover
nmenti
nNy asal
andunderAfri
canmajori
ty.

OnJuly6,1964,t heMCPl edbyDr.Hasti


ngsBandarecei
vedtheinstr
umentsof
i
ndependenceforNyasal
and.TheCent
ralAf
ri
cancount
rywascompletel
yfreeoft
he
Br
it
ishcoloni
alti
es.

Ther
ol .KamuzuBandaI
eofDr nthest
ruggl
efori
ndependencei
nNy
asal
and

Ref
erencequest i
ons;
1.How f ardidDr .Hasti
ngsKasnuzuBandacontr
ibutetotheattai
nmentof
independenceinMal awi
?
2.Assesst heroleofKamuzuBandaint
hestr
uggleagainstt
heCAP
3.Exami netheinfl
uenceofKamuzuBandaonthestruggl
efori
ndependencei
n
Mal awi

Dr.Hasti
ngsKamuzuBandawasbor ntoapeasantf amilyinKasungu,Ny asalandin
1902.Hewentt oaLivingstoniami ssi
onschoolf orhisear l
yeducat ion.Het r
ainedin
humanmedi cineintheUSAwher ehegr aduatedby1927,bef or ehet ransferredto
Edinbur
ghUK,f orfurt
hert r
ainingi nmedi ci
ne.Whi leint heUnitedKi ngdom,Banda
att
endedtheManchest erConf erenceandal sopr act i
cedmedi cinef rom 1945unt il
1953whenhel eftt
heUKf ort heGol dCoast .Duringhi sstayint heGol dCoast ,he
keptintouchwi thNkrumah,achar i
smaticPan-Af r
icanistwhoencour agedhi mt o
ret
urntoNy asalandandl eadi ndependencest ruggle.Hi sdepartur ef r
om Ghanai n
July1958wasal soduet oper sistentpressurefrom y oungMalawi anpol i
tici
ansl i
ke
OrtonChir
waandHenr yChipember e.

KamuzuBandaspentaboutf ort
yy ear
sabroadbefor
er et
urni
nghomet oleadthe
i
ndependencestr
uggl
e.Eventhoughhewasamedi caldoct
or,hisdesir
eforpol
it
ical
fr
eedom i
nfl
uencedhi
mt oopposethewhit
edominatedCentralAfr
icanFeder
ati
on.

Hi
srol
ei nthest r
uggl ef orMal awianindependencewasasf ollows:
 Dr .Hast i
ngsKamuzuBandar epresent edt heNy asal
andAf ricanCongr ess
(NAC)i nEngl and.Hemadecont act
swi tht heLabourPar tyMember sof
Par li
amentwhom he i nfl
uenced t o addr ess t he Ny asaland cause f or
independencei nt heHouseofCommonsi nLondon.
 Bandawhi leinLondonsentadv i
ceandencour agementt ot herel at
ionshi pof
theNAC t hroughcont inuousl ettershewr otet ot hem.Heusedt o send
financialassist ancet of undt heact i
vi
tiesoft heNACi nt hest r uggleagai nst
whi tedomi nation.
 Onhi sreturnt oNy asal andin1958,KamuzuBandabegant hecampai gnof
non- cooperationwi tht heCent ralAf ri
canFeder ati
on,whi chl aterf aci
litatedf ul
l
independenceaf tersixy ears.Bandaaccept edt hepresidencyoft heNAC, and
usedhi sposi tionast hel eaderoft hepar tyt oleaddi rectposi t
iveact ion
towar dsgai ni
ngt heindependenceofNy asaland.
 KamuzuBandacour ageousl yandv i
gor ouslydenouncedt heCent r
alAf ri
can
Feder ati
on.Hemobi l
isedmassdi sobedi enceagai nstthef ederalconst itution
andt heunjustl aws.Hi sact i
vi
tiesscar edt hef ederalaut hor i
ti
eswhocl ashed
wi thAfri
cani nt heNor t
her nProv i
nce.
 Dr .Hastingsat tendedt he1958Al l
-Af r
icanPeopl e’
sCongr essi nAccr a,Ghana
afterbeat i
ng t he feder alsecur i
ty .He r epr esent ed maj ority Af ri
cans of
Ny asal andatt heconf erenceandscar edt hewhi teaut horit
yi nt heBr iti
sh
Cent ralAf r
ica.Uponhi sr et urn,t hef eder alaut horit
yar restedhi m,buthe
becameapol iti
calher oamongAf ricansofNy asaland.
 In1959,hewasagai nar restedbyt hef eder algov ernmentonaccountof
defy i
ng t he CAF aut horities,and abusi ng t he const ituti
on.Thi s howev er
strengt henedhi sher oicper sonal i
tyanduponhi sr eleasel ateri n1960,t he
massesr all
iedbehi ndhi mt ochampi ont hei ndependencecause.
 From t het imeher eturnedhomei n1958, KamuzuBandauni tedal l sect i
onsof
Africanpopul ationinNy asal andf rom Nor tht oSout hwher eal let hni cgroups
ral
lied behi nd the st ruggl e agai nstt he whi te domi nated Cent ralAf r
ican
Feder at i
oni ntheirquestf ori ndependence.
 Uponhi sreleasei n1960,hel edt heMal awiCongr essPar tytoconst i
tuti
onal
tal
ksi nLondon.Bandahadbeeni nv i
tedbyt henewl yappoi nt edNy asaland
coloni algov ernorlainMacl eod.
 KamuzuBandapar t
icipat edi nt hedesi gni nganddr af t
ingofamul ti-
racial
const ituti
oni n1960and1961.Theconst itutionl edt ot heest abl ishmentof
twent y -
eight seat si nt he l ower r ollof t he legisl ati
ve assembl y.The
const ituti
onal sogr antedt went yseat soft het went y-ei
ghtt omaj orityAf ri
cans.
 In 1961 August ,Kamuzu Banda l ed t he MCP t o par t
icipatei nt he pr e-
i
ndependenceel ections.TheMCPwonal lt het went yseat sint hel owerr oll
andt woi nt hehigherr oll.Thi sgav eAf ricansanupperhandi nt hest rugglefor
self-gov ernment .

 Dr.Hast i
ngsBandaaccept edt heappoi ntmentt ot heNew Execut i
v eCounci l
ofNy asaland.Hewasgi v
ent womi nistriest hati s,theMi nistryofnat ural
resour ces and t hatofLocalGov ernment .Thr ough t hese mi nistri
es,he
extendedser vicest othel ocal peopl e]
 KamuzuBandapar t
icipat edint he1962Londonconst it
utionalt alkst hatwer e
heldi nNov ember .Dur ingt het alks, thedel egat esrecogni sedt hesecessi onof
Ny asalandf r
om t hef eder alst ateofCent r
alAf ri
ca.Thi sther efore,pav edway
forani nt
er nalself-gov ernmenti nitiatedi nJanuar y1963t hatwasdomi nated
byAf ri
cans.
 Consequent l
y,Bandaaccept edt heposi tionofPr imeMi nisteri nt henew
i
nter nalsel f-
gov ernment ,whichwasdomi nat edbyhi sMCP.Thi swasast ep
towar dst heact ualindependenceofNy asal andt hatwasf ul l
yr ecogni sedi n
1964.
 KamuzuBandawasamongt her epr esent ativesoft hemaj orityAf ri
cansof
Ny asalandi nt heSept ember1963LondonTal ks.Thet alksdi scussedt he
i
ndependenceofNy asai andandpav edwayf ort heApr i
l1964el ectionsi n
whi cht heMCPwonal lthef if
tycommonr oi l
seat s.
 Heaccept edt hei nstrument sofi ndependenceonJul y6,1964andl edt he
MCPt oest abli
sht hef irstindependentgov ernmentofmaj orityAf ricansi nt he
newi ndependentst ateofMal awi .

NATI ONALI SM I NSOUTHERNRHODESI A


ZIMBABWE' SROADTOI NDEPENDENCE1965- 1980
Sout her
nRhodesi a(Zimbabwesi nce1980)wasoneoft hesettl
ercoloniesoft he
Brit
ish.Duet oset t
lementofal argenumberofwhi tesinthecolony ,theBrit
ish
gover nmentdecidedtogi vet hef oreignsett
lerssemiautonomy( aninternalself
-
gover nment
)in1923.Thi spoliticalst atusent
itl
edthesett
ler
stocollecttaxes,f
orm
thei
rownar myandest abli
shthei rownassembl y(par
li
ament)
.
Theinternalsel
f-
governmentgi
vent othewhiteset
tl
erswasav i
olat
ionofthe
sover
eigntyoftheAf r
icannat
ivegroups(t
ri
bes)i
nZi mbabwewhoincludedt
he
Shonaandt heNdebel
e,amongother
s.

Afr
icansespeciall
yt heeducat edgr eatl
yopposedtheinternalgover
nmentofwhi t
e
sett
ler
s,whi chinfl
uenced t hem t o engageinpol i
ti
calactivi
ti
esgeared towards
i
ndependence.Among t hese Af ri
cans were Joshua Nkomo,Rev erend Sithol
e
Ndabaningi
,Rober tMugabeandHar ryKimbula.JoshuaNkomo engagedi nt he
for
mat i
on ofpol it
icalpar ti
es,whi ch wer
e constantl
y banned.These included
Souther
nRhodesi anAf r
icanNat i
onalCongress,theNat i
onalDemocrati
cPar t
yand
theZimbabweAf ri
canPeopl esUni on.Hence,Afri
canscommi t
tedtheiref
fortsto
putt
ingpressureont heBrit
isht ograntthem maj
orit
yrule.

The whi t
e sett
lergov ernmentwas gr eatlyopposed tot he Briti
sh intension of
granti
ngself-
gov ernancet omaj or
it
yAfricans.Thewhi t
esettl
erposi t
ionwasl edby
conservati
vewhi teleader s;WinstonFieldandI ansmi t
h.In1964,anext remistand
radi
calIanSmi t
hov erthrew FieldWinstoni nordertoconsoli
datewhi teinterestsin
SouthernRhodesi a.Het henpr ocl
aimedt heUni l
ater
alDecl
arati
onofI ndependence
(UDI)ofSouthernRhodesi ain1965.TheUDIwasar ebel
li
ousi ndependencei nthe
handsofmi nori
tywhi t
esai medatpr eventingthecoloni
algovernmentf rom gr anti
ng
i
ndependencet omaj ori
tyAf r
icans.

Fact
orst
hatf
edt
othedecl
arat
ionofUDIi
nsout
her
nRhodesi
a

Refer
encequesti
ons:
1.Accountfortheformati
onoftheUDIin1965
2. Exami nethef act
orsthatledt otheproclamat
ionoftheUDIinSout
her
n
Rhodesi
a
3.Whydi dIanSmithestabl
isharebel
li
ouswhit
egovernmenti
n1965?

TheUDIwasar ebell
ionbySout hernRhodesi anwhi t
esettl
ersagainstt heBr i
ti
sh
col
onial government of Har ol
d Wi lson. It was ai med at mani festing the
i
ndependenceofwhi teset tl
ersfr
om met ropoli
t anBrit
ainwit
houttheappr ovalofthe
off
ice in charge ofcol oni
alaf f
air
s.The r ebelli
on (decl
arat
ion)was made on
November11,1965byr adicalminori
tywhi t
esl edbyl ai
nSmi thshortl
yaf t
erthe
col
lapseoft heCent ralAf ri
canFeder at
ion.Att het i
me,SouthernRhodesi awas
i
nhabitedbyov erfourmi l
li
onnativeAf r
icans,t wohundr edseventywhiteset tl
ers'
andaf ewAsi ans,Ther easonsbehindtheUni v ersalDecl
arat
ionoftheIndependence
i
ncluded;

Theconf l
i
cti
ngat t
itudeoft heBriti
shgov ernmentandt heminori
tyregi meofwhi t
e
sett
lersi
nSout her
nRhodesi aoverthef utureofSouthernRhodesial edtotheUDI .
Bri
tainbefor
et hecol l
apseoft heCent ralAfri
canFederati
onwaspr epar
ingher
ter
ri
tori
esofCent r
alAfri
cai ncl
udingSout hernRhodesi
af ormajor
it
yr ule.TheBri
ti
sh
governmentfavouredademocr at
icgov ernmentundermaj or
it
yAf r
icans.TheBr i
ti
sh
att
emptt ograntmaj or
ityruletoAf r
icanswasopposedbyt hemi noritywhit
eswho
desir
edtoperpetuatetheircont
rolhencet hisresul
tedi
ntoarebell
i
on.

Thei nt
ernalsel
f-government( semiaut onomy )given t
ot hewhi t
esin Southern
Rhodesiain1923f avouredt heestabli
shmentoft heUDI .Inabi dtoappeaset he
whitesandwi ntheirloyal
ty,thecoloni
algov er
nmentv ir
tual
lylef
tthepoli
ti
caland
economicaffai
rsi ntheirhands.Thewhi t
essetupani ndependentadmini
str
at i
ve
str
uctur
e,asepar atearmy,judici
aryandci vi
lserv
ice.Thisarr
angementlegi
ti
mi sed
whitesupremacy( dominancy)inthecountry.I
twasrei
nfor
cedbytheabsenceof
str
ongcont r
olfr
om colonialmotherBr
it
ain.Thesemi
-aut
onomousst
atusenj
oyedby
thesettl
ersmeantt hattheBr i
ti
shgovernmentcoul
dnotpr ev
entt
heUDIt hr
ough
mili
tar
yinter
venti
on.

Racism was att he centeroft he f ormati


on ofthe Uni lateralDecl arat
ion of
Independence.Si ncethesettl
ementoft hewhit
esintheregionby1890,t heAf ri
can
nativepopulationwasconsi deredi nferi
orandunablet osteerupt heaf fair
soft he
protect
orate.Thisr aci
alpr
ejudi
cewasduet ot
hearr
oganceoft heset tl
ercommuni ty
andwasi nf l
uencedbyt heirpol i
ticalandeconomi cpr i
vilegesf r
om t hecol onial
government .Itshouldbenot edt hatt hef ormat
ionofthe(CAF)wor senedt heracial
confli
ctbetweenAf ri
cansandwhi t
esi nt heBri
ti
shCentral
Regi on.Thewhi tesdenied
Afri
cansv otingri
ght sandfrust
rat edal lattemptsmadebyt heBr i
ti
shgov ernmentt o
giveafairvoicetot henati
veAfricans.

Thef earofgr owingAf ri


cannat i
onali
sm contr
ibutedtot heemer genceoft heUDI.By
1960,Af ri
cannat ionali
sm hadgai nedanew mi l
itar
yowni ngtot hewi ndofchange
andt henegat i
veef fect
soft heCAF.I nSouthernRhodesi a,polit
icalparti
eswer e
founded t o spearhead the Af ri
can cause.These i ncluded the Af r
ican Nat
ional
Congr ess,t
heNat i
onalDemocr at
icPartyandt heZimbabweAf ricanPeopl e'
sUnion.
Thesepar ti
eswer eledbyi nfl
uenti
alnati
onali
stslikeJoshuaNkomo.Thei racti
vi
ties
scaredt hewhi t
eset t
lerstoissuetheUDI.

Consequent ly
,t hecoll
apseofthe(CAP)i n1963pav edwayf ort heUDI .Aft
erthe
i
ndependenceofNy asal
andandNorthernRhodesi
a,thewhitesinSout her
nRhodesia
real
isedt hatmaj or
it
yrulewaseminent.Thi
spossi
bili
tywasat hreatnotonlytotheir
poli
ticalpower, butal
sotothei
reconomicandsocialstat
usinthecol ony.Ther
efore,
thewhi tesettlersoptedtorebelasawayofpr e-emptingthet ri
umphofAf ri
can
nati
onal i
sm.

Settl
ereconomi ci nterestsint hecol onyhadast ronginfluenceint hef ormati
onof
theUDI .By1960,t hewhi t
esi nt hecol onyhadgai nedaccesst oferti
leland;through
the1939l andl aw,t hecol onialgov ernmentgr anted49% oft hearablel andtot he
whiteset t
lersinSout hernRhodesi a.Set tl
erlandwasi ncreasedt hroughot herl and
acts.Consequent ly,thewhi t
eshadf irstinvestmentsi nagr i
cultur
ewi tht hel arge
farmsandpl ant ati
onsoft obacco,wheatandmai ze,thewhi teswant edt opr otect
thi
st hrought heUDI .Apar tfrom agr i
cul t
ure,thewhi t
eset tl
ercommuni tycontrol l
ed
theindustrialandcommer cialsect ors.Theywer ealsoi nchar geofmi neral
sf rom
whicht heyenj oy edgr eatr eturns.Thesei ncludedcoal ,nickelandchr ome.These
togetherwi thjoboppor tuniti
esgav et hewhi t
eset tl
erseconomi csupremacywhi ch
theywant edt opr otect.

Ther iseofRhodesi aFr ontPart y(RFP)int


he1952el ect
ionspav edwayf ori
ssuingof
theUDI .TheRFPunderWi nstonFi el
dwasr adicalinpoli
ticaloutlook.Thepar t
y
adv ocatedfort hepr eservati
onoft hewhiteminor i
tyr
uleandwasopposedt othe
viewsoft heliberalwhiteslikeWhi t
eheadandGarfiel
dTodd, whof avouredi
ncreased
Af r
icanr epr
esent ati
onandf reedom.I n1964t heextremistsoft heRFP gott he
oppor tuni
tytocapt urepowert hr oughIanSmit
hwhowentaheadt oissuetheUDI .

ThecharacterofIanSmi thwasaf actori


nt hecreat
ionoft heUDI.I
nApr i
l1964,
Smithbecamet hePr i
meMi nisterofSouthernRhodesia.Hewasoneoft hemost
conser
vati
ve,rebell
ious and react
ionarywhite.He believ
ed thatAfr
icans were
pri
miti
veforindependenceandcoul donlyleadthecountrytochaossimil
artothat
whi
chbrokeouti
nCongoi n1960.Healsot
urneddownpr
oposal
sforapeacef
ul
set
tl
ementwi
thAf
ri
cans.Smit
hdeclar
edt
heUDIin1965.

Thewhi teset
tler
si nSouthernRhodesiawer ealsopar t
lyinspir
edbyt heAmer i
can
rebell
i
onagainstt heBrit
ish(1776-77)
,whi chledtoAmer icanindependence.This
wasani nspi
rati
onf rom thewhiteset t
ler
sofAmer icawhodef eatedt heBri
tish
coloni
algovernmentby1777.I nt hiscase,IanSmi t
handhi sRFPf elttheneedt o
dupli
catethe1776- 1777inci
dentsintheUSAbyi ssuingtheUDIagai nstthewillof
theBrit
ishcol
onialoffi
ce.

Consequent l
y,t he rise of Af ri
kaner nati
onali
sm i n South Af ri
ca and t he
establi
shmentofapar t
heidi nspir
ed thewhi t
eset t
lersin Southern Rhodesiato
proclai
m t he UDI.The act i
vit
ies ofmi nori
ty whit
es in South Afri
ca af t
erthe
i
ntroduction of apartheid wer e aimed at pr omoting poli
ti
caland economi c
domi nancyofwhi tesov erAf r
icanswher eAf r
icanswer edeniedpar ti
cipati
onin
poli
ti
csandeconomi cact iv
iti
es.Thisinfl
uencedthesettl
ersi
nSout hernRhodesiato
i
mpl ementt hesamet hrought heUDI .

Thef ormat i
onoft heOr gani
sati
onofAf ri
canUnit y(OAU)in1963scar edthewhites
i
nSout hernRhodesi at oissuet heUDIi n1965.Athersummi tinCai ro,t
heOAU
passedar esoluti
onthatpr ocl
aimedhersuppor tt oAfri
canmaj ori
tyi nSouthern
Rhodesi a.TheOAUal sorecognisedt henational
istsinexil
el i
keJoshuaNkomoand
thei
rst r
ugglet oendracism inacount ry.
The act iv
iti
esoft he LabourPar tygov ernmenti n Brit
ainl ed byWi l
son Harold
i
nfluencedt hef ormat
ionoft heUDI .Duet oherli
ber ali
deas,t heLabourgov ernment
l
eader ship started holding di
scussi ons aimed at est ablishing a democr ati
c
government i n Southern Rhodesi a under Af ri
can maj or i
ty rule. This was
unaccept abletothewhi t
eswhodecl aredarebell
i
onagai nsttheBr it
ishgov er
nment .

Theincompet ence( shor


tsight
edness)oftheBr i
ti
shgov er nmentl edtothecreati
on
oftheUDI .Ini
ti
allytheBrit
ishgovernmenthadgi venani nt er
nalself-
governmentto
themi nori
tywhi tesatthecostofmaj ori
tyAf r
icans.Thi senabl edt hewhitesto
est
ablishagov ernmentwi t
hindependentsecuri
tyforce.Atal aterstage,t
hismadei t
hardfortheBrit
ishtoempl oyami l
it
aryapproachtobl ockI anSmi th'sregi
me.

Fact
orst
hatf
avour
edt
heUDI(
sur
viv
aloft
heUDI
)

Ref
erenceQuestion
1.Accountforthesurvi
valoft
heUDIupt o198O
2.Examinethef act
orst
hatfavour
edtheexist
enceoftheUDI
3.Accountforthedelay
eddecoloni
sati
onofSouthernRhodesi
a
4.Towhatext entwastheUDIanobstaclet
ot hei
ndependenceofZi
mbabwe?

 Themi l
i
tar ystrengthoft heUDIcont r
ibutedt ohersur vi
valagai nstAf r
ican
national
ism i n Sout hern Rhodesi a.The UDIhad a wel lest abli
shed and
autonomoussecur it
yf orcethrought hepol i
ceandt hear my .TheUDIf orces
werewel lequippedandwel ltrainedhence,I anSmith'sregimewasabl et o
crashAfr i
canr esi
stance.
 Theeconomi cstrengthofI anSmi t
h'sgov ernmentcont r
ibutedt othesur vival
oft heUDI .Thewhi temi nori
tygov ernmentcont rol
ledal linvestment sand
commer ci alacti
viti
esi nthecount ry.Theyal sohadmonopol yovert heminer al
fi
elds.Thisgav eI anSmi thanupperhandt or untheaf f
air
sofhi sgov er
nment
andf i
nancet hecount erwaragai nstAf r
icanf r
eedom fi
ghters.
 The est abl i
shmentoft he t riumv irate al li
ance del ay ed i ndependence of
Sout her nRhodesi a.Ther ewasanal l
iance( gang)oft hreewhi temi nor i
ty
gov er nment sofDonSal azaroft hePor tuguesecol onialgov ernment ,t he
apar thei dr egi meofSout hAf r i
caandt heUDIofI anSmi t
h.Theser egi mes
all
ied t oget herand agr eed t o cr ash any Af rican nat ional ism f rom t heir
respect i
v ecol oni es.Theyshar edmi l
itar yi nt ell
igenceandst rat egieswhi ch
enabl edt hem t osur vivei nSout hernAf rica.
 Thesuppor tr ecei v ed byt heUDIf rom t heUSA and Eur opeenabl ed t he
minor itygov er nmentt osur v i
v eatt heexpenseofnat i
onal ism i nSout her n
Rhodesi a.Mi litiaswer er ecr uitedandt rainedi nEur opeandAmer icat ohel p
i
ncr ease t he capaci ty oft he UDIagai nstAf ricans.Amer ican suppor ted
facili
t atedt hemi li
tar yst rengt hofI anSmi th'sgov ernmentt oenabl ehi m cr ash
Africannat ional ism.
 Theexi st enceofcol dwarpol it
icsenabl edt hesur vivaloft heUDIandt he
delay edi ndependenceofSout her nRhodesi a.Thecapi talistwor l
dt hrought he
Nor thAt l
ant icTr eat yOr gani sat i
on( NATO)power sl edbyt heUSAdet est ed
thel iber at iongr oupsi nSout her nRhodesi ai .
e.t heZANUandt heZAPUwho
hadal l
iedwi tht hecommuni stwor ld.Duet ot hesoci ali
stout put ,theZANU
andt heZAPUwer er eceivingai df rom Chi naandt heUSSRr espect i
v ely.The
fearofcommuni sti nf l
uencei nSout her nAf ri
canr egi oni nf l
uencedt heNA~0
power stof undt heUDIgov er nment .
 Thei ncompet enceandr eluct anceoft heBr itishgov er nmentagai nstt heJDI
gov er nmentf av our ed t he sur vivaloft he whi te mi nor it
ygov ernment .As
coloni aladmi ni st r
at ors,t he Br i
tish gav et he whi te set tlersi n Sout her n
Rhodesi aani nt er nalaut onomy ,whi chal lowedt hem t ohav eani ndependent
admi nist rat i
v est ruct urewi tht heirownar my .Thi smadei timpossi blef ort he
Briti
shgov er nmentt oempl oyt hemi l
itar yst rategyagai nstt hewhi teset tler
gov er nment .The UDIgov ernmental so enj oy ed suppor tf rom t he Br iti
sh
cit
izensbackathome.
 The del ay ed i ndependence of t he nei ghbour ing count ries of Sout her n
Rhodesi af av our ed t he UDIgov er nment .Count ries l ike Mozambi que and
Sout hAf ri
cawer eequal l
yunderwhi t
edenomi nat i
on.Thi smadei timpossi ble
fort heAf ricannat i
onal istsi nSout her nRhodesi at oaccesst r ainingbasesand
otherf aci litiesi nt hesecount r
ies.Thi sal soenabl edI anSmi t ht oconsol idat e
hisr ulei nSout her nRhodesi a.
 Thepr esenceofal argewhi teset tl
ercommuni tyinSout hernRhodesi awor ked
i
nf av ourofI an Smi th's gov ernment .The set tl
er s enj oy ed pol i
ti
caland
economi c pr iv ileges,whi ch i ncluded owner shi pt ol arge pi eces ofl and,
politicalr ight sandposi tionsofadmi nistrat i
on.Theywi lli
ngl ygav esuppor tt o
theUDIgov er nmenti nor dert opr otectt hei rint erest si nt hecol ony .
 The est abl ishment of pr otect ed soci eties ( r
eser v es) by I an Smi th's
gov er nmentenabl edt hesur vivaloft hewhi teset tlercol ony .Thi swast o
protectAf ri
can set tlement s,sur v ey ed and pat roni sed byt he gov ernment
secur i
tyf or ces.The whi te mi nor i
tygov ernmentai med atr etrieving and
prev ent i
ngAf r i
canmassesf rom suppor tingt hel iber ationst ruggl e.
Abovearesomeoft hef act orst hatf avour edt hesur vivaloft heUDIanddel ayedt he
i
ndependenceofSout her nRhodesi a.Ot her si ncl ude:
 Nat i
onal ist si nSout her nRhodesi awer edi videdont r
iball i
nes,whi chdel ay ed
theiri ndependence.The Zi mbabwe Af rican Nat ionalUni on ( ZANU)was
predomi nant l
yofShonaofMashonaandZi mbabweAf ricanPeopl esUni on
(ZAPU)f ort heNdebel eofMat ebel e.Thesegr oupscoul dhar dl yuni tet owor k
outacommonst rat egyagai nstt hewhi temi nor itygov ernmentofI anSmi th
until thel at tery ear soft her ebel li
on.
 Thef ormat i
onoft heCent r
alAf r
icanFeder ation( CAP)in1953del ay edthe
i
ndependence of .Sout hern Rhodesi a.The f ederat
ion str
engthened whi t
e
set
tl
er sagainsttheAf r
icannat i
onalistact i
vi
ties.TheCAPsuppr essedAf ri
can
pol
it
icalagi t
ati
ons,bannedt heoper ationofpol i
ti
calparti
esli
ket heAf ri
can
Nati
onal Congress(ANC)andt heNat i
onal Democr ati
cParty(NDP).
 Theimpr isonmentofnat i
onali
stsinSout hernRhodesi adelayedtheliberati
on
ofAf ri
cans.Nat i
onali
stsl ike Joshua Nkomo and Rober tMugabe wer e
per
secut edandi mprisonedbyt hegov ernmentofI anSmi t
h.Theirarrestand
i
mprisonmentwasaset backtot hest rugglef orindependencebecausei tleft
pol
it
icalgapsi ntheleadershipoft heliberati
onst r
uggle.

 The di f
ference in st rat
egies among f reedom f i
ghters delayed t he
i
ndependenceofAf r
icans.Themoder atesof( ZAPU)ledbyNkomodi dnot
agree witht he mil
itary approach att he init
ialstage.Thi sinfluenced
NdabaningiandMugabet obr eakawayandf ormt he( ZANU).Ev enwi thi
n
(ZANU)itself
,somemember sopposedt hecreat i
onoftheZANLAt olauncha
l
iberat
ionst r
uggl
eagai nsttheUDIgov ernment .Theinconsti
stancesamong
nati
onali
stshence,delayedindependenceat t
ainmentinSout her
nRhodesi a.

 ThedoublestandardsoftheUnitedNat i
onswor kedagainstt
heindependence
ofSouthernRhodesia.TheUNOcont i
nuouslycondemnedwhi tedominancyin
Souther
n Rhodesia and t ook long tot ake act i
on agai
nstI an Smith'
s
government.Memberst atesli
ket heUSAandBr i
tai
nsecret
lysupportedthe
UDIgovernment.

 Theweaknessoft heOAUl edtotheindependenceofSout hernRhodesi


a.The
OAUl ackedami li
taryforcetosupplementthef reedom fight
ersofSouther
n
Rhodesia.Sheintervenedatal aterstagetogr antnat i
onali
stsofSouther
n
Rhodesia assi
stance:t he r
esol
ut i
on forthe intervent
ion ofthe OAU in
Zi
mbabweanquest ionwasmadei n1964atasummi tconferencei
n
 Cai
ro.

ThewarofindependenceinSouthernRhodesia1966-
1980
Sout
her
nRhodesi ali
kePortugueseAfri
ca,
SouthWestAfri
caandSouthAf
ri
cahada
bl
oodyroadtoindependence.Thisbecameinevi
tabl
eaft
erthei
ssui
ngoft
heUDIby
I
anSmith.

Thespiritofnati
onali
sm inSout her
nRhodesiabecamemili
tantfrom 1966though
thesignsappearedaf ew yearsearl
ier
.Thiswasbecauseoft herebel
li
onbyt he
whitesyetGreatBri
tai
ndi dli
ttl
etointer
veneandpavewayforAfri
canmaj or
it
yrule.
Thisinf
luencedAfr
icansirsouthernRhodesi
atowageawarofindependence.

Thecausesoft
hewarhencei
ncl
uded:

1. Towhatextentweretheeconomi cfactor
sresponsibl
efortheoutbr
eakoft he
Zimbabweanwarofindependence?
2. Accountfortheoutbreakoft heli
berati
onstruggleInSouthernRhodesi
ai n
1966
3. Discussthefactor
st hatledtother i
seofmi l
it
antnati
onali
sm inSouthern
Rhodesi
abetween1966and1980

 Ther
eluct
antr
eact
ionoft
heBr
it
ishgov
ernmentt
otheUDIcausedt
hewari
n
Sout her nRhodesi a.TheBr itishgov ernmentr eact edt ot heUDIt hr ougha
pol i
cy ofnon- interv ent i
on i mposi tion ofsanct ions and l at erdi pl omacy .
AlthoughHar oldWi lsondecl aredt heUDIi ll
egal ,hi sgov ernmentdi dnotsend
troopst osuppr esst her ebel li
ouswhi tes.Thi si nf l
uencedAf ricanst or esor t
mi li
tar ism.
 Fai l
ur eoft hepeacef ulmeansempl oy edbyAf ri
canst oachi ev ei ndependence
causedt hewar .Af r i
cansf ai l
edi nt hei rendeav our st opr omot emaj or ityr ule
i
nSout her nRhodesi a.Thenat ional istsl ikeJoshuaNkomoandRev .Si thol e
Ndabani ngit riedt oengaget hewhi teset tlergov er nmentofFi eldWi nst onbut
i
nv ain.TheAf r i
canswer el ef twi thnoopt ionbutt or esor tt ot hear med
struggl e.
 Simi lar ly ,the i ssui ng oft he UDIshat t
er ed Af rican chances ofachi ev i
ng
i
ndependence i mmedi atel y.The UDIwas a cr eat ion oft he whi te set tler
communi tyl edbyI anSmi tht oconsol idat ewhi tesupr emacyanddomi nance
ov erAf r i
cansi nSout her nRhodesi a.Thi scoupl ed wi thr aci sm'ofwhi t es
agai nstAf ricansi nf luencedAf ricanst or espondt owhi test hroughmi l
itar y
means.
 The f or mat ion ofmi l
itar y mov ement si nf luenced t he Rhodesi an warof
i
ndependence.Thef i
rstgr oup wast heZi mbabweAf ricanPeopl esUni on
(ZAPU) who cr eat ed a mi litar y wi ng cal l
ed t he Zi mbabwe Peopl e’s
Rev ol ut ionar y Ar my ( ZIPRA)i n 1962 t o pr epar ef ora possi ble ar med
conf r ont ati
on.Lat er ,theZi mbabweAf r i
canNat ionalUni on( ZANU)cr eat eda
fi
ght i
ngf orcei n1965knownast heZi mbabweAf ri
canNat ionalLi ber ation
Ar my( ZANLA)basedi nZambi a.Thesemi li
tar ywi ngsr ecr uitedguer rillast hat
l
aunchedanof f
ensi v eagai nstt hewhi teset tlerr egi mei n1966.
 Thei nf l
uenceofnei ghbour ingi ndependentst at escausedt heZi mbabwean
warofl iber at i
on.Af teri ndependence, Zambi aal l
owedt heZANUt oest abl i
sha
mi li
tar ybasei nhert err i
tor ywhi chi tusedt ol aunchat tacksagai nstI an
smi th' sr egime.Ot herAf ricanst at esl ikeAl ger iagav eZANLAmi li
taryt raining
i
n guer r i
llat act i
cs and t oget herwi th Tanzani a;t hey ext ended f inanci al
assi st ancet of reedom f ight er si nSout her nRhodesi a,whi chconsol idat edt he
guer r i
llawar .
 Theat roci tiescommi ttedbywhi t eset tlersagai nstAf ri
cansi nfluencedt he
armedst ruggl e.Af ricansl ostal otoft hei rlandt ot hewhi tes;t heywer eov er
taxedandar bitrari
lyar rest ed.Al lt hesecausedangert ot heAf ri
canst or esor t
tomi litar ism agai nstwhi teset tler s.
 TheZi mbabweanswer ei nfluencedbyt heear li
ert raditi
onalr esistancel ike
Shona- Ndebel er ebel li
on,whi ch was an ear lyr esist ance agai nst t he
est abl ishmentofBr i
ti
shcol oni alism.Thoughi twascr ashed,t her ebel l
ion
mot i
v at edAf ricanst or iseagai nstt hemi nor it
ywhi ter egime.
 Thedeni alofAf r i
canst opar ticipat ei npol iti
csoft hei rcount rycausedt hewar .
Af ri
can pol iticalpar ti
es l ike t he Af rican Nat ionalCongr ess,t he Nat i
onal
Democr aticPar ty, andt heZi mbabweAf ricanPeopl esUni onwer esuppr essed
and banned f rom oper ation.Af r i
canswer eal so unequal l
yr epresent ed i n
par li
ament .Al lthesel ef tt hem wi thnoopt ionbutt or esor tt owart oacqui re
pol i
tical r i
ght s.
 Theexi lesofZi mbabwegr eat lyi nf luencedt hewar .TheZi mbabweansi nt he
diaspor af unded l iberat ion mov ementespeci al lyt he Zi mbabwe Af rican
Nat ionalUni on, spr eadant i-
UDIpr opagandaandsol icitedf orsuppor tf rom t he
i
nt ernat ional communi ty .
 The i nf luence oft he Al ger ian warofl i
ber at i
on caused wari n Sout her n
Rhodesi a.Thesuccessoft hel iber at i
onwari nAl ger i
ahadaposi ti
v ei mpact
onnat ional i
sm i nZi mbabweasi ti nfluencedAf r
icansi nZi mbabwet or esor tt o
mili
tarymeans, t
rainedt heZANU( ZimbabweAf r
icanNational Li
berat i
onAr my )
guerril
lasandext endedassi stancet onat i
onal i
stsi nform off inanceand
mili
tary.
 Thei nfluenceofZi mbabweanr adicalsl i
keMugabemadet hewari nevitable.
Mugabecondemnedt hewhitemi nor i
tyregime( theUDI )
;evenaf terhi sarrest,
hisinfl
uencewasf eltamongt hedeput iesoft heZANU.Mugabeor ganisedt he
ZANUmi li
tar
ywi ng( ZANLA)andl aunchedat tacksagainstt hewhi tecol onial
settl
ement s.
 Thewarwasi nf
luencedbycommuni stassi stance.TheZAPUdomi natedby
Ndebel e had cl ose l inks wi tht he Sov iet Union whi let he ZANU of
predomi nantlyShonaaccessedmi li
taryaidfrom Chi na.
 Thei ndependencewar si nPortugueseAf ri
ca, most l
yAngolaandMozambi que
i
nfluenced t he wari n Souther n Rhodesi a.The war s ofi ndependence i n
PortugueseAf ri
cagr eatl
yinf l
uenced Zi mbabweanst or esortt o war ,The
ZANUl atermadeanal li
ancewi tht heFRELI MO( Mozambi canLi berationFr ont)
wher ethet woshar edmi l
i
tar
yst rategies.

NB:Coloni
alpoli
ciesli
kethepoorl
andpoli
cy,f
orcedl
abourandtheunfai
rfiscal
andeducat
ionpolici
escanalsobeconsi
der
edamongthefactor
sthatcausedthe
upr
isi
nginSouthernRhodesi
a.

Fact
orst
hatf
avour
edt
hei
ndependenceofZi
mbabwe

Referencequest
ions:
1.Di scussthef
actorsthatfavouredthei
ndependenceofZi
mbabwe
2.Accountf ort
hecollapseoft heUDIin1980
3." Thedownfal
loftheUDIwasi nevi
tabl
e.”Di
scuss
4. "TheweaknessesofI anSmi th'
sgovernmentledtothecol
lapseoft
heUDI
."
Discuss

 Theuni onoft heZi mbabweAf ricanNat ionalUni onandt heZi mbabweAf ri


can
Peopl esUni oni nlate1970sst rengthenedAf ri
canst ruggl eagai nstI anSmi t
h' s
gover nment .Thismadei teasyt oempl oyacommonst rategyt hatweakened
thewhi t
emi nori
tyregime.
 Thei ndividualr oleoft heZANUcont r
ibutedt ot hesuccessoft hest r
uggl e.
Apar tfrom condemni ngI anSmi th'sracistgov ernment ,theZANUest abl i
shed
theZi mbabweAf ricanNat ionalLi ber
at i
onAr my,ami l
itarywi ngt hatwageda
warofi ndependenceagai nstwhi t
emi nor i
tyregimei n1966.Lat ert heZANU-
PatrioticFr ontaccept edt ocol l
aborate- witht heZAPU- Pat ri
oticFr ontf ora
national cause.
 Thecr eat i
onofext ernaltr aininggr oundsgav ethel iber ationmov ementan
upperhand.TheZANUest abl i
shedbasesi nMozambi queandTanzani af rom
wher et heZANLAl aunchedat tacksagai nstI anSmi th'sgov ernment .
 Thesuppor tpr ov i
ded byt heShonaspi ri
tualmedi ums( reli
giousl eader s)
cont r
ibut edt othesuccessoft heRhodesi anwarofi ndependence.These
rel
igiousl eader scour ageousl yescor tedl i
berationf i
ght erst othebat tlefront
andgav et hem f aithandmot ivationtof i
ghtagai nstthewhi tesettlerar my .
 Thesuppor tfrom theOr gani sationAf ri
canUni t
ycont ributedt othesuccessof
theliber ationwari nSout her nRhodesi a.Throughi t
sliber ationcommi ttee, the
OAUgav emat eri
alsuppor tt oZANUandZAPU,andencour agedbot hgr oups
tosetupapat rioti
cf ront.TheOAU al socal l
edf orsanct i
onsagai nstI an
Smi th'sr egi me,whi chweakenedt hewhi teset tl
ergov ernmenti nf avourof
Afri
cans.
 Ther ol eoft heUNOenabl edt hesuccessofAf ricansi nSout her nRhodesi a.
Thei nt ernat i
onalcust odi anofpeace,t hroughi tsSecur i
tyCounci li mposed
economi c sanct i
ons on t he UDIgov ernment ,whi ch nar rowed down her
mar ketbaseandr educedhert radepar tner s.Cont inuouspr essur ef rom t he
UN i nf luenced I an Smi th's gov ernmentt o ef fectr ef orms on t he ev e of
i
ndependence.
 The Commonweal th ofNat ions added t hei rv oi ce t ot he ant i-Rhodesi a
crusade.Att hef or ef r
ontwer et hef or merBr it
ishcol oni esi nAf ri
cai ncludi ng
Niger ia, Zambi a, Uganda and Tanzani a among ot her s. The Af r i
can
Commonweal thmember spr essur izedBr i
taint or esumeherpat r onageov er
Rhodesi aandpr epar ehert i
met abl ef ort hei ndependenceoft hiscount ry.
Theyext endedmor al andf inanci al assi stancet ot heZANUandt heZAPU.
 Ther iseofMar gr etThat cheri n1979asaBr i
tishPr imeMi nisterchangedt he
Br i
tishpol icyonRhodesi a.Hergov er nmentr eal izedt heneedf ort heZAPU
andt heZANU t oi nv olvei npeacenegot iationswi thI ansmi tht obr inga
pol i
t i
calsol ut iont ot heRhodesi anquest ion.Shespear headed t hepeace
set tlementand or gani sed ani ndependenceconf erencei n1979.Herr ole
broughti ndependencet oZi mbabwe.
 Simi l
ar ly,theUSAcont ribut edt ot hef reedom ofAf ricansi nZi mbabwe, Dur ing
Pr esi dentJi mmyCar ter'st enur e, USAexer tedmor epr essur eonRhodesi aand
Br i
tai n.I n1976,t heSecr et aryofSt ateHenr yKi ssi ngermadepr oposal sf or
peaceandmaj or i
tyr ulei nRhodesi a.Ther esul twast heGenev aconst it
ut i
onal
conf er enceofNov ember1976.Thi sconf er encesett hemoodf orser ious
dialoguebet weenAf r i
cansandwhi teset tl
ergov ernment .
 Ther olepl ay ed bycommuni stst atescannotbeunderest imat ed i nt he
successofZi mbabweanwarofi ndependence.Amongt hem wer et heUSSR,
Cuba,Chi naandCzechosl ov aki a.I nor dert ospr eadi nt heirpol iti
cali deol ogy ,
thecommuni stst atest rai nedandar medt heguer ri
llaar mi es.I ti sf ort hi s
reasont hatmostoft heweaponsl ikeAK- 47r iflesandbombsusedbyt he
ZANLAandZI PRAcamef rom t hecommuni stwor ld.
 The 1974 Li sbon coup i n Por tugalwor ked i nf av ourofZi mbabwean
nat ional i
sm.Thecoupl edt ot hei mmedi atei ndependenceofPor tuguese
col oni es, Angol aandMozambi queanddeal taf i
nalbl owt ot hesur v ivaloft he
tri
umv i
rateal l
iancet hatbegancol lapsi ngi n1968.Thecol l
apseoft hegangof
threemadet her egi meofI anSmi thv ulner abl e.Theeast ernbor derbecame
mor eexposedt oZANLAandRhodesi a'saccesst ot hepor tofBei rawascut
offbyMozambi canguer ril
las.
 Thegr owi ngmi litarysuccessoft heZi mbabweAf ricanNat i
onalLi berat ion
Ar my and Zi mbabwe Peopl es Resi st ance Ar my ant agoni sed t he soci o-
economi cl ifeoft hewhi tepopul at i
oni nt hecount ry.Thei nsecur i
tycausedby
thei ncr easedat tacksonwhi teset tlersdi v ertedt hem f r
om t heireconomi c
act ivities,whi chi ncl udedt r ading,mi ni ngandf ar mi ng.Someoft hewhi tes
per ishedi nt hewarwhi leot her sl ef tt hecount rydur ingt hei ndependence
struggl e.Thi sr educed t he suppor tenj oy ed byt he UDIgov er nmentand
consequent ly,weakenedher .
 Ther olepl ay edbyRober tMugabecont ribut edt ot hesuccessofAf r i
can
freedom agi tat ions.Mugabededi cat edhi spr ofessi on, est abl ishedt heZANLA
andi nf l
uencedanat tackont hewhi temi nor itygov er nment .Ev enaf t
erhi s
i
mpr isoned,Mugabecont i
nuousl ycondemnedt heUDIgov ernmentandhi s
i
nf luencewasal way sf eltt hr oughhi sdeput ies.Het ransf ormedt heZANUi nto
ZANU- Pat r
iot i
c Fr ont ,whi ch spear headed t he success ofi ndependence
struggl e.
 Ther oleofZi mbabweansexi lesl edt ot hesuccessoft hei ndependence
struggleinSout her nRhodesi a.Apar tfrom j oi
ningl iberati
onf or
cesf rom exi
le,
theexi l
escont inuousl ysolici
tedf orassi stancef rom abr oadandspr eadanti-
UDIpr opagandat ot heinternati
onal communi ty .
 Ther econcili
ati
onanduni tyoft heShonaandt heNdebel eet hnicgroups
popul ari
sed the mov ementagai nstt he UDI .The t wo tribalgr oups gave
tremendoussuppor ttothel i
berationwari nter msoff oodandot hersuppli
es
tot hef i
ghters,whi chenabl edt hem toweakent hewhi teset tl
ergov er
nment .
Theet hnicclashesbet weent heShonaandt heNdebel ehadf avouredthe
politi
calactivi
ti
esoft heUDIgov ernmentagai nstAf ricans.
 Theeconomi cdecl ineoft heUDIgov er nmentl edt ot hel i
berationofAf ri
cans
i
nSout hernRhodesi a.Thewhi t
eset tl
ereconomycol lapsedduet ocont i
nuous
Af r
icanat t
acks, pressureandsanct i
onsf rom t heOAUandt heUN.Hence, t
he
IanSmi t
hadmi nist r
ationcoul dnotsust ai
ni t
selfbutt osur render .
 Ther oleoft heZi mbabweAf ri
canPeopl esUni onl edt othesuccessoft hewar
ofi ndependencei nSout hernRhodesi a.TheZAPU,l i
ket heZANUest abli
shed
ami li
tarywi ng,t heZi mbabwePeopl esResi stanceAr my ,whi chl aunched
guer ri
ll
aattacksagai nstthewhi tesettlerregime.

Ther
oleofRober tMugabe
 Mugaber et i
redf rom hi spr ofessi onasat eachert opar ticipatei nt hest r
uggl e
agai nstt hewhi t
emi nor it
yr egime.
 Hewor kedasasecr et aryoft her adi calZi mbabweAf r
icanNat ionalUni onand
begunmount i
ngpr essur eonI anSmi th'sgov ernmenti near ly1960' s.
 Dur inghi sday si npr ison,Mugabecont inuousl ycondemnedt heUDIandher
racistpol iciesandi nf luencedt heZANU deput iest owageal iber ationwar
agai nstt hegov ernmentofI anSmi th.
 Mugabeal liedwi tht hecommuni stwor ldespeci all
yChi naf r
om whom al otof
assi stancei nt ermsmi li
tar yequi pmentandt rainingwasr ecei vedbyt heZANU.
 Mugabei nt ensifiedt heact iviti
esoft heZANUi nt hel astst agesoft hewar
throughr ecr ui
tingeducat edbutj oblessAf ri
cansi nt heZANLA.Thesecar ri
ed
theirgr ievancesagai nstt hewhi teset t
lergov er nment .
 Mugabesoughtf orr ecogni ti
onoft heZANUmov ementandt hel i
ber at i
onwar
agai nstt hewhi t
esf rom t heOAUandt heUNO.
 He gav e char ismat ic r elationshi p and i nf l
uence t hat i ncr eased t he
det ermi nat i
onoff reedom f i
ght ersagai nstwhi teset t
lerr egime.
 Her ecr uitedwomeni nt ot her anksoft heZANUandt heZANLAandt hose
womengav egr eatassi st ancet ot hel i
ber ationwart hr oughpr ov idingf ood,
treat mentt ot hewoundedandespi onagei nf ormat ion.
 Mugabei nfluencedt hecr eat i
onofay out hwi ng, whi chconsol i
dat edt hespi ri
t
ofnat i
onal s-t ot hey oungAf ri
cansi nZi mbabwe.
 Mugabeaskedf ori nter vent i
onoft heBr iti
shgov ernmentandcondemnedt he
i
ncompet enceoft heBr it
ishmi nor i
tyr egimei nf aili
ngt osol vet heUDIi ssue.
 Mugabel edZANU- Pat riot icFr ontt ot hepr e-independenceel ections,whi ch
the mov ementconsequent l
y won t he warwi th maj or i
ty seat si nt he
par l
iament .
 Mugabe pet it
ioned I an Smi th's gov er nmentt ot he UN Secur ity Counci l
;
pur posel yt owi nt hecounci ltowar dsZi mbabwe' scause.
 Hecal ledupont hei nter nat i
onal communi tytosi dewi t
hAf ri
cansi nZi mbabwe
andcondemnt heact i
v iti
esoft heUDI
 Mugabel edZANU- PFi ntopeacef uldi scussi onswi thZAPU- PFandI anSmi th's
mi nor i
tyr egi meai medatbr ingingapol it
ical sol utiont ot heconf l
ict.
 Mugabeaccept edt hei nst r
ument sofpowerandhenceest abl i
shedt hefirst
Afr
icanmajori
tygov
ernmentInZi
mbabwet
hatof
fi
cial
l
yledtoi
ndependence
ofZimbabweonApril27,
1980.
 Hei nvi
tedtheZAPU-PFofJoshuaNkomotojoi
nZANU- PFi
nacoal it
ion
government
.

Summar yoft her oleoft heZi mbabweAf ri


canNat i
onalUni on
 TheZANUcar r
iedoutguer ril
laat tacksandr aidsonwhi t
epl antat i
onsand
busi nessesandgov ernmenti nst allations.
 TheZANUofde- campai gnedt heUDIandI anSmi th'
sr egi me.
 Themov ementf ormedt heZi mbabweAf ri
canNat i
onalLi berati
onAr myasa
militarywi ngt oi ntensi fyt hest ruggl eagai nstthewhi ter egime.
 TheZANUandZANLAwagedal iberat i
onwaragai nstt heUDIgov ernment .
 TheZANU- pfopenedupext ernalbasest ofacilit
atet hewarf orexampl ei n
Zambi a,Tanzani aandl at erMozambi que.
 TheZANUsol icitedf orassi stancef r
om t hesoci ali
stwor ldespeci all
yChi na.
 TheZANU- pfpet i
t i
onedI anSmi t
h'sgov ernmentt ot heUN cal l
ingf ort he
i
nter nat i
onal body '
si nter vent i
on
 TheZANUsoughtf orr ecogni tionf rom t heOAUandconsequent l
yaskedf or
assi stancef rom Af r i
cangov ernment s.
 Themov ementcr eat eday out hwi ngi ntendedt ospear headnat ionalism at
grassr oot s.
 Thr oughl eader sl ikeMugabe,t heZANUgav echar ismat i
cl eadershi pi nt he
cour seoft hei ndependencest ruggl e.
 TheZANU- pfcol labor atedwi t
ht heZAPUt oconsol i
dateZi mbabweanst ruggle
agai nsttheUDI .
 The ZANU- pfpar tici pat ed in pr e-independence di scussi on wi tht he whi te
minor i
tyr egi me ai med atbr inging a pol i
ti
calsol ution tot he conf li
cti n
Zimbabwe.
 TheZANU r ecrui t
edwomeni nhermi li
taryandpol i
t i
calr anksasf i
ght ers,
nursesandi nf ormer s.
 TheZANU wont hesuppor tofShonaspi r
it
ualmedi umswhowor kedwi th
mov ement sasi nst ruct or sindi rect i
ngt hewar .
 The ZANU est abl ished an ext ernalal l
iance wi th FRELI MO ai med at
consol i
dat inghermi l
itar yst rengt handst rategiesdur ingt hei ndependence
struggl e.
 The mov ementr ecr uited and t r
ained guer ill
af i
ght erst o st rengt hen t he
struggl eforAf ri
canmaj or i
tyrul e.
 The ZANU or gani sed l iberat ed zones and made r eforms t hati ncluded
prov ision off r
ee educat ion and heal t
h ser vices,whi ch popul arized t he
mov ement .

NATIONALISM INSOUTHWESTAFRI CA1966-1990


Namibia(formerlySouthWestAf ri
ca)isf oundi nsout hwest er
nAf r
ica,nort
hoft he
Uni
onoft heRepubl i
cofSout hAf r
ica.Theor i
ginalinhabitantsofSout hWestAf ri
ca
i
ncl
udedt heOv amboi ntheNorthernar easclosertot hebor derwit
hAngol aandt he
Herer
oi nt hecentr
al.TheNamaoccupi edtheSout hernar easwithot herminorit
y
gr
oups scat t
ered i
n otherpar t
s oft he count ry
.Whi tes began settli
ng on the
Namibiancoastinthesecondhal fofthenineteenthcent ury(around1868)andt hese
i
ncl
udedt radersandmissionari
es.

Thecount
ryfel
lunderGer
manr ul
ein1884unt
il1915whentheBri
ti
shfor
cesfr
om
Sout
hAf r
icaat
tackedandoccupiedSout
hWestAf r
icafol
l
owingtheoutbr
eakof
WorldWarI.TheVer sail
l
esPeaceSet tl
ementof1919t hatdet
erminedt heaf t
ermat h
ofWWImandat edNami biatoSouthAfri
ca.In1920,thenewlyfoundat i
oncust odi
an
ofworldpeace( t
heLeagueofNat ions)bestowedtoSouthAfri
caf ulladministrat
ive
andlegi
slat
ivepowersov erSouthWestAf r
icaasatrust
eeterr
it
ory.Sout hAfri
cawas
al
lowedtoappl yherlawsov erNamibi
a,thussheexhibi
tedimperi
alistpoli
ciesint he
southwestAfri
cancountry.

SouthAf ri
canmaladministrati
oninNami bi
awast othedismayoftheUni tedNat ions
Organisati
on(UNO),thebodyest abli
shedi n1945tor epl
acetheLeague.TheGener al
Assembl yoftheUNO v ot edt oterminatethemandat eofSouthAfri
cai nOct ober
1966, asawayofpr omot i
ngsoci o-
economi cadvancementineducati
on, progressive
economi cdevel
opmentandpr eparet henati
vesf orself-
gover
nment.TheGener al
Assembl yident
if
ied conspi r
acyi ntheSout hAf ri
canappl i
cat
ionofApar theidi n
Nami bia,whi
chledt oinequal i
ti
esinr i
ghtsandwel farebet
weenwhi tesandnon-
whites.

Howev er
,raci
stSouthAfri
cadefiedt heUNandchoset oannexSout hWestAf ri
ca
andretai
ncont r
oloverherunti
l1990.' '
Aparthei
dSout
hAf ricatreat
edSout hwest
Afr
icaasi fitwer eafif
thprovinceoft heSouthAfr
icanUni on."Sout
hAf r
ica’
s
i
mper i
ali
sm ov erSouth WestAf r
ica (Namibia)was inf
luenced by economi c,
pol
iti
calandmi l
it
aryr
easonsthatincludedtheFOLLOWING:

Ref
erencequesti
ons:
1,AccountforSouthAfr
icani
mperial
ism overNamibi
a
2.Towhatext entwasSouthAfr
icaanobst acl
etot
heindependenceofNami
bia?

 SouthAf ricadi dnotr ecogni zet hecl ai m oft heUNGener alAssembl yov erthe
formerGer mancol ony .TheApar thei dr egi mei nPr etoriacl aimedt hati twas
onlytheLeagueofNat ionst hathadl egi t
imat emandat etodet er mi net hef at e
of Sout h West Af rica. Howev er , si nce t he League had col l
apsed
simultaneousl ywi tht heout breakofWor ldWarI I,Sout hAf ricahadot her
mot i
v es.Ev enwi tht hei nter ventionofTheI nternationalCour tofJust ice
basedi nHague,Sout hAf ricauni lat erallycont i
nuedadmi nist eringNami bia.
Thehesi tationofSout hAf ricat owi t hdr awf rom Sout hWestAf r i
cahadf orced
theUNGener alAssembl yt oseekf oranadv isor yopinionont heposi ti
onof
South Af r
ica ov erNami bia.Thus,Sout h Af rica refused t o acceptt he
super vi
si onoft heUNGener alAssembl y ,nort osendanannualr epor ttot he
UNonheradmi nistrationi nNami bia.
 SouthAf ri
canr efusalt ohonourt het ermsoft heUni tedNat ionsTr ust eeshi p
Counci l,towi thdrawf rom Nami bi
aandpr epar et hecount r
yf ori ndependence
was dr i
v en byr aciali ntrigue ( r
aci sm) .The whi t
es ofSout h Af rica wer e
determi nedt omai ntai nt hei rdomi nancyov ert henat i
vesofNami bia.The
aparthei dr egimesi nv estedheav il
yi nper pet uat i
ngawhi t
epuppetgov ernment
thatensur edmai ntenanceofwhi tesupr emacyi nt her egionofSout her n
Afri
canr egi on.Thewhi temi nor i
tygov ernmentofSout hAf r
icaf oundf antasy
i
nsuppr essingt henat ivesofNami biaasi twasi ntheSout hAf ricai nf avour
ofpromot i
ngwhi tesuper i
or itycompl ex.
 Aparthei dSout hAf ricav aluedt heeconomi cpot entialofSout hWestAf rica.
Theabundantmi neralr esour ceslikegol d,diamonds, lead, zinc, cadmi um and
uranium at tr
actedt heapar thei dgov er nmentt oannexNami bia.Theeconomi c
blessingofSout hWestAf r i
cat her efor ewat er edt hei mper iali nterestsof
SouthAf rica.Mi neralswer emost l
yconcent rat edatTsumebi nt henor thand
theur ani um mi neatRossi ng.Nami biawast her i
chestsour ceoft hemost
prest i
gious gem di amonds and Sout h Af r
ica want ed t o consol idat e her
monopol yov ert hesedi amondf iel dsal ongt hesout herncoast .TheSout h
WestAf r
icanmi ner alswer econt rol ledbybot ht heSout hAf ri
canandWest er n
compani es.HenceSout hAf ri
canpol icyov erNami biawasal sosuppor tedby
herwest er nt radi ngpar tners.
 Consequent ly,Sout hWestAf ri
cawasofgr eatmi li
taryi mpor t
ancet ot he
apar theidr egi mei nSout hAf rica.Owi ngt ot hepr esenceofur anium t hati s
vitali nt he manuf act ur e and gener at ion ofnucl earweapons and power
respect ively ,Sout hAf r
icahadadr eam ofbecomi nganucl earpowerf or
secur it
yr easons.Thus,shecoul dnotr ecogni zet hesov ereigntyofSout h
WestAf r
icaast hiscoul dhav edeni edhert heoppor tuni t
yofcompet ingwi th
the west er n power s.The apar thei dr egi me had bui l
ta nucl earweapons
progr ammesuppor tedbyanucl eari ndust rywhosesuccessdependedof
Sout hAf rica'scont rolov ert heur ani um mi nesatRossi ng.SomeofSout h
Af ri
ca'swest ernt radi ngpar tner sal sodependedonNami bianur ani um t o
enhancet hei rnucl earpr ogr ammesaswel l
.
 Strategi cconsi der at ionsi nfluencedt hepol icyofSout hAf ri
caov erSout h
WestAf r
ica.Thecount ry( Nami bi a)act edasabuf ferst at esepar atingSout h
Af ri
caf r
om Angol a.ThePopul arMov ementf ort heLi berat i
onofAngol a
(MPLA)guer rill
asi nAngol a,andl atert hegov er nment ,wassy mpat het ict o
communi sti nf l
uence.TheApar thei dgov ernmentf ear edt hatt hecommuni st
i
deol ogycoul dendangert hepr i
vilegedposi tionandpoweroft hewhi tesi n
Sout h Af rica.Sout h Af r
ica pr ef er red est ablishi ng a mul tiraciali nter nal
gov ernmenti n Nami biat han enabl et he pr o- Mar xistSWAPO t ot akeov er
gov ernmentandl ateral lowcommuni st( Mar xist )i nOr angeRi verr egi on.The
depl oyment of cl ose t o 20000 Cuban t roops i ni ndependent Angol a
strengt henedt hest rat egici mpor tanceofNami bi at oSout hAf ri
ca.
 Besi des,Sout hAf ricaf earedt hegr owi ngt i
deofNami biannat ional i
sm under
the Sout h WestAf r i
can Peopl es Or gani sation ( SWAPO) .The Nami bian
rev ol
utionar ymi l
itar yst ruggl ewasat hreatt ot heapar t
hei dr egimei nSout h
Af ri
ca.Sout hAf ricawasdet ermi nedt opr eventt hei ncr easi ngr adicalSWAPG
from achi ev ingsel f -
r ulef orNami bi aandconsequent lycomet opower .The
success oft he SWAPO i n achi ev ing sel f-rulef orNami bi a coul d hav e
mot i
vatedi ncr easednat iveupr i
si ngsagai nstt hewhi temi nor ityr egi mei n
Sout hAf rica.
 Sout hAf ricar etai nedcont rolov erSout hWestAf ri
caasawayofpr ot ect i
ng
whi teset tler sagai nstt hemaj or i
tyr ul eofmi lli
onsofAf ri
cans.Whi t
eset tl
er s
from Sout hAf ricamov edi nt oNami biaf rom 1920,t hef i
rstmandat ey earof
Sout hAf rica.Nat i
v er esistancesl iket he" TheRehobot hr evol t
s"af fect edwhi te
adv ancementi ntoNami biabutt hePr etor iagov er nmentdecl ar edmar tiall aw
(stateofemer gence)t ocont ai nt hesi tuation.Manyoft hemember soft he
traditi
onalcounci lwhost rongl ydemandedf orcompl etei ndependencewer e
alsoar rest ed, andt hisset tl
edt hedustt oenabl ei ncreasedwhi t
eset t
lementi n
thecount ry .By1945,t her ewer eov eronehundr ed t housand set tler si n
Nami biaandt hecount ryhadbeensecur edasaWhi t
eman' scount ry .The
set tl
ersownedal mostt hear abl el andi nNami bi aasmostoft heAf ricans
wer epushedi nt or eser ves.
 Sout hWestAf ricawasasour ceofcheapl abourf oreconomi cbenef itsi n
Sout h Af r i
ca.Many oft he Nami bi ans of fer ed l abouri n Sout h Af ri
can
i
ndust r
iesaswel lasmi nesandpl ant ationsi nbot hSout hAf ricaandSout h
WestAf ri
ca.Thel inkagebet weenSout hAf ri
caandSout hWestAf ricawas
thatofani ndust rialzonei napar thei dSout hAf ricadev elopedbyt hel abour
forceofNami bi a.Hence,t hei ndust rialgr owt hofSout hAf ri
cacoul dhar dly
survivewithoutcont inuoussuppl yofwor kersf r
om t heannexedNami bia.The
i
ntroductionoft heCont r
actWor kersLabourSy stem wasgear edt owar ds
consolidatingtheposi ti
onofNami biaast hef eederofcheapl abourtowhi te
i
nv estment sinbot hSout hAf r
icanandSout hWestAf r
ica.
 Theapar t
hei dgov er nmentandwhi teinvestor sofSout hAf ricahadmany
i
nv estment sinSout hWestAf ri
ca,Ther efore,Nami biannat ionali
sm wasa
threattothei nvestment sandeconomi cdev elopment siniti
atedbyt hewhi tes
i
nSout hWestAf rica.Ther ewer ehugei nv estment si nNami biamadebyt he
Sout h African gov ernmentand mul t
i-
nat i
onalcompani es i n agr
icult
ur e,
i
ndust ri
esandmi nest hatmadehugepr of i
ts.Gr anti
ngi ndependencet oSout h
WestAf rica woul d be f orsaking such huge i nv estment st hatcoul d be
nationali
sedbycommuni stmi ndedSWAPO pot entialgov ernment .Besides,
therewer eal soi nv estmentinter estsofwest erncount ri
esi nNami biat hat
wer eunderpr otectionofSout hAf ri
ca.TheBr i
tishhadov er25%, 18%forWest
Ger many,t heUSAhad15%whi l
eFr anceandCanadahadabout2%each.The
west er
npower s(Al soknownast heWest ernCont actGr oup)hencesuppor ted
Sout hAfri
candomi nanceov erSout hWestAf r
ica.

THERI
SEANDGROWTHOFNAMI
BIANNATI
ONALI
SM

Refer
encequest
ions:
1.Accountfortheri
seofmi
li
tantnat
ional
ism i
nSouthWestAf r
ica
2. Examinethecausesoft
heNami bianwarofindependencebetween1966and
1990

Thestruggl
ef orindependenceinNami bi
awasl aunchedbyt heSout hWestAfri
can
Peopl
esOr ganisati
on(SWAPO) ,aliber
ati
onmov ementestabli
shedin1960underthe
l
eadershipofSam Nuj oma,andt heSouthWestAf ri
canNationalUnion(SWANU)led
byToivoJaToi vo.TheNami bi
anwaragai nstSout hAfri
cabr oke-
outonAugust25,
1966untilMarch21,1990,whent hecountryregainedindependence.Thecausesof
Namibianarmedr esist
anceincl
udedt hefol
lowing:

 Theher oicresi stanceputupagai nstt heGer mansdur i


ngt heNama- Her ero
uprising (1904- 06)made t he gr owt h ofmi litary nat ional i
sm i nev it
abl e.
Althought heNama- Her erorebel l
ionwascr ashedby1906,i tgav epr act i
cal
l
essonst ot heNami bianst or e-organi seagai nstf oreigndomi nat
ion.Hence,
strongerr esist ance emer ged af terWor l
d WarI Ias t he r estofAf ri
cans
demandedf orindependence, i
nt he1950sf orexampl e,Af ricansespeci all
yt he
Her eroinSout her nandcent ralpar t
sor gani sedr esistancesdemandi ngf or
equalshar ei nt hewhi t
edomi nat edeconomy ,andabet terwayofl if
e.These
resistanceswer espear headedbynat iveleader slikeChi efHoseaKut ako.The
Nama,Ber gadamar a and Ambo l aterjoined t he r esist ances.The nat ive
resistancespr epar edgr oundf ormoder nnat i
onal ism inNami bia.
 Consequent l
y, thewi ndofchanget hatsweptacr ossAf ricaaf terWor ldWarI I
hadagr eatimpactonNami biannat i
onal i
sm.Fol lowingt heendofWor ldWarI
theent i
reAf r
icancont i
nentwasl ockedi nnat ionalistupr i
singsasAf ri
cans
demandedf orindependence, inNami bia,li
keSout hAf rica, Genera!Smut st he
Sout hAf ri
canl eaderandgr eatal lyoft heBr iti
shi nWor ldWarI Ir ecruited
Africansintot heSout hAf r
icanf orcest hatf oughtal ongsi det heAlliedf orces.
Aftert heendoft hewar ,Gener alSmut sattempt edt oi mpl ementsomeoft he
reformshepr omi sedt heAf ricansofNami bi aandSout hAf r
icathatwoul d
mini mizeont hei rsufferingandmi ser yandendi nequal itieswi ththewhi tes.
Het r
iedensur ingbet tereducat i
onandempl oy mentoppor tuniti
esforAf ri
cans
wi thachanceofenf ranchi si ngt hem.Howev er ,ther efor mi str egimeofSmut s
endedshor tlywhenhel ostt he1948el ectiont oanAf ri
kanerr adi caland
conser v at i
v er aciall eader ,Dr .Mal an.By1966,maj or i
tyoft heAf ri
canst ates
hadat tainedt hei rsov erei gnt yf rom whi tedomi nat ion.I nSout hWestAf rica,
ther ewer enosi gnsofpol i
ticaldev elopment st opr epar ef ormaj orityr ule.The
nat iveshencer esor t
edt omi li
tar ism asameansofdemandi ngf orf r
eedom,
j
ust i
ceandi ndependence.
 Thef or mat ionofpol iti
calassoci at i
onsandpar ti
esbyt hepeopl eofSout h
WestAf ricai nt he1950s,i ncr easednat ional i
st icf eel i
ngsi nt hecount ry.I na
bidt omobi liset hemsel v est owar dssel f-rul
e,t heHer erof ormedt heHer er o
Sout h WestAf r i
can Nat ionalUni on ( HSWANU)i n 1955,whi ch wasl at er
transf or medi ntoabr oad( SWANU)i n1959t oat t
ractnat ionalpopul arity .The
l
eader sofSWANUi ncl udedToi voHer manj aToi v o,Mbur umbaKer inaand
Kozongui ziJar i
ret undu.I n1957,JacobKuhanguaandSam Nuj omaf ormed
theOv ambol andPeopl e'sCongr ess,l aterOv ambol andPeopl esOr gani sat ion
(OPO) .The OPO was l at err ev i
talised i nto Sout h WestAf rican Peopl es
Or gani sat ion ( SWAPO)i n 1960.The SWAPO and t he SWANU l ed t he
rev olut ionar yst ruggl eagai nstt hedomi nanceoft heApar theidr egi me.The
SWAPO i naugur at ed Yout h and Women l eagues and t he PLAN ( Peopl es
Liber at i
onAr myofNami bi a)ataconf er encehel datTangai nTanzani ai n
December1969.
 The nat iv es i n Nami biar esent ed t he unpopul arcont ractwor ker sl abour
sy stem.Thedi scont ent mentofcont ractandmi grantwor kersbecamewi de
spr eadast heycompl ainedofl i
t tlepayandr aci aldi scr i
mi nat i
onbyt heirwhi te
bosses.Undert hecont ractl aboursy stem, Afri
canr ecr uitswer et akent owor k
i
nwhi teset tl
ement sonr oads, r ailway sandmi nesbutt heycoul dnotst aywi th
thei rf ami lies.Theywer e notal lowed t o det er mi ne t hei rempl oy ers nor
negot iatet hei rcont ractorwagesandAf ricansequat edt hissy stem t osl av ery.
Nat ional istmov ement sl iket heSWANUmadet heendi ngofcont ractl abour
thei rmai nobj ect ivewhi let heOPOt ransf or medi tsel fintoSWAPOwi thanai m
ofov er thr owi ngcol oni alism andbr inganendt ocont ractl abour .Pr ot est s
agai nstt hecont r actl aboursy st em cont i
nuedi nt hecount r
ywi tht hef amous
nat ion- wide st r
ike i n December1971 t hati nv olv ed ov er20000 cont ract
wor ker s.Manyoft hecont ractwor ker sdepor tedt oOv ambol andbecame
recr ui tsi nt heSWAPO.
 Fai l
ur eofpeacef ulmeansofdemandi ngf ori ndependencel edt ot her i
seof
mi li
t antnat i
onal ism i nSout hWestAf ri
ca.TheNami biansusedboy cot tsand
demonst rat ionsespeci al l
yi nt hecapi talWi ndhoekbutt heSout h Af rican
gov er nmentr eact ed v i
ol ent lyt owar dspeacef ulNami bi an demonst rat ions.
Thev iol entr esponset oAf ricanpeacef uldemonst r
at ionse. g.shoot ingatt he
unar medcr owdsi ncr easedAf ricananger ,leadi ngt omi li
tantnat i
onal i
sm i n
Sout hWestAf rica.I n1959i noneoft heAf r
icanboy cot tsi nt heCapi tal,t he
Admi ni strat orGener alofSout hWestAf r i
ca( represent at i
veoft hePr etor ia
gov er nment )exhi bitedact sofbr ut alitybyor deringt heshoot ingofAf rican
demonst rat or s, killingaboutt hem.Thev iolenceunl eashedonAf ri
cansbyt he
apar thei dr epr esent at iveadmi nist rationi nNami biat husi nfluencedt henat i
v e
nat ional istst or esor tt o ar med r esi stance.To not ei st hatAf ricanshad
empl oy ednon- viol entmeansofdemandi ngf ort hei rf r eedomsf orel ev en
year sbef ore1966.
 The whi te mi nor ityr egi me est ablished Bant ust ans i n Sout h WestAf ri
ca
whosecondi tionswer er eject edbyAf ri
cans.TheNami bi annat i
v esi .
e.t he
Ov ambo,Nama,Her er o,Ber gadamar a and ot hermi nor ity groups wer e
rest rict edt ot hei rnat i
v er egi onsofor iginasawayt opr omot et r
ibal i
sm and
decl i
nenat ionaluni t y.TheBant ust answer eat ransf ormat ionoft heear l
ier
creat edAf ricanr eser ves.TheBant ust anpol icyt hatcausedgr iev ancesamong
Nami biansandcausedt hem t of ightf ori ndependencewascr eat edbyt he
same1969Actt hatr educedt hest atusofNami biat oamer epr ov i
nceof
Sout hAf rica.TheAf ri
canhomel andswer ecr eat edwi tht heso- cal ledsel f-
gov erni ngi nst i
tutionst odi sgui seAf ri
cani ndependence,i n1959,t hewhi tes
had ear li
eron pl anned t o cr eat e Af ri
can set tlement sout side t he capi tal
Wi ndhoek,whi chal ar medAf ricanchi ef st omobi li
senat ivest oj oinpol i
tical
par ti
esanddemandf ori ndependence.
 TheUN r ecommendat ionsont heposi t i
onofSout hWestAf ricai nf luenced
militarism i nt hecount ry.TheUNt ermi nat edt heSout hAf ricanmandat eov er
Sout hWestAf ricaonOct ober27, 1966andt hismeantt hatt heUni tedNat i
ons
Counci lf orNami bia becamet hel egaladmi nist rat oroft hecount ry .The
apar thei dr egi meofSout hAf ricar eject edt hedeci si onoft heUN Gener al
Assembl ybyr efusi ng t or ecal lt hei rAdmi nist ratorGener alappoi nt ed t o
admi nist er Nami bia. Bot h Nami bian nat i
onal s and t he i nt er nat ional
communi tyv i
ewedSout hAf ri
ca' shesi tantposi t
ionasi mper ialistic.Thi sl edt o
theemer genceofmi litantnat ional ism I nNami bia.
 In1950, Sout hAf r i
cagr adual lyimposedapar t
hei di nSout hWestAf rica, whi ch
prov okedmi litantnat ional i
sm i nt hecount ry.TheAf ricanswer edepr iv edof
politi
calpar ticipat i
on,al lthef er til
ear easwer egazet tedf orwhi teset tlement
andAf r icanswer el ef twi thl imi tedornosoci o-economi cr ight s.Accor di ngt o
ar epor tbyt heUni t edNat ionsCounci lonNami bia,t hel awsofSout hWest
Africa,l iket hoseofSout hAf ricacamet obebasedonapar t
hei d.Apar thei d
l
awsl i
kel abourr egi st rati
onandpassl awswer ei mpl ement edi nSout hWest
Africa.Thest rictenf orcementoft heapar theidpol icyi npr act icei ncr eased
i
nequal itiesi nal lspher esofl ifeamongt her acesi nNami bi a.The" whi te
supr emacy "pr omot edbyt heapar thei dpol icycompl et elysubor dinat edt he
i
nter est sandwel far eoft he" Nat ives"andt he" col our eds. "Thei nconsi st enci es
i
nt heapar thei dsy st em i nf l
uencedNami biannat ional istst oquestf orf reedom.
 Theannexat ionofNami biabyt heapar theidgov ernmentasSout hAf ri
ca' s
otherpr ov incecr eat edf earamongt heNami biansl eadi ngt oi ncr easedt hei r
activiti
esofmi li
tancy .Theannexat ionofNami biawasl ongpr epar edandput
i
nt he" OdendaalPl an"of1964andwasonl ypendi ngi mpl ement at ion.Thus, in
l
inewi tht he" OdendaalPl an,"t hePr et oriagov ernmentpassedanActi n1969,
whi chr educedNami bi at ot hest at usofaf ift
hpr ov inceofSout hAf rica.Thi s
meantt hati twasi llegalandar ebel l
ioni ft heAf r
icansi nSout hWestAf r i
ca
demandedf ori ndependence.Thedesi r ebyNami biannat ional istst obl ock
Sout hAf ricanabsor pt ionoft hei rnat ionandt heneedt oachi ev esov er eign
recogni tioni nf l
uencedt heNami bianwarofi ndependence.
 Thecont inuedeconomi cexpl oi tat ionofSout hWestAf r i
cabyt heapar thei d
regimer ai sedAf ricangr iev ances.Sout hAf r
icacont rolledt hemi ningi ndust ry
andal lcommer cialact ivi
tiesi nt hecount ryf rom i ndust ryt or et ailt radewer e
i
nt hehandsofwhi tes.Ther ewasal otofpl under ingofNami bi anr esour ces
bybot hSout hAf ricanadmi nist rat or sandcompani es.I nt hemi nes,t heSout h
African compani es i ntensi v ely squander ed Nami bian nat ur al mi ner al
resour cesi ncl udingdi amonds,copperandur ani um mucht ot hewakeof
wor rying Nami bians t hatby t he t i
me Sout h Af rican uni l
at er al( i
llegal )
occupat ionended,t her ewoul dbel i
ttlemi ner alweal thl ef tf ort hef utur e
dev elopmentoft hei rcount r y.TheNami bi answer et her ef or ei mpov erishedas
economi cbenef i
tsf rom t hei rr esour ceswentt oSout hAf rica.Thi sanger ed
theNami bi ansandf or cedt hem t or i
seupagai nstt heapar t hei dr egi me.
 Thecont i
nued whi teset tlement si n Sout h WestAf ricai ncr eased Af rican
griev ances.Fr om t het i
me,Sout hAf r i
cabecameat rust eepowerov ert he
formerGer mancol ony ,thewhi t
eset tlersf l
ockedt hecount ryi nl argenumber s.
Followi ng t he Sout h Af rican mandat e ov erNami biai n 1920,t he whi te
popul ationgr adual l
yi ncr easedt hatbyt heear l
y1960' s,t her ewer eabout
100, 000whi tesi nSout hWestAf rica.Thepr esenceofwhi teset tl
ersexhi bited
a si mi larpi ct urel i
kei n Sout h Af rica wher et hesoci o- economi cand t he
politicalaf fairswer edomi nat edbymi nor it
ywhi tes.Theset tlerpr esencei n
Nami bi at hreat enedt hepol itical andeconomi cst atusofAf ricanswhor oseup
throughanar medst ruggl e.
 Consequent ly,thepoorl andpol icyadopt edbyt heSout hAf ricangov er nment
i
nSout hWestAf ri
cal edt omi l
it
antnat ional ism.Thepol icyofgazet t
ingal lthe
fertil
el andsf ort hewhi teset tl
er st ocont rolmademanyoft heAf ricanst o
l
oset hei rl and,i nt heduecour se,manyAf ri
canswer el eftl andl essand
becamesquat tersi nt hedr yandi nf er t
il
egr assl ands.Thepol icyofgr abbi ng
African Sand began ear lyi nt he1890swhen t heGer mansoccupi ed t he
Nami bi ant erritor y,for cingt heHer er oandBer gadamar aoutofpr esentday
Wi ndhoek.The di scov eryofmi ner alswor sened t he l and pr oblem i nt he
nor ther nar easoft hecount ryandal ongt hesout her ncoast .Af r
icanr ightt o
l
andowner shi pwasmost l
yi nr eser veswhi l
eout sidet her eser ves,Af ricans
exper i
encedunheal thycompet itionf orgr azi nggr oundswi thwhi tef ar mer s
whower emor eadv ant aged.Si nceAf ricanscoul dnotownl andexcepti n
reser ves,mostwer ef or cedt oseekf orwor konwhi tef ar ms.Thi si nf l
uenced
Nami bi anst or iseupagai nstt heapar theidr egi me.
 For ced l abouri mposed on Nami bians r ightf rom t he t ime ofGer man
occupat ionpr ov okedt her iseofAf ricannat ional ism.I nt hemi neralf i
el ds,
plant at i
onsandi ndust r i
es, Af ri
canswer ef or cedt oof ferlabourwi thlittleorno
payatal l
.Thel aboursy stem ofcoer cingAf ri
cansi ntoof feringl abourf or
whi tes cont r
adi ct ed wi t
ht he Af rican under standi ng ofwor kt hatwas
communali nnat uref orf ami l
yandcommuni t
ydev elopment .For cedl abour
syst em i nNami biabecamemor eser iousi nt he1920sast heset tl
erf ar mer s
compl ained of l abour shor t
age on t hei rf ar ms. The Sout h Af rican
admi nist rationpassedt heMast erandSer vant sPr ocl amat ionof1920,whi ch
amongot hert hingspr ohibitedAf ricansf rom negl ect ingdut yordeser tt heir
mast er s.Thi ssi tuat i
onofAf ricanwor ker swor senedwi thi ncreasedwhi te
settlementanddi scov er yofmor eeconomi cpot ent i
alsi nNami bia.Af ricans
wer e al so f or bidden f rom par tici pating i n t rade uni on mov ement s.
Consequent ly,Af r
icanswor kedf orl ongerhour s,whi chl edt oboy cot tsand
demonst rationsast heyf oughtf orbet t
erwor kingcondi tions.Ther esul twas
thear medst r
uggl et hatbr okeouti n1966.
 Ther i
seofmi li
tantnat ional istsl edt ot heemer genceofNami bianar med
struggl e.Thenat i
onal istsi ncl udedJacobKuhangua,Sam Nuj omaandToi v o
Her man JaToi vo.Thesef ounded moder n pol iti
calor gani zat i
onsl iket he
SWAPOandt heSWANUwhosei mpat i
encewi t
hpeacef ulmeansofachi ev i
ng
self-rul emadet hem r esor ttomi lit
ar ism.
 Har oldMacmi llan'sspeecht oSout hAf r
icanal l-
whi tepar li
amenti n1960hada
revol ut i
onar yi mpactonNami biannat i
onal i
sm.TheBr iti
shPr i
meMi nist er
endedhi st ourofBr itishar easofi nf luencei nAf ricai nCapeTownwher ehe
madet hef amous" Wi ndofChangeSpeech. "Macmi ll
an' saddr esst otheSout h
African par li
ament arians senta si gnalofawar eness t ot he Nami bian
nat i
onal i
st s.TheBr iti
shPr emi erl ament edt hat" Thewi ndsofchangear e
blowi ngt hrought hecont inentandt hatt hei mper i
al istnat ionalpol iciesmust
takei nt oaccountoft hisgr owt hofnat ionalconsci ousnessi nAf ri
caasa
political f act ." The Sout h Af rican gov ernment r eject ed Macmi l
lan' s
observ at
ionandt hisarousednational
i
sticf eel
ingsamongNami biant of i
ght
forself-r
ule.
 Withtheabov ef actors,
thechanget omilit
arism thusbecamei nevitable.This
mili
tantopt ionwasspearheadedbySWAPOi n1960.Wi thamor eor ganized
l
eader ship,SWAPObecamemor epopul arthanSWANU.Bet ween1960and
1966,SWAPOr ecruit
edf i
ghter
sandsentt hem fortrai
ninginZambi a,Egy pt
,
Algeri
aandRussi a.Laterthesegueril
l
aswer egr oupedi nt
oPLAN i .e.the
people'sliberat
ionar myofNami biawhichwagedanar medst ruggleagai nst
theSout hAf ri
cangov ernmentinAugust1966.

OBSTACLESTONAMI
BIANI
NDEPENDENCE

Refer
encequesti
ons:
1.AccountforthedelayedindependenceofSouthWestAf r
ica
2. Examinethefactor
st hatunderminedNamibiannati
onal
ism between1950and
1990
3.DiscusstheobstaclestotheindependenceofSouthWestAfrica

 Theuseofpeacef ulmeansofagi t
atingf ori ndependencedur ingt hei ni t
ial
stages of t he Nami bian nat i
onal i
sm har dlyt hreatened Sout h Af rican
occupat i
on.Formostoft he1950s,t hepol iti
calpar ti
es,whi chemer gedi n
Nami bi a att he time l ike t he Her ero Sout h WestAf ri
can Nat i
onalUni on
(HSWANU)f ormedi n1955andt heOv ambol andPeopl esOr gani sat i
on( QPQ)
formedi n1959dev ot edmuchoft heiref fortstodemandi ngf orr efor msf rom
theSout hAf ri
canoccupy inggov ernment .Thei rdi plomat icandnegot i
at i
ng
measur eshar dl
yconv incedSout hAf ricat hatwascommi t tedt oexpl oit i
ng
Nami bi anr esour cesandmai nt
ainingt henat i
vesas3sour ceofcheapl abour .
Thenon- v iolentmeansofdemandi ngfori ndependencebyHSWANUandOPO
wer ehencepoorst r ategi esofdef eat i
ngSout hAf ricandomi nance.
 Inspi teofshar i
ngacommonenemy ,Nami bianswer edi vi
dedonet hnicl ines.
Ethnicityf r
ust r
ated Nami bian nat ional i
sm si nce t he nat ional i
st gr oups
foundedt ochampi onf r
eedom wer el i
ttlemor ethant ri
balor gani sat ions.The
SWAPO underSam Nuj oma was domi nated byt he Ov ambo,whi le The
SWANUl edbyToi v oJaToi vowaspr edomi nant lyapar tyoft heHer ero.These
tri
besamongot herswer ehi stor
icallyatadi fferenceandf orsomet i
medi d
notadoptacommonappr oachagai nstSout hAf r
ica.Thewhi tegov ernment
recruitedt heNamaandHer er
ot ribesagai nstt heOv ambot ribei nNor ther n
Nami bi at hatspear headedt hestr ugglef orNami bianI ndependence.Hence,
tri
balnat ional i
sm i nSout hWestAf ri
cawor kedi nf avourofSout hAf rican
domi nancei nthecount ry.
 Besides, i
deol ogicaldi f
fer encesal soexi stedamongf r
eedom f ighter s.Int hei r
attemptt osecur ei nter nat ionalsy mpat hy,theSWAPO l eader scameunder
Mar xisti nf l
uence.Li keot hermov ementsuchast heMPLA ofAngol a,t he
SWAPO f oundasy mpat het icbasei nt hecommuni stwor l
d,f rom count r i
es
l
iket heUSSR,Cuba,Chi na,Tanzani aet c.Thi scommuni sti nfluencescar ed
awaynat i
onal istswhobel iev edincapi talism; theyj oinedSWANUt osabot age
SWAPO' snat i
onalistef for ts.Manyoft hem becamei nternalopponent stot he
l
iberat i
oncausef orf earofSWAPO' scommuni stl eader shi p.TheSWAPO' s
l
eant owar dst heeast ernbl occoul dnotwi nrecogni ti
onf rom west ernpower s
l
iket heUSAandGr eatBr itainwhobyt henhadgr eati nfl
uencei nt heUNO.
 The mi l
i
t aryi ncompet ence ofNami bian freedom f ighter s was a maj or
hindrance t ot he nat i
onal iststruggl e agai nstSout h Af rica.The nat ional
mov ement swer emi l
itarilyweakcompar edt ot heSout hAf ricanf or ces.They
tookl ongt oacknowl edget heneedt osacr ificet heirl ivesf ort hesakeof
l
iber ty.Theguer ril
lapopul at ionwassosmal landi nsigni ficant .Theguer rill
a
army ( the Peopl es Li ber at i
on Ar my ofNami bia)was i l
lt rained,poor ly
equi ppedandunderf aci li
tat edespeci allyatt hei niti
alst age.TheSWANU
mi l
itar ywi ngwasnoexcept ional .Thi sexpl ai nswhyt hel i
ber at i
onmov ement s
mai nl yr eliedont hei rext er nal basest of ightf ori ndependence.
 Economi cweaknessofAf r i
cansi nSout hWestAf r
icawasaset backt ot he
struggl ef orl iber at i
on.Economi ci ncompet enceofNami bi answasduet o
whi ter uleanddomi nat ioni nt hecount rysi ncet heGer mani nvasi oni nt he
ninet eent hcent ur y.Soci o-economi cally,t henat iv eswer epoorandmanyof
them l i
v edi nhost i
lecommuni ti
esonf reer angesi nt heKal ahar iDeser t.Many
oft hem wor kedascont ractormi gr antl abour er si nur bancent ersandwhi te
settlerar eas wi th mi nimalpay ment s.Wi tht hei rmeagr e ear nings,t he
Nami bi anscoul dhar dlyf i
nancet hel iberat ionwar .
 Howev er ,apar thei dSout hAf ricawaseconomi cal lyadv ant aged.Apar tf r
om
heror gani zed economyi n Sout h Af rica,t he apar thei d gov er nmentt ook
adv ant ageofherr esour cesandt hoseshecont rol ledi nSout hWestAf ri
ca,t o
i
nv estheav i
lyi nt hewaragai nstt heSWAPO andt heSWANU.Apar tf r
om
fundi ngandequi ppingt hear my ,thegov er nmentsetupawi despynet wor k.
Shewoul dbr ibeof ft heAf ricansi nSout hWestAf ricat ospyont henat ionalist
mov ement s,andsuchconspi ringi nf ormat ionwasofgr eati mpor tancet ot he
i
mper ialistr egi me.I naddi tion,Sout hAf ricawasdet er mi nedt or etainst rong
grip( cont rol)ov erSout hWestAf ricaasawayofpr eser vinghereconomi cand
mi l
itar yi nt erest s.Sout hAf ricahadanumberofmul ti-nat i
onalcompani es
whi chhadheav ilyi nv est edi nNami biaandshef earedt hatt heI ndependent
Nami bi an gov er nmentwoul di nt erf ere wi tht he oper at ion oft hese Sout h
Africancompani es.Thehugei nv est ment sofSout hAf ricai nNami biahence
delay edt hest r
uggl ef ori ndependence.
 Onmi litar yter ms,Sout hAf ricani mper i
alist swer ev eryf or mi dabl e( power f
ul ).
Followi ngt heout br eakoft hear medr esi stancei n1966,Sout hAf r
icasenta
power f ul forceofov er5, 000t roopst oOv ambol andal oneandt heCapr i
v iStrip.
Thesef or ceswer ewel lt rai ned,ar medt ot het eet handsuppor tedbyst rong
arti
ller y,j etf ight ersandot hersophi sticat edweapons.Sout hAf r
icanmi l
itar y
strengt hhadbeenpr ov edbyhersuccessf uldef eatofGer mani nSout hWest
Africai n1915dur ingWor ldWarIandaspar toft hev ictoral l
iedpower sof
Wor l
dWarI I
.
 The Sout h Af rican gov er nmental so enj oy ed t he suppor toft he mi grant
popul ationoft hewhi teset tler si nNami bi a.Thewhi teset tler swer eanxi oust o
defendt hei rpr ivilegesandf ear edt hegr owi ngt hr eatofnat i
onal i
sm i nt he
Sout hWestAf ri
canst at e.Thebi ggestper cent ageofwhi t eset tlersi nNami bia
camef rom Sout hAf r i
caandhadbeenguar ant eedaspeci alposi ti
oni nt he
politicsandeconomi csoft hecol ony .Theyt her ef orej oi nedt hegov ernment
forcesoutoft hei rsel f i
shandr aci sti nt er est swhi chi ncl udedt heneedt o
prot ectt hei reconomi cdomi nanceov erNami bi annat ives.Sout hAf ri
caal so
fearedt hatI ndependentgov ernmentofNami bi awoul dt akeawayt hel and
thatwascont rolledbyt hewhi teset t
lerst or eset tlet heAf ri
canswhower e
l
ivingi nr eser ves.
 Besi des,t hehar shpol ici esusedbyt heSout hAf ri
cangov ernmentagai nst
Nami bi anssi l
encednat ional ism i nSout hWestAf ri
ca.Theapar thei dregime
used t he ar myand pol ice t o suppr ess nat ive demonst rations,abol ished
wor ker sor gani sat ions( tradeuni ons) ,out l
awedAf r
icanpol iti
calmov ement s
andi mpr i
sonedNami bianpol iticians;andf rom 1976,manypeasant sal ong
theAngol an- Sout hWestAf r i
canbor derwer edi spl acedbygov ernmentf orfear
thatt heywer econnect ingf reedom f ight er st ot heAngol angov er nment .Al l
thesebr utalpol iciesofSout hAf ricascar edmanyNami bi ansf rom j oi ningor
aidingt hel iber at ionst r
uggl ehencef rust rat ingnat ional ism.
 Thei nt roduct ionofApar thei dpol icyi nNami biai n1969wasadel iberate
attemptbySout hAf ri
cat of rust rat eNami bi ani ndependencest ruggl e.The
unv eiling oft her aci stpol i
cyf ollowed t hedecl ar ati
on ofNami bi aaf i
fth
prov inceofSout hAf ri
ca.Si mi larApar thei dl awsasi nSout hAf ricawer e
i
nt roducedt ohi nderAf ricansf rom f or mi ngmassnat ional i
st i
cmov ement sor
engagei nant i-gov er nmentact i
v i
t i
es.Thesy st em al sol egi timizedar bit
rar y
arrestanddet ent ionofnat ional i
st sandr est rict edmov ement sofsuspect ed
Af r
icanswi thinandout si deNar nibi a.Af ricangazet t
edset t l
ement s( r
eser ves)
wer et ransf or medi ntoBant ust ansasawayofpr omot i
nget hni cat tachment s
amongnat ives,pr ev ent ingnat ionaluni tyanddeny ingf reedom f ight er smass
suppor t .Asar esul t,someact iv el eader sandpot ent i
alnat ional istescaped
thewr at hofapar thei dandf ledi ntoexi l
e
 Thef or mat i
onoft heTr iumv irat eAl li
ancei .e.t heGangofThr eest rengt hened
Sout hAf ri
caov erNami bi annat i
onal ists.Dur i
ngt heer a( regi me)ofHendr ik
Ver woer d( 1958- 66) ,theapar thei dgov ernmentent er edi nt oapar tner shi pwi th
DonSal azarofPor tugalandI anSmi thofSout her nRhodesi aknownast he
Triumv irateAl liance.Thepar tnergov er nment sagr eedt oshar ei nt el l
igence
i
nf or mat i
on,st rategi es,and mi litary and di plomat ic suppor ti n or dert o
frust r
at enat ional ism i nt hesout her nAf ri
canr egi on.Theexpect edsuppor t
from Sout her nRhodesi aandPor t ugalenabl edt heapar theidr egi met opl an
aheadofNami bi annat ional istmov ement sofSWAPOandSWANU.
 The doubl e st andar ds ofwest er n wor l
d pr ov ed anot herobst acl et ot he
l
iber at i
onofSout hWestAf rica.USA, Br i
tai n, Ger manyandot herNATOpower s
wer esy mpat het ict ot heapar thei dgov ernmentandwer emaj oral li
esofSout h
Af r
icadur ingt hecol dwarper iod.Apar tf rom gai ni ngf rom t heexpl oit ationof
Nami bi an mi ner al r esour ces, t he west er n power s possessed huge
i
nv est ment si nt hecount ryandanumberofmul ti-nat i
onalcompani esj ustlike
Sout hAf ri
ca.Ger manyhadabout18%,USA15%,Br it
ai n25%,Fr ance2%and
Canadahadabout2% oft hef or eigni nv est ment si nNami bia.I nor dert o
prot ectt heireconomi ci nt erest si nNami bi a,west ernpower shel pedSout h
Af r
icat oneut r
al iseeconomi candpol iti
calsanct ionsi mposedonherbyt he
UNOandt heOAU.
 Consequent l
y ,col dwarpol i
ticsdel ay edt hei ndependenceofSout hWest
Af r
ica.Thecapi talistst at essuchasBr i
t ain,Fr anceandt heUSAdet est edt he
communi stout lookoft heSWAPOandt hecont i
nuedsuppor tt ot hepol i
ti
cal
mov ementbycommuni stst atesl i
ket heUSSR.Thi swascompl i
cat edf urther
byt hepr esenceofov er20, 000Cubant roopsi nAngol adur ingsi nce1975.
West er npower st hus,ext endedf inanci alandmi litaryai dt oSout hAf ricaand
appr ov edt hecl ai mt hatherwi t hdr awalf r om Sout hWestAf ri
camustcoi ncide
wi t
ht hepul l outoft heCubant roopsf r om Angol a.
 Thedoubl est andar dsoft heUni tedNat ionsOr gani sat ion( UNO)wer ehar mf ul
tonat ional ism ofSout hWestAf rica.TheUNOdi dl it
tlet oef fectmeani ngf ul
measur esi nt hedecol oni zat ionofSout hWestAf r
ica.Apar tf rom endi ng
Sout hAf rica'smandat ei n1966andi mposi ngsanct ionsont heapar theid
gov er nment ,t he i nt ernat ionalbodyhad herown shor t
comi ngs.She was
domi nat edbyt hecapi tal istst at est hatwi nedanddi nedwi thSout hAf rica
under t he cov er of dar kness.Ther efor e,t he UNO di dl i
ttlet owar ds
pressur isingSout hAf r
icat ogr anti mmedi ateI ndependencet oNami bi a.The
bodydi dnot hi ngt opuni shmemberst at est hatv i
ol atedi tspr inciples;casei n
point ,i n1971t heUNO f orwar dedNami bi a'squest iont ot heI nt ernat ional
Cour tofJust iceatHaguebutnot hi
ngwasdonet of orceSout hAf ri
caoutof
Nami bia.
 Theweaknessesoft heOAUwer eal soexpl oitedbyt heapar theidr egimei n
Sout hAf ri
cat odel ayherwi thdrawf rom Nami bi a.Thecont inent albodysi nce
i
tsf or mat ioni n1963wasf eebl eanddi vided.Apar tf rom l acki ngaf inancial
base,t hebodyhadnocont inentalar myt or einf orcet hear medst ruggl ein
Sout hWestAf rica.Besi des,manyofhermember swer eei therengagedi n
i
nt erstateconf l
ictsorpr e-occupi edwi thdomest i
cpr oblemse. g.Mozambi que
andAngol awer epl ungedi ntoci vilwar s.Thi smeantt hatOAU coul dnot
effect i
vely suppor tt he SWAPO' s endeav ours i n secur i
ng Nami bian
sov ereignt yf rom Sout hAf ricandomi nance.Ot hermember sco- oper at edwith
theapar thei dr egi met ot hedi smayoft heOAU' ssanct ionse. g.Mal awiand
Maur it
ius.
 The del ayed i ndependence of nei ghbour i
ng st ates such as Angol a,
Mozambi que,Zi mbabweand Sout h Af rica equal lyaf fected t heNami bian
effortst owar dssel f-
determi nat i
on.TheNami bianf reedom f ight erslackedt he
necessar ysuppor tfrom t henei ghbour i
ngst ates,orsaf eext ernalbasesi n
exile because t hese st ates wer e equal l
y st ruggl i
ng f ort hei rsov er
eign
existencef rom f oreigndomi nance.Upt o1975,t hePor t
uguesei nAngol a
frustratedt heSWAPOandhel pedSout hAf r
icat okeepaney eonOv ambol and
andt heCapr iviSt rip.
 Thest rategi ci mpor t
anceofSout hWestAf ri
cat ot heSout hAf ricanapar t
heid
regimehi nder edt hecount r
y 'sindependence.Apar tf rom t heNami biaact i
ng
asabuf ferst ateagai nstcommuni sti nfl
uencei nAngol a,Sout hAf ricaneeded
tomai nt ainoccupat i
oni nt hef ormerGer mancol onyt of rust ratet heANC
oper ationsi nNami bia.Impor tantt onot e,gr antingi ndependencet oAf ri
cans
ofNami biawoul dnotonl yincr easet heANCat tacksonSout hAf r
icabutal so
l
ayt hef oundat iont othecol lapseofapar theidast heANCwoul dj ust i
fyher
causeoff ight i
ngagai nstwhi temi noritydomi nat i
on.

FACTORSTHATFAVOUREDTHEI
NDEPENDENCEOFSOUTHWESTAFRI
CA

Ref
erenceQuest
ions:
1.Accountfort
hesuccessofNamibi
annati
onal
ism by1990
2.Examinethefactor
sthatf
avour
edtheat
tai
nmentofNamibiani
ndependence

SouthWestAfri
caregai
nedherindependenceonMar ch21,
1990leadi
ngt
othefi
nal
col
lapse ofSouth Afr
ican i
mperial
ism since 1919.The t
ri
umph ofNamibi
an
nat
ional
ism wasat
tri
but
edtoaser i
esoffactors:

 Thest rongsenseofnat i
onali
sm amongNami bi
ansandt hewi deappealoft he
strugglei nt hecount r
ybr oughtindependencet oSout hWestAf rica.Inspi teof
theiret hnicandi deol
ogicaldiff
er ences,theNami biansunani mousl ycher ished
theirpol it
icalf reedom,whi chgott hem unitedf orthenat i
onalcause.Thi swas
especi all
yf eltamongt heNamaandt heHerer oeversincet hebrutalsuppr essi on
oft heirupr isingbyt heGer mansi nt heear l
yt wentiethcent ury.Thi snat i
onalism
wasal soshar edbyt heOv ambo, theBant uspeaker scl oset otheAngol anbor der.
Allthatt heyneededwasmobi li
zation, l
eadershipandi nternati
onal backi ng
 Ther epressi vemeasur esandpol i
ciespursuedbyt her acistr egimeofSout h
Africaagai nstNami biannat i
vesf uelednat ionali
sm i nSout hWestAf ri
ca.The
whi tesbot hi nSout hAf r
icaandSout hWestAf ri
cawer eanxi oust oper petuat e
theirdomi nat i
onandexpl oitat
ionov ert heAfricancivi
lr i
ghts.Inabi dtosuppr ess
national i
stmov ement s,thewhi t
esal soar r
est edanddet ai
nedAf ricanpol it
icians.
Ot her swer eki l
ledi nt hepr ocess.Af ri
canhomest eadsandpl ant at ionswer e
dest roy edcausi ngdi spl acementandhumansuf fering.Thesemeasur escaused
popul ar di scont ent among t he masses who got mor e nat ional i
st ic and
det ermi nedt ofightf ort hei rfr eedom.
 Thef or mat ionofmasspol it
icalmov ement swasi nst rument alinpr omot i
ngt he
struggl ef orNami bi anf reedom.Casesi npoi nti ncludedt heSout hWestAf rican
Peopl e's Or gani sat i
on ( SWAPO)f or mal l
y OPO and t he Sout h WestAf rican
Nat ionalUni on( SWANU)f ormal lyHSWANU.I nspi teoft hei rweaknessesand
i
nt ernalwr angl es,t hesepol it
icalor gani sat ionsexposedt heNami bianst ot hear t
ofor gani sat ionandl eader shi p.I npar ticular ,t heSWAPOgr adual l
yt ransf or med
her sel fi nt o a nat ional i
stmov ement .She br oughtt oget hert he scat tered
communi ties and hel ped t o nar row down et hni c,r el i
gious and r egi onal
differ encesamongt henat ional i
st sandsuppor t er s.TheSWAPOal sopr ov idedan
umbr ellaunderwhi chext er nalassi stancewaspr ov ided.I tmobi l
izedt hemasses
especi al l
yamong t he Her er ot ribe ofSout her n Nami bi a.The SWANU al so
reconci led wi tht heSWAPO and mobi li
zed t heHer er oi nt hesout ht owar ds
i
ndependence,whi chev ent ual l
yl edt ot hesuccessoft hel iber ationst r uggl e.I t
washowev er ,thepopul arityoft heSWAPOi nNami biaandabr oadt hatpav edway
tot hei ndependenceofSout hWestAf rica
 Thecompet entl eader shi pofSam Nuj omawasequal l
yhel pf ulint hest ruggl ef or
i
ndependence.Nuj omagav et oSout hWestAf ricawhatMandel aof fer edt oSout h
Af ri
ca.Hewasady nami c,char ismat i
candabl eor gani zes.Athome,het riedt o
promot euni tywi thi nt heSWAPO andpopul ar isedt hemov ementamongt he
masses.Abr oad,Sam Nuj omasoughtf orf or ei gnsy mpat hyandi nt erv ent ioni n
theNami bi ancause.Thr oughhi m,t heSWAPO wasabl et or ecr uitandsend
guer illasf ort r
aini ngi nZambi a, Tanzani a,Al ger iaandt heUSSR.Nuj omaadopt ed
soci al i
sm whi chenabl edhi mt oat tr actcommuni stassi stance.Byt het imeoft he
col l
apseofcol dwar ,Nuj omawasahousehol dnamenotonl yi nSout hWest
Af ri
cabutal soi nt ernat i
onal ly
 Act iver esi stanceputupbyNami bi anst hroughmi l
itarism br oughti ndependence
toSout hWestAf rica.Apar tfrom usi ngGandhi i
sm, Af ricanst ookupar msagai nst
Sout hAf ricani mper i
al i
st s.Theyr ealised t hatt hei deaofi ndependenceand
freedom becamest rongerwhensuchi deaswer ewashedi nbl oodoft hemar tyr s.
Thus, i
n1966t hel i
ber ationwarwasl aunchedbySWAPOi nOv ambol and, nor t
hof
Nami bia.Theguer ill
ascar ri
edoutsur pr i
seat tacksont heSout h.Af ricanf orces,
whi te set tl
ement s and gov er nmentbasses.Thr ough sabot age,t he f reedom
fi
ght ersi nf l
icteddamage,cr eat edi nsecur ityandf earamongstt hei mper iali
st s
andt hei rsuppor ter s.
 Consequent ly,t he mi litaryst rategyused i nt he warputSout h Af rica ata
disadv ant age.Owi ngt ot heirmi li
tar yi nferiority ,t heSWAPO f i
ght ersandot her
under gr ound mov ement sav oided pi tched bat tlesand concent rat i
on ofl arge
armi es i n mi li
tar yset tlement s.I nst ead,t heyused guer il
l
at act i
cs based on
sur pr i
seat tacksofhi tandr un;somet imest heyor gani zedr etreat sacr osst he
Angol anbor der .I nt hisway ,Sout hAf ricanf or ceswer econst ant lykeptont he
mov e.Tonot ei st hatt heNami bianswer ef i
ght ingonf ami liargr ounds.Thehome
groundadv ant ageenabl edNami biansuccessi nt hest ruggl e.TheSWAPO f or
exampl e,depended heav i
ly on t he popul arsuppor tgotf r
om t he masses
especi al l
yt heOv ambopeopl ei nNor t hernNami biaf ori tspol it
icalandmi litar y
success.
 Att het i
meoft hest ruggl ef ort hei ndependenceofSout hWestAf rica,Sout h
Af ri
cawasf i
ght ingonanumberoff ront s.Apar tf rom t hewaragai nstt heSWAPO,
the Pr etor ia gov er nmentwas pr e- occupi ed wi t h domest ic and i nter nat ional
probl ems.She was busy t rying t o cont ain nat i
onal ism i n Sout h Af rica
spear headedbyANC' s" Umkhont oweSi zwe"andPAC' s" Poqo"t hus,al though
Sout h Af rican t roops wer e concent r
ated i n Sout h WestAf ri
ca,t hey wer e
ov erst retchedi nOv ambol andandt heCapr iviSt ripaswel lasel sewher e.Fort his
reasont her ef ore,t heSout hAf ricangov ernmentwasdoubl esqueezedbyt he
Af ri
cansbot hi nSout hAf ricaandSout hWestAf rica,whi chf avour edNami bian
causef orindependence
 Thewari nSout hWestAf ricawasv er ycost lyt ot heSout hAf ri
cangov ernment ,
maki ngt hedecol oni sat ionoft hecount ryi nev itable.Thecont rolofSout hWest
Af ri
ca byt he Apar theidr egi me became mor e pr ecar ious,wi th Sout h Af ri
ca
wast ingaboutabi l
lionRandi nt ryingt ocont rolt heNami biannat ional i
sts.Thi s
economi cst rainweakenedSout hAf ricat oal ev elofaccept ingpeacet alkswi t
h
theNami biannat ional i
st s,whi chf inallydel iveredsel f
-ruleandf inallyendedt he
l
ong- ter m whi tedomi nat i
oni nt hecount rysi ncet heGer manoccupat ioni nt he
l
at eni net eent hcent ury.
 Thesuppor tf rom f rontlinest at espl ay edakeyr olei nt hedecol onisat ionofSout h
WestAf r
ica.LedbyTanzani a,Zambi aandNi ger ia,t hesef ront li
nest ateswer e
l
at erj oi nedbyAngol aandMozambi quei n1975.Wi t ht hesuppor toft heOAU, the
front li
nest at esgav epr act i
calsuppor ttot heSWAPO t hr oughschol arshipand
mi li
tar yt rai ningi namor ef r
iendl yandf reewor ld.TheSWAPOt rainedmanyof
herguer i
llas i n Angol a undert he pat r onage oft he MPLA gov ernmentof
Agust inhoNet oandl aterDosSant os
 Thesuppor tf rom t heOr gani sat i
onofAf ricanUni ty( OAU)l edt ot hesuccessof
theNami bianst r
uggl e.Thecont i
nent albodyof feredbot hmi lit
ar yandf inanci al
suppor tt ot heSWAPO andconv i
ncedmember st or ecei veNami bianr efugees
and f aci lit
at et heirwel fare.The bodycooper ated wi tht he UNO t oi mpose
economi candpol i
ticalsanct ionsagai nstSout hAf rica.TheOAUal soconv i
nced
memberst atest ocutof fdi plomat icandt radet ieswi thSout hAf r
icaasawayof
forci ngheroutofNami bia.
 TheNami biannat ional istsbenef itedal otf rom t hegoodwi llandhel poft hei r
fri
endsf rom t hecommuni stwor ld.Owi ngt ohersoci ali
sti deol ogy ,t heSWAPO
est abl ishedcl oset ieswi tht heUSSR,Chi naandCuba.Thecommuni stst ates
prov i
dedt heSWAPOguer il
laf ight erswi thmi litaryt r aining, weaponsandar ti
llery.
Sam Nuj omahi msel fwast r
ai nedi nt heSov ietUni on.Thecommuni st salsot ook
theoccasi ont opr essur iseSout hAf ricadur i
ngt hei nternat ionalf orur nsl iket he
UN- Gener al Assembl yther ebyaddi ngt heirv oicest ot hoset hatcondemnedSout h
Af ri
candomi nancei nSout hWestAf r
ica
 Thecont ri
but ionofmember soft heCommonweal thofNat ions:Theumbr ell
a
organi sat ionf orBr i
t i
shi nt eract ionwi thherf or mercol oni espr ov i
dedapl atfor m
formemberst atest of ightagai nstt heapar thei dpol i
cyi nSout hAf r
icaand
Nami bia.Af ri
canmemberst at esandI ndi ai nf l
uencedt heexpul si onofSout h
Af ri
caf rom t heCommonweal thi n1967andcal l
edf orf urtherdi pl omat i
cand
economi csanct i
ons.Thesememberst at esal soext endedf i
nanci alandmor al
suppor tt onat ional istsi nWestAf ricai nt hei rquestf orl iber ationf rom apar theid
regi me.
 Ther ol eoft heUNO enabl ed t hedecol oni sat ionofSout hWestAf ri
ca.The
cust odi anofwor ldpeacet ermi nat edt heSout hAf r
icanmandat eov erSout hWest
Af ri
cai n1966,andwentaheadt osuppor tmanyAf ricanr efugeesf rom Nami bia.
Member soft heUNOpr ov i
dedasy lum,schol arshi psandr eliefai dt oNami bian
refugees.TheUNOusedherdi plomat icinf l
uencet oi sol ateSout hAf ricat hrough
economi c and pol iticalsanct ions.Dur ing t he per iod ofNami bi an st r
uggl e,
nat ional i
stsl ikeSam Nuj omawer egi venapl atformi nt heGener alAssembl yt o
presentt hei rnat i
onalcause.I n1970,t heUNO i nt ernat ional lyr ecogni sedt he
SWAPOast henat i
onal repr esent ativeofNami bia.
 Theposi tivegest ur eoft heUS- gov er nmentofJi mmyCar terf avour edNami bian
poli
ticalf reedom.Ji mmyCar termount edpr essur eonSout hAf r
icat oi niti
ate
const i
tut i
onalr ef orms and pol i
ticalconcessi ons t owar ds Nami bians.The
changes i nst i
tut ed i ncl uded i ncreased r epr esent at i
on ofNami bians i nt he
nati
onalAssembl yandgr ant ingeconomi cr ight s.Thesechangesi niti
atedbyt he
USAbecameast eppi ngst onef ort hei ndependenceofNami bi
a
 Thecol l
apseoft heTr iumv irat eal liancedeni edt heSout hAf ricangov ernment
expect edsuppor tf rom heral lies,henceenabl ingt heNami biannat ional ist sto
succeed.Theal liancehad st arted weakeni ng f ollowi ng t heassassi nat ionof
Verwoer din1966andt hepar alysisofDonSal azari n1968butt heLi sbonCoup
of1974deal taf i
nalbl ow t o" Gangoft hr ee. "Sout hAf ri
cawasdepr ivedof
Portuguesef r
iendshi pandwasl eftcompl etelyi sol at edf ollowi ngt hecol lapseof
the UDI gov er nment i n Sout her n Rhodesi a ( Zi mbabwe) i n 1980. The
i
ndependenceoft hef or merPor tuguesecol oni esofAngol aandMozambi queand
thedecol onisat ionofZi mbabweenabl edNami bianst oacqui r
ei nspi rati
on, mor al
andmi lit
arysuppor tagai nstSout hAf rica.
 TheendofCol dWari n1989l edt ot hesuccessoft hei ndependencest ruggl ein
Nami bi a.Sout hAf r
icahadsy mpat hizedwi tht hecapi talistbl ochenceat tr acted
suppor tf r
om t heNATOmember slikeUSA, BritainandFr ancet hatwer eopposed
tothecommuni stpower sl i
ket heUSSRt hatai dedt heSWAPO.Wi t
ht hecol lapse
oftheCol dWar , thewest erncapi t
alistcount ri
esst oppedsuppor tingSout hAf ri
ca
andi nst eadi nt ensi fiedpr essur et ot heapar thei dgov ernmentt owi thdraw f r
om
Nami bi a and gr antf r
eedoms t o Sout h Af rica.Consequent ly,Sout h Af ri
ca
prepar edt owi thdr awf rom Nami biawhi chl edt oi ndependenceonMar ch21, 1990
 Assistancef rom t heWor ldCounci lofChur chesaccel erat edt hei ndependenceof
Nami bi a.Thi s counci lcondemned t he apar thei d pr act i
ces and cal led up
Christiansal l
-ov ert hewor ldt oassi stt heAf ricansi nSout hWestAf ri
cat of i
ght
anddef eatt hei nhumanandant i
-Chr istianpr act i
cesbyt heapar theidr egime.
 Ther iseofFr edr ickdeKl erkasl eaderofSout hAf ri
cai n1989wasabl essi ngt o
Nami bi annat ional ists.DeKl erkwasal i
ber all eadercommi tt
edt oendi ngSout h
Afri
canoccupat ionofNami bia.Hebeganbyr elaxi ngSout hAf ri
ca'scont rolov er
Nami bi athroughpol i
tical andconst itutional ref orms.DeKl erkcal ledf orceasef i
re
and i ni ti
ated pol i
tical negot iations wi th t he SWAPO and SWANU. Hi s
admi nistrationpr epar edNami biani ndependenceel ect i
onsi n1990andof ficially
decoloni sedt hecount ryonMar ch21.

Ther
oleofTheSout
hWestAf
ri
canPeopl
e'
sOr
gani
sat
ion(
SWAPO)
:

ReferenceQuestions:
1. Howf ardidtheSouthWestAfri
canPeopl
e'
sOr gani
sati
on(SWAPO)contri
but
e
t othedecolonisat
ionofNami
bia?
2.Exami net heroleofSWAPOinthestr
ugglefort
heindependenceofSout
hWest
Afr
ica

The Sout h WestAf ri


can People'
s Organizati
on (SWAPO)was a mass pol it
ical
mov ementf or
medonApr i
l19,1960undert heleadershipofSam Nuj
omaandJacob
Kahangua.I twasf ormedasasuccessoror ganisati
onoft heOv amboPeopl e'
s
Organisati
on( OPO),whi chhadbeenest abl
ishedear l
i
eroni n1959.TheSWAPO
spearheadedt heIndependencest ruggl
eofNami biaupt o1990whenSout hAf ri
ca
withdrew.Theor ganisati
onplayedamaj orroleinthest r
uggl
eforindependencein
Nami biaasnotedbel ow:

TheSWAPOpr
ovi
dedabl
eleader
shi
ptot
hel
i
ber
ati
onst
ruggl
einNami
bia.Thepar
ty
haddy namicl eadersl i
keSam Nuj omaandJacobKahanguawhower eabl et o
convincemasssuppor tofNami bi
anst hatral
li
edbehi ndt hecount r
y'
scauset ot he
str
uggl eagainstSout hAf r
ica.Itwast heref
orebecauseoft hisableleadershipt hat
Nami biaattai
nedheri ndependencei n1990
Theor ganisati
onpet i
tionedSout hAfri
cai ntheInt
ernationalCour tofJustice(ICJ)at
Haguei nNet herl
ands.Thi sf oll
owedSout hAf r
ica'scont i
nuedunilateral(il
legal)
occupat i
onofNami biaafterdeclari
nghert hefifthpr ovinceoft heUni onoft he
Republ i
cofSout hAfricain1969.Nami bi ancaseatt heIGat tract
edconcer nfrom t he
i
nternationalcommuni ty,whichputpr essureont heSout hAf r
icangov ernmentt o
wit
hdr awf r
om Sout hWestAf r
ica

The SWAPO or ganised and par ti


cipat
ed int rade boy cotts and stri
kes and
encouraged massi nvolv
ementi nthesenat i
onwideant i-apart
heid campaigns,in
December1971,SWAPO par t
icipat
ed in a nati
onwi de stri
ke againstthe unfai
r
contr
actl abourpoli
cy ,i
tinf
luencedov er20,000cont r
actwor kerst olaydownt hei
r
tool
sunt i
lthetermsofwor kwer eref
or med.Theboy cott
sandst rikeswereaimedat
weakening t he economy of Nami bia and for
ce Sout h Af ri
can and west ern
multi
nationalcompani esoutofNami bia

I
tr ecruit
edandt rai
nedt heguerril
lafi
ght ers.TheSWAPOencour agedmanynat i
v es
tojointhenat ionali
stforcesagainstSout hAf ri
ca.Mostoft hefreedom fi
ghterswer e
recrui
tedf rom Ov ambol andi
nt henor thernr egionoft hecountr
y,whileotherswer e
urbandwel l
er sandf or
mercont ractwor kers.Ther ecruit
sweresentf ormi l
i
taryand
guerri
llatrainingt ointheUSSR, Angol a,Zambi aandTanzani a.Therecrui
tedf i
ght
er s
becameani nfluenti
alforcei
nf ighti
ngagai nstcontinuedSouthAf r
icanoccupation.
I
n1969SWAPOmoder nisedherguer i
llafightersintothePeople'
sLiberat
ionAr myof
Nami bia(PLAN)ai medatpopular i
singthel i
ber ati
onwaramongt hemasses.

TheSWAPOadopt edmi li
tar
ism orvi
olenceinthest rugglef
orIndependenceaf t
er
thefail
ureofpeacefulmeans.OnAugust25,1966,SWAPO l aunchedanar med
str
uggleagainstt
heil
legalSouthAfri
canAdmi ni
strati
oni nNamibia.Thel
eadership
ofSWAPOwaschal l
engedbyt heSouthAf r
icadisrespectoftheUNOpr oposalof
putt
ingSouthWestAfricaundercust
odyoftheUN- Trusteeshi
pCouncil

SWAPOf ormedacoal i
ti
onwithSWANUi n1971,whi
chledt ocreati
onofNat i
onal
Conventi
on.TheNat i
onalConvent
ionhelpedtocr
eat
east r
ong,unitedandcommon
NamibianfrontagainsttheSouthAfr
icanregi
me,whi
chev
ent ual
l
yl edtothesuccess
oftheli
berati
onstruggleinNamibia

Itwonr ecognit
ionfr
om theUni tedNat i
onsOrganisat
ion( UNO).InDecember1972,
the United Nat i
ons GeneralAssembl yrecognised SWAPO as t he l
egit
imate
representat
ivefortheNami bi
anpeopl e.Theor ganisat
iontherefor
e,becamet he
offi
cialspokesmanofNami biaandt hatiswhysher ecei
v edsupportfr
om theUNO
soast obr i
ngaboutNamibia'sindependence

I
testabli
shedmi l
it
arybasesi ntheneighbouringcountri
esl i
keTanzani aandZambi a.
Theseexternalbaseshel pedtotrai
nt hef r
eedom fighterswhol aterf
oughtagainst
the South Afr
ican regime.Anot herbase was est abli
shed i n Angola aft
erher
i
ndependencei n1975.Thebasei nAngol abecamei nstrument alindestabi
li
singthe
SouthAfri
canadmi nistr
ati
oninNami bia
Theorganisati
ondiffusedethnici
tyi
nNami bi
abycr eati
nguni tyamongstt hev ar
ious
tri
besofNami biali
ket heOv ambo,NamaandHer ero.Thist hereforemadeSWAPO
tocommandcount r
y wi
desuppor twhi chenableditt of i
ghtagai nsttheApar t
heid
r
egi
me,
hencel
eadi
ngt
osuccessoft
hest
ruggl
eforNami
bia'
sIndependence.

I
tsecur edsupportf
rom thesoci
ali
storcommuniststat
esoft heUSSR,Cubaand
China.Thesestat
esextendedmil
it
aryequi
pment
saswel lastrai
ningtotheSWAPO
fr
eedom fight
erswhi
chledtothesuccessoft
hel
iberat
ionst
ruggleby1990.

SWAPOwonr ecognit
ionfrom theOrganisationofAfri
canUni ty(OAU).Asar esul
t,
theOAUt hr
oughi t
sLi ber
ati
onCommi t
teebasedi nDar-es-sal
aam Tanzaniagave
moraland mat er
ialsuppor ttot he li
ber ati
on st
ruggl
ei n Namibia.The OAU
encour
agedmember st oreceiv
eandpr ov i
deasy l
um toNami bi
anfugiti
ves.Al
lthi
s
wasaimedatdefeati
ngSout hAfri
caandfor cehertograntindependencetoNami bi
a.

SWAPOr ecruit
edandi nvolv
edwomeni nthest ruggl
eforNamibi
ani ndependence.I
t
establ
ishedaWomenLeaguei nchargeoft hewomenf r
eedom f
ightersbri
gadethat
playedani nfl
uent
ialroleint hel
i
berationst ruggle.Womensuppliedfoodandot her
suppli
est othegueril
las,actedasspies, t
reatedt hewoundedandot hersengagedin
combatf i
ghtingagainsttheSouthAfricanf orces.

Theor ganisationwonrecogniti
onandsupportoftheChur chinSouthWestAf r
ica.
Mostoft hel eadersindiff
erentChurchesofNami biaacknowledgedtheuseof
mil
itari
sm int hestr
uggleforNamibi
anf r
eedom af
terthefail
ureofthepeacef
uland
constit
uti
onalmeansandwentaheadt oprai
setheef f
ortsoftheSWAPO andi ts
i
nevitabl
er oleinstr
uggl
ingforthef
reedomsofNarnibi
ans

Themi l
it
aryinsur
genceandguer il
l
aact i
vi
ti
esofSWAPOagai nstapartheidregi
me,
whichtar
getedgovernmentheadquarter
s,whi
teset
tl
eri
nvestments,set
tlementsand
plant
ati
ons,and ot her inst
all
ati
ons,weakened South Af r
ican admi ni
str
ati
on
economical
lyandmilit
ari
l
yt ot
headv ant
ageofNamibi
anindependence.

Itopposedt hepr oposal soft heTur nhalleConf erenceofSept ember1975t oOct ober
1977.Theai medati niti
ati
ngdi aloguebet ween.Sout hAf r
icanadmi nistrati
onandt he
SWAPO;i tproposedt heest abli
shmentofani nteri
m ort empor ar
ygov ernmentf or
Nami bia,aswel ladr aftconst i
tut i
onf orademocr at
icandr epubl icanst at e.The
SWAPOr ejectedt hesepr oposal sint he
Turnhai i
eConst it
ut ionbecausei tdi dnetpr ovidef ordemocr ati
ccomponent slike
electionsandpopul arr epresentationoft hemaj ori
ty .I
talsomadenopr ovisionsf or
ani ndependentj udi ci aryorexecut i
v eandr el
iedont hegov er
nmentofSout hAf r
icaa
super ioraut horit
y .
SWAPOboy cottedt he1978el ectionswhi chwer enothel daspert hepr ovisionsof
theUNO.Shet her ef oreper suadedov er97% oft hepot entialNami bianv oterst o
boy cottt heel ectionsduet othewi despr eadi ntimidat i
onandt hepr esenceofSout h
Af r
icant roops,par ticularlyint henor thofNami bia.TheUni tedNat i
onsSecur it
y
Counci ldeclaredt heel ection"nullandv oi d",andt hesubsequenti nter im gov ernment
i
llegiti
mat e.Thisunder minedt hepopul ar i
tyoft heSout hAf ri
canr egimei nNami bia,
hencel eadingt oi tscol l
apseby1990

SWAPO r ecei
vedthei nst
rumentsofpoweronMar ch21,1990,asNami biawas
gr
antedindependence.TheSWAPObecamet hedomi nantpol
it
icalor
gani
sationwit
h
i
tsleader,Sam Nujoma,becomi ngthefi
rstleaderoftheindependentRepubli
cof
Namibiauntil
2004whenher eti
redfr
om acti
vepolit
ic.

THEROLEOFNUJOMA
Ref
erenceQuesti
on:
1.Assesst herol
eofSam Nujomai
nthest
ruggl
eforNami
biani
ndependence
fr
om SouthAfr
icandomi
nance

Sam Nujuma di f
fused et
hni
c dif
fer
ences in Namibia bycreati
ng a nati
onwide
poli
ti
calorgani
sati
on,theSWAPO.Hel edthet r
ansfor
mationofOv amboPeopl es
Organi
sati
on (OPO)i ntothe SWAPO whi ch cut-
across tr
ibalattachment.His
l
eadershi
ppl anemphasisednat
ionalunit
y,whichwasnecessar yforthedefeatof
SouthAfr
icanimperial
i
sm.

Hel edthef ront


li
ner ecr
uiti
ngf reedom fighter
si nt
o SWAPO andensur i
ngt hei
r
t
raininginmi l
itar
yandguer il
lawasTt acti
cs.Het ookadvant
ageofhispopular
ityin
Ovambol andinNor thernNami biawher emostoft herecr
uit
sregi
stered,aswellas
t
hef rust
rat
edcont r
actwor kersandt heunempl oyedurbandwell
ers.Itwerethese
r
ecr uitst
hatformedaf ormidablefight
ingf
or ceoftheSWAPO

Nujumadecl aredtheNami bi
anarmedr esi
stanceagai
nstt heil
legalSout
h.Afr
ican
governmenti n1966.Nuj omat heSWAPO gav echar
ismat i
candabl eleader
ship
duri
ngt hearmedst r
uggle,whichmadehi m commandr espectamongt hefr
eedom
fi
ghters.Hei nspi
redfr
eedom f i
ght
erstof i
ghtwithdedicati
oni nordertocri
pple
SouthAf r
icanadmini
str
ationi
nNami bi
a.

He wor ked closel


y witht he t
rade uni
ons in Nami bi
a duri
ng the st r
uggl
ef or
I
ndependence.Nuj uma encour aged workers'stri
kes agai
nstt he South Afr
ican
regimeaspar tofhi seffor
tstoinvol
v eallsecti
onsofNami bi
ansi nt hequestfor
freedom.InDecember1971,Nuj uma'sleadershi
pint heSWAPO i nfluencedover
20,000contractwor ker
st olaydownt heirtoolsduet otheunfavourablecont
ract
l
abourlaws.

Sam Nuj oma i nfl


uenced t he SWAPO t o est abl
ish external bases in the
nei
ghbour hoodofNami biaasawayofopeni ngmor efronti
ersagainsttheSouth
Afr
ican admi ni
strat
ion.Such bases wer e establi
shed in Tanzania and Zambia.
Immedi at
elyaftertheAngol anindependencein1975,Nuj omaopenedupanot her
ext
ernalfrontinAngola, whichbecamev er
yinfl
uent i
alindestabil
i
singSouthAfri
can
administr
ationinNami bia.Thebasesout sideNami bi
aenabl edSWAPO t otrai
n
guerr
il
lafighter
sandr eorganiseagainstSouthAf r
icanadmi ni
strat
ion

Hecr eatedWomenandYout hbr igadesthatfurt


herst rengthenedt heSWAPO i n
fi
ghtingf orNami bi
ani ndependence.I nDecember1969ataconf erenceinTanga,
Tanzani a,Nuj omai naugurat
edt heWomenandYout hl eagues.TheYout hLeague
becamei nstr
ument alin att
ract i
ng young men towar dst hest ruggle;and hence
expandi ngSWAPO' smi l
it
arystrength
Consequent l
y, Nuj
omausedt heWomen' sLeaguetor ecrui
twomeni ntotheranksof
theSWAPO.Thewomenr ecruitsweret r
ainedmili
taryintell
i
genceandespi onage.
Theywoul dlaterar ol
easspi es,cooks,necessi
typrov i
ders,freedom f i
ghtersand
nursest ot hewounded

I
nAugust1978SWAPO' sleader
shipunderSam Nuj omamobi lisedaboy cotton
Bantustanelecti
ons.Themasscampai gnsinfl
uenced byNuj omaagai nstt hese
proposedel
ectionswonhi m anat
ionwidefol
lowing,andasaconsequence, 97.5%of
theNami bi
anmassest hatwereeligi
bletov ot
eboy cot t
edt heel ect
ions,andt hi
s
becameagr eatsuccesstoNujomaandt heSWAPOi nt heiref
fortsagainstapartheid
i
nSout hWestAf ri
ca.
Duet ohisMarxi
stattri
butes,Sam Nujomawonsy mpat hyofthecommuni stworl
d.
Apartfrom hi
mselfrecei
vingmi l
it
arytrai
ningintheSov ietUnion,SWAPO' smil
it
ary
wing,the(PLAN)benefi
tedfrom themilit
arysupportandt r
aini
ngf r
om Cubaandt he
SovietUni
onaswel l
,hencestrengtheni
ngtheNami bianquestforindependence.

Infl
uencedbyNuj oma,SWAPOwont her ecognit
ionoftheUSAdur ingther egimeof
JimmyCar terandAdr ian.Cart
er'
sAf ri
canpol i
cyinfl
uencedTurnhall
et oor ganise
peacet alkswi t
ht heSWAPO l eadership,whi chlaterproducedtheindependence
consti
tuti
onof1977.Thi swouldhav ebeenapol i
ti
calsolut
iont
oNami bi
apr oblem
buttheSWAPOr eject
edt heconsti
tuti
onbecausei tdi
dnotdest r
oyBant ustansnor
recognisenationaluni
tyinNamibia.

Hei nfl
uencedt heUN- Secur
it
yCounci lt
or ecognisetheSWAPO ast helegiti
mate
nati
onalrepresentat
iveofNami bi
a.Consequent l
y,Sam Nuj
omawasr ecognisedby
theUNast henati
onalspokespersonofNami biagavehim aseatontheUN- Gener
al
Assembl y
.TheSecur i
tyCouncilwentaheadt oproducemoderatepl
answhi chwould
helptheUNi nthepre-i
ndependenceelect
ionsinSouthWestAfri
ca.

TheSWAPOl eadershi
pofSam Nuj omawont heconf
idenceoftheOAUandt hrough
i
tsLi berat
ionCommi t
teebasedi nTanzaniatheOAUext endedfinanci
alandmor al
assistancetotheSWAPO.TheOAUl eadersaccept
edandwel comedNuj omat otheir
count r
ies,
providedhim asyl
um andpolit
icalgui
danceduringtheperi
odofNami bi
an
struggleagainstSouthAf r
ica.TheOAUal soencour
agedmember st orecei
veand
provideasylum toNami bi
anfugit
ives

Sam Nujomatooktheleadinsol
ici
ti
ngforsupporttowardsSWAPObot hwithi
nand
outsi
deAfri
ca.Manyst at
eslikeAlger
ia,Tanzani
a,Ghana,Angola,Botswanaand
Zimbabweextendedsuppor
ttotheNami bi
ancause.OutsideAf
ri
ca,Chi
na,Cubaand
theSovi
etUni
onextendedassi
stancetoNamibiathr
oughSWAPO

Hel edtheSWAPO i nt
opar ti
cipati
ngintheindependenceelecti
onsinear l
y1990
whichbecameat urni
ngpointint hehi
stor
yofNami bi
anst r
ugglefori
ndependence.
Nuj
omaaccept edNami bianleadershi
pandr ecei
vedinstr
umentsofi ndependence
onMar ch21,t
herebyestabl
ishi
ngt hefi
rsti
ndependentgovernmentoftheRepubl i
c
ofNami bi
a

THEALGERI
ANWAROFI
NDEPENDENCE

(
THEALGERI ANREVOLUTI ON1954- 62)
Algeri
ai s one ofthe Maghr eb (
North Afri
can)states thatwer e underFrench
coloni
ali
sm.Thi s North-Arab Nat
ion was predominantly ofBer berand Ar abic
speakerswhomai nlypracti
cedIsl
am;justl
ikethei
rneighboursTunisiaandMorocco.
TheMusl im populat
ioninAi ger
awasei ghttimesmor ethant hatoftheChristi
an
colons(set
tler
s),r
eachingninemill
i
onsbyt hesecondhalfoft hetwenti
ethcent
ur y
.

Theadv ancementoft heFrenchinAlgeri


abeganin1830wi t
ht heconquestoft he
CoastalCit
yofAl gier
st hatwasundertheTurki
shadministr
ati
onofDeyHusai n.The
fi
naloccupati
onofAl geri
acamein1847whent heFrenchGener alBugeauddefeated
theAlgeri
anresistanceintheint
eri
or,underAbdal
-Qadir(AbdELKader ).TheFrench
conquestofAl geriawasai medatr egist
eri
ngmili
tar
ysuccessabr oadi norderto
di
verttheat
tenti
onoft heFr
enchpeopl
efrom t
hepoorleader
shipoftheOrleans
monarchy.The annexati
on ofAl
geri
a was done by t
he French r
evol
uti
onary
gover
nmentthatoust
edCharl
esX.

Algeri
awasest abli
shedasaset t
lercolonyandbyt heendofWor ldWarI Iin1945;
Algeri
ahadaboutonemi l
li
oncol ons(settl
ers)whower emainlypoorwhitesf r
om
France,Spai
nandMal t
a,ani sl
andi nt heMedi t
err
anean.TheFr enchintroduced
westerncult
uresandChr i
sti
anit
yandt r
eatedAlgeri
aasanov er
seasprov i
nceand
partofMetropoli
tanFrance.Theyest abl
ishednolocalassemblybutgaveAl geri
ans
di
rectrepr
esentati
oninthePar i
sNat i
onal Assembl
ywi t
honlyt
hirt
eenseats.

I
n all
,French col
onial
i
sm in Al
geria was characteri
zed byraci
aland reli
gious
di
ff
erencesthatoftenescal
ated i
nto nati
ver esi
stances.Despi
teresi
stancesby
Al
geri
anMusl i
ms,theFrenchneversurrender
edunt ilaful
l-
scal
ewarbrokeouton
November1,1954.

TheAl geri
anwarofl iber
ationwasoneoft hebloodi estincolonialAfrica.I
twas
organi
zedandor chestrat
edbymai nlyAlgeri
anex- servicemenofWor l
dWarI Iand
radi
caleli
teswhohadnot imeforthebat t
leofwor dsandt heunti
mel yprocessesof
peacet al
ks.Theyi ncl
udedMessal iHadj,Belkacem Ker im,AhmedMuhammadBen
Bell
a,FerhatAbbas,MohammedBenBr ahi
m( alsoKnownasHouar iBoumedi enne)
amongot hers.InMar ch1954,theyf ormedt heev olutionaryCommi tteeforaUni ted
Acti
on( CRUA),latertr
ansformedintotheNat ionalLi berati
onFront(FLN)t hatwaged
anarmedst ruggleagainsttheFrenchimperialist
sinNov ember.

Thecausesoft
hewari
ncl
uded

Ref
erencequesti
ons:
1.AccountfortheoutbreakofAlgeri
anwarofindependencein1954
2.Discussthecausesoft he1954-62Alger
ianwarofindependence
3.How f arweret heFr ench col
onialpol
ici
esresponsibl
ef ortheout
breakof
Algeri
anwarofliberati
on?

Thedesi ref orindependencecont ri


but edt ot heoutbr
eakoft heliberationwari n
Algeria.Si nce 1830,Al geri
a was underf orei
gn rul
et hatwas f ullofFr ench
domi nat i
on,suppressionandoppr essionofAl ger
ianMuslimspol i
ti
cally,social
lyand
economi call
y.Thenat iveswer edeniedposi ti
onsingov ernment,policeandar my .
TheFr enchsuppr essedf r
eedomsofpr ess,associati
onandexpr ession,forexampl e,
FerhatAbbaswasj ail
edf orwr i
ti
ng" TheMani f
estooft heAlgerianPeopl e.”Ben
Bell
aandot herAlgeri
anopposi t
ionpolitici
answer eputundercustodyi nBi ldapri
son
forcrimesagai nstthecol oni
algovernment .TheAl geri
annat i
onali
stst husr esor
ted
toviolentmeansofst ruggli
ngforindependenceasameansofr i
ddingt heircountr
y
ofFrenchcol onialr
ule.

Reli
giousf ri
cti
onint heAlgeriansoci etyinfluencedt hear medst ruggle.Therewasa
sharpr eli
giousdisti
ncti
onbet weent hepeopl eofAl geriaandt heirFrenchcolonial
mast ers.The Al geri
an Ber bers and Ar abs wer e predomi nantly Moslems who
cheri
shed t he Sharia(Isl
ami cl aw)and pr acti
ced pol ygamybased on Qur ani
c
teachings.TheFr enchcol onialist
sbel ongedt ot heRomanCat holicChurch,which
all
owedwi nebutcompl etelydi sregardedI slamicact slikepolygamy .Consequentl
y,
theFr enchdesiredtonationalizeChr isti
anityatt heexpenseofI slam andt r
ansform
Mosquesi ntoChurches.Thi si nfl
uencedt hespi ri
tofpanI sl
ami sm,whi chinspir
ed
Algeriannat i
onali
ststof i
ghtagai nstt heFr encht endenciesofdi stor
ti
ngI sl
amic
rel
igiousv al
ues.
Thei mpactoft r
aditi
onalnat i
onali
sm amongt heBerbersandt heAr absinf
luenced
theAl geri
anwarofi ndependence.Assoonast heFrencht ookov erAlgeri
a,the
nativesor ganized Jihadsl ed byAbdelKhadi r(1832-1847)and l aterMuhamed
Mukr ani(1871- 1873).Inparticul
ar,theresistancebyKhadi rwasal engthyoneand
onlycamet oanendwhenanexper iencedFr enchGeneral Bugeaudwasappoi ntedto
over comet her ebell
ion.Althought heFr enchsucceededi ndef eati
ngt heear l
i
er
resistances of t he native Musl i
m Al ger i
ans,Algerian nat i
onali
sm was not
concl usivelysuppr essedasf reshrebell
ionsemer gedint he1920sand1930sl edby
Messal iHadjundert hebannerofI slam.By1954,Al geri
annat ionali
sm hadgaineda
new f orm ofmi li
tari
sm undert heleadershipofBenBel l
a,Belkacem Karim,and
etcet era.

ImpactofWor ld WarIi nspired mil


itantnat i
onal ism i nAl geri
a.Li keot herAr ab
nationsinNor thAf ri
caandt heMaghr eb,t heFi rstWor ldWarcr eatedi nfl
uenceon
West erneducat edAlger ians.Ast hewarbr okeout ,theeducat edf oundt hemsel ves
unabl eto wor ki n Al geria hence t hey mov ed t o wor ki n Fr ance wher et hey
exper i
encedai lhardshi psl i
kepoorpay menti nFr enchi ndustri
es.Thi sinfluenced
them t ostartanant i
-Frenchmov ement" theNor ther nAf ri
canSt ar"foundedi n1926
undercommuni stinfl
uencewi t
hMessal iHadjasi tsl eader,inAl geria,Wor ldWarI
i
nfluencedt heFr enchset t
lerst ocommi ttoeconomi cexploitati
oni nAl geria,which
i
ncr easedt heirdetermi nationtokeeppol it
icalcont r
olov ertheMaghr ebcount r
y.The
proclamat ionofsel f
-det er
mi nationbyt heAmer icanPr esidentWoodr ow Wi lsonin
his" fourteen poi ntpr ogram"cr eat
ed pr ofound i mpacton Tuni sian elites and
wor kerstor esentFr enchdomi nance.Ami rKhal idt hegr andsonofAbdelKhadi r
demandedf ortheappl icationofWoodr ow' spr i
nci pl
eofsel f-
determi nationinAl geri
a
throughhi sor ganisation," AlgerianElectedMusl ims. "Theact i
vit
iesofAmi rKhal i
d
didnotonl ymakehi mt hemostpopul arAl geriannat ionali
stoft het i
me,butal so
i
nspi redthel i
ber at
ionwari n1954.

Theannexat ionofAl geri


abyFr anceasanov erseascol onyi n1880i nfl
uencedBer ber
nationali
sm.Af tertheFr enchgai nedcont rolov erAlgeria,theydeclaredt heMaghr eb
colonyani ntegralpr ov i
nceofmet ropoli
tanFr ancehencewer enotwi l
li
ngt ogr ant
her i ndependence af ter Wor l
d War t wo. The Fr ench gav e Al geri
a di r
ect
representationi nt henat ionalassembl yi nPar is,t
houghwi thonl yt hi
rteenseat s.
Admi nistr
ationofAl geriawasbasedont heFr enchconst i
tuti
onwi tht heFr ench
gov er
nmenti nPar i
shav ingdi r
ecti nter
vent i
oni ncolonialdecisionst hataffectedt he
colony .I
n1955,Soust alle,t heFr enchcol onialGov ernort oAl ger
iar emar kedt hat
"Algeriaandal lheri nhabi tantsf orm ani ntegr alpartofFr ance...thedest inyof
AlgeriaisFr ance."Thi si ncreasi nglyanger edAl ger
ianswhot hepr evi
ousy earhad
declaredanar medr esistanceai medatf ightf orindependence.

Presenceofwhi tesettler
s( colons)whocamef rom France,Spain,Italyandt he
Medi ter
raneanIslandofMal t
acont ribut
edt ot hegrowthofAl geri
annational i
sm.The
i
ncr easedsettl
ementofwhi t
esi nAl geria,whower emost lypoor,wast reat edby
nativesasaFr enchi ntenti
ont ot urnAl ger i
ai ntoapur elyWhiteman'scount ry
.By
1954,t hepopul ati
onofwhi tesettlersinAl geriawasbet weenonemi l
li
onandt wo
mill
ions.Apartf rom beingEur opeans,t heset tler
swerear rogantanddi sgui sedt he
Mosl em Berbersagai nstwhom t heysegr egatedi nsocialandeconomi clife.The
colonswer eal sogi v
enal lsort
sofpr ivileges;t heydomi natedtheadmi nistrati
on,
armyandt heciv i
lservi
ce.Theset tl
ersinAl geriaenjoy
edadualci t
izenship,el ected
theirowndeput iestot heFr enchNat i
onalAssembl yandwer ebet t
err epresent ed
thant heAlger
ianMusl i
ms.Apar tfrom cont rol
lingthebiggestpartoftheAr ableland,
theycompet edwi ththel ocalMuslimsforjobsintownsandwer eabletogetthe
highestpayingj obsatt heexpenseofaboutninemilli
onAlgeri
anMusl
i
mswhower e
becomi ng poor er.Bitt
err esent
mentamong t he nati
ves t
owar
ds whit
e set
tl
ers
becamei nevitable;hencet heyroseagai
nstf
orei
gnrule.

Ali
enat ionofl andbyt heFr enchi nAlgeriainspi
redt her iseofmi l
it
antnat i
onali
sm in
Algeria.Thewhi t
e'settl
ersgr abbedmostoft hef er t
il
el andpar t
icularl
yal ongt he
coast,f orcingtheAl gerianst ooccupyt hedeser tar easoft heSahar a.Cl osetotwo
mill
ionAl geri
answer edisplacedf rom thecoastall andonwhi chthecol ons( set
tl
ers)
establishedl argepl antati
ons.Mostoft heAl gerianMusl i
mswhol ostt heirl
andt o
whiteset tlersbecamesquat ters;somewer eforcedi ntounpr oduct
iver eserveswhi l
e
othersmov edfrom thecount rysi
det ourbancent ers.Ot herthanmonopol izi
ngallthe
arablel and, t
heFr enchembar kedonext ensiveexpl oi t
ationoft hemi neralresources
i
nAl ger i
awi t
hest abl i
shing r el
evantdev elopment .Thedecl arat
ionofanar med
resi
stancewast hereforeai medatr ecl
aimingAlger ianl and.

Thet riumphofVi etnamesenat i


onal i
sm ov ertheFr enchi nspir
edt heAl gerianst o
stageanar medst ruggle.In1954,t heFr enchwer ehumi li
atedbyt heVietnameseat
thedisastrousbat tlei nthej unglesofDi enBi enPhu.Thi sdef eatsufferedbyt he
Frenchi nIndo- China( Vietnam)shat teredt hepr ideandi nvisi
bil
ityofFr ance.Some
Algeri
ansf oughton t he French si de int he warand wer e exposed t o mi l
itar
y
weaknessesoft heFr ench,acqui redmi l
it
aryski ll
sandwar fareexper i
ence.Theex-
servi
cemenoft heVi etnamesewarf ormedani ntegralpar toft heFLNt hatwaged
waragai nstt heFr enchi nNov ember1954.Thewari nVi et
nam t aughtAl ger i
ans
pati
enceandendur anceaspar tofpl anningf orasuccessf ull i
berati
onwar .The
humi l
iati
onofFr ancei nIndo- Chinawast houghtt obeal andmar ki nspeedi ngup
decolonisation ofFr ench Af ri
ca;hence t he decl ar
ation ofan ar med r esistance
againsttheFr enchi mmedi atelyaftert hei
rdef eati nVietnam wasi nhopebyAl ger i
an
nati
onal i
stst hatFr ancecoul deasi l
yy iel
dt ot heAl gerianpol i
ti
calpr essuretogr ant
Algeri
asel f
-rul e.

Impactoft heVEdaycel ebr ati


onsandt heSet ifuprisingof1945i nfluencedAl ger i
an
nationalistst o or gani se an ar med r esistance agai nstFr ench r ulei n Al geria.
Followingt heAl l
iedv ictor yov erGer manyandt heAxi spower s,Fr anceor gani sed
victorycel ebrati
onsonMay8,i nt heConst anti
net ownofSet i
f,whi cht ur nedoutt o
bev iol
ent .Musl im suppor ter
sofMessal iHadjj oined t hecel ebr ationscar ryi
ng
banner swi thdemonst rat i
ngdemonst r
ationsl i
ke" downwi t
hcol oni ali
sm andl ong
l
iv eaf ree Al geria."I n an at temptt o sei ze t he banner s and di spat ch Musl i
m
demonst rators,thepani ckyFr enchpol i
cemenbeganshoot ingatt hedemonst r
at ors,
causi nganescal ationi ntoaf ull
-scalebat t
let hatlast edf orf ourday s.Al ger i
ans
Musl ims engaged i nv i
olentat t
acks and ki ll
ings agai nstEur opean set tl
er s,in
Const antine,Set i
fandt hemount ainar easofKaby li
ai nwhi chaboutahundr edof
them per i
shed.Count erat tackswer eor ganisedbyt heFr enchusi ngf ight erpl anes
andbomber swhi chl edt oki ll
ingoft housandsofMusl imsi ncludi ngwomenand
chil
dr en.Al mostt went yt housandMusl i
mswer ekill
eddur ingthescuf fl
e,ov er4500
Musl imswer ear restedi ncludingFer hatAbbas,64gi v enl ifeimpr isonmentwhi le99
wer esent encedt odeat h.Thev iolentsuppr essionoft heSet ifriotsf orcedAl ger i
ans
topl anf oraf ull
y-fr
aggedar medst r
uggleagai nsttheFr enchcol onialgov ernment .
TheSet ifupr i
singi nspi redFer hatAbbas'posi ti
v ereact ioni n1946whenhewr ote,
“TheAl ger i
anper sonal i
t y,theAl gerianf atherhood,whi chIcoul dnotf indamong
Musl imsi n1934, 1f indt heret oday .’
’

Weaknessoft
heFr
enchassi
mil
ati
onpol
i
cy,madet
heAl
ger
ianwari
nev
itabl
e.The
policyf ail
edt ocov ert heent ir
epopul ati
onofAl geri
ay ettheassi mi l
atedwer enev er
grant edf ullrightsandpr ivi
legesliket heFr enchcol ons.Thepol icywasai medat
i
nitiatingandt ransf ormingeducat edMusl i
m Al geri
ansi ntoFr enchci tizensi nal l
aspect sofl i
f eandbehav ior,incl
udingr eli
gion.Itwashowev er,asmal lelit
ecl ass
thatwaswi tnessedt urningintosecondcl assFrenchmen.Theassi mi l
at edwer eonl y
givent heoreticalright sofFr enchci t
izenshipast heyr emainedsubor dinat estot he
settlers.Theywer eexpect edtospeakt heFrenchl anguageatt heexpenseofAr abi c
commonl yusedbyot herAl geri
anMusl i
ms.TheFr enchpol icyofassi mi lat
ionl eft
manydi sgruntled,likeFer hatAbbaswhobi tt
erlycompl ainedoft her acialpr acti
ceof
theFr encht owar dseducat edAl geriansespeci allyinempl oy mentpl acementand
promot ion.Ther efor e,thedesi rebyAl geri
anst oendt hediscriminativeassi milation
policyoft heFr enchandcr eategroundf oreasyaccessofsoci alameni tiesbyal l
,
i
nspi redmi l
itantnat ionali
sm i n1954.

Consequent l
y,raci aldi
scriminativet endenciesoft heFr enchagai nsttheAl ger i
an
Muslimsi nf l
uencedt hewarofi ndependencei nAl geri
a.Si ncet heoccupat ionof
Algeri
ai n1830,t heFrenchpr actisedr aci
sm agai nstAlgeriansi nallsocio-economi c
and pol i
ti
calsetup oft he count ry.Raci sm was wor sened by t he continued
sett
lementofwhi teciti
zensi nAl geri
a.Alger i
anMusl i
mswer edeni edj obplacement
asallcount rysidej obsandhi ghpay i
ngj obsi nt hetowns.I twast hesamesi t
uat i
on
i
npubl i
cser v
iceandt hear my,asAl gerianswer edeni edpr omot ioninf avourof
sett
lers.Ther acistat t
it
udeofFr enchwasbasedont heirassumedr acialsuperiori
ty,
whichi nspiredt heirarrogancet owar dsAl gerians.Ther acistat t
itudeofset tlersin
Algeri
ai nfluencedt hem tor ef
ut eapeacef ulr el
ati
onshi pwi thAl geri
anMusl i
ms
clai
mingt hat ,
"Inaconquer edcount r
y ,al
mostt heonl ykindofco- oper at
ionthatcan
occurbet ween t he two r aces i s one i n whi ch the conquer ed wor kf ort he
conquer ors."TheAl ger
iansst agedanupr isi
ngt ogetr i
dofr acialdi scr
iminationin
thei
rcount ry.

Theemer genceofel i
tesal soledt ot heAl geri
andesi ref orindependence.They
i
ncl udednat i
onalistslikeMessal iHadj ,AhmedBenBel laandFer hatAbbasamedi cal
doct orand t hese Al ger ian eli
tes desi red forchange i nt heircount ry'
s pol it
ical
struct urewhi chhadbeenr efashionedbyt heFr enchbutunf avour edtheMusl ims.
Theeducat edAl geri
anMusl i
mswer eaggr ievedduet ol ackofoppor t
unitiesi n
gov ernmentandt heci v i
lser vi
cesdespi t etheireducat ionst atus.Theyhadat tended
Frenchschool sandspokebet terFr encht hanAr abic, y
ett heywer edeniedprivileges
ofFr enchci tizenship,whi chwer ereser v edf orsettl
er sonly.Outoff rustr
ati
on,Fer hat
Abbasexpr essedhi sdi scont entt hroughhi swr i
ti
ng," Menwhodi eforapat rioti
c
i
dealar ehonour edandr espected.ButIwoul dnotdi ef oranAl gerianfather l
and,
because no such f at herland exi sts...
"t he educat ed Musl ims want ed t he
establ ishmentofan" Alger i
anst at e,"wi thanAl gerianconst i
tuti
onguar ant eeing
l
iber t
yandequal it
yofal lpeopl eregar dlessofr eli
gionandr ace, andt hecoexist ence
ofAr abi candFr enchasof fici
allanguages.Messal iHadjandFer hatAbbasf or med
the" Friendsoft hemani festo ofLi ber ty"in Set if
,whi ch influenced thear med
struggl eforAl geri
ani ndependence.

TheAl ger ianwarofi ndependencewasi nfl


uencedbynat i
onali
stact i
vi
tieselsewhere
i
nt heMaghr ebthatis,Mor occo,Tunisi
aandLi bya.TheAlger i
annat i
onali
st swere
bit
terthatt heFrenchhadi ni
t i
atedpoli
ti
caldevelopment sinTunisiaandMor occobut
notinAl ger i
a.Inrealsense,theFr enchwer epreparingtowi t
hdr awfrom theset wo
protector atesinpr eparati
ont omaintaintheircontroloverAl geri
a.TheAl geri
ans
weremor eaggr i
evedt otheFr enchforimposingt hepoli
cyofassi mil
ationonAl geri
a
yetMor occoandTuni si
awer eestabli
shedasmer epr ot
ectorates.InMor occo,the
Frenchadmi nist
rat
ivepoli
ciesfavouredt her i
seofMor occannat i
onal
istactivi
ti
es
i
nspi r
ed by King Muhammad whi l
ei n Libya,UmarMukat herhad st epped up
campai gnsagainsttheItal
ianadmi nist
ration.Thepol
iticalorganisati
onst hatled
Mor occo and Tunisi
at oindependence wer e est
abl
i
shed bef ore World WarI I,
Mor occansandTuni si
ansengagedi npr essact i
vi
ti
estomobi liseandor ganisefor
self
-rul
e.Indeednati
onali
sm inAlger
iacoul dhardl
ymakeabegi nninguntil
theriseof
nati
onalism i
nMor occoTunisi
a.

Thef ormat ion oft heFr ontedeLi beration Nat ionale( FLN)r aised thespi r
itof
nationalism inAl geri
a.TheFLNi sbel iev
edt ohav ebeenf oundedi nOct ober1954, i
n
asubur bi nAl gi
ers.Itwasf ormedbypr acti
caly oungAl geriannat ionali
stswho
believedi nanar medst ruggleast heonl ymeansofdest royingt hemi ghtofFr ench
Algeria.Thef oundingleader soft heFLNwer emember sofOr ganisationSecrete(OS)
andt hemostsoundi ngoneswer eBenKhedda( Khider),BenBel laandBei kacem
Kar i
m,t heex- serv
icemenofWor ldWarI Iandwhoatt het i
met hemov ementwas
established,wer ei n exi l
ei n Cai ro.The FLN ev ol
ved ( transformed)f r
om t he
Rev ol
ut i
onar yCommi tteef oraUni tedAct ion(CRUA) ,whichhadbeenf ormedear l
i
er
i
nMar ch1954byf ouroft hel eadersoft heOSwhohadsecr etl
yr emainedi nAlgeri
a
butwer econt actwithBenKheddaandBenBel la.Thel eader sofFLNmadei tcl
ear
thatt heywer emor econcer ned wi thr est or
ing independentAl geriathatexisted
beforet heFr enchi nvasion.HenceonNov ember1, 1954, t
heFLNl aunchedanar med
struggl eagai nsttheFr enchbyst ri
kingi nov ersev entypl acesacr osst hecountry,
targetingFr enchadmi nistrat
ivepost s,pol icest ati
ons,armycampsandr ail
wayl i
nes
amongot hers.

Impactoft heSecondWor l
dWari nf
luencedAl gerianstof ightf orindependence.The
warbl ew awi ndofchangeacr ossAf rica,whi chwasequal l
yi r
resisti
bleinAlgeria.
Alger i
answer er ecruited byt heFr ench t o serv eint heirwarf orcesand t hese
i
ncl udedAhmedBenBel laandBei kacem Ker i
m.Wor l
dWarI Iinspi r
ednat i
onali
st
cour ageofAl ger i
ansol di
erswhower eal soabl etoacqui remi li
taryskill
s,guerri
ll
a
tacticsandwarexper ience.Uponr et urnaf t
ert hewar ,t heex- ser v
icemenl edby
AhmedBenBel l
aaf ormerser geantint heFrenchar myf ormedOr ganisati
onSecrete
(OS)i n1948, asanunder groundmov ementdedi cat edtotheuseofv i
olentmeansof
attaini
ng Al gerian i ndependence. They t ried l aunching unsuccessf ulmi l
it
ar y
expedi ti
onsongov ernmentor gansl ikepostof ficesandpol icepost scausi ngarr
est s
ofkeyl eaderslikeBenBel la.Theex- servicemenofWor ldWarI Il at
erinspir
edt he
format ionoftheFLNt hroughwhi cht heyl aunchedamor ear medr esi
stanceagainst
theFr enchcol onial
istsinNov ember1954.

Culturalimperial
ism andl anguagequest i
onal socausedthewar .Bef oreFr ench
colonial
ism,Ar abicwast hecommonl anguagebutwi ththecol oni
ali
sm oft he
French,Ar abi
cwasst ampedoutandAl geri
anpeoplewereforcedtoacceptFr ench
ast heof f
ici
alandNat i
onalLanguageanddi scour
agedtheuseofAr abi
ci nschool s.
Ther eplacementwasl ookedatasav iol
ationofAlgeri
ancultur
alheritagewhi ch
remainedapoi ntofdiscontent.TheFr enchf al
sel
ybeli
evedthatt hei
rcul t
ureand
civi
li
zati
onwer esuperior.I
ttherefor
eforcedt hemassestostageanar medst r
uggle
againsttheFrenchcolonialadminist
rat
ion.

Fai
lureoftheFrenchtoef f
ectconst i
tut
ionalr
eformscont r
ibutedt other
ev ol
ut i
on.In
February1945,about55Al ger
ianMosl emsl eaderssignedAl ger i
aconsti
t uti
onal
changes which they desired butt he French disregar
ded t hem.Thi si nspired
nati
onali
stst o fight against French dictat
orship. They bl amed the Fr ench
administ
rati
on fordeny i
ng Al ger
ians democr acy and libert
yl ike f
reedoms of
expr
essi
onandassoci
ati
on.

Theout breakoft heAl gerianwari n1954wasi nspir


edbyt hesuccessoft he1952
revolut i
oni nEgy pt.Liket heot herMaghr ebcount ri
esofMor occoandTuni sia,The
national istleadersofAl ger i
al ookedtoCai r
of orsupporti
nt heirstruggl eforsel f
-r
ul e.
TheEgy pt i
ant ri
umphov ert hemonar chi
calandpuppetl eader shipofki ngFar ouk
i
nspi rednat ionali
sm ofAl ger i
anMusl imst ost agear evoluti
onar ywaragai nstt he
Frenchi n1954.GammalNassert heEgy pti
anr evol
uti
onar yleaderpr ovi
dedasy lum
toAl ger ianl eadersl i
keBenBel l
aandBenKhedda.Apar tfrom condemni ngFr ench
coloni alat rocit
iesi nAl geria,Nasser ;wentaheadt opr ovidemor al,fi
nanci aland
mili
tar yassi stancet oAl geriannat i
onali
stswhower eabletoest ablisht heFLNwi tha
Prov isionalGov ernment( politi
calwingoft heFLN)t hatEgy pthost ed.Bef orehi s
capt ureandi mpr isonment ,BenBel laledt heFLN t ol aunchat t
acksagai nstt he
Frenchf rom Egy pt.Nassercont i
nuedext endingassistancet oAl geri
anf reedom
fi
ght ersi nfor m oft r
aini
ng, mi l
it
aryequipmentandf i
nances

Unfai
rr epr
esentati
onofthenati
vesintheFrenchparl
iamentalsocausedpoli
ti
cal
gri
evances,in1947,theFr
enchgrant
edcosmet i
cref
ormst otheAlger
ianse.
g.they
i
ncreasedt henumberoftheseatsofthecountr
yto30i nthechamberofdeputies
and14i nthesenate.Mostoftheseseat
swer eoccupiedbythewhi teset
tl
ersin
Alger
ia.All
t heseanger
edAl
geri
answhostagedanarmedst r
uggle.

Heav yt
axati
oncont ribut
edt ot heoutbreakoft heli
berat
ionwari nAl ger
ia.The
Frenchi
mposedheav ytaxesonAl ger
ianyett
heyhadnoi ncomegener ati
ngpr oject
s.
Tomakemat ter
swor set hetaxeswer ebrut
all
ycoll
ectedandt henationalsdidnot
seeanybenef i
tsfr
om t hem si
ncet hemoneywasswi ndledbyt hecoloniali
sts.This
annoyedtheAlgeri
answhodeci dedtotakeupar msagainsttheFrenchi nthe1954-
1962warofliberat
ion.

Ef
fect
soft
heAl
ger
ianr
evol
uti
on(
Alger
ianwarofi
ndependence)of1954-
62

Ref
erenceQuesti
ons:
1.Assesst heef
fect
soft
heAl
ger
ianwarofi
ndependence

Posit
iveef fects:
 Theendoft hewaroccasi onedt heAl geri
anat tainmentofi ndependencei n
Sept ember1962.I twasi n1962t hatt heFr enchf i
nal lygav eupl eader shipin
Alger i
aandof fici
al l
yhandedov ert heinstrument sofpowert oAl gerians.
 Af terat tai
ning i ndependence,t he firstpr e-independence el ect i
ons wer e
organizedwhi chbr oughtt opowerAhmedBenBel laast hef i
rstpr esident,A
newassembl ywasal soelect edconsi st i
ngofAr absandBer bers.Asar esult
,
theBer bersandAr absgotaccesst opol it
icalof fi
cesi nt hegov ernment,
national assembl yandt heci vilser vi
ce.
 Thear medst r
uggl ear ousednat ionalconsci ousnessoft heAl geri
anst owards
nation bui ldi
ng i nt hei rcount ry wi t
houtf or eign i nfluence and t he only
oppor tunitycameaf terthesuccessoft hel i
ber ationwar .
 Itledt oAgr arianr eforms; manyoft heAl geri
answhohadl ostt heirlandt othe
i
ntroduct ion ofFLN soci ali
sm and Nat i
onalism t he par ty embanked on
National i
zationpr ogram ofmaj ormeansofpr oduct ionl i
kel and,i ndustr
ies
miner alfiel
dsamongot hersf ort hepur poseofnat i
onal bui l
ding
 Ther e was r ev i
valofAr abi c nat i
onal i
sm wher eI sl ami cf undament ali
sm
mai ntained t o cheek on f or eign i nf
luence.Ar abicr eplaced Fr ench as a
nationalandof fi
ciall anguage.I slam wasal sor ei
nst all
edast henat i
onal
reli
gi on.TheAl ger iansr educedFr enchi nf l
uencet hroughput tingemphasi son
theAr abi cl anguage,r ef ormi ngt hecur ricul um andspr eadi ngI sl am t hr ough
educat ion.
 Ther ewasal sot heusher ingi nofnew er aofnat ional ism t hathadbeena
dream i n Al geria si nce 1835.Democr acy was pr omot ed basi ng on t he
univer salsuf fr
age as st i
pul at ed f ori nt he UNO char t
er ,such f or m of
democr acyl edt ot her iseofBenBel laast hef irstleaderofAl ger iat hr ough
elect i
onst hanj usti nst allingorpost ingl eader shi p.
 Alger ia af teri ndependence embr aced soci al i
sm.Soci alistpol icies wer e
adopt edbyBenBel la( 1962- 1965)andconsol idatedbyGen.Bour nedi enne
(1965- 1978) .Ref or mswer ecar ried outi nl and di stribut ion bywhi ch t he
whi teswer ecompel l
edt ohandov ert hei rv astest atest ot hel andhungr y
nativ epeasant s.Someoft hesewhi teswer eabsent eel andl or dsdur ingt he
coloni alper iod.Consequent lyt heAr absandBer berswer eabl et oexpl oitt he
l
andal locat edt ot hem t oat tai nhi gherst andar dsofl i
v i
ng.Thi sal sor educed
thest ar vat i
onandpov er tyamongAl ger ianpopul ace.
 Throught hecr eat ionoft hesoci alistv il
lagesandt hei mpor tat ionofmoder n
met hodsoff armi ng, theAl ger i
anpeasant swer egi venl oans, f ertili
zer s, seeds
andf ar mi mpl ement s.Thecount rymadegooduseofheroi lrev enuet osetup
the conser v ation and i rri
gat ion schemes t o count ert he host ile cl i
mat i
c
condi t
ions.Thi sensur edagr icul tur al pr oduct iont hroughoutt hey ear .
 Thegov er nmentembar kedoni mpr ov ingt hev eget ationcov er( gr eendam)t o
reclaimt hesemi -ar idar eas.A l ong1000km f orestwaspl ant edt oboost
agricul tur al pr oduct ionaswel last heenv ironmenti nt hecount r y.
 Ther ev olutional sot ransf ormedt hesoci alsect orint hear easofeducat i
on,
heal thandot herser vices.Dur i
ngt hi sper i
odmor eAl ger ianboy sandgi rl
s
wer ei mposedt ol iter acy ,freemedi calser viceset c.cul tur ally, thei mper i
alism
i
mposedbyt heFr enchwaswat ereddownaf teri ndependence.Mor eschool s
aridheal thcent erswer ebui ltespeci allyi nr ur al ar eas.
 Ther ewasanendofFr anco- Ar abr aci alconf lictswhi chexi stedbet ween1850
and 1962. The whi te set tl
er ar rogance was di smant led and Al ger i
a
establ ished har moni ousr el ationshi p wi th herf ormercol oni almast er.No
wondermanyFr enchr emai nedi nt hesoci o- economi csect orofAl ger iaatt he
endofFr enchcol oni alism.
 Alger iai nfluencedt hedecol oni zat ionofsomepar t
sofAf ricai .
e.dur ingt he
war ,t heFr enchgr ant edi ndependencet oTuni siaandMor occoi n1956and
otherpar t
sofAf ri
cabet ween1958and1960e. g.Gui neai n1958.Af t er1962,
Alger iaent er edi nt ot heMaghr ebuni onwi tht henei ghbor ingst at essuchas
Mor occoandTuni sia.Thi suni onconsol idat edAr abuni tyandsaf eguar dedt he
member sagai nstneocol oni alism.
 Alger iani ndependenceal soenabl edhert obeamongt hef oundermember sof
theOAU.Shewasamongt het hi rtyt wo i ndependentAf ricanst at est hat
signedt heOAUchar ter ,aimi ngatpr omot i
nguni tyont hecont inentandf ind
collect iv euni tytoAf ri
canpr obl ems.
 Herexper iencei nf luenced l i
ber ation mov ement sint hosepar tsofAf rica
wher e Eur opean col oni alism was st illdeep- rooted.The cases i n poi nt
i
ncl udedAngol a,Mozambi queandNami biaet c.I ti sf ort hisr easont hat
Alger iacont ributedmat eriallyt ot hel iber at ionst r
uggl esel sewher eont he
cont inent .Thi s was t hr ough suppor ting t he OAU and ot heri nt er nat ional
bodi esi nt hei rdecol oni zat i
oncampai gns.
 Alger iaembr acedt henon- al i
gnedmov ement .BenBel lai nfluencedbyNasser
ofEgy ptadopt ed a pol i
cyofposi tive neut ralityint he col d warconf li
ct
betweenUSAandt heSov i
etUni on.Themot iv ewasal sot odet erneocol oni al
i
nfluenceinthecount r
y.
 Therewasi mprov ementi nthewor kingconditionswhichwasnott hecase
wit
h whi ch coloniali
sm.Empl oymentoppor t
unit
ies wer e avail
ed to all
,
enslavementwasr estr
icted,goodrel at
ionshi
pbet weent hewor kersandt he
empl oyer
swasemphasi zed,therewasr uraldevelopmentwhi chi nf
luenced
manypeopl etomov ebackt orural
ar easfrom urbancenters.

Short
comi ngsoft heAl ger ianr ev olution/l iber ationwar
 Ther ev olut i
onl edt ot her iseofBenBel l
a'sdi ct ator ialtendenci esundert he
guiseofpr omot i
ngsoci alism i nt hecount r
y.Hebannedpol iticalpar ti
esand
leftonl yt heFLNasasoulpol iti
calor gani zat ioni nt hecount ry .Thepar tyr ule
suppr essedt hef r eedom oft heassembl y .Thepr esswasbanned,pol itical
opponent swer ehunt eddownandsomewer eei therj ai l
edorf ledt hecount ry .
 Ther evol utionusher ed i nori ntroduced t hear myormi l
itarizat ioni nt he
politicsofAl geria.E. g.t hecoup of1965 l ed byBoumedi er meai med at
oust ing Ben Bel la due t o hi s di ct ator ship and t he desi ref orpopul ar
democr acyi nAl ger ia.
 Ther ewasanupsur geofAr absegr egat ionasawayofcompensat ingt he
French who di scr imi nat ed t he Al ger ians on r aci algr ounds.Ar ab r aci sm
replacedFr enchr aci sm dur i
ngpostcol oni aler a.Ther ewasnogov er nmentof
nat i
onal uni tyasi twast hecasei nSout hAf ri
cai n1994.
 Thewarl edt ot hedest ructionofl ifeandpr oper ty .Acount err ev olutionst age
by t he Fr ench l ed t ot he massi v e deat h ofAf ricans i n Al ger ia;l ed t o
dest ruct i
onofpr oper tye. g.ov er80v illageswer edest roy ed.
 Thepr i
cepai dbyt hepeopl ewashi gh;aboutonemi ll
ionnat ivesper i
shed
dur i
ngt hewarandmi ll
ionsofot her swer ewi dowed,cr ippled,or phanedor
turnedi nt odest itut e.Thi swaspar tlycausedbyt heoppr essi v emeasur es
used by t he Fr ench.Consequent lyt he posti ndependence per iod was
char act erizedbymassi v esoci alsuf fer ingamongt hepeopl emanyofwhom
remai nedpov ertyst rickenanddesper ate.
 Itledt ot hedi splacementofmanypeopl eofbot hAl ger ianandFr enchor igin.
Duet of ear edf ort hei rl ives;t heFr enchset tlersl ef tAl ger i
awhi lenat ive
Alger ianshadt oei therescapef rom t heirv i
llagesorf indr efugeei not her
count ri
esduet oi nsecur ityint hev il
lages.Ot her sl ef tbecauset heywant edt o
occupyf or merFr enchpr oper t
yandhomes.
 Ther ewaseconomi csetback;t hiswasduet ot hecount err ev olut i
onst aged
byt heFr enchdest roy ingAl ger i
anpr oper t yandgar densdur ingt hef i
ght i
ng.
TheFLNf orcesal soai medatFr enchhomes, i
ndust ries, plantat ionswhi chl ed
tor etardat i
onoft heAl ger i
aneconomy .
 Thei ndependenceofAl geriawasgr adual lywat er eddown.Thi swasbecause
Alger iaf ailedt osur viv eonherowneconomi cal l
yandsot urnedt oFr ancef or
assi stancei .e.shesi gned oi lagr eement swi th Fr anceand ot herf or eign
compani esbet ween1970and1971.Lat er ,Francewasabl et osecur emi li
tar y
pact swi thAl geriawhi chenabl edhernotonl yt ogai ni nfluencei nt heAl ger i
an
armybutal sosetupaweaponst est ingbasei nt hecount r y.I nt hisway ,
Alger iawasbr oughtwi thint heor bitofFr enchneocol oni ali
sm.
 Thei ncr easi ngi nf luenceofFr ancei nAl gerial at eronr esul tedi nt opol itical
interference.I n1992i .e.Fr anceonbehal foft hecapi tal
istpower scompel led
thegov er nmentofAl geriat o nul lifyt heel ect or alv i
ctor yoft heI slami st
politicalpar tywhi chwoul dhav ebr oughtt opowerr adi calMosl ems.Thi st ype
ofdemocr acyi nfur i
at edt hemassesandof f eredf er ti
legr oundf ori nt er nal
violencewhi chspr eadt odi fferentpar tsoft hecount ry.Ther esul twassoci al
andeconomi cdi sr upt ioni nt hecl osi ngy ear soft het went iethcent ury .
 Algerianeverstoodfr
eeofpol i
ti
calideology .Atthebegi nninghersoci al
ist
revoluti
onmadehert oincli
neinthedirectionoft heMar xistpower s.Duri
ng
theper i
od,shewasanal l
yofUSSR,Chi na,CubaandEast ernEurope.Thi s
weakenedhercl ai
msofbei nganonal l
iedcount ry
.Againduet oMar xism t
he
rel
ationsbetweenAlger
iaandMor occobecamei ncr
easinglyst r
ained.Atthe
cli
maxt hegovernmentofAl ger
ia helped t hePOLISARI O guerill
asi nthe
struggletol
iber
ateWesternSahar
afrom Mor occo.

Successoft
heAl
ger
ianr
evol
uti
on/warofi
ndependence

Ref
erenceQuest ions:
1. Exami net hef act orsf ort hesuccessofAl ger iannat ionalism
2. Accountf orAl ger i
ant riumphoverFr enchi mper ialism by1962
3. Di scusst hef act or st hatf aci li
tat edt heat tainmentofAl geriani ndependence
in1962
 Thef ormat ionoft hel i
ber ationmov ement( FLN)whi chai medatl iberating
Alger iaf rom Fr enchcol onialism.I tmobi l
iz edpeopl et owageguer ril
lawar f are;
FLN car riedoutv iolentat t
ackswhi chweakenedt heFr enchbot hpol i
ti
cal ly
andeconomi cal lyt hust hesuccessoft her ev oluti
on.
 TheFr enchmi l
itar yact ionst owar dsl ocal' peoplee. g.i n1958Fr enchpl ains
bombar dedFLNbases,ki l
li
ngmanypeopl e.Thi sst rategyl edt oint ernational
condemnat ionoft heFr enchact i
onsonAl ger iaandt hedemocr atsf rom USA
pressur ized t he Fr ench t hrough r ef using NATO ( Nor th At lant i
c Tr eatyof
organi zat ion)t roopst oent erAl ger ia.
 Besi des,t heFr enchmadebl under sdur i
ngt hewar .Theyf ailedt odi sti
ngui sh
betweent hear medmi lit
ant sandnonv iolentmoder ates.Theycar ri
edout
attacks on i nnocentci vi
li
ans on sev eraloccasi ons.Gov ernmentf or ces
disgui sedt hem asr ebel s,ki ll
edpeopl eandbysodoi nghopedt omaket he
FLNunpopul ar .Thi showev er ,backf i
redbydr ivi
ngt henat ivesi ntot hehands
oft her ebel s.
 Thegeogr aphi calset upoft hecount ryi .
e.Al geriaisl ocatedi nt hedeser t;the
areai st ooopenwhi chcoul dnotgi veconduci veat mospher ef orFr ench
fi
ght er s.Yett heAl ger ianswer eonf ami li
argr ounds.
 Thef actt hatAl ger ianswer ef i
ght i
ngonf ami l
iargroundsmadet hesuccessof
thewari nev itabl e.Theywer emor eusedt ot hemount ainousl andscapee. g.in
thedeser ti ncl udi ngt hesanddunes.Theywer eal somobi lecompar edt ot he
Frencht roopswhower eequi ppedwi thheav yweapons.Thi smadet hehi tand
runt act icmor eef fect ive.
 Thedev elopmentofAl ger i
anat ional i
sm spear headedbyawi ndofchangel ed
to Al ger i
an success.Theydemonst rated f irstin 1946 dur i
ng t heFr ench
celebr at ionoft hev ictor yov erGer mansi nt hewor l
dwart wowher et housands
oft hem wer emassacr edbutt heynev ergav eupt hei rdemands.SuchFr ench
actssowed seedsoft heirdest ruct ion.TheAl ger ianmassesr esorted t o
suppor t
ingguer ril
laact iviti
eswi thal lthei rmi ght.
 Ther ol eofwomen, whower er ecr uitedi nt heFLNr anks, wor kedasspi esand
prov idedbasi cnecessi tieslikef ood.Thi smadeFr encht r
oopssuspi ciousand
embar kedonast rategyofunv eil
ingwomenonst reet swhi chmadewomen
national ism sur gei nt hem.Theyt urnedt heirv eilsi ntomi litaryequi pment .
Suchwomenact ionscont ribut edmucht ot hesuccessoft her evol ution.
 Theuseofv iol encei .e.t heAl ger iaf reedom f i
ghter sembar kedonv iol
ence,
target ingFr enchpl ant ation,homes,busi nesseset c.whi chweakenedmuch
theFr enchsoci etywhowoul dnotl i
v eanymor einAl geriabutr athert opack
upandl eav et hecount r y.
 Thegoodor gani zat i
onofFLNe. g.i twasnat i
onalandpopul art oal lAlger i
ans;
hadonecent ralizedl eader shi pwhi chcommandedsuppor tandr espectf rom
theent ir
eAl ger iansoci ety.TheFLNal socr eatednat ionaluni t
ybehi ndt hei r
armedst ruggl es
 Thegener aluni onofAl ger ianwor kerswhohadt hei rowngr iev ancesagai nst
theFr enchsoci etyenabl edt hesuccessoft hewar .Thi suni onor gani zed
suppor tand sol icited f orf unds whi ch became cr uciali n at tainmentof
i
ndependenti nAl ger ia.
 Use ofa common appr oach by Al ger i
an nat i
onal i
sts.Al though some
national istl eader ssuchasFahatAbbasand Messal iHadj iwer eatf i
rst
opposedt ot hemi li
tar yr ebel li
on,t heyl aterr esol vedandof fer edchar ismat i
c
l
eader shipwhi chawakenedAl ger iannat ional ism.Apar tf rom mobi l
i
zingt he
massest heysetupanext ernalwi ng,f irsti nCai roandl at eri nTuni s.They
wer et her ef or eabl et okeepcont actwi tht heirsuppor tersi nt heAr abst at es,
thecommuni stwor l
dandEur ope.
 Theuseofsecr ecyandpr opagandabyFLNappeal edt ot het housandsand
announcedt het raditional Alger iannat ional ism.Thi swasmadet hrought racks
andt her adi o.I npar ticul art hev oiceoff reeAl ger i
aser vedt ouni t
eal lt he
peopl ebehi ndacommoncause.I tpopul ar i
zedt hest ruggl ei nt hev i
ll
ages, on
ther adio, i
nt hehi l
lsandt heur bancent er s.
 Thecapt ur eofi nternalbasesi nt hecount rysi degav et heFLN gr oundf or
recruitmentandt r
aini ng.Byt heendof1956,t heFLNhadmov edi ntot owns
wher ei tst artedur bant errorism.Fr om Kasbahanur banguer il
labase,t he
rebelsl aunchedt he" Bat tleofAl ger i
a"whi chl ast edf oraf ul ly ear.Asr ur al
communi tieswer el iber ated,r efor mswer ecar riedout .Thi sat tractedmor e
suppor tint hecount ry .
 Foreign assi stance cont r i
but ed t remendousl yt ot he t ri
umph ofAl ger ian
national ism.The FLN r ebell eader s wer e abl et o pr esentt hei rcase at
i
nter nat i
onalgat her i
ngs and pr iv atelyt hr ough di pl omat ic cont actsi nt he
maj orcapi tals.I npar ticular ,Egy ptunderNassergav et heFLNaf reepl atf orm
andr efuget osomeofi tsl eader ssuchasBenKheddaandMessal iHadj i
.
Ther efor eal otofar msandsuppl i
eswer eal sosentf rom Egy ptt hrough
Tunisi a.Ot herAr abst at escont ribut edf undt hrought heAr abl eague.Al ger i
a
wasal sohel pedbyt hei ndependenceofhernei ghbor s, Mor occoandTuni sia.
 Consequent l
y ,thesuppor tfrom t hesoci alistst at ese. g.Russi aandChi na
cont ri
but edt ot hesuccessoft hewar .Theyext endedf inanci al andmi li
tar yai d
theFLN r ebel saswel lasi deol ogi calsuppor t.Thi sgav eAl ger iansenough
cour aget ocont inuef ight ingf ori ndependence.
 Tunisi an i ndependence of1956 al so enabl ed t he success ofAl ger ian
national ism.Tuni siapr ovidedt rai ninggr oundsf orAl ger i
anf reedom f ight er s;
becameasaf ehav eni ncaseofper secut i
on.Thegr ant i
ngofi ndependencet o
Tunisi abyt heFr enchencour agedAl ger i
anst of i
ghtunt ilselfr ulei sachi ev ed.
 Ther i
seofChar l
esdeGaul leasl eaderofFr ancei nJune1958wasabl essi ng
totheAl ger i
ancause.Her i
skedhi slifeandhi sposi ti
ont ot er mi nateFr ench
rulei nAl ger ia.Apar tf rom i nitiat i
ngr efor msChar l
esconduct ednegot iations
witht hel eader sofFLN.Ther esul twasagr eementofMar ch1962.I nJul y
1962Al ger iansv ot edf ori ndependencet hr oughar ef erendum.

OBSTACLESFACEDTOTHEALGERI
ANWAROFI
NDEPENDENCE

Ref
erenceQuest
ions:
1.Accountfort
hedelayedi
ndependenceofAlger
ia
2.Examinetheobstacl
estotheAl
geri
anstruggl
efori
ndependence
 TheFr enchpol icyofdi videandr uleofi nt endedt osubj ugat eAl ger ia;t he
Frenchcol oni alistsempl oy edt hispol icyi nor dert ounder mi neuni tyoft he
Alger ians,andenabl ecol labor ationwi t
ht heFr ench.Thi spossi blyexpl ains
whyt hewart ooksuchal ongper i
odoft ime.
 TheFLN andi tsl eader shadaweakpol iti
calandsoci alf oundat i
on.The
Frenchi nAl ger iadi smant ledt hepol iticalst ruct ureandr emov edt heaut hor ity
from t het raditional l
eader s.Theycr eat edagr oupofcol labor ator st hrought he
pol icyofdi videandr ul
e.Thi smadei tdi f
ficul tt omobi lizet hemasses.
 Besi des,t he col laborat ors ory es- men wer e sy mpat het ict ot he col oni al
admi nist rati
on.TheyspokeFr enchandhadadopt edot hercul tur albel iefsof
thei rcol onialmast ers.Some had embr aced Chr ist iani ty and so shar ed
religiousat t
achment swi t
hFr ance.Thi sgr oupwasj oinedbyal ar genumber
ofwhi teset tlers.Theyj oinedt hear myi nl argenumber sandwer enoti nf av or
ofAl ger i
a'ssepar ationf rom Fr ance.
 Apar tf rom t hedi sunityoft heAl ger i
anmasses,t henat i
onal i
st st hemsel ves
wer edeepl ydi v i
dedov ert hewart act icsandul ti
mat eobj ect ives.Thi sexpl ains
whyl eader sl ikeMessal iHadj iandFahadAbbasatf i
r stcondemnedt he
rebel l
ion. They wer e const it
ut ional ist s and wr ongl y bel iev ed t hat
i
ndependencecoul dbegotf rom pol it
ical ordemocr at icmeans.
 Inter nalwr angl esandpet tyj eal ousi nt her anksoft heFLN di st urbedt he
guer ill
aar my .I n1956,someoft hedi st rictcommander s( Wi ll
ay a)oft heFLN
wer emor epr eoccupi edi npowerst ruggl es, maki ngi tdi fficul ttocoor dinate.I n
thepr ocesst heyhi nder edt hewarpr ogr ess.
 Thenat ional i
st shadmi li
tar yweaknesses.Apar tfrom di fficult i
esi nmobi l
izing
and coor dinat i
ng t he st ruggl e,t hey l acked enough weapons and ot her
prov isions.Thi sexpl ainswhyt heyr eliedheav i
lyonsmuggl edweaponsand
for eignassi st ance.Ont heot herhandt heFr enchar mywasst ronger ,bet ter
trainedandheav ilyequi pped.I twassuppor tedbyt hef ight erbombsoft heai r
for ce.
 The Fr ench used r epressi v e measur es i n a bi dt o cal m down mi l
itant
nat ional ism.Theycar riedoutcount err ev olut ionar ywar far ei ncl udi ngmass
arrest s of suspect ed r ebel s or col labor at ors,ki lling of pr isoner s and
dest ruct ion ofent ir
ev i
ll
ages.Theyunv eil
ed women i nt heirmadnessof
sear chi ng f orweapons t his subj ect ed i nnocentv ict i
ms t oi ndi gnityand
har assment .Dur ingt hewarBenBel lawaski dnappedonaf l
ightacr oss
Alger iaf rom Mor occot oTuni si a.Hewasj ail
edbyt heFr ench.
 Cr eat ionofconcent rationcampsashi nder edt hesuccessoft hewar .These
campswer eest abli
shedbet ween1957and1959whenmanyr uralpeopl e
wer eont her uni nf earf ort hei rl i
v es.TheFr enchcol oni algov er nmentt hus
est abl ished t hesecampswher ev il
lageswer er egr ouped.Somet i
mest he
Frenchexer tedal otoff orceont hesecamps,soheav ilyi nor dert odet er
possi bl er ebel lions.On some occasi ons t he Fr ench f or ces di sgui sed
themsel ves as FLN f i
ght er s and massacr ed Al ger ians i n bi g number s;
slaught er speopl ei ntheconcent rationcampsi nor dert odest royt hepubl i
c
credi bili
t yoft heFLNmov ement .
 Thepr edomi nanceoft hewhi teset tler smostofwhom wer eFr enchwasabi g
hindr ancet oAl geriani ndependencest ruggl e.Theysuppor tedt hecol oni al
regi meandconsequent lyj oinedt hegov ernmenti nl ar genumber sby1954t o
resi stAl ger i
ani ndependence.
 Thi swaswor senedbyt hehost ili
tyoft hecol onst hemsel vest owar dst he
nat ives.I nApr il1956, theEur opeant er ror istgr oupbombedaf l
ati nKashaand
kill
ed 53 Musl ims.The abov e pr obl em del ayed t he war and hence
i
ndependencef oreighty ears
 TheFr eedom f i
ghtersl ackedt hef i
nancialandeconomi cpower st of i
nance
thewarandequi pther ev olut
ionaryforceswithmoder nweaponsandmoder n
techniques.
 Lackofassi stancefrom t henei ghbori
ngcount r
ieswhi chwoul dhaveassisted
mucht hef reedom f ighterstoov ert
hrow theFr enchdomi nancy;t
hishence
prolongedt hewar .
 Lackofast rongf orcebyAl ger i
annat i
onali
st;Algeri
al ackedstrongerarmy
especiall
yatt heiniti
alst agei n1950's.Ther ebel swerei l
ltrai
nedandwer e
i
ncompet entmi li
tari
ly.Thi swasi nshar pcontr
astwi ththeFr enchforceswho
hadsophi sticatedweaponse. g.ofmassdest ruction,
aircraftbombersetc.

APARTHI EDANDAFRI CANNATI ONALI SM INSOUTHAFRI CA


SouthAf ricaist helargestandmostpower fulofsev er
alst atesinSout hernAfri
ca.
Thecount rycamei ntoexistencei n1910f oll
owi ngtheest ablishmentoft heActof
Uniont hatputt het woBr i
tishterr
it
oriesoft heCapeandNat alandt heBoer s
(Afr
ikaner)Republ i
cs ofTr ansvaaland Or ange Fr ee State underone pol i
ti
cal
federati
on.Sout hAf ri
cabecamear epublicin1961i napr otestedbr eakawayfrom
theCommonweal ththatf ollowedinternati
onalr ecogni
tionoft heBl ackst r
uggle
againstapar theidandt hegr anti
ngofaNobelPeacePr i
zet oAl ber
tLithul
i,the
SecretaryGener aloftheAfricanNat i
onalCongr ess(ANC).

THEAPARTHEI DPOLICY
Meaning
Apart
hei
di sanAfri
kanert
ermf or'separ
ateness'
or'r
acialsegr
egati
on.'
Itwasused
bythedescendant
sofpioneerDutchsettl
erstoencourageseparat
enessofracesi
n
SouthAfr
ica.

Apart
heidmayal sorefert
ot heapart
nessorkeepingpeopleofdif
ferentcol
ours
apar
tinallconcei
vabl
easpectsofsoci
ety
;pol
it
ical
,soci
alandeconomic.Thepoli
cy
andpracti
ceofaparthei
dinSouthAfri
cagrewoutofexperienceoft
heestabli
shed
whit
epopulati
on(mostlyAf
ri
kaner
).

I
twasaconv ert
edpoli
ti
calandadmi ni
str
ativepoli
cyshapedoutoft heconser
vati
ve
Afr
ikanernat
ionali
sm,whichalsodevel
opedoutofr aci
alprejudice,
prideandcul
tural
arr
oganceoft heDutchstocksettl
ers(Afr
ikaners)whodet estedthel i
ber
alat
ti
tude
ofthewhitesett
ler
sofBri
tishori
gintowar
dsnon- whit
es.

ToAf ri
cansandl iberalmi ndedwhi tes,apart
heidwasapol i
cyoff ear.Theyar gued
thattheAf r
ikaner"percei
ved-racial
-superi
orit
y"wasar esultofthe" assumedt hreat"
totheirminorit
ystatusint hecountry,inevi
tabl
ycausedbyt heat t
ainmentofpol it
ical
i
ndependencebyBl acksel sewherei nAf r
ica.Afri
kanernational
istst hus,i
nvented
apart
hei dasar acialsegregativ
esy stem thatinf
luencedthem toagi tateforcontrol
ofSout hAfri
ca.

ORIGINOFAPARTHEI DPOLICY
ToAf r
icansand- l
iberalmindedEur opeans,aparthei
disapol i
cyoffear.Theyargue
thatwhitenat i
onalistsreali
sedt hattheywer ethemi nori
tyandt hatblacksthe
majori
ty.Andt hatpol i
ti
calindependenceoft heirbr
othersandbl acksinaf ree
Afri
canwor ldinevit
ablyinfl
uencet hem todictateforcontr
olofSouthAf r
icawhich
wasat hreattothewhi testat
estatus.

By1948,t
hewhi
tesf
oundt
hemsel
vesamongAf
ri
canswhower
enotonl
ymor
e
educat
edthanbef
orebutwhoweremoreawareofthei
rgri
evances.Af
ricanl
eader
s
weregener
all
yaswel
lasinf
ormedonpol
it
ical
matt
ersasthewhiteswere.

Aparthei
dalsohadi t
sownor i
ginduri
ngt
heSecondWor l
dWarwherethethi
nkers
especial
l
yt he uni
versi
tyleaders wer
einf
luenced byNazir
aci
statt
it
ude which
beli
evedinsuperi
ori
tyoverotherr
aces.

Italsocameast her esul


tofthedevelopmentofAf rikanernational
i
sm amongt he
supportersofnationali
sti
cpartyi
nSout hAfr
ica.InSout hAf r
ica,thewhiteshadt o
standtheirgroundandr emai
nmast er
sinthei
rcountr i
es.Toachi evetheseapart
heid
poli
ciesorl awswer eputinplacel
imitthenon-whitesoppor t
uni t
yinallaspectsof
l
ifee.g.landownership,empl
oyment,poli
ti
cal
represent at
ion,
tradeandeducat i
on

AIMSOFAPARTHEI D
Apart
hei
dhadt hef oll
owingobj ecti
v es:
 Tomaint ai
nwhi tesupr emacyanddomi nati
oni nSouthAf r
icaovertheblacks
 Tomaint ai
nandpr ot ectthewhi tepopulati
onasapur ewhi t
eraceagainstthe
cont
ami nati
onofot herr acesl i
ketheblacksandAsi ans
 Toreducet heamountofnat ionalf
eel
ingamongAf ri
cans
 Toprotectthewhi techar acterofSouthAf r
icancit
iesfrom theeverincr
easing
numberofAf ri
cansi nur bancent er
s
 Tomaint ai
nt heAfricanr aceasasour ceofcheapl abour
 Toli
mitAf r
icanpar ticipationinthepoli
ticsofthecount r
y

METHODS/PI LLARSOFAPARTHEI DPOLI CYINSOUTHAFRI CA


I
nt heyears1948t o1978,Sout hAfri
cahadf ourst
rongPrimeMi nister
swhowor ked
ver
yhar dtoestabli
sh,st
rengthenandconsol i
datet
heapartheidsystem asanoffi
cial
governmentpol i
cy.Thesei ncl
udedDr .Mal anwhowasv eryinstrumentalasfirst
pri
memi nist
erandot hersincludedSrij
dom,Hendr i
kVer woerdandJohnVor ster.
These enacted parli
amentar y act
st hrough which apart
heid was applied and
manifested.

The passi ng oft he Asi an Law AmendmentActi n 1948 whi ch was ai med at
tr
ansf orming t he Par li
amentofSout h Af ri
ca into a purelyr acisti nst it
ution by
const i
tuti
onallyelimi natingliberal-
member sofI ndi
anor igin.Indi answer ehence
deprivedofr epresent ati
oni npar l
iamentj ustlikeothernon- whiter acesofAf r
ican
andcol oured.Whi tedomi nationwast herefor
eper petuatedi nt heSout hAf r
ican
l
egislativecounci l
.Thewhi t
eshadear l
ieroni n1936passed" Repr esent ationoft he
Nati
v eAct "
,whi chdi senfr
anchisedt henon- whites(deniedt hem v oti
ngr ightsfor
poli
ticalrepresent ati
oni npar l
i
ament .Ther ewasnodi rectr epr esent ationofnon-
whitesi ntheNat i
onalAssembl y( parl
i
ament )whichmeantt hatt hei rgriev ancesand
i
nterest swer eunat tendedt ount i
lsomeoft hem resortedt oposi tiveact i
onof
agit
at i
ngf ortheirrightsandf reedoms.

Poli
ti
cal suppressi
onofnon- whi test hroughthe" SuppressionofCommuni s'
m Act "of
1950whi chaimedatsuppr essi nganyopposi t
iont ot heapartheidsystem.TheAct
gavedef inedcommuni sm int er msofanyf orm ofopposi ti
ont hatneededt obe
si
lencedbyt hegov er
nment .TheActgav ethegov ernmentpower stosuppr essal l
tr
oublesome mul t
i-
raci
alpol it
icalor ganisat
ionsand banni ng allAfrican pol i
tical
acti
vit
ies.Theapar theidregimeswer eempower edt ocondemnnot oriousAf rican
poli
ti
ciansascommuni st
s,placet hem underhousear rest
,restr
ictt
heirmov ement s
andprohi bi
tthem from att
endingpubl i
corsoci algather i
ngswhiletheirwr i
ti
ngsand
speecheshadt obeconf i
scatedbef orecircul
ati
on.
Thr ought hei nt r
oduct i
onoft hePr ohi biti
onofMi xedMar r i
agesAct( 1949)whi ch
restrictedmi xedmar ri
agesormar ri
agesbet weenwhi tesandnon- whit es.Ther esul t
oft hisActwast hat,ther ewoul dbenocr oss-soci alrelationswi thint heSout hAf ri
can
popul ationt hr oughmar r
iage,whi chst rategical l
ypr ev entedmul t
i-
raci aluni ty.The
Afrikaner ssucceededi ndeny i
ngAf ricansf rom cl imbingt hesoci o-economi cladder
throughmar ri
ages.I n1950,t heNat i
onalPar t
ygov ernmentpassedt heI mmor ality
AmendmentActt ost rengt henpr ohibitionofmi xedmar r i
agesacr ossr aces.Thenew
Actpr ohi bitedi nt i
mat esoci alr elationshi psbet weenwhi tesandnon- whi t
es,whi ch
i
nv olv esexuali ntercour se, phy sicall oveorbear ingi l
legalchi ldreni nanext ra-mar ital
mar r
iage.Thei ntentionoft het woAct swast omai ntainasuper iorpur ewhi terace
bycl osi nganygapwher eAf r
icanswoul dgetcl osert owhi tesi nei t
hermar ri
agesor
i
nt i
macy .
In1950,t heapar theidr egi mepassedt hePopul ati
onRegi strationActpur posel yt o
draw abor der li
ne( separ ation)oft hepopul ationbyr egister i
ngandi ssuingev er y
Sout hAf ricanani dentitycar dbear i
ngone' sr ace.Thi snewactdecl ar
edt hatr acism
i
sbot hl egal( byl aw)andabi ol ogi calconcept .Itwasbasi cal lyaimedatdeal ingwi th
Indiansandcol oredpeopl ewhost rongl ybel i
evedt hatt heywer emor er elatedt ot he
whi test hanAf ri
cans.I tcl assi fiedt hepopul ationasWhi tes,I ndians,Af ri
cansand
Col oureds.Tot hecol oredpeopl e,theActst atedt hat" acol oredi saper sonwhoi s
notawhi t
eper sonoranat i
v eAf ri
can. "Thecol or edswer et hencei solat edandmade
tot hinkt heydi dnotbel ongt oSout hAf rica.TheActpr otect edt hewhi tesawayf rom
cont ami nat ionbyt he" i
nf eriorcol oredr ace."Inor dertosur vive,thecol oredshadt o
relatemor ewi tht hewhi tesf orsy mpat hyt hanwi t
ht heAf ri
canswhower er egarded
"evilmi litant s."TheActwasst rongl yemphasi sedi nt heCapePr ovi
nceandNat al
wher et he Col our eds and Asi ans st rongly compet ed wi tht he whi ter ace i n
economi csandbusi ness.

Theapar theidgov er nmentofDr .Mal ani ntroducedt heGr oupAr easAct( 1950)whi ch
providedf orcr eat i
onofsepar ateresi dent ialar easf orthedi ff
er entr aces.TheAct
wasai medatsol vi
ngt he" r
acepr oblem"especi allyi nt ownsandci ti
eswer et he
i
ncreasingpopul ationofnon- whi t
eswasseenasasoci alpr oblem t oexi st enceof
the whi tes.Town cent res wer e decl ared t o whi ter esident s whi l
et he bl acks,
ColouredsandI ndianswer et ostayi nsl um ar eas.Thear easal l
ocat edt onon- whi tes
weresmal landcongest edl eadingt ocompet i
tionf orpr oper tyamongt hemsel ves.
TheActencour agedr epat ri
ationorej ect i
onofpeopl ef rom ar easal locat edf or
whiteswi thoutcompensat ionf ortheirpr operty ,landorbusi nesses.Col our edsand
Indi
anshadt or elocatet heirbusinessesi nar easi naccessi blebyt heircust omer s
hencet hisaf f
ect edt heiri ncomes.Thi sActest abl i
shedandmai ntainedawhi te
characteri nt ownsandci ties.
Theest abl ishmentofBant ustansor( Af r
icanhomel ands)pur posel yt osepar ateor
keep whi tes and Af ricans apar teconomi cally and t erri
torial
ly ,by passi ng t he
Promot ionofBant uSel f-Gov ernmentActof1959.By1951, manyAf ricanshadbeen
repatri
ated f rom t ownst or eserves;whi ch reser veswer edev eloped i nt o Bant u
homel ands.The new Sout h Afri
can l eaderHendr i
k Ver woer d consol idat ed t he
Bantustanpol i
cyt hati twoul dclearAf ricansf r
om whi teareasand' mobi l
isedt oof fer
the requi red l abouri n whi tei ndust ries t o be est ablished on t he bor der s of
Bantustans.TheBant ust anpol icypr ovidedf ortheset t
ingupoft erritori
alaut hor i
ties
ornat i
onaluni t
sbasedont heanci entAf ri
cant r
ibal-authoritypol icy .Byt he1957
BantuAut horit
iesAct ,t hegov ernmenthadt oappoi ntachi eff orev eryhomel and,
thought hechi efcoul dber emov edoncehewor kedcont rarytot hedemandsoft he
apartheidgov ernment .TheBant uSel f-Gov ernmentActassumedt hatt heBant u
peopledi dnotconst i
tuteahomogeneouspeopl e,t hereforeshoul dl i
vei nsepar ate
nati
onaluni t
s on basis oflanguage orcul t
ure.As a resul
t,t
heycreated t
en
homelands.
TranskeiandCi skeif
ortheXhosapeople
Kwa-ZulufortheZulupeople
Qwaqwaf ortheSouthSotho
Bophuthatswanaf ortheTswanapeople
SouthNdebel eandLebowaf ornort
hSot hopeople
Gazankulufort heShanganeandTsongapeopl e
VenderfortheVendapeopl e
SWAZIfortheSwazi peopl
e
TheBant ustanpol i
cyhinder
edAf r
icannationalconsci
ousnessanddiver
tedtheir
poli
ti
calambi ti
onsawayf r
om Sout
hAf r
icaasawhol e,t
otri
balhomel
ands.

Str
ategi
clocationofindust
ri
es:t oensurecheapsuppl yoflabourfr
om Af ri
cansthe
South Afr
ican gov er
nmentl ocated i
ndustr
ies nearr eser
ves (Bantustans).The
Afr
icanscouldhencewor kwithinthei
rlocal
it
ieswithoutmov i
ngintowhi t
et ownsor
ci
ti
es.Theest abl
ishmentofindustri
esnearBantustanswasal soaf ul
fi
ll
mentoft he
apart
heidaim ofreduci
ngAfri
cansasasour ceofcheapl abour.

Ther aci
stgov ernmentcameupwi t
ht heBant uEducat i
onActi n1953,desi gnedby
thethenMi nisterofNat iveAf fai
rsHendr ikVer woerd.Ver woerddecl aredt hatr acial
rel
ati
onscoul dnoti mpr ovei fawr ongt ypeofeducat ionisgi vent othenat i
v es.He
j
ustifi
edt hisActt hatcr eatedsepar ateeducat ionf orsepar ater acesargui ngt hat
Afri
canscoul dnoti mprov ei ftheresul tofeducat i
ongi ventot hem istot urnt hem
i
ntoaf rustratedpeopl e.Af r
icanshencehadt orecei veinferioreducationwi tha
syll
abus t hatemphasi sed mor e ofAf rikaans than Engl i
sh,an educat i
on whi ch
"emphasi sedet hnicdif
fer encesandt rainedandt aughtAf ri
cansi naccordancewi th
thei
roppor t
unitiesinli
fe, whichwast oof fercheapl abourtot hewhi tecommuni ty."
Thegov er nmentwi t
hdrew mi ssi
onar ycont r
olov erAf ri
caneducat i
onbyput tingal l
Afri
canschool sundercl osesuper visionoft hegov ernmenteducat i
ondepar tment .
TheActpr ovidedf orcr eationofdi f
fer entschool s,col l
egesanduni v
er si
tiesf or
dif
ferentraces.

Strengtheningofpassl awst hroughi ntr


oduci ngthe1952Nat iveActortheAbol iti
on
ofPassesandCoor di
nat i
onofDocument sAct .Wi ththenew amendment ,theold
passbookswer eabol ishedandr eplacedwi threferencebooks.Thi sactmadei t
compul sor yforAfricanmenandl aterwoment ocar r
yr ef
erencebooksatal lti
mes,
containingal lpermi t
sandr egi strati
onsl ikeper missiont otakeupempl oymenti n
town,r egistr
ati
onoft heirl abourcont ract
,per missiont ostayout si
deone' sv i
ll
age
aftercur f
ew hour samongot her s.Ther ef
er encebookhaddet ail
saboutanAf ri
can
placeofor i
gin,r
ace, age,resi denceandr eferencenumber ,wher ehei
ntendst omov e
toandwhenhei ntendst or eturn,i twasai medatf urtherrestri
cti
ngfreemov ement
ofAf ri
cansi nordert okeept henunderef fectivecontrolandf ail
uret
opr esentone's
referencebookl edt oar restanddet enti
on.Onav erage,over1000Af ricanswer e
arresteddai l
yfornotcar r
yingt hei rreferenceorpassbooksbet ween1953and1984.

In1953,t heaparthei
dgov ernmentst rengt
henedt heGr oupAreaActbyi ssuingthe
"Reservati
onofSepar ateAmeni ti
esAct .
"Af t
ersepar ati
ngr esidentareasoft he
dif
ferentraces,whereAf ri
cans,Indiansandcol ouredswer epushedoutoft heciti
es
andt ownst otheslumst hegov ernmentsepar atedsocialservi
ces( ameni
t i
es)where
bett
erser viceswerereservedforwhi teswhilenon-whiteswerepr ovidedwithinf
eri
or
socialfacili
ti
essuchast r
ains,buses,bar s,socialrecreat
ionpar ks,amongot hers.
Thegov ernmentalsocameupwi thnew si gnpost swhi chr eservedsomepubl i
c
premisesforexcl
usi
veusebyapart
icularrace.Si
gnsl
i
ke,"
whi
tesonly
"or"notfor
Afri
cansdogs"or" non-
whit
esar
epr ohibi
ted"coul
dbeseenatrai
l
way sst
ati
ons,
beaches,banksandbri
dges

Thegov ernmentr epatri


ati
onofAf r
icansf r
om t ownsandci ti
estoisolatedtownshi ps
wasal soamani f
estationofapar theidinSout hAf r
ica.In1953,theNat ional
istPar t
y
gov er
nmentpassed t he "Native Resettl
ementAct "which provi
ded f orf orci
ble
remov alofnati
vesf rom whi t
eset t
lerurbancent resandsegr egatethem alongt ri
bal
l
inei nt hei
rnew set t
lement s.TheActenabl edinv ol
untar
yr epatri
ationofabout
57,000Af ri
cansfrom cent r
alJohannesbur gtot heSout hWestTown( Sowet o)
.The
gov er
nmentar gumentwast hatther epatr
iatedpeopl eweret oool d,unproductive
andunf i
tto stayi nur banizedar easwhi leot herswer ewomenwi thdependent
chil
dren.TheReset tl
ementActweakenedt hedev el
opmentofnat ionalunityand
consciousnessamongnat i
veAf ri
cans.

The introducti
on oft he CriminalLaw AmendmentAct( 1953)whi ch provided
governmentaut horitytogi vevariouspunishmentst
oleaderswhomobi l
isedmasses
i
ntoci vildisobedi
enceandot heract sofopposit
iontot heapar theidsy st
em.I n
part
icular,theActpr ovidedforaf i
veyearimpri
sonmentandf ourt
eenl ashes(canes)
foranyper sonwhol eadsot hersintobreaki
ngthelawinpr otestagainstapartheid.
TheActwasar esultoft he"1952Def ianceCampaign"or
gani sedbyt heANCagai nst
apartheidlawswhi chal mostcausedabr eakdownofthesystem

I
n1957,thenati
veslawamendment sactconsolidatedwhit
econtrolov erAfri
cansin
ur
banareas.Thishadbeenattemptedi n1923andwasonl yrei
nforcedi n1957.In
i
ndust
ri
es orf act
ories,j
ob segr
egation was al so pr
acti
ced through t he 1965
i
ndust
ri
alconsoli
dati
onact.Thisactlegal
izedsomespeci alj
obsort hewhi t
esas
wel
lasspecialwages.Ital
sorel
egatedAfricanstol owpaidjobsaswel lascasual
l
abour
ers.

Aparthei
dr egime also used t he Parl
iamentary Actt or educe t he author
it
y of
tr
aditi
onalchi
efsinther uralar
eas.Thiswast hrought heBantuAut horit
yActof1951
whichwasl aterelaboratedbyt hepr omotionoft heBantuSel f-governmentActof
1959.Theseact swer ehar shonAf ri
cant r
adit
ionalchief
sandgr eatlyreducedthei
r
power soutsi
deAf r
ican settl
ements.The1959 Actal so stipulated thatAfri
can
tr
aditi
onalchi
efshadnocower soverwhitestheirarea,whi
chgr eatlyunderminedthe
spi
ritofi
ndependenceofAf ri
canchief

Inordert
ost r
engt
henapart
heidinthepolit
icalfi
eld,thegovernmentenact
edanact
whichprohibi
tedAfri
canpoli
ti
calinter
ferenceandmadei til
l
egalforanyonet o
bel
ongt oar aci
all
ymixedpoli
ti
calparty.Tot hi
sef fect
,itmeantt hat
,theblacks
couldnotjointheNati
onal
istPart
yoft heBoer sj ustastheBoer scouldnotjoin
Afr
icanpart
ies

Otherthanl egislat
ion,apar
theidgov ernmental sousedbr utal
ity.Thegov ernment
employedmi l
itaryconfront
ationt ocount erther isi
ngmi li
tantopposi ti
onagai nst
apart
heidi nSout hAfri
ca;thegov er
nmentdeci ded to becomemor ebr utaland
embarkedonl argescalemili
taryconf rontati
onst osuppressAf ri
canopposi t
ion.The
apart
heidgov ernmentex pandedt heai rforce,recruit
edblackst ofightfel
lowblacks
and developed a power fulintell
igentnet worki .e.the (BOSS)whi ch penetrated
nati
onali
sticmov ementsinSout hAf r
icaPet t
yApar t
hei
dLawswer epassedbyt he
apart
heid gov ernmentas soci albar ri
ers againstsoci alinteracti
on among t he
di
ffer
entraces.Thesel awswer efoundedoncol ourbasis,wher esepar at
esoci al
servi
ceswer ecr eatedforev er
yr acee.
g.roads,hospi
tal
s,Chur
chesandpubl
ic
beaches.Noticeslike"whi
teonl yandnonwhitesareprohi
bit
ed"coul
dbeseenat
rai
lwaysstat
ions,beaches,banksandbri
dges.

Imprisonmentofnat i
onal
i
sts;theapar thei
dgov ernment,awareoft heincreasi
ng
dangerofAf ri
cannati
onal
ist
spassedl awswhi cht urnedSouthAf r
icaint
oapol i
ce
stati
on.E.g.anti-
communists actand det ention actallowed the impri
sonment
withouttr
ialandthecommuni stactblamedal lpoliti
calor
ganisat
ionsandact i
vi
ti
es
opposedt oapart
heidandworkersstr
ikeswer eout l
awed

In1965,theSouthAf r
icangov ernmentadopt edt heDetentePolicy(di al
ogue)ai
med
atestabli
shingfr
iendshipwi t
ht henei ghbour i
ngst atesofSouthAf rica.TheDetente
Poli
cywasadopt ed to neutrali
z ethei ncreased Pr essureon theSout h Afri
can
governmentand count erguer i
ll
aact i
vi
tiesi nt henei ghbour
ing st ateofAngol a,
Mozambi queandSout her
nRhodesi afrom spr eadingintoSouthAfrica.TheOAUhad
cauti
onedi t
smember sf r
om allowingSout hAf ri
caaircraftandshipst ouseAfri
can
airspaceand har borsand nott otradewi th South Afri
ca in ordert o weaken
apart
heid.Thedet entepol i
cy( dial
ogue)wi thAf ricancountri
eswasseenbySout h
Afri
caasawayofget ti
ngpot ent i
almar ketforSout hAfri
canmanuf acturedgoods
andinvestments.Ot herwisethecont inuedi solati
onofSout hAf ri
cawassui ci
dalto
hereconomi cpr
ide.

I
MPACTOFAPARTHEI D
Thesegregati
ontendenci
esbasedonraceandcolouri
nSout
hAf
ri
casowedseeds
ofhat
red,mistr
ustandsuspi
cionswi
thi
nthepopul
ati
on.

Thepolicybledacul t
ureofvi
olencei
nSouthAfri
caasameansofsol vi
ngconf l
icts.
I
nf actalotofbloodshedandlossofli
veswer
ewi t
nessedinSout hAfri
cafrom 1948
whenwhi teracism i
nSout hAfri
cawasmadeconst i
tuti
onal.Af
r i
cansaimedatt he
whitepopulati
on,thei
rpropert
yandinvest
ments,whil
ethewhi tesoutofi nsecurity
tr
ainedincombatski l
lsandacquir
edsmall
armsinselfdefenceagainstthepotential
vi
olentAfri
cans.

Boost edAf r
icannat i
onali
sm byi nf
luencingt heriseofanew y ounggener at ionof
l
eader swhoi gnit
edAf ri
cancauseagai nstt heracistapar thei
dgov ernment s.The
youngl eadershipcompr i
sededucat edAf ri
cansamongt hem Nel sonMandel aand
Oli
verThambo,whower et rainedlawy ersf r
om Johannesbur g,trade-unionist sli
ke
WalterSi sul
uandot her
sl i
keSt eveBi ko.Thei ntroducti
onofhar shr acistl aws
sti
mul ated t
hey oung mili
tantl eaderst o encour ageawav eofr esistancesand
protestst opassl aws,agr icult
uralrestricti
ons,poorwor ki
ngcondi ti
onsandt he
i
nferioreducat i
ongiventoAf r
icans.Theywer einst r
ument alinorganisinganumber
ofspont aneousmassst ri
kes,boy cottsanddemonst rat
ionsmost lyint owns.These
i
ncludedt he1952" Defi
anceCampai gn"agai nstsegr egati
onistlaws,t heShar pevi
ll
e
protestagainstpassl awsin1960andt he1976Sowet odemonst rati
onagai nstthe
unfairBantuEducat i
onAct

Apartfr
om boost
ingt hepopul
ari
tyoftheANCthr
oughitsact
ivi
ti
es,t
hesystem of
apart
heidledt
other iseofanew poli
ti
calmov
ement,t
hePanAf ri
cani
stCongress
(PAC)formedbybreakawayAfr
icani
stsoft
heANC.

Thepol
icywasresponsi
blef
oreconomicret
ardati
oninSouthAf r
ica.Theapartheid
regi
mesfacedmanyeconomi csanct
ionsfr
om inter
nat
ionalorganisat
ionsli
kethe
UNOandOAU,whi chcall
edonmemberst atestocutof feconomicandt radeties
wit
hSouthAf ri
ca.ManyAf r
icangov ernmentsandNon-
ali
gnedcountr
iesofAsi
a
endedtr
adetieswiththeracistgovernmentandthi
seconomical
l
yisol
atedSout
h
Afr
icat
hathereconomygraduall
ycrumbl ed.

Consequent ly
,Af ri
cans wer e economi call
yi mpov eri
shed due tot he economi c
i
nequal i
ti
esencour agedbyt heAf r
ikaner s.Af ri
canwageswer edeliberatel
ykept
l
ower ,earningtent i
mesl esst hanwhi tes,maj orit
yAf r
icanswer edeni edproper t
y
ri
ghtsi nurbanar eas,theyhadl ostl andwi thwhi tescontrol
li
ngalmost87% oft he
arablelandandy etAf r
icanswer eal sor estri
ctedf r
om engaginginmaj oreconomi c
activ
iti
eslikemi ningandot hercommer ci
alact i
viti
esli
kei mporttrade.Todayt he
wealthofSout hAf ri
cai ssti
llcontroll
edbywhi teswhoar eaboutfourmi l
li
onsoft he
totalpopulati
onoft hecount rybutcont rolli
ngmor ethan80%oft henationalcapital.
MostAf ri
canswer esubj ectedt ol abourexpl oi
tati
ononwhi tefarms,i ndust r
ies,
minesandev enwhi t
ehomes.Af r
icanswer esubj ectedtoacont r
actlaboursy stem
thatwasv eryoppr essiveandi nhumant oAf ri
cans.TheApar t
heidregimesabol ished
activ
iti
esofAf r
ican t r
adeuni ons,t radeuni onswer ebanned and Af ri
can trade
unionist
swer earrestedanddet ai
ned.

Afr
icanswer ehighl
ydi senf
ranchisedandhar dl
ypar ti
cipatedint hepolit
icaldeci
sion
makingpr ocessofSout hAfrica.Itwasi n1936whenv ot
ingrightswer ecompl etely
depri
vedofAf ri
cansandsi ncet hen,theyweredecl i
nedt ot hestatusofsecondcl ass
ci
ti
zens.Itishencetruet osayt hatbymul ti
racialgeneralelecti
onsof1994, Afri
cans
majori
tyhadnoi deaoft i
ckingabal lotpaperorhadnev erexper i
encedpol it
ical
campaigns and v oti
ng pr ocedur es,nordi dt hey know t he importance ofa
consti
tut
ion.Knownt ot heAf ri
canswer est
rikes,boycot t
sanddef iancecampai gns
butnotdemocr ati
cprincipl
es.

Apartheidr enderednat i
onaluni t
ycompl etel
ydeli
cate.Thecr eat
ionofBant ustanson
tri
ballines,separ ateeducat i
onalinsti
tutionsandr ecreati
oncent er
s,andpr ohibi
tion
ofmi xed mar r
iages between di fferentr aces discouraged the dev elopmentof
nati
onalf eelingsamongt hepopul aceofSout hAf r
ica/hencehinderingpr ospectsof
nati
onaluni t
y.Inf actsocio-pol
it
icalrelati
onsamongSout hAfri
canswer edent edby
thePopul ati
onRegi st
rati
onActandt heGr oupAr easActwhi chcr eateddi ff
erent
settl
ementar easf ordif
ferentraces.

Theunf aireducati
onsy stem imposedonAf r
icansmadet hem highlyill
it
eratesand
second cl ass citizens. Thi s nat ure of educat i
on di scouraged i nt
ellectual
devel
opment samongAf ricanshencei tpreparedt hem forsoci o-economicr oles
which needed onl y semi -ski
lled orno ski ll
ed labour.Thi si nferi
oreducat i
on
maintai
nedt heAfr
icanmaj or i
typol it
ical
lyignorantoft hei
rrightsandf reedomsand
i
nsteadmostoft hem accept edt heirsubordinatestatustothewhi temi nori
ty.
TheBant uEducat i
onActpassedi n1953f orcedAf ri
cansi ntogov ernmentschool s
whichhadadesi gnedsy l
labust hatemphasi sedethnicdifferencesandonl yt aught
them bare-skil
l
sneededt owor kf orwhi t
es.

Aparthei
dSout hAf ri
caadopt edadi stabi
l
isati
onpolicyinneighbour
ingstateswhich
l
edt opolit
icalinstabil
i
t i
esint her egion.Aparthei
dleader scommitt
edt osupporti
ng
subversi
veact i
viti
esinnei ghbour i
ngcount ri
essuspect edofsupporti
ngtheactiv
iti
es
ofANCagai nstthewhi temi nori
tyr egimeinSout hAfri
ca.Theapar t
heidgovernment
sponsoredt her ebelact ivi
tiesofRENAMO agai nstt heFRELIMO gov er
nmenti n
Mozambi queandUNI TAact i
vit
iesi nAngol aagainsttheMPLAgov ernment.South
Afri
caoccasi onall
yl aunchedmi l
i
t aryexpedit
ionsonZi mbabweandMozambi que
suspecti
ngt hem ofbei ngtraini
nggr oundsoftheANCf reedom f
ight
ers.
Theact i
v i
ti
esoft heapar thei
dr egimesagai nstneighbouri
ng count riesand the
economict hreatposedbySout hAf ricaintheSouthernAfri
canregionl edt otherise
ofeconomi ccooper ationamongt heSout her
nAf ri
cancount ri
es.I nAugust1980,
theymeti nLusaka,Zambi aandsi gnedat reat
yofcooper ati
ont hatl edt othe
foundingoft heSout hAfri
canDev elopmentCoordinat
ionCounci l(SADCC)whi ch
wasdesi gnedt oi solateSouthAfricaanddesi stherpossibl
epol i
ticaloreconomi c
i
nfluencef rom penet r
ati
ngmemberst at
es.In1993,t hememberst atesmeti n
WindhoekNami bia,andt ransfor
medt heSADCC i nt
o SADC,whi chi ncorporat
ed
South Afri
ca af terapar t
heid and has made t he organi
sati
on t he mostr el
iable
economicor ganisation.

Thepol i
cyexposedt hedoubl estandardsofsomeAf ricanst atesandmember sof
theOAU whower el aterbrandedt rait
ors.In1965,t heapar theidgov ernmentof
HendrikVerwoerddesi gnedapol i
cydi al
ogueknownas" t
hedet entepol i
cy"that
encouragedAfri
cangov er
nment stocooper atewithSout hAfricat hroughexpor ti
ng
l
abourt othecountryandr epackageandsal eSout hAfricanindust ri
alcommodi t
ies,
i
nr et
urnforfi
nanci
al grant
sandt echnicalassi
stancefrom theapar t
heidgov er
nment .
Countri
es li
ke Malawi,Bot swana,Zambi a and Madagascarent ered into poli
cy
dial
oguewi t
hapartheidSouthAf ri
caoutofsel fi
shnesshencecol laborati
ngwi ththe
raci
stregi
met odespisesanct i
onsimposedoni tbytheUNOandt heOAU.

Theracistpol icyofapar t
hei
dwasoneoft heint er
nati
onal problemst hatexposedt he
doublest andar dsoftheUni t
edNationsOr ganisati
on( UNO) .Thei nt
ernati
onalpeace
bodyof teni mposeddi pl
omaticandeconomi csanct i
onsonr acistSouthAf ri
cabut
wouldtakenomeasur estopunishthemembercount r
iest hatviol
atedthesanct i
ons,
asitwast hecasewi thIraqin1990,wherecount r
iesf acedtheUNSecur it
yCounci l
formai ntainingtieswi thSadam'sregi
meaf terSadam' snakedaggr essi
onagai nst
Kuwait.Ont heot herhand,majorpowersoft heUNOl iket heUSAandBr i
tainthough
theycondemnedt heapar t
heidpoli
cy,theirmul ti
-nati
onal scont i
nuedt radingwi th
SouthAf ri
ca.

I
tstrengthenedAf r
o-Arabsoli
darit
yduetotheunder
standingbetweent hetworaces.
TheAr absympat hytowardsAf r
icanvi
cti
msofapartheidwasar esultoftheAfrican
posit
ivegestureinsuppor t
ingthePalest
ini
anArabsagainsttheZionistimperi
ali
sts
(I
srael
ites)
.Therefore,theArabshadt oretur
nthegoodgest urebysuppor ti
ngt he
Afri
canf i
ghtagai
nstapar t
heid.

REACTIONSOFAFRI CANSTOWARDSAPARTHEI D
Afr
icansuseddi plomacyt oagi tatefort heirrights.Theysentr epresentativ
est o
LondonandUNGener al Assemblytopr otestagai nstthewhiteracistregi
mei nSout h
Afr
ica.Thiswasai medatseekingi nter
nat ionalsy mpathyintheirquestforliberati
on
fr
om theev i
l
sofapar t
heid
Afr
icanslaunchedcampai gnsinSout hAf ricaagai nsttheir
ri
tat
ingl awsofapar theid.
I
nBl oemfontei
n,theblacksprotestedagai nsttheext ensionoflawsbymuni cipali
ties
i
nt heOrangeFr eestates.ThisAf ri
canmov ementopposedt ot her aci
stapar theid
l
awsspr eadtoothertownsofSout hAfrical i
keJohannesbur gandPr etor
ia.

Afr
icans or
gani
sed themselves int
o pol i
ti
calorganisations t
o consol
idatetheir
eff
ortsagai
nstraci
sm.Int he1950s,y outhpol
iti
ciansl edbyMandel aandOl iver
Thambost r
eamli
nedt heactivit
iesoftheSout hAf ri
canNat i
onalCongress(ANC)
whil
ein1959,t
hePanAf ri
canistCongress(PAC)wasf or
medundert hel
eadershi
pof
RobertSobukwe.These liberati
on mov ements especiallythe ANC became the
vanguar
dofthepol
it
icalagit
ati
onsinSout
hAfr
ica.TheANCandPACj oi
ntl
ystaged
defi
ancecampai
gnsagainstthepassl
awsandotherr
epr
essi
veapar
thei
dlaws.

Afri
cans waged defiance campaign againstthe apar t
heid pol
icye.g.the 1952
defi
ancecampai gnagainstt heunjustpassl awsand t hepettyaparthei
dlaws.
Viol
entAf ri
candemonstratorstar
getedparks,beachesandst reet
smarked" WHITES
ONLY" ,destr
oy i
ngal
sosign-poststhatrest
ri
ctedAf r
icansf r
om usingt
hem.Of f
ices,
buses,bridgesandrestaurantswerealsotargetsdur i
ngtheAf ri
canvi
olentacti
ons
againstaparthei
d.

Stri
kesandboy cottwereor ganisedbyAf ricanstoresistagainsttheapartheidpolicy.
ChiefAl bertLithulior
gani sedboy cott
sagai nsttheBant uEducat ionAct.TheANC
organisedv ariousboy cottse.g.t hebusboy cot
tswhi chwasagai nsttheunr eal
isti
c
i
ncrementi nthebusf ares.Af r
icansal soor ganisedthepot atoboy cot
twhi chwasa
protestagai nstthepoorwor ki
ngcondi t
ionsonEur opeanf arms.I n1971,twoday
stri
ke,was cal l
ed by t he Coor di
nation f orAf r
ican Dev el
opmentTr ade Uni on
(COSATU) ,
whi chwashonor edalloverabi gsectionofSout hAf r
icancommuni ty.

Demonst r
ationswer estagedagai nsttheapar thei
dpol i
cye. g.inmar ch1960,PAC
organi sedanant i-
passcampai gnwher eAf ri
cansmat chedt opol icestat i
onst o
surrendert hei rpasses and seekar restbyt he poli
ce.Thi sr esulted i
nto most
horrifying dy namiti
cext enti nthewhol ehi st
oryagai nstst r
uggl eofshape- Vil
le,
Massacr e/ki l
lswer emor et han200 Af ri
canswer esl aughtered.Thisi ncidence
prov okedmor edemonst rat
ionsthroughoutthecount r
yandar ousedi nter
national.
Aftert heShar pevi
l
leincident,Afr
icansdoubtedt hesuccessofnon- v i
olat
eresistance
andr esult
edi ntoarmedv i
olencest r
agglethroughor ganisati
onsl ikeUmkhont owe
si
zwe/ spearoft he nation formed i n 1961.Thi s sabotaged whi te pr oper
ty
i
nst allati
onsandest abli
shmentwhi chwer erepressionsofapar theidandcar ri
edout
guer i
llawarf ar eagainstgovernment .

South Afri
cans t hr
ough the OAU and the UNO adv ocated f ordipl
omatic and
economici solati
onofapar t
heidrul
einSout hAf ri
ca,Thei nternat
ionalsanct
ions
great
lyaff
ect edthecountryandthegover
nmenthadt osuccumbt othepressur
eby
holdi
ngpeacet al
kswiththeAfri
canopposit
ionleader
sandt her esul
twast hemulti
-
raci
algeneral el
ecti
onsof1994whichsealedthefateofapartheid.

Afr
icans used music dance and dr ama (MOD) i
n organisi
ng masses and
decampaigni
ngt heapar
theidsy st
em.SongsofMakoba,Chakachaka,LuckyDube
andothermusicianswereinspir
ati
onalamongSout
hAfri
cansandt heinter
nat
ional
communityinthequestf
orAf r
icanli
ber
ty.

Afr
icansusedmassi vepropagandainter
nall
yandext er
nall
yagai nstapart
heidpolicy
.
Thenationali
stsmost l
yusedpr ess(newspapers)e.g.Abantu-Batho.Magazinesand
fi
l
mse. g.ont helif
eofMandel aandCar ryforfreedom byStev eBiko,whichfetched
i
nternat
ionalsympat hyandincreasedpressurefortheli
berati
onofmaj or
ityAfr
icans
fr
om racistoppressi
on

Throught hechurchinSouthAf r
icaespecial
l
yt heAngli
canChur chunderBishop
DesmondTut uwhoplayedabi groleinsensi
ti
singandmobili
singmassesagai nst
theracistregi
mei nSouthAfr
ica.BishopDesmondTut uandot herchurchl
eader s
encouragedmul t
i-
raci
aluni
tyagainstraci
sm inSouthAfri
ca,publi
shedbooksand
preachedont heprobl
emsthataffectedthepopulat
ionofthecountryduetoracial
i
nequaliti
es.
SouthAfricannati
onali
stsidenti
fi
edsomeper sonalit
iesamongthem whower eof
doublestandardsexcommuni cat
edthem f
rom theiracti
vi
ti
esagai
nstapar
thei
d.E.
g.
(ANC)expel l
ed ChiefGatsh Buthel
eziwhom t heyaccused asan agentoft he
repr
essiv
egov ernment.

FACTORSTHATFACI LI TATEDTHELI BERATI ONOFSOUTHAFRI CA


1.Ther oleofpol iticalor gani zat ionsl ikePanAf ricani stCongr ess( PAC) ,t heBl ack
ConsciousnessMov ement( BCM)andt heAf ricanNat ionalCongr ess( ANC) .The
ANCi st heol destmasspol iti
calpar tyest abl i
shedby1912t of ightagai nstwhi te
minorityr ulei nSout hAf rica.
 Thepar tymobi lisedAf ri
cansandmember sofot herr acest of ightagai nstt he
raci stapar thei dpol i
ciesi nSout hAf r i
ca.
 I tsoughtf orext ernalsuppor ti nf orm off inanci al,mor al,di pl omat icand
mi litaryai df rom ot herAf ricanst atesandcommuni stcount riesl iket heUSSR
and Chi na agai nstt he apar t hei dr egime,whi ch was i nst rument ali nt he
dest ruct ionofapar thei dby1994.
 I tpr ov idedacl earpol iticalpr ogr am f ort hest ruggl eagai nstt heapar thei d
regi mesandal sol aiddownt hef ut ureofSout hAf rica.Thi spol iticalst rategy
enabl edt heANCt or al l
ymul ti
-raci alsuppor tagai nstt hemi nor itygov er nment .
Itwast hispr ogr am whi chwasi nst r
ument al in1994gener al elect ions.
 TheANC f or medt hemi l
itarywi ng," Umkhont owesi zwe"orspearoft he
nat ion,t hr oughwhi cht hepar tycar riedoutar medi nsur rect i
onat tacksont he
whi temi nor itygov ernment .Themaj ort ar get soft heat tacksi ncl udedmaj or
economi esandmi li
tar yinspi r
at ionandest abl i
shmentwhi chwer eexpr essi on
ofapar thei d.
 I tpr ov ided Af ri
cansi n Sout h Af r
ica wi th char i
smat icl eader shi p:t hrough
leader sl ikeAl ber tLi thuiiandNel sonMandel awhocommandeddomest icand
inter nat ionalr espectandconsol i
dat eduni tyofSout hAf ri
cansagai nstt he
apar thei dr egi me.
 Thepar tychampi onedt her eleaseofpol i
ticalpr isoner se. g.Li thui i,Si sulu,
Mandel a,et c.whopl ay edasi gni fi
cantpar tint hecol lapseoft heapar thei d
sy stem.
 TheANC car ri
edoutpr opagandaagai nstapar thei dr egi met hroughr adi o
pr ogr ammes,newspaperandmagazi nepubl icat i
onsandMDD whi chwer e
inst rument al int hedest ruct i
onofapar t
hei di nSout hAf rica.
 Or gani sed and par ti
cipat ed i n sev eral st rikes, def iance campai gns,
demonst rat i
ons and boy cot ts agai nstapar thei dr egi mes e. g.t he 1952
Def i
anceCampai gn.Al lt hesewer eempl oy edt oweakent hef oundat ionof
apar thei dandi nfluencer ef ormsandmul ti-raci alpeacet al ks.
 TheANCr ecr uitedandsenty oungAf ri
canst oot herf ri
endl ycount ries, most ly
front linest atesl ikeZambi a,Mozambi que,Angol a,UgandaandAl ger i
at obe
trainedi nt oguer il
lawar f
ar e, whi cht heyusedt of ightt heapar thei dsy stem.
 I test abl ished t he ambassador( represent at ive)posi tion i n manyAf r
ican
stat esandt hi sst rategywasi nst rument ali nsol icitingf orsuppor tf rom many
Af ricanst at es
2. React ionsoft heAf ri
cansagai nstt hemi nor ityr egi me( ref ert ot hei nter nal
reactions)e. g.t her i
seandr ol eofAf r
icanel ites, useoft hepr essandmedi a, use
ofMOD, andnon- violentact sofsabot age, boy cot tsanddemonst rations
3. Inpar ticul ar ,ther iseandr ol eofeducat ednat i
onal i
st si nSout hAf ricahel pedi n
thedef eatofapar t
hei d.Thesei ncludedMandel a, Wal terSi sul u, Chr isHani ,Ol iver
Thambo,andSt ev eBi koamongot her s.TheAf ricanel itescondemnedapar thei d
and cal led f orequalt reat mentofnon- whi tes.Theywer et he br ai nsbehi nd
poli
ticalmov ement s,demonst rat i
ons,boy cot tsanddef iancecampai gnsagai nst
apartheidpol icies.Someoft hem l i
keMandel aandSi suluf acedanumberof
yearsinj ai lbutnev ergav eupont hest ruggl ef orAf ricanf reedom
4. Theor gani sat ionofAf ricanUni ty( OAU)wasi nst rument ali nt hel iberat ionof
SouthAf ricai nt hef ol lowi ngway s:
 TheOAUest abl i
shedaspeci alfundf orl iber ationmov ement spar ticular lyfor
thel iber at ionofSout hAf ricaandNami biawher esev eralmemberst ates
cont ribut edannual lyt ot hecauseofagai nstapar theid.Themoneywasused
topr ov i
dear msandot herweaponsagai nstt heoppr essi v egov ernmenti n
Sout hAf rica.
 I test abl i
shed a l iber at i
on commi t
t ee i n 1967 wi thi ts headquar ter si n
Tanzani a,wi t hot hermember si ncl udi ngUganda,Egy pt,Et hi opi a,Al ger i
aand
etcet erawhower ei nst rument ali nco- coor dinat ingt heact ivitiesofl i
ber ation
mov ement si nSout hAf ri
ca,andsol ici t
ingf orsuppor tagai nstt heapar theid
regime.Thecommi tteeext endedmor al ,f i
nanci alandmi litar ysuppor tt ot he
politi
cal or gani sat i
onsofSout hAf rica.I tal somanagedt hespeci al fund.
 The OAU est abl ished a commi ttee off ront l
ine st ates whose member s
i
ncl udedBot swana,Tanzani a,Mozambi que,Uganda,Angol aandet ceter a.
Front li
ne st at es wer e char ged wi thr egul at ing act ivi
ties ai med att ot al
eradi cationofapar thei dpol icyi nSout hAf ri
caandNami bi asuchast raining
guer ril
laf ight er sand al lsuppor tt o Sout hAf r i
canf r
eedom f i
ght erswent
throughf ront linest at es.
 I n1975,t heOr gani sat ionofAf ricanUni tyv ot edagai nstdi aloguewi thSout h
Af r
ica,whi chaf fect edt heapar t
hei dr egi me.Di alogue( det ent epol icy )wasan
i
ni t
iat i
v eoft her egi meofVer woer dai medatpr omot ingco- oper ationwi th
Af r
icanst atesasameansofweakeni ngsanct i
onsandembar gosi mposedon
apar theidSout hAf ri
ca.
 Memberst at es oft he OAU pr ov ided t raining gr ounds f orSout h Af rican
freedom f ight ers agai nstt he apar thei d sy st em.Some member s oft he
Umkhont oweSi zwe, themi litarywi ngoft heANCt rainedi nUgandaundert he
Nat i
onal Resi st anceAr mywhi leot her swer et rai nedi nMozambi que.
 The OAU memberst atesused t he UN Gener alAssembl yasa pl at f
orm
throughwhi cht heypr essur izedt heUN Secur ityCounci lt ocondemnSout h
Af r
icaandf or cehert oabandont her acistpol icyagai nstAf ricans.TheOAU
alsocal l
edf ort heUNsanct ionsagai nstt heSout hAf rica.
 Thecont inent albodycondemnedi ndi scr imi nat ivebr utal i
tyoft heapar theid
regimesagai nstnat iveAf r
icans.I tbol dl ycr itici sedandcausedi nternat i
onal
concer nov ert hemasski l
li
ngsi nSout hAf ricai n1960atShar pev i
lleand1976
i
nSowet o.
 I tcondemnedt heper secut i
onofAf r
icannat ional istsandi nhumant reat ment
ofAf ri
canpol itici anst hr oughar bi traryar restsandi mpr i
sonment ,har dl abour ,
publ i
cf l
oggi ngandi ndi scri
mi nat i
v e mur der s.I npar ti
cul ar ,t heOAUhi ghl y
crit
icisedt heapar thei dgov er nmentf ort hemy ster iousdeat hofSt ev eBi koi n
1977i npol icecust ody .
 Consequent l
y ,t he or ganisat i
on pr essur ized f or t he r elease of Af rican
politi
ci anssuchasNel sonMandel a, Wal terSi sul uandot herAf r
icanpr isoner s
oft heapar thei dsy st em.Hencemanyoft hesur vivingpr isoner sofapar theid
wer er eleasedf rom pr olongeddet ent ionbyt her egi meofFr edr ikdeKl er k.
 Member soft heOAUagr eedt or ecei v eandsponsornat i
onal istsf rom Sout h
Af r
icaf ormi litar y,educat ionandv ocat iont r aini ng.Theyal soal lowedt he
transi tofal lmat er ials( mat erialai d)andv ol unt eer sont hei rwayt oSout h
Af r
ica.
 TheOAUdemandedal lAfricanst atest obr eakof fdi plomat icandconsul ar
relationswi tht heSout hAf ri
cabecauseoft heircont inuedr acistoppr ession
andhumi l
iat i
onoft heirAf r
icansubj ects.Member soft heOAUagr eedt ocut
offt radet i
esandboy cottimpor tsf rom Sout hAf r
ica,andcl oseAf r
icanpor t
s
and ai rpor tsSout h Af r
ican shi psand pl anes.Theyal so r estri
cted Sout h
Af r
icanai rcraf tsfrom usi ngt heirspace.
 Thebodyur gedi tsmember st or ecogni zepossi bil
iti
esofempl oymentt o
refugeesandpol i
ticalleader sfr om Sout hAf ri
ca.Thei deawast oext endt he
i
deal ofPanAf ricanism andmot iv atetheireffor t
st owar dssel f-governance.
 Thecont inent albodydemandedf ort heimmedi atei ndependenceofNami bi
a
awayf r
om t hei nf l
uenceofapar t heidSout hAf ri
ca.TheOAUemphasi zedt hat
Sout hWestAf ri
ca( Nami bia)wasundert heUN mandat e( super visi
on)and
ther efore Af ricans i n Nami bi
a wer e ent it
led t o sel f-det erminat i
on.The
i
ndependenceofNami bi
al aidthef oundat ionf orthel i
ber ationofSout hAf ri
ca
from apar thei d.
 The cont inent albody r ecogni zed and appr ov ed t he ANC as a nat i
onal
mov ement/ fi
ght i
ngf oraj ustcausef ort hemaj orityAf ri
cansi nSout h
Af r
ica,Thebodyhencesuppor tedt heact i
vit
iesoft heANCi nitsat t
emptt o
endt her aci stapar theidsy st em.
 TheOAUpar ticipatedi nt hemul ti-r
aci alpeacet al
ksbet weent heANCl edby
Nel sonMandel aandt heapar thei dgov ernmentofDeKl erk.Thedi scussi ons
wer edi r ect edt owar dsAf r
icanf reedom andmul ti
-racialcoexi stencei nSout h
Af r
ica.
 TheOr gani zationofAf ri
canuni tysentobser verstowi tnesspeacef ulpol i
tical
transi t
ion( mul ti-
racialelections)i nSout hAf ri
caofApr il1994.Themul ti
-racial
elect i
onendedt hel ong-term apar theidsy stem asMandel aandt heANCwon
ther ace.

5.Thecol lapseofcol dwarpol i


ticsby1990i nspi redt hedef eatofapar theidinSout h
Africa.TheUS- gov er nmentandRussi aadopt edar econci li
at orypol icytowar ds
Sout hAf ri
cabybot hcondemni ngapar t hei dandst andi ngf orAf ricanf reedom
throught heirgov ernmentef fortsandt hrought heUNO.
6.TheUni tedNat ions( UN)pl ayedar olei nant i
-apar theidcampai gn;
 I tcal l
eduponi nter nat i
onal co- oper ationi nt heendofr acism i nSout hAfrica.
 TheUNpassedar esol utioni n1967condemni ngr acialoppr essi onandmade
itani nt ernat i
onaloutl aw.Thi swasqui teamaj orint
er nalizingt heel i
teoft he
di scr i
mi nat edbl acksofbl acksi nSout hAf rica.
 I tr equest ed memberst at es in 1992 t o br eak dipl omat i
c and economi c
rel ationshi pwi thSout hAf ricaast heonl ywayt oweakenr acistregi meandf or
itt ogr antf reedom t omaj orityAf ricansi nt hecount ry
.
 TheUNi n1963passedar esol utionont hebanont hesal eofar mst oSout h
Af rica.Howev er,t hiswasnotqui teef fect i
v eassomememberst atesl i
ke
Fr ance, USAandBr i
tainsol dmi l
itaryar msi nSout hAf rica.
 Bet ween1953and1959,t heUNr epeat edlyar guedSout hAf ri
cat or eviveher
raci al segr egat ioni nl ineoraccor dancet ot heUNchar ter
7. Thesuccessofl iber ationst ruggl esi nAngol a,Mozambi que,Zi mbabweand
Nami biawasamot ivat i
ont oSout hAf ricaf ight erst ost ruggl ef orthei rfr
eedom.
Theypr ov i
dedt rainingbasesandt hesci enceofguer ill
awar faretoSout hAf ri
ca
guer il
laf ighter swhi cht heyusedagai nstt heapar theidgov ernment .
8. Thest andofI nternat ionalCommi tteeofOl y mpi cGameswasaf actortot he
decol oni sat i
onofSout hAf ri
ca.Thei nter nat ionalOl ympi cgameexcl udedSout h
Africaf rom par t
icipat ingf r
om i tuntil apar t heidr ul ewasabol ishedi nt hecount ry.
Thisi sol ation, thoughSout hAf ri
caembar kedont hedev el opmentofdemocr ati
c
game,conv i
ncedt her efor mistr egimeofDecl erksot hatSout hAf ri
cashoul d
gai nherr ight ful placei nthewor l
d
9. The est abl ishmentofSout h Af ri
can dev elopmentcoor dinat ion counci l/
conf erence( SADCC)by1980cont ri
but edt ot hef ullindependenceofSout hAf ri
ca.
Itwasest abl ished bySout h Af r
ican st atest oi solate Sout h Af ri
ca e. g.t he
member swher enott oactasmar ketf orSout hAf ricangoodsandcheapl abour
sucht hatt her aci str egi meshoul df eelapi tcht houghsomeweakeconomi esl ike
Mal awiandMozambi quet heirl abourcont inuedt of l
owi ntoSout hAf rica.Ther e
wasr educt ioni nt her ateofeconomi cdev elopmentandt hi scont ri
but edt o
dismant lingofapar thei d.
10.TheCommonweal th st and r i
ghtf rom 1961 cont ributed t ot hel i
ber ation of
major i
tybl acksi n
Sout hAf rica.Thecommonweal thtookt wof r
agment s;
 The i ncr eased numberofAf rican member si nt he Commonweal th af ter
decol oni zat ion i ncr eased debat es agai nst apar thei d and t he st rong
condemnat i
on ofSout h Af ri
ca' sr acistpol ici
es dur ing t he or gani sat i
on' s
meet i
ngs.
 Consequent ly,Af ricanmemberst at esoft heCommonweal thi nfl
uencedt he
expul si onof Sout hAf ri
caf rom or gani sat i
oni n1961aspar tof
internat i
onal isol at i
onofapar t
hei d
 Theor gani sat ioncal l
edf ori nternat i
onalsanct i
onsagai nstraci stSout hAf rica,
whi ch wer et oodi sast roust oSout hAf r
ica'seconomy
11.Thecont r ibut ionoft hef r
ont l
inest at es; fr
ont l
inest ateswer eacommi tteeofOAU
member sf ront edt ocoor dinat eandext endt henecessar yAf ricanassi stancei n
def eating apar t heidi n Sout h Af r
ica.Theyi ncluded Uganda,Zambi a,Congo,
Bot swana, Tanzani a, Angol a, Mozambi queandl at erZi mbabweandNami bia.
 Thef ront li
nest at espr ov i
dedmi lit
ar ybasest oANCandPACf i
ght i
ngagai nst
racism.Theyal soext endedmor al ,f i
nanci alandmi lit
ar ysuppor ttoANCand
PAC
 Tanzani a, Nami bi aandAngol awer eusedasgoodpassagesf orf oodsuppl ies
toANCbasesi nNami bia.
 Theyst at esal lowedANC andPAC t o coor dinat et het raini ngoff ight ers
agai nstapar thei dwi thint heirbor der s.
 Thr ough f ront l
ine st ates,schol ar ships wer e ext ended t o ANC f ight ers
enhance t hei rmi li
tary educat ion;some wer e educat ed i n Uganda and
Tanzani a.
 Fr ont linest atespr essur i
zed f ort her eleaseofThabo Mbekiand Nel son
Mandel awhost i
rr edt hest ruggl eagai nstf oreignr uleaf tertheirr elease.
 Fr ont line st at es ser ved as modal s ofAf rican i ndependence when t hey
def eat edf or eignr ule.Thi si nspi redANCandPACt ost ruggl ehar dagai nst
apar thei d.
 Fr edr ickDe- cler kor ganisedt her eleaseofNel sonMandel aandor gani sedt he
electionsunderpr essur ef rom fr ont linest ates
 Angol aasaf ront i
erst at ehost edCubant roopst hatwer ef ightingagai nst
apar thei donANCsi de
 Fr ont linest at esl ikeTanzani aandMozambi quei mposedt radesanct ionson
Sout hAf ricawhi chweakenedapar theid.
 Theypr ov i
dedf or est si nwhi chANCandPACest abl i
shedguer ill
abasesf rom
wher et heychampi onedt hest ruggl e.
12.Inf luenceoft heMacmi ll
anspeechaboutt hebl owi ngwi ngofchange.Pr i
me
Mi nisterMacmi llanmadet hespeechi nt hewhi tepar l
iamentoft heCape,wher e
hewar nedwhi tel eader si nAf r i
cat hatAf ricanquestf orf reedom wasi rresi stible
and adv i
sed t hem t o pr epar ef ort ransf erofpol it
icall eader shi pt o maj or it
y
Africans.
13.Impactoft he1960Shar pev il
lei nci denti nwhi chmanyAf r
icandemonst rator s
agai nstt heunr eal ist icpassl awswer eshootat ,l eav i
ngt ensoft hem deadand
hundr edsi nj ur ed.The br utalr esponse ofapar thei d gov er nmentagai nstt he
peacef ulAf ri
candemonst rator scausedwor ldwi decondemnat i
onagai nstr acism
i
nSout hAf rica
14.I mpactofSowet oupr isi ngsont hel iber ationofSout hAf ri
ca( 1976- 77) ;t he
upr i
singswer eagai nstt hesegr egat i
onl awsoft hewhi tei nSout hAf rica.Manyof
thesel awswer ei nst itutedbyt heSout hAf ri
cagov er nmentundert heactof1953
nat i
v eact .Thegr oupar easactof1950.TheBant uhomel andsci tizenshi pact ,the
unlawf ulor gani sat i
onactof1960t hatr est r
ict edt heact ivi
tiesofpol iticalpar ties
l
ikeANC, PACf rom or gani sing; ThusAf ricanchi l
dr enor gani sedapr ot estagai nst
this,theSowet opol icer eact edhar shl yki ll
ingwher e1976.St udent sandsev er al
other swonder ed.Thi sweakenedapar t
hei d.
 The1976Sowet oupr isingwasagai nstt hedecl arat i
onofAf rikaansast he
offici al l
anguagei nschool .
 The upr i
si ng was a bi tter exper i
ence t hat bl essed t he st ruggl ef or
i
ndependencei nSout hAf ricae. g.t heSout hAf ri
capol ice;t hisengi neer eda
ser iesofr iotsanddemonst rat i
onsi nwhi chsev er alot her sAf r i
canswer e
arrest ed and det ained wi thoutt ri
al .Thi s at tr act ed i nternat i
onalpr essur e
agai nstapar thei d.
 Thev iolentsuppr essi onofar ml essdemonst rationsl edt ot hechangei n
pol icyf r
om non¬v iolenceal onet ov iolencebyf ar .
 Thesuppr essi onoft heupr isingat t r
act edanal liancebet weenAf r i
cansand
whi t esi .e.t hewhi teswhoopposedapar thei dsuppor tedAf ri
canst oendi t
.
 Theupr i
si ngl edt ot her iseofv i
olentst udent sor gani sationsopposedt o
apar thei d.These i ncl uded t he Sout h Af rican St udent s Mov ement sf or
secondar yschoolst udent s,whi chdemandedf orequal ityi nSout hAf ricaand
anendt or aci al pr act ices.
 Af t ert heSowet oupr isingandt heconsequent i
aldeat hsofAf ricans,many
student sf l
edt oAngol a,Tanzani a,Al ger ia,et c.,f ormi li
taryt rai ning.Onr etur n
toSout hAf rica, theyf oughtagai nstapar thei d.
 Theupr isingsopenedupr oom f orci v i
lunr estamongstt hewor ker s;ter rorist
act ivitiesbr okeouti nur banar eas.Thecol ored,bl acksandAsi anscont i
nued
toor gani set hemsel v esagai nstt heapar thei dcausi ngendt oapar theid.
 Af t ert heSowet oupr i
si ng, Af ricansbecamev er ybi tter.Theyusedpangasand
speart ot er ror izet our istsandki llmanyAf ri
canswhocol l
abor at edwi th,t he
whi t es.Thi sweakenedt hepol i
cyofapar thei d.
 TheSowet oupr isingi ncr easedt heact sofsabot ageagai nstapar t
hei dt hat
par tlyweakenedi t.Forexampl eDut chpl ant at ionswer edest r oy ed;sensi tive
economi cest abl ishment sl ikest andar dofchar ter edbankwer ehi tbymi litar y
nat ional ist spr ot est i
ngagai nstapar thei dpol i
cy .
 TheSowet oupr isingf orcedt hei nv est orswhohadi nvest edheav i
lyinSout h
Afr i
cat opr essur izePr etor i
agov er nmentt oabandonapar theid.
 Wi thi n USA,t he Ji mmychar terr egime 1977 t o 80 was f or ced byPan
Afr i
cani stt ost opt radi ngwi thSout hAf rica.Di plomat icandmi litarysanct ions
ensur edandt heyweakenedapar thei d
 Thechur chi nSout hAf r
icacondemned t heSowet o upr ising i tcal led i ts
follower st ocondemnapar t heid.Ar chBi shopDesmondTut ut ookt helead.
 OAUgr eat lycondemnedt heSowet oupr isingandcal leduponhermember
stat est ode- campai gnapar thei d.Thef ormat ionofl i
ber ati
oncommi tteei n
1977byOAUwasar esponset oSowet oupr i
singpar tl
y .
 TheOAUdi dnotappr ov etheSowet ouprisi
ngandi tcall
edupont hePr etoria
gov ernmentt odi sbandapar theidf or t
hwith.
 After ,theSowet ouprising,ANCandPAChi dtheirdifferencesandi ssuedjoint
communi ties condemni ng the actand apar theid policy such weakened
apar thei d.
 Thei nter nat i
onalcommuni t
yi solatedSout hAf ricaf rom thecommonweal th
andOl y mpi cGamesduet oapar theid.Pr acti
cesl ikethev iol
entsuppressionof
1976o1977peacef ul Sowetoupr i
si ng.
15.
Ther iset opowerofFr edri
kdeKl erkin1989bl essedSout hAfri
canef forts
agai nst -apar t
heid.De Kl erk was a l i
beralwhi tel eaderwho i mmedi ately
apol ogi zedt ot heAf ricansi nSout hAf r
icaandt hewor l
datl argef orthe
atrocitiescommi tt
edbyt hepr eviousapar theidr egimes.Her el
easedNel son
Mandel af rom pr i
son i n Februar y1990,l i
ft
ed a ban on Af ri
can polit
ical
organi zat ionsaswel lasgi vingAf ricansv oti
ngr i
ght s.Heabol i
shedal lthe
apar thei dl awsandpr eparedt hef irstmul ti
racialelect i
onsinSout hAf ri
cai n
Apr i
l 1994, whi chendedapar thei
di nSout hAf r
ica.

THECONGOCRI SIS1960-1963( KATANGASECESSI ON)


t
h
Congogotheri ndependencef rom Belgium on30 June1960wi t
hJosephKasav ubu
ast he1stPr
esidentandPatriceLumumbat he1stPri
meMi nst
er.Afewday slateron
5thJuly1960theforcepubli
quemut i
nied.
ThisencouragedMoi seTshombe, thegov er
norofKat angafr
om Congoandl eaderof
t
h
CONAKATt odeclarethesecessi onofKat angafrom Congoon11 Jul y1960.The
Katangasecessionwast hereforeasepar ationi
statt
emptbyt heKatangaprovincein
East er
nCongoundert heleader shipofMoi seTshombeexpr essi
ngthedesi reto
wantt oseparat
ef r
om Congobet ween1960&1963.

ROLEOFLUMUMBAPATRI CEI NTHEATTAI NMENTOFI NDEPENDENCE.


Hewasbor nin1925i nt
oasmal ltri
beofBatetel
ainKasaiprov i
ncehegr ewupi na
catholi
cfami l
yi nKi sanganiand hav edev el
oped ar emarkablysharp mi nd and
curiouscharacterist
ic,hewor kedasapostof fi
ceclerkandl aterbecameasal es
manageratabaker yinKi sangani.Ther
efor
ehebecameapol i
ti
calacti
v i
standcr iti
c
oft heBel
giangov ernment .Headopt edPanAf ri
cansentimentsanddi sagreedwi th
otherAfri
cannat ionalist
sl i
keKasav umbaandTshombeandbel i
evedinunfai rsm as
thecauseofr egional nati
onalism.Lumumba’ sdream wastoliberat
eCongo, setupa
strongcentr
al government .

LUMUMBA’ SROLE
 Hepr ovi
dedl eadershipforthest ruggleofi ndependence.I nCongousi nghi s
char i
sma,or gani zati
onalabili
ty,he or ganized,mobi l
ized the people and
crit
icizedtheBel gioncolonialpol i
cies.Heal somadet hem awar eoft he
oppr essi
veandexpl oit
ati
venatureoft heBelgians, heblamedal ltheproblems
ont heBelgians.
 Lumumbaf ormedmov ementNat ionalCongr essi n1958. Thi spartl
ywas
formedi nWor l
dWarI Iasamedi calmov ementf orfi
ghtingforindependence
ofCongoBr azav i
ll
ei n1958i nwhi chLumumbahadal soinspiredpol i
tical
mov ement s.TheMNOat tr
actedal argenumberofBangal ospeakersoft he
equat ori
alprovincealsoformed, alli
ancewi thot herminorpolit
icalpar
tiesand
thereforeservedasanat i
onal wi
desuppor t
’sinfluence.
 Lumumbat ookpar tintheDecember1958.Al lAfri
cansPeopl e’sCongr ess
(AAPC)i nAccr aGhanaonhi sreturnt oCongo.I n1959headdr essedar al
lyin
Leopal dVill
eandappeal edt othepeopl e’spat riot
ism andhi smessaget hat
independencewasnotagi ftbutar i
ghtspar kedof fpopularupr i
singt he
Leopaldv il
le( Kinshasha) .
 Lumumbaal sout i
lizedt heor atoryski l
lst ocr i
ticizeBel giancoloni alpol iciesi n
Congo. Hi s speeches whi ch al way st arget ed Bel gian col onialpol icies
provokedmassi venoti .
e.t hiswast oputpr essur eunt oBel giancol oni alistst o
grantindependencei nthey eart hatfol l
owedt henot s.
 Lumumbaat tendedt heBr ussel sWor ldTr adeshowi n1958.Att heshowof
Congol esewer ei nv i
tedandgotexposedt ot henat i
onal i
sti
ci deasandl iber al
sentiment sofAf ricansandot heroppr essedr aces.Theycamet or ealizet he
Belgiancol oni alpol ici
eswer edesi gnedt ost rengthenexpl oitati
oni onhi s
retur
nhome, hebecamer adical wi t
ht heBel gians.
 Hepar ti
cipat edinv ariouspol i
ticalnegot i
at i
onst hatl edt ot hegr ant ingof
i
ndependencet oCongoi n1960.Heev enl ednegot iati
onsi nBr ussel swhi l
e
beingdet ainedi npr isonswi thBel gi
ansf ort hequest ionofi ndependence.
 Lumumbat ookpar ti npr e-independentel ect i
onsandhi sMNCmanagedt o
wint hepr o-independenceel ectionsof1960whi lehispar tywon33/ 30seat s
againstot herpol it
icalpar t
iesl ikeCONAKATandt heABACO.Het her ef ore
becamePr i
meMi nisterofCongoon30TH June1960.
 Lumumbaputonpr essur et heBel giansf orconst i
tuti
onalchanges.Heal so
addedt ot heeconomi candsoci alr ef
or ms. Hepar t
icularl
ycr i
ticizedt he
Belgiansexpl oit
ativepol iciesf orexampl ei n1935, t
heeconomi ccondi tionsi n
Congower ebadowi ngt opov ertyunderdev elopment ,oppr essionandf alling
pri
cesofci ties.Di scont entwasont her eespeci al
lyamongt heur banel i
tes,
educat ednat iv
es.Het henmobi li
zedt hedi scont entedmassesagai nstt he
Belgianst odemandf ortheeconomi candi ndependentmeasur es.

OTHERFACTORS
Theyi
ncludet hef ollowi ng;
 There was r emar kable change i n Bel gian at ti
tude i n 1957,t heirat titude
changedandmadet hem al l
ow t heCongol eset oel ectt hei rownl eader si n
Leopal dv i
ll
e.Subsequent l
yJosephKasav ubuwasel ect edmaj orst oneoft he
communi stt ownsl i
keKisangani .
 Ther oleofCat holicChur ch.I tdef i
nedt heoppr essedmassesandact edas
thei
rwat chdogdur ingtheper i
od.I n1956,t hechur chopenl yadv ocat edf or
poli
ti
calr ightswheni testablishedast udygr oupt hati ssuedamani festoand
proposedf orindependence.Thespi ri
tuali nf l
uenceoft hechur chkepti tf i
ne
ofCongol ese.
 Ther olepl ayedbyot herpol i
ticalpar ti
esf orexampl eCONAKATandABACO.
Thesepar t
ieshasbeenf ormedf ollowingt heconst ituti
onalgov er nmentof
1957.Apar tfrom MNCf or medbyt heAbakongoet hni cgroupwasst artedby
JosephKasav abawhi chst artedt o demandf ori mmedi at ei ndependence.
Laterin1959,mai seTsombeuni tedt heKat angeset raitsi nanot herpol it
ical
party
,t heCONAKAT.Theact ivi
ti
esofpol iticalpar tiesdr oveCongot oher
ndependenceon30thJune1960.
i
 Ther oleofChar lesDeGaul l
e.I nAugust1958Char l
esDeGaul lethePr esident
of Fr ance v i
sited Br azav il
let o pr oclaim aut onomy wi thint he Fr ench
commonl yfort hef ourcol oniesacqui redf eder at i
onoft heFr enchEquat or i
al
Afri
ca.Thi spr ov okedunr estasi tmeantt heFr enchsi deofDRCwasoni ts
roadt oi ndependencepol iti
calpar t
iesi nt heCongot henst ar t
edt odemand
forthei rindependencef rom Bel gium.Subsequent lyst rikesand di sor der s
th
brokeouti nJanuar y19 .Thesest rikeswer el at ersuppr essedbutt heyl aid
vari
ousnegat i
veef fectsonBel gianpr esenceandpr est i
ge.
 Ther oleofot herCongol esenat i
onal istsf orexampl eMoi seTshombeand
Kasav ubu.
Qn:Towhatext
entdi
dPat
ri
ceLumumbacont
ri
but
etot
hei
ndependenceofCongo?

CAUSESOFTHEKATANGASECESSI ON.
 Theper sonalambi tionsofMoi seTshombet hel eaderofCONAKAT and
gov er norofKat angahadf ai l
edt osecur ehimsel fapr omi nentposi t i
oni nt he
cent ralgov ernmenti nCongoatt heev eoft hecount ry ’
si ndependence.Thus
i
n t he f rust r
at ed dr eams whi ch wer e occupi ed wi th qual ities t hat
demonst rated t he pol ish st y le of pol iti
calman- ov er,Moi se Tshombe
attempt edt oest abl i
sht hest at eofKat anga.
 Themi li
taryMut inyoft hef or cepubl iqueon5thJune1960.Thef or cepubl i
que
mut inedi npr otestoft heBel gi anCommanderJanssensofwhohaddecl ared
his posi ti
on r ef usi ng t o Af ri
cani ze t he f or ce publ ique.Thi s encour aged
Kat angaunderMoi seI shambat obr eakawaybecauset her ewasnof or cet he
gov er nmentcoul dr el yont osuppr esst her ebel li
onbyKat anga.
 Thei nfl
uenceoft hePaki stan secessi on f rom I ndi an i n 1947.Thi sal so
i
nfluencedt heemer genceofmi cronat ionalism i nCongoaswel lashav inga
spillov eref fectCongo.I n1947t heBr iti
shgr antedPaki st ani ndependenceby
separ ati
ng herf rom I ndi a. Thi si nfluenced Moi se t o decl are Kat anga
secessi onon11thJul y1960.
 The Kat anga secessi on was encour aged by t he economi c pot ent ialof
Kat angawhi chgav er iset oaf eel ingofmi cr onat i
onal ism.Thepr ov i
nceof
Kat anga was endor ed wi th gr eateconomi c pot entiall i
ke mi ner al s,gol d,
copper ,zinc,t inandAl umi num.Kat angaboast edahi ghqual ityf orest sf or
ti
mberandhi ghf ertilesoi l
s.Thebul koft hisweal thwasi nt hehandsofwi th
Belgi ans.Ther efor eKat angat houghtshecoul dst andonherownwi thoutt he
helpoft hear my .
 Weaknessoft heUNOwher et heBel giansi nt erferedwi tht erritoriali nt egr ity
and sov ereignt y ofCongo by depl oy i
ng t roops i n suppor tofKat anga.
Lumumbar epor tedt hisBel gianoppr essiont ot heUNSecur it
yCounci lwhi ch
tooknoact i
on.They( Br i
tainandFr ance)di dnotwantt of rust rateBel gium
because she was a memberofNATO as Lumumba gov ernmentwas
consi der edaspr o-sov i
etUni on.
 Theabr uptpr emat urei ndependencegr ant edt oCongobyt heBel gianon30th
June1960whi chcr eat edaweakcent ralgov ernment .TheCongol esedi dn’ t
hav et imet odev elopt heki ndofst rongpol i
ticalst r
uct urest hathadat tracted
Africansf rom Nor thCent ral, WestandEastAf ri
camakesi mi l
art r
ansi tionst o
i
ndependencewi thoutgr eatdi ff i
cul ty.Theci v i
lser vi
cewasst i
llweakandt he
armyst i
lldomi nat edbyt heBel gians.Thi swaswor senedbyt hei ndependence
const i
tution whi ch cr eat ed pr ov i
nces t hatwer e semi -autonomous.The
absenceofadequat epr epar at i
onf ori ndependenceweakenedt henew set
andencour agedbi dsf orsecessi oni sm.
 TheaspectofBel gianconspi r
acy/ thesuppor toft heKat angasecessi ont he
Belgi anaddedf uelt ot heCongocr isisbygi v i
ngmor al,financi alandmi li
tar y
aidt ot heKat angesesecessi oni st .
 Ther umouroft hesuccessf ulsecessi onofSout hKasai&ki vuf rom Congo
whent heser umor sspr eadi nt ot heKat angaRegi onofCongo.I talsodecl ared
thesepar atest at eofKat angaf rom Congol eadi ngt ot hei rout breaksoft he
1960- 63Kat angasecessi on.
 Thei nf l
uenceoft hewhi teBel gianset tl
ersi nKat anga.Thedi rect lygav e
assi stancet oMoi seI shambei nt hi ssecessi oni stat tempt .Thiswasbecause
hadgr antedt hei rmi ner alr ight sandt heyhadsetupcompani est omi neand
expl oitint hegener algov er nmentunderKasav ubuandLumumbat her efor e
theygav esuppor tt ot heKat angasecessi on
 TheBr ussel sconst it
ut i
onwhi chusher edCongoi ntoi ndependencei n1960
didn’tcl ear lyspel loutwhet herCongo wasami l
itaryorf ederalst ate,it
theref orel eftsomepr ov inceswi thinKat angawhi chwer emai nlyaut onomous
ami stakewhi chTshambecapi t
alizedont oseparatet hest ateofKat angai n
1960.
 Themur derofPat r
iceLumumbaon17th Jan1961Al iAMazr uiandMi cheal
Tidywr otet hat ;“WhenLumumbawasmur deredt heCongowasr edelivered
politicallyonwhent heUN i nterv enedt hreey earsear l
ier.Theconf usion
enabl ed Kat anga t o st rengt hen i n Sout h Kasaisecessi on”Lumumba’ s
my ster iousdeat hl efthi scount r
ychaot i
cdi vi
dedandmor econf usedt han
everbef or ewhi chencour agedbi dsf orsecessi onism.
 Thei nf luenceofcol dwarpol i
ticsoft het i
me.Thei nv ol
v ementofsuper
power si nt heaf f
airsofCongoweakenedt hecent r
algov ernmentt ot heext ent
thatKasav ubut hePr esidentandLumumbat hePr i
meMi nsterdi dnotwor k
toget herany mor et his encour aged Kat anga secessi on and t he Kasai
Cent rifugal for ces.
 Thebombi ngofpor tMat adi byt heBel gians.
 Thechar act erandper sonal itydi sadv antageofPat r
iceLumumbaar rogant ,
uncompr omi singconsi der edhi ssubj ecti nfer
iorandt oldt heBel gians,“ We
arenol ongery ourmonkey s”.I nhisspeech.
 Weaknessoft hecent ralgov ernmenti nLeopal dVi l
le( Kinshasa) .Thepast
regimel edbyJosephKasav ubuandPat ri
ceLumumbaasPr emi erwasweak
and i nef fi
ci entKasav ubu was f eder alistand capi t
al i
st ,Lumumba was a
social i
standbui lti nast rongcent ralgov er
nment( unitarist),whenpeace
publiquemut iniedandt heKat angar ebel li
onbr okeoutt heduet ookcour seof
action.Lumumbai nsistedt hatt her ebel li
onshoul dbecr ushedmi lit
arywhi l
e
Kasav ubawant edanat ionalconf er encest oaddresst hei ssue.Subsequent l
y
th
on5 December1960Pr esi dentKasav ubudecl aredPr i
meMi nisterPat ri
ce
Lumumba di smi ssed i nr etal i
ati
on.Pat ri
ce Lumumba decl ared Kasuv uba
deposed.Thi sconf usi onwasexpl oitedbyMoi seTshombet opar adehi sbi d
forsecessi onism.
 Regi onal imbal ance.

REASONSFORTHEFAI LUREOFKATANGASECESSI ON
 Ther oleplayedUNOt roopswhower einv i
tedt oCongobyPat r
iceLumumba
whoi nvadedKat angar egi onf r
om 1960- 62endi ngt hesecessi onbot hon
paperandongr oundaf terthedeat hofPat ri
ceLumumba.TheUNsecr et
ary
Gener alDayHammonskj oldabandonedt heUN peacef ulpolicyov erCongo
subsequent l
yinDecember1962, theUNf or cesonKat angabyJune1963, the
rebell
ious province had been def eated.Day Hammonskj old cont r
ibuted
immensel yt ot he pr eserv ati
on ofCongo and f ort he cont ribution,t he
sacrifi
cedhisownl i
fewhenhedi edonapl anecr ushonani ll-
fatedv i
sitto
Congodur i
ngthecr i
sis.
 Thedeat hofPat r
iceLumumbaon17th Jan1961whi chhasbeenbl amedon
Moi se Tshombe l ost nat ionaland i nternationalsuppor t.I n spi te of
Lumumba’ sradicalandmaxi mi zedi deas,hewasar espect edCongol ese
nationali
stathome and abr oad.Hi s deat h att he hands ofTshombe
disappointedthel at
tercapi t al
istal i
esi ncludi ngBel gian,Br i
tainandFr ance.
TheycondemnedTshambeandcutof fdiplomat i
ct ieswi thKat anga.
 Theper sonalit
yandchar acterofMoi seTshombe,di scredictedhi m pl ushi s
secessionisti
deas.Thoughhehadt her ightv iewshel ackedt hepol i
ticalskill
s
neededt oachiev ehisaim.Hewasar rogantandaut ocr ati
ci nconduct .Al i.A
Mazr uiandMi chealTidywr ot ethat;“Whatwaswr ongwi t
hTshombeandhi s
politicalel ites?I tisal li
ancewi tht heBel giansandot herel i
tesal ienat edhi m
from t heCongol esewhodet est edneo- col onial i
sm”
 Thei deaofsecessi onal sol ackedwi despr eadofl ocalsuppor tf r
om t he
Kat anga secessi on t hemsel v es and r at herdepended on Bel gi an money ,
weaponandmen.Kat angai tsel fpeopl ewer edi vi
dedduet ot ri
baldi fferences.
Thosei nf av ourofuni tarygov er nmentpr esent edt hei deaofsepar at ionf rom
therei soft hecount rybesi desci t
iesi nKat angaused t hei rinf luencet o
decampai gnt hesecessi oni stat temptt heyev enmobi li
zedandsensi ti
zedt he
publ i
cagai nstI shambef orexampl eAnt oineGi zenga.
 Thef l
ightofMoi seI shambet oexi l
ei nUSAi n1963madeKat angal osea
politicall eader .Thi smadet heKat angesewhower eunabl et of ightt hei r
enemyt ofr ust rat et hesecessi onf ur ther .Tshombewasi nv i
tedbackf rom hi s
i
mposedexi leandnamedPr imeMi nst eri nt heKasav ubuGov ernmenti n1964
andKat angawasr einst atedaspar tofCongo.
 Ther ef usalOAUt or ecogni zet heKat angasecessi onal sol edt ot hef ail
ur e.
TheOAU i nst ead suppor ted t hecent ralgov ernmentand condemned t he
secessi onasdi sr espectoft heOAUmemberst atesanddenouncedI shmbe’ s
self-st yl
edgov er nmenti nKat anga.Thef actt hatKat angadi dn’tr ecei veOAU’ s
blessi ngl edt oi t sfailur ein1965.
 Theassi stancebyt heCent ralgov ernmentofCongor ecei vedf rom t heSov i
et
Union.I tgav et hecent r
algov ernmentl ar geamount sofammuni tions.These
toget her wi th Lor ries and ot her suppl ies st rengt hened t he Congol ese
national i
star my .Byt heendofAugust1962,Kasaiwasoccupi edwhi chl ef t
Kat angai sol at edandonl ywai tingf ort hedef eatwhi chcamei nJanuar y1963.
 Ther olepl ay edbyt heCat hol icChur chi nCongo.I taddedi t
sv oicei nt he
condemnat ionofTshombe.I tr efer redt ohi m asmur derwhohadconv erted
Kat angai nt oadeat hy ard.Thi swasbecauseheei therf ailedorki ll
edhi s
enemi est hev ict imswentaheadt ocur seTshombeandgener ationaf t
erhi m
tohel l.Thef actt hatt heCat hol icChur chhadal otofi nfluencei nt heCongo
hisv oi cewor kedagai nstt heKat angesesecessi onistat tempt .
 Ther oleoft heAf ro- AsianAr abconf erenceof1963.Theconf er encewas
conv enedpar tlyt osol vet heconf lictsandamongstr ev olutionswast hatof
totaldenunci at i
onoft heKat angasecessi on.Bysodoi ngi tdemandedf ort he
preser vati
on oft heCongo asasov er ei gn and Uni ted St at es.Thi smor e
frustrat edt hemi cronat i
onal ism oft heKat angese.
 Ther ewasl ackofdearpol iticalpr ogr ammesbyKat angaTshgov er nmenti n
Kat anga.Tshombe’ sgov ernmenti nKat angadi dn’tpr eser v ecl earpol iti
cal
progr amme f ort he bet ter mentoft he peopl e ofKat anga.I nst ead,hi s
secessi onistat tempt sbasedi tsel fonot hernar r
ow i nt erest sl iker eligionism
and t ribalism.Besi des Tshombe di dn’ tdo any thing t oi mpr ov e on t he
gov er nmentt hathadbeenpr act i
calbyt heBel giansi nKat anga.Tshombe’ s
ambi tionwasr athert osecur ehi msel fapr omi nentposi tioni nt hecent ral
gov er nmentandnotl iber atet hepeopl eofKat anga.
 TheCongol esegov er nmental sogotmi litar yassi stancef rom Sout hAf ri
cai n
spiteoft heabsenceofanegl igibl edomest icmi l
it
ar yf orce.Lumumbat he
primeMi nist erappeal edt ot hei nter nat ionalcommuni tyf orassi stance.Sout h
Af r
ica’ sapar thei dr egi mer espondedt ohi sappealbysendi ngmi li
tar yt ot he
Cent ralgov er nmentwhi chf ur therst rengt henedt heCongol esenat i
onar my
agai nstt hesecessi on.
 Reor gani zat ionoft heCongol esenat ionalar my( ANC)t hishel pedt opr eser ve
the mi l
it
ar y bal ance ofpoweri nf av ouroft he cent ralgov er nment .By
gov er nment ,t he ANC had r econst ruct ed i tself.I twas bet t
erequi pped
Af r
icani zedi nt ol eader ship.I twaspl acedundert hel eader shi pofCol .Joseph
Mobut uwhoser vedast hear mychi efofst aff
.Thear mywasexpanded,
equippedandst r
engthenedandgotassi stancefrom UNO.Thi sst r
ongman
powerandequi pmentenablet hear myt ocapturelargepieceofl anddest ined
forKatanga.
 Thewi thdrawalofBelgiansuppor tfrom Katangamadet heirdefeatinev i
table.
Italso hel ped to confi
rm t he mi l
i
tary weakness ofKat anga gr adual ly
unpopul artotheKatangeseint herebelli
ousprovinces.
 Thedef eatofKatangaunderMoi seTshombewast heref
oreinevitabl
ebyApr i
l
1964.The cent r
algov er
nmentwasabl et o under t
ake new const i
tuti
onal
measur es.I tdiv
ided the t
ribalr egions intotwent yone pr ovinces whi ch
watereddownt heethnicnati
onalism inCongo.Tsombehel dsecr ettal
kswi th
KasavubuandKat angawasr econci l
edwi ththerestofCongo.

Gui
dingquesti
on
1.Accountf orthefai
lur
eofKat
angasecessi
onof1963.
2.Towhatext entwasMoiseTsomberesponsi
blef
ortheout
breakofKat
anga
secessi
on?

EFFECTSOFTHEKATANGASECESSI ON.
 Itencour agedot hersecessi oni stmov ementi nAf ri
ca.
 ItweakenedCongol eseCent ralgov er nmenti nKinshashabycausi ngconf lict
bet weenPr esi dentKasav ubuandPr imeMi nsterLumumba.
 Itcausedt hei nvitati
onoft heUNOt roopsi ntoCongobyPat r
iceLumumbat o
helpi nt hepr ocessofsi lenci ngt hepr ocessofKat angasecessi on.
 Itledt odeat hofUNsecr et aryGener al.
 Itdiv i
dedt heAf ri
canst atef orexampl eO. A.Umember si.
e.t
hosesuppor t
ing
Kat angaandt hosesuppor ti
ngcent ralgov ernmenti .e.Ghana,Mal i,Guni ea
suppor tedt heCent ral gov er nment .
 Wor senedt her efugeecr isisi nnei ghbor i
ngcount riesasmanyCongol esef led
toUganda, CongoBr azzav ill
e.
 Itmi l
itari
zedt hepol i
ticsofCongot herebypav i
ngwayf ormi li
tar
yr ulei n
CongowhenCol .Mobut ucapt ur edpowert hroughacoupi n1964.
 Increasei neconomi cdest ructiononsoci all i
fei.e.proper l
yli
kei nfr
astructur e
wasdest roy ed.
 Promot edneo- coloni alism i nCongoandwor senedcol dwarconf l
ictsi nce
Lumumbasoughtf orext er nal suppor tfrom Sout hAf r
ica.
 Exposedt hedoubl est andar dsofUNOsi ncei tfailedt oadequat el
ystopt he
Congocr isis.
 ItmadeTshombet oachi ev ehi ssel fi
shambi tionofbecomi ngapol itical
l
eaderi nt heKi nshashagov er nmentofKasav ubuwhenhewasappoi nted
PrimeMi nst erin1964.
 Itledt ol ossofl i
vesofbot hcaust i
ansandcanser tant
sespeci all
yi nt he
prov inceofKat angawhi chi nt hev i
ew oft heCat hol i
cChur ch,hadbeen
refer r
edt oasadeat hguar d

THEBI AFRANSECESSI ON(1967-1970)


THEBi fr
ansecessi onwasmast ermi ndedbyLt .Col.OdumwenguChukuMeka
Ojukwu.I tr
epresentedasepar at
ionistattemptbyBi af
raregioninEasternNi ger
ia
wantingtobreakawayf rom Ni
ger i
abet ween1967and1970.On30th May1967,
OjukwusolemnlyproclaimedtheRepubl i
cofBi af
ara“subsequentl
y”on6thJuly1967,
theBiafr
anwarbeganwhenaf ederalmilit
aryoffensi
vewasl aunchedonBi afaraby
Presi
dentYakubuGowon. TheI boofEast ernRegionhaddeci dedt osetupa
separ
atestateofBi
afar
awhi
chl
ast
edupt
oJanuar
y1970whent
hesecessi
oni
sts
weredefeat
ed.

CAUSESOFTHESECESSI ONWAR.
 TheBr itish col oni alpol i
cyofdi v
ideand r ulepol i
cyi n Ni ger ia. TheBr iti
sh
under mi nedt heuni tyoft hecount r
yt hrought hei rdi v i
deandr ulemet hodof
admi ni strat ionunt ilt he1940’ st heBr itishsepar at edt heNor t hf rom t hesout h.
Theyl ookedatt hei rsubj ectasHausa,Ful ani,Yur uba,I bo,amongot herandnot
asNi ger ia, besi dest heBr itishconcent rat edonChr istiansi nandwest erni singt he
Sout hmaki ngi tdi fficul tf ort heNor ther nMusl i
mst oco- exi stwi thSout her n
Chr i
st i
ans.
 Ther olepl ay edbyt her eligiousdi f
ferencesi nNi ger iaal socausedt heBi afran
secessi on.TheHausaFul anii nt henor thwer epr edomi nant lyMusl i
msandhada
strongadher encet oI slam andt heShar i
al awssi ncet he19Ji hadbay s( era).On
cont rary ,theSout her nl iket heI boandt heYor ubawer epr edomi nant l
yChr istians
byf aith.Thi smeantt hatt her ewasaser iousr eli
gi ousdi visioni nt hecount ryt hus
Nor ther nMusl i
msandSout her nChr i
stianswer egr ossl yi ncompat i
bleandt his
partlyi nf luencedt hepr edomi nant lyChr i
st ianI boi nt heEastt owantt obr eak
awayf rom Ni ger iabet ween1967and1970.
 Theeconomi cpot ent ialofBi af rai nEast ernNi ger i
aal sol edt ot hesecessi on
spiritamong t he Bi afrans.The r egi on was qui te endowed wi th abundant
economi cpot ent i
alf ori nst ancei twaspr oxi matedt ot hecoastwhi chhadf er ti
le
soil,abundantf oodst uf fandpr oduct ionofpal m oi l.Mosti mpor tantwast he
discov er ingofpet r oleum andoi ldeposi ti nBi afr awhi chev enat tractedf oreign
compani es.Thust hedesi ret owantt omonopol izesuchnat uralandeconomi c
endour mentf ort hei rownex cl usivemat erialpr osper it
ycompel l
edt hem i nt o
secessi oni stwarf rom 1967t o1970.
 The domi nat i
on oft he Ni ger ian pol iticsbyt he Nor ther ner sal so l ed t ot he
secessi on.I nt hef eder alpar liamentf ori nst ance,t henor thoccupi edmor et han
halfoft heseat .Posi ti
oni nt hegov ernmental sof av our edt heNor th.Thust he
unabl edI bot ri
edt ooccupyaconsi derabl epor tionoft heci vilser vice,t heywer e
notcomf or tabl ewi t ht heexcl usi vepowerandpr ivilegesgi vent ot heHausaand
Fulani .Manyoft hem cr i
ticizedt heTaf awaBel ewagov ernmentascor rupt.Thi s
partlyexpl ai nswhyt heyor gani zedacoupi n1966t oov ert hr owTaf awaBel ewa.
 Themassacr eandhar assmentoft heI bobyot hert ri
besi nt heNor thandot her
partsoft hecount ryespeci allydur i
ngGowon’ spr esi dency .Thi si ncr easedanger
amongt heI boi nt heSout hEast ernofNi ger i
a.Byear lySept ember1966,ar ound
20,000I bohadbeenext ermi nat ed.Suchgenoci deagai nstt heI bomast er minded
by t he Gowana admi nist rat ion whi ch was t o l at er encour age bi ds f or
secessi oni sm byt heI bo.
 Thechar act erand per sonal i
t yofOdumengwuOj ukwaal so madet heBi af ra
secessi oni stat t empti nev i
t abl e.Hewasv eryuncompr omi singi nchar acterf or
instancei nMay1961,anat i
onalr econci l
iat i
oncommi tteewhi chi ncl udedChi ef
Obut er iandAwol owoputbi dat tempt sdi scour agehi mf rom t hesecessi ons.
Gowonaccept edsomeoft hecommi ttee’ spr oposal sbutOj ukwur ef usedt o
accept .Besi des,hewasnotpr acticali nhi sv iewsf ori nst ancehewant eda
feder algov er nmentt oconsul twi t
hr egi onalgov er nment si nal lmat tersoft he
state bef ore anydeci sion coul d be made when Gowon f ailed t o meethi s
demands, hedecl ar edt heBi af ransecessi on.
 Thedeat hofGener alI ronisaf ter6mont hsofof fice.I twaspr ot estedbyt heI bo,
hence l eadi ng t ot he 1967- 70.Bi afran secessi on i n Ni ger ia,t he Nor th had
cont rolledgov er nmentf rom 1960- 66butt heI bower egi venonl y6mont hsand
thegov ernmentofNi ger i
awentbackt oLt .Col.Gowonanot herNor therner.This
thenencour agedaspi ritofsecessi onism amongt heI bo.
 Exter nalinf
luencealsoai dedBiafranwarofsecessi on.Anumberofcount r
iesdid
i
nv olv ethemsel vesi
nt heNi ger
ianaf fair
s.Thi st r
ansumedt hecr i
sisf r
om badt o
wor ser atherthanuni fyingt hesecessi onistandt hef eder algov ernment ,external
gov ernmenti nsteadwor kedhar dt owor sen.Thecent ralgov ernmentgotsuppor t
from USAandt heSov ietUni onwhi l
eOj ukwugotsuppor tfrom Chi na, France.
 Thef ail
ureofGener alAr krah’
sinterventiont hroughAbuj aconf erenceand1967.
In1967,Gener alAuthurt hePr esidentofGhanat riedt oi nter v
enei nabi dabout
politi
calhar monyi nthet ornNigeria.Het heni nstitutedandsponsor edt heAbuj a
conf erence.Theconf er encewasat tendedbyt hetopmi l
it
ar yof f
ici
alswhoshar ed
acommonhat redforci vili
anrule.Theysol vedt ogov ernt heI bo.TheI bot hen
react edbycut tingli
nksanddecl aringt hesecessi onl eadingt oapr otectedwar
betweent hefeder al
gov ernmentandBi afran.

REASONSFORTHEFAI LUREOFTHEBI AFRANSECCESSI ONBY1970.


Despi teBi afra’ sat temptt oseccedebet ween,1970byJanuar y1970,t hef eder al
for
ceswer eabl et odef eatOj ukwaandhi ssuppor t
er sowi ngt ot hef ol l
owi ngf act or s.
 Opposi ti
ont ot heBi afr ansecessi onbysomeBi afrans.Thi smeantt hatt hei dea
ofsecessi onbyBi fransl ackedwi despr eadandl ocalsuppor twi thint heBi afran
region.Themi nor i
tygr oupswer et her e,al thoughhav i
ngsuf feredf r
om Nor ther n
violenceandmi sr ulewer el esssuppor t
iveaboutt heconceptofBi afra.Someof
theI boev encooper at edwi tht hef eder alf ocusagai nstBi af r
ansandamongt hem
i
ncl uded;Asi ka Ukpabia pol iticalsci ence l ect urerand NandiAzi kiwe who
opposedt hei deaofsecessi on.
 Thedecl arat i
onofaf eudalbl ockadesonBi afrabyGowan’ sf eder algov ernment .
In or dert o def eatt he Bi af rans,Gowon’ s gov ernmentdeci ded t oi mpr ov e
economi csanct i
onsbycut ti
ngof fBi afraf rom anycont actwi thot herpar tsof
Niger i
aandwi tht heout sidewor l
d.Thi sst epl edt oacut eshor tageofsuppl i
er s
i
ncl udi ngweaponsamongt heBi af rans.Foodshor tagesbecamecommonand
deat hsasar esul tofmal nut ri
tionbecameacommonsi ghtamongt heBi afrans.
Gr adual l
yt heirr esi stancewasbr okenf orci ngt hem t osur renderbyJanuar y1970.
 Themassi v esuppor tt hatt hef eder algov ernmentofNi geriar ecei vedf rom Br itain
andt heSov ietUni on.Thi smusthav eweakenedt heBi afransBr it
ain,Ni ger ia’s
formercol oni al mast erwant edt omai ntainaconsi der ableinfluencei nNi geria.
 OAU’ sr ef usalt or ecogni seBi af rai nst eadt heOAUt hr ewitswei ghtt osuppor tthe
feder algov ernmentofGowansi ncet heOAUst oodf oruni tyandpanAf r i
cani sm,
i
tt her ef oredi dn’ tsuppor tBiaf ra,Subnashandt herefor eengagedi nanumberof
processesandef for tst odecampai gnt heBi af r
ansuccessi onl eadi ngt oi tsf ail
ur e
by1970.
 Theheav ymi l
itar ybasessuf feredbyt heBi afransf rom 1968t o1970al sof or ced
thent osur render .Ast hewarpr ogr essed,mostoft hest rategi ct ownsandci ties
fellint ot hehandsoft hef eder alf or ces.Thesei ncludedt ownsl ikeNsuka, Ower i
,
Gal abar ,Enuga,Ul iai rstripandl at erPor tHar cour t.Theheav i
erbl ow wast he
capt ur ingoft heUl iai rstripwhi chcutof fBi afraf r
om i t
sl inkswi tht heout side
wor ldmaki ngt hedef eatoft hesecessi onpossi bl eby1970.
 Gowon’ sdet er mi nation t o def eatt heBi af ra’ssecessi onist sand t o mai nt ain
Niger i
ai nt oa12st atest ructuret hensoughtf rom NasserofEgy ptwhopr ov ided
him ai rfor cepl anesandwhi chEgy pt ianpi lot swer eabl et owr eckhav ocf rom t he
Biaf rans.Theyi ndi scr i
mi nat elyspl ashedbombsont heBi afransl eadingt hem t o
sur render .
 Theabdi cat i
onofOj ukwut oI vor yCoaston11thJan, 1970.Thi slef tthepeopl eof
Biaf rawi thnol eader s.Theyt her ef orel ostasenseofdi rectionast heybecame
demonal i
sed t hen on 12th Jan,t he Bi afraf orce sur rendert ot he f eder al
gov ernmentofNi geria.
 Lackofpol it
icalpr ogr ammesbyt heBi af
raal somadei t sdef eati nev it
abl eby
1970.TheBi afrasecessi onl edbyOj ukwul ackedasubst ant ialpl anormani fest o
thatcoul dbeconv incingenought oear nitcr edibili
tywi thinBi afr
aorf rom t he
i
nter nat i
onalcommuni ty.I twasr atheranaf f
airpeddl edbyOj ukwaatper sonal
gainsbutnotbenef i
tt hepeopl e( Biafrans)hencet hisledt ot hesur renderoft he
Biafrant husl eadingt othedef eat.
 Themi l
itaryweaknessofBi afraal sol edt ot heirdef eatby1970.Fori nstanceby
theendoft hewar ,feder alfor cesnumberwas120, 000ont heot herhand, Biaf r
an
forceswer ef ewi nnumber , asmanyoft heirexper iencedsol dier shasbeenki l
l
ed
i
nJul y1996coupwhi leot herswer et akenascapt iv
esandot hers deser ted.
Besi des, theBi afransol dierswer eilltreatedcompar edt of eder alforces.
 Ther esistancet hatf eder algov ernmentofNi ger i
agotf rom Wor l
dWarI Iveter ans.
Thesewer emenofenor mousexper i
enceandt heirsuppor tt of eder alar my
helpedt oboostt hegov er
nmentsi deagai nstt hesecessi onist.I ncont rastt he
Biafranshadasmal lar my ,trainedof fi
cersmai nl
ybei ngki ll
edi ntheJul y1966
coup.Thi sl edt oBi afran’ sdef eatby1970.
 Theef f
ect i
vemi li
taryst rat
egyempl oy edbyt heGawonadmi nistrat
ioni nNi ger ia.
Thisi nvolvedpl acingt hecommandofNi ger i
anf ederalar myunderexper ience
l
ikeGener alOl esegunObasanj oandGener alMust afaMi ld.Theywer eabl et o
engul ftheBi afransoutofsuppl yrout esint heBi afrat erri
tor y
.Theyal sousedt he
strategyofheav ybombi ngs.Thr ought hem Bi afralostherst r
onghol dl iket heNI P
air
shi psandherot hert ownsl i
keOwer i,
Nai kaandEnugu.

EFFECTSOFBI AFRANSECESSI ON.


Negati
veEf fect s
 Thewarpr omot edneo- coloni l
ai sm inNi geri
aasf oreignpowerl i
keBrit
ain,
Franceand t heSov ietUni onand ot hercount r
iesbegant oi nf
luencethe
int
er nal affai r
sofNi ger i
a.
 Thewaral sost rainedt heNi gerianeconomybycausi ngeconomi cdisl
ocati
on
i.
e.oi lrevenues.
 Thewarcr eated ar ef ugeecr i
sisespeci al
lyin neighbori
ng countr
iesli
ke
Camer oonandI voryCoastwhi chpr esentedabi gburdent ot
hehostcountri
es
totheOAU&UNHRC.
 Thewaral soi nfl
uencedt r
ibalism inNi geriai.
e.Ibov ersusothertri
besli
ke
Yor ubaandHausa.
 Itledt ot hel ossi fl i
v esespeci all
yamongt heBi af
ranbutal soamongbot h
civi
liansandCombat antf ight er
s
 TheBi afranswer edef eat edandOj ukwuf ledoutofthecount r
ytoIvoryCoast.
Thismadet heBiaf r
anf ight er stosur enderon12thJan1970.
r
 Thewarcr eated ar ef ugeecr i
sisespeci al
lyin neighbori
ng countr
iesli
ke
Camer oon et c which pr ev ented a bi g burden tot he hostcountri
es and
organi zationsl i
keOAUandUNHRC.

Posit
iveEf fects.
 OAUr econcil
edNi ger
iawit
hst at
est hathadr ecognisedBiaf
raforexample
IvoryCoast .
 I tledt ot hedrawingupofanew const it
uti
onf orNi ger
iawhichenhanced
social,poli
ti
calandeconomicprogress.
 Thewarr econci
ledthedef
eatedBiafrans(
Igbos)withtherestofNi
geri
a.
 I tledt othepur i
fi
cati
onoftheBiafranregionofNi geri
ai.
e.Gawonpr ov
ided
rel
i
efl
aidtot heBiafr
ansincludi
ngr e-
constr
uctionofwarravagedareas.
 Itmade Biaf r
an scient
ist
st o become i nnovati
vei .
e.theymanuf act
ured
mechi
nes,transformedtheci vi
l
ianaircr
aftintoafightinmachinesandmade
shi
ftr
efer
inariesforfuel
i
ngv ehicl
esamongot hers.

Refer
encequesti
on
Examinethecausesandef
fect
soft
heBi
afr
anwarofsecessi
onbet
ween1967and
1970.

THECI VLWARI NCHAD( 1965-1982).


Chad,af ormerFr enchcolonywhor eceived/r egainedheri ndependencei n1960
underi tsfir
stPr esidentFrancoisTombal bayeoft hepr ogresspartyofChad( PPC.)
Thecomposi ti
onoft hi
spartywaspr e-dominatelyoft henonMusl i
msandpar t
iall
y
Chr i
sti
anizedSour thernSara. Inaboutadecadeaf terindependence,ar ebell
ion
brokeouti nt hedeser tnor
thernhalfofthecount ryin1965andf ul
ldev el
opedintoa
fullscalewar ,i
nv olvi
ngthestruggl
eforpowerandcont rolofthecentralgover
nment
bet weent heSar aandToubou.Themai nrebelmov ementwast heChadNat i
onal
Liberati
onFr ont(FROLI NAT)

CAUSESOFTHECHADCI VILWAR.
 Mal -admi nstrat i
onbyt heSout hernSar aci v ilSer vantsi nt henor th.Thi sSar a
wer eappoi nt edbyt hepr esi dentTombal bay et or eplacet erritor i
al chiefsint he
Nor thandt heybecamehar sh,oppr essi veandexpl oitat ivesomet hi
ngt hat
wasr esent edbyt heTouboupeopl ei nt heNor t
hwhodemandedf orf ai
r
treat ment .Fai lurebyTambal bay eadmi nistrat iont ol istent ot heirdemands
prov okedt hem t orebel hencespar kingof ft heci v i
lwari nChad.
 Thedi ct atorshi pofPr esi dentTombal bay eal sol edt ot heout breakoft he
Chadci v i
lwarf ori nst ancei n1962hebannedal lopposi tionpar ti
es.Al l
pot ent ialr ivall eader sandt heirf ollower swer ebannedf r om t hepr ogress
par tyofChad.( PPC) .Theunder groundposi tiont hatf ollowedwascount edas
wi despr eadar restsofsuspect s.I tr ebui ldt hemsel vesi n1963whenbr utalit
y
was used t o suppr ess ant i-
gov ernmentr itual s oft he t rade uni ons and
student si nf rontli
ne( Uj aamena) . Suchr eact ionbyt hegov ernmentwas
responded t o an equaland t heopposi t
er eact ion byt heToubou peopl e
l
eadi ngt oaci vilwar .
 Rel i
gi ousdi scont entbynor therner sal sowor kedi ncausi ngt heci v i
lwari n
Chad.Thegov ernmentabl edependedonChr istianSar asoft heSout hr uling
ov ert heNor t
her n who wer emai nlyMusl ims. TheToubou peopl ewer e
per secut ed f ort heirf aithf orexampl et heywer e pr ohi ted f r
om wear ing
turbansandcar r
y i
ngkni v es.Theyal sohat edt hef actt hatt heywer ebei ng
ruledbyChr ist aininfidelst hussuchr el i
giousdi ssast ifact i
onofTouboumade
them pi ckupar msofTombal bay er egi mel eadi ngt oaci vil wari nChad.
 The ci vilwarwas al so as a r esul tofunf airt axat ion sy stem putby
Tombal bay er egime.Hi sf irstmi st akewast oempl oyhi sownt r
ibesment he
Sar ai nt heci vilser v
icewhopl acedt errit
or ialchi efsi nt axcol lectioni nt he
nor th.Het henembar kedont heanext or ti
ont axpol i
cywhi chpr ovokedr i
ot
undert hei rl eaderOuddeiKedef emiwhosesonOuddeiGoukounit ookup
armsagai nstt heChadgov ernmentl eadi ngt oci vilwar .
 TheTombal bay e’schadi tudepol icy/ cultur alr ev olutionsal sowor kedt of uel
theci vilwari nchadi n1973, Tombal bay elaunchedacul tur alr evolutionsinan
attemptt o cr eat e nat i
onaluni tyt hr ough r e- t
raditionar i
zat ion.Accor dingly
Chr istiannameswer ebannedandmanypl acenameschanged.Fr ancoi s
Tombal bay ebecameNgar taTombal bay e,f ortLamybecameNdj amena.The
Chr ist i
an and i nt ellect ualel i
t ei ncluding t he domi nantSar a opposed t his
mi st ake pr oposed by Tombal bay e. They hat ed t he t r
adi ti
on ofTondo
i
ni t
iat ionr itewhi chTombal bay ehadmademi st akes.Theyal sor esent edt he
reli
gi ousper secut i
ont hatf ollowedasal lt hi swashappeni ng;FROLI NAT’ s
posi tionwasst rengt henedbydi v isi
onsi nt hesout hernl eader shipcausedby
Tombal by epol i
ceofChadi tudel eadi ngt oaci v ilwari nChad.
 Failur ebyTambal bay eand Goukouniadmi nistr ati
on i n Chad t o cr eatea
nat i
onalar myal sol edaci vilwari nChad. Thi sl eftChadwi thv erymany
privat ear mi eswi thdi videdl oy alty.Ther ebyunder mi ningt hepossi bilit
yoft he
unit edf or tagai nstt heFROLI NATr ebelswhi chi nt urnf uel ledt heci v i
lwari n
Chad.
 Tombal bay egov er nmental sopr omot edr egi onali mbal ance. Mostoft he
bet ter soci al ameni ti
es l ike t he good r oads, hospi t
al s, school s
accommodat ionwer eal locat edi nt hesout handnor thwasamongespeci all
y
thenor t hernToubouMusl i
mswhoaccusedt heToubouBal eyr egi meofsi de
l
iningt hem i neconomi cdev el opmenthencel eadi ngt otheChadci vil war .
 Frenchcol onyl egacywasal sot obl amef ort hebr eakofci vilwari nChad.
Frenchcol oni almast er sdi dn’ ti ntegratet het ri
balandr el igiousgr oupsof
Chadi nst eadt heFr enchf av or edt heChr i
st iansSar aoft hesout hi nci vi
l
ser viceandusedt hem t odomi nat eToubouMusl i
msi nt heNor th. Thi s
promot edhat r
edanddi visionofChadl eadi ngt oci vilof1965-1882.
 Thef ailur ebyGaukoun’ sgov er nmentt ocr eat eanat ionalar myal sof uelled
theci vilwari nChad.Goukounhadt r
iedbutf ailedt ocr eat eanat ionalar my
outoft he pr ivat e ar mi es wi th 100,mor ef act i
ons t hatcompr ised hi s
gov er nmentofnat ionaluni ty( UNT) .Thi sgambl ehadf ai ledasf rom Jan2
June1982.Habi e’sFAN t roopsadv ancedst eadi l
yt hrought hecent raland
Nor t her ndi st ri
ctswi thi nt hecount ry. Thi smeantt hatChaddi dn’ thav ea
pat rioticar myev ersi ncei ndependencet hatcoul dbeusedt opr ev entt he
out br eakoft heci v ilwari nt hecount ry
.
 Ext er nalf or ceswer eal so pr esenti n causi ng t heci vilwar .Fori nst ance,
Habr e’sFANf or cesr ecei vedsuppl i
esf rom Egy ptandSudanwhi leGonkani ’
s
forcesr ecei vedai df r
om Li by at roopsandweaponr y.Fr anceal sogav et he
Chadl eaderGaukaunif inanci alai dandar mssuppl i
esi nor dert oal i
enat ehi m
from Gadaf fiofLi by a.Ear li
eroni n1968andagai nin1969–1972.Fr ance
also assi st ed Tombal bage bya t i
mel yi nter vat ion agai nstt he r ebel li
ous
FROLI NAThencef uelingt heci vilwari nChad.
 Thecol dwarpol iticswer eal sot obl amef orcausi ngt heci vilwari nChad.
Thi swaspeddl edbyU. S.A & U. S.S.R.Thesepower st ur nedChadi ntoa
dumpi nggr oundf ort hei rweaponswhi leatt hesamet i
mef uel ingaci vil wari n
thecent ral.Fori nst anceUSAgav eHi sseneHabi e’sFANf or cesusedUSA’ s
helicopt ert of ightGonkouniwhi le Goukouno r ecei ved Li by an and sov i
et
assi st ancel i
ket hesov ietr ocketl auncher sandt heheav ymot opl us200.T-
ser i
essov ietTanks.Thi sl edt ot heci vilwari nChad
 Thef ailureof1978ceasef i
r eagr eementi nSebhai nFeb1978,Mal l
oum met
Gadaf fii nSebhai nt hepr esenceofNi ger ,Sey niKount cheandt heVi ce
Presi sdentofSudan f orexampl eagr eed on t heceasef i
re. Tal ksl ater
cont i
nuedbet weent heChadgov ernmentast heFROLI NATadv anced
 Theweaknessoft heOAUcanal sobebl amedf ort heout br eakoft heChad
civilwar . Al thought heOAO peacekeepi ngf orcenumber ing300menhad
beeni nt egrat edi nNovandDeci n1981mai nl yf rom Ni ger i
, SenegalandZai re
commandedbyaNi ger i
anmaj orGener alGeof r eyEj gat heyf ailedt ohal f
Habi e’sFANf orcesadv anci ngt henor thernandcent raldist rictsofChad.Ev en
stepst akenbyt heOAUmeet ingi nNai robii nFeb1982wer enotef fective
enoughOAUmember swer eal soconst rai
nedbyf inancesbesi dest heyf ailed
toagr eeonwhatpeacekeepi ngmi ssionshoul dbe.Asar esult,thef or ces
mandat er emai neduncl earandt heywi thdr
ewl eadingHabi ersFANf orcesi n
t
h
toact ionwhi chr esultedi nt
ot he7 Juneov erthrowofGoukouns.
 Tombal bage’ sgov ernmentpr act i
cednepot i
sm andf avourt
ism.
 Creat edr egional imbal ance
 Theexcl usionofGoukounif rom thegov ernmentofNat i
onaluni onalsof uel ed
aci vilwari nChad.Af terbeingsav edf rom possi blecoupbyFr enchf or ces.
Mal loum r emai nedpr esidentbutappoi ntedHi sseneHabr easpr imemi nist ers
i
nAugust1978andanat temptwasmadet oappoi ntmi nistersf r
om al l
regions.Unf ortunat ely
,Gaukouniwasn’ tgi ven any posi ti
on i nt he new
gov ernmentoft heNat ionalUni on.Goukonir esumedf i
ghti
ngbyl aunchi ngan
offensi v
ewari nt henor thofChadunt ilMar ch1979whenanewgov ernment
wasr eachedi nKar o,NigeriaunderUNOandmadeGoukounichai rmanoft he
newcounci lofst ate
 Tombal bagef ai
lur etocr eateanat ional army.

EFFECTOFTHECI VILWARI NCHAD


 Theci v i
lwari nChadexposedt heweaknessoft heOAUf ori nst ance; theOAU
peacekeepi ngmi ssionsi nChaddi dnotknow i tsr ealmandat ewas.I twas
dividedbet weent wobackupGoukouni ’sgov ernmentagai nstt her ebelor
whet hert okeept het wor ival for cesapar t
.I tspeacekeepi ngf orceswer eal so
few andi nadequat elysuppl ied. OAUmember sal sof ailedt or aiseenough
moneyt oendt heChadci vilwarbecauset heoper ationi nChadwascost edat
87mi ll
ionf oundi nay earbuti nt womont hsoft hef orcesdepl oy menti nthe
Chadonl y270, 000poundshadbeenr aisedsof arandi twasofadequat e
fi
nanci alsuppor tthatdi ct atedt heear l
ywi thdr awaloft heNi ger i
anf orcesi n
May1982.
 Thewaral sowor senedt her efugeecr i
sisi nAf ri
ca.Ast hewardr aggedon,
surv i
v alinChadbecamet ri
ckyanduncer tain.Thi sf or cedmanypeopl eoutof
the count ryespeci allyt o nei ghbor i
ng count ri
es l i
ke Ni ger iaf ori nstance,
SultanOuddei Kedef eni t ookr efugei nLi byawhi l
eGoukeuni becamechai r
man
oft henewcounci loft hest at ei nMar ch1979Mal loum wast or emai ni nexi l
e
i
nAl ger iawhenhewasov er thr ownbyHabr e’sFANf or cesi nJune1982.
 Thewaral socausedl ossofl i
v esandmassi vedest r
uct ionofpr oper ties.For
i
nst ance, dur i
ngt heant i-gov ernmentr iotsi n1963- 500peopl el ostt hei rli
ves
i
nanat temptbyt hegov er nmentt oTombal bay et obr utal i
tysuppr esst he
ri
oter s.Byt heendoft hewar ,thenumberoft hoset hathaddi edwhet her
soldier sorci vili
ansst oodev enhi gherandpr oper tydest roy edwascol ossal
(great ).
 Thewari ntroducedmi l
itar ism i nt ot hepol i
ti
csofChad.Thepol icyoft he
armyst eer ingt hepol i
ti
csofChadbr oughtbackt heApr il1975coupwhi ch
overt hrew Tombal bay eandhewasr epl acedbyt heMaj orGener alFel i
x
Mal laoum whowasi nt ur nov ert hrownbyGoukoumiOuddeiwhowasi nturn
overt hrownbyHessi ni Habr eont he11thJune1982.
 Theci vilwari nChadal sopar al
y zedt heeconomi cl i
f et her e. Asf i
ght i
ng
i
ntensi fi
edeconomi cact ivit
iesl ikeagr i
cul tureandi ndust rialpr oduct i
onbr oke
downpl acesl ikeBar dai ,Ti best iandot hert ownsbecamezonesofcr ossf i
re
fi
ght ing. I nt hepr ocess,pr oper tywasdest royedl iker oads,bui l
di ngsand
gener aleconomi cli
fedi sr upt ed.Thi scausedeconomi cdecl inei nChad.
 Theci v i
lwaral soalienat edanddi videdt hepeopl eofChad.Themor et heSar a
themsel veswer eal ienat edbyTomboabay e’
schadi tudepol i
cyandr el
igious
persecut ionTombal bay eal sodi vi
dedt heNor t
her ner sbyappoi ntinganumber
ofMusl imst ocabi netposit
ions.Thi swor senedt hei nt ernaldi v
isionswi thin
Chad.
 Theci vilwari nChadal somani f
est edandi ntensif i
edt hecol dwarconf li
cts
bet weenUSA andt hesov i
etuni onUSSR.Thi sr eveal edi t
selft hrought he
dumpi ngofweaponsandar mourf rom bot hsi desf ori nst ance,USA gav e
Chi mook hel icopters were broughti n Liby a al so f l
ew i n 5000 t roops in
December1980wi thmulti
pler ocketl aunchesandheav ymor tarsand200T
from Sov i
etUni on.
 Thewaral sor esult
edint odivisionsamongAf ricancount ries.Thi sdi vi
sion
wasbet weent hoseAf ri
cancount rieswhi chopposedi t.Fori nst ance,Li bya
suppor t
ed FROLI NAT and t his wor sened t he r el ationshi p Li by a and
Tombal bey e’sgov ernment.Goukouni ’sgov ernmental sohat edt hepol i
cyof
suppor ttoHabr eFAN byt heSudanandEgy pt. Ot hercount r
iesi nAf rica
howev er,remai nedopposedt otheci vilwari nChadf ori nst anceKeny a.
 Theci vilwari nChadal sol edt ot hedi srupt i
onofsoci all i
fei nChadf or
i
nst ancef ami l
ylif
eandst abili
tybecamei ncr easingl yuncer tainast henumber
ofmengoi ngf orwarkeptoni ncreasi ng.Thi sgav ebi rtht owomenheaded
fami li
esassomemengotki l
leddur ingt hewar , orphansandwi dowsbecame
commoni nChadhencedi sorgani zingt hewhol esoci al fabr icthere.
 Posi ti
vely,t heci vi
lwari nChadl edt ot hef ormat i
onofagov ernmentof
Nat ionalUni on in 1979 with Mal loum as pr esidentand Habi e as Pr ime
Mi nisterandat t
empt swer emadet oappoi ntmi nistersf rom al lr egionsof
Chad.

Ref
erenceQuesti
on
1.Towhatext entwasFrancoi
’
sTombal
bay
eresponsi
blef
ort
heout
breakof
thecivi
lwar
si nChad

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