Biopolymers As Green Binders For Soil Improvement
Biopolymers As Green Binders For Soil Improvement
Review
Biopolymers as Green Binders for Soil Improvement
in Geotechnical Applications: A Review
Hadi Fatehi 1,2,*, Dominic E. L. Ong 1,2, Jimmy Yu 1 and Ilhan Chang 3
1 School of Engineering and Built Environment, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia;
[email protected] (D.E.L.O.); [email protected] (J.Y.)
2 Cities Research Institute, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia
3 Department of Civil System Engineering, Ajou University, Suwon‐si 16499, Gyeonggi‐do, Korea;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Abstract: Soil improvement using biopolymers has attracted considerable attention in recent years,
with the aim to reduce the harmful environmental effects of traditional materials, such as cement.
This paper aims to provide a review on the environmental assessment of using biopolymers as
binders in soil improvement, biopolymer‐treated soil characteristics, as well as the most important
factors affecting the behavior of the treated soil. In more detail, environmental benefits and con‐
cerns about the use of biopolymers in soil improvement as well as biopolymer–soil interaction are
discussed. Various geotechnical properties are evaluated and compared, including the unconfined
compressive strength, shear strength, erosion resistance, physical properties, and durability of bi‐
opolymer‐treated soils. The influential factors and soil and environmental conditions affecting
various geotechnical characteristics of biopolymer‐treated soils are also discussed. These factors
Citation: Fatehi, H.; Ong, D.E.L.; include biopolymer concentration in the biopolymer–soil mixture, moisture condition, tempera‐
Yu, J.; Chang, I. Biopolymers as ture, and dehydration time. Potential opportunities for biopolymers in geotechnical engineering
Green Binders for Soil Improvement and the challenges are also presented.
in Geotechnical Applications:
A Review. Geosciences 2021, 11, 291.
Keywords: biopolymer‐teated soils; soil improvement; geotechnical properties; biopolymer soil
https://doi.org/10.3390/
interaction
geosciences11070291
Academic Editors: Mohamed Shahin
and Jesus Martinez‐Frias
1. Introduction
Received: 4 June 2021 Ground improvement is the deliberate enhancement of geotechnical properties of
Accepted: 13 July 2021 marginal soils to obtain the desired and optimal performance. When faced with a chal‐
Published: 15 July 2021 lenge, a geotechnical engineer would endeavor to develop the most effective and eco‐
nomical approach of soil treatment considering the underlying soil types, treatment
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays depth, locations required to be treated, desired level of improvement, availability of
neutral with regard to jurisdictional
skilled personnel and materials, environmental friendliness of the method and project
claims in published maps and
costs. These design factors are the most effective in determining the appropriate treat‐
institutional affiliations.
ment method [1]. Chemical modification is defined as the addition of additives to soils to
alter the soil properties to be acceptable as defined in design criteria. Nowadays, nu‐
merous materials are being used for soil treatment. Lime and cement are considered
among the most popular options. Often, additives such as sodium sulphate and fly ash
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
are added to cement to enhance stabilization. Bitumen, chemical compounds, and geo‐
This article is an open access article
textiles are the other materials which have been used for soil stabilization through vari‐
distributed under the terms and ous methods such as mixing materials and chemical grouting [2–8].
conditions of the Creative Commons Global warming and climate change are considered among the most concerning phe‐
Attribution (CC BY) license nomena in recent decades. In the case of materials used in civil applications, traditional and
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses calcium‐based materials, such as cement and lime, and synthetic products, have led to
/by/4.0/). greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions, which are directly related to global warming. Therefore,
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11070291 www.mdpi.com/journal/geosciences
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 2 of 39
alternative and less polluting materials should be encouraged [9–12].
Although cement production has remained unchanged during the past six years, it
is still considered one of the main sources of CO2 emissions, contributing approximately
8% of the global CO2 emissions [13]. From 2010 to 2018, the global amount of cement
production increased from 3310 to 4100 million tons (23.8% increase) [14]. To reduce ce‐
ment usage, researchers have attempted to replace traditional environmentally harmful
materials with sustainable techniques and methods, such as bio‐enzymes, CO2 absorp‐
tion, microbial‐induced calcite precipitation (MICP) method with viable but low‐cost
medium, and biopolymers [15–20].
In recent years, different solutions have been developed for environmentally
friendly soil improvement, some of which are based on microbial activities and bio‐
materials. MICP is a multi‐disciplinary technique combining the fields of microbiology,
biology, and geotechnical engineering [21]. MICP is the process of using bacteria to pre‐
cipitate calcite (CaCO3) in the soil matrix, which leads to soil strengthening [22–24]. The
formed CaCO3 network links the soil grains firmly and while the changes in subsurface
conditions are not permanent, the longevity of treated soil mass can be adopted based on
project needs and requirements [25]. Another advantage of MICP is to reduce the im‐
proved soil permeability to mitigate liquefaction by either bioclogging process or allow‐
ing the excess pore water pressure to be dissipated [26]. On the other hand, MICP dis‐
advantages are the requirement of highly specialized sets of environmental and growth
conditions, applicability to mostly in coarse‐grained soil [27–29], producing ammonia as
a by‐product [30], and difficulty in gaining a uniform distribution of calcite [25].
In addition, enzymes can also be used to obtain calcite through the same biochemical
reactions as in MICP. This improvement method is called enzyme‐induced calcium car‐
bonate precipitation (EICP) [31]. Another biological method used is stimulating microbes
to generate biopolymer (microbial biopolymer accumulation) within the soil matrix, to
improve the soil against erosion and permeability reduction [32–34]. Biofilm formation has
a beneficial effect on soil stability and the reduction of soil hydraulic conductivity [26,35–
39]. Biogas generation, such as nitrogen, is also a biological method by which the liquefac‐
tion potential of sand is decreased. The production of insoluble gases in soil pores leads to a
reduction in the degree of soil saturation, to mitigate the liquefaction hazard [40,41].
Polymers are macromolecular materials that are composed of repeating subunits
(monomers). There are two types of polymer: synthetic and natural. Synthetic polymers are
those produced from petroleum products. Biopolymers are natural polymers that are
produced naturally in the environment by plants and living organisms [42]. They have an
extensive record in different applications in the construction industry [43]. The majority of
biopolymers have been employed as adhesive or water retention agents. Lignin and its de‐
rivatives are effective as an additive in concrete and oil well drilling. Cellulose and starch
derivatives performed well in various applied fields such as tile adhesives, oil well con‐
struction, ceramics, and cement and lime plasters [44–46]. Biopolymers have been used in
drilling fluids because they require low viscosity during pumping and high viscosity after
circulation has stopped; specific features conferred by xanthan to the solution.[47–50].
In geotechnical engineering, biopolymer binders potentially have a notable effect on
enhancing various aspects of marginal soil behaviors. The beneficial effects and ad‐
vantages of biopolymers have been reviewed in recent review papers from different
points of view. However, there is still a gap in understanding of the behavior of bi‐
opolymer‐treated soil under diverse loadings and environmental conditions. An envi‐
ronmental assessment is undertaken in this study which presents the factors that must be
considered when using biopolymers during their life cycle. Also, it is necessary to un‐
derstand how different parameters could influence the biopolymer interaction processes
with soil particles before, during, and after mixing, with particular reference to curing
conditions, as well as environmental factors. This paper endeavors to update and com‐
prehensively review the studies on biopolymer‐treated soil from the perspective of ge‐
otechnical engineering, including the evaluation of unconfined compressive strength,
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 3 of 39
2. Biopolymers in Geotechnical Applications
Biopolymers can be classified based on different terms including biodegradability
(biodegradable and non‐biodegradable) and the source of raw materials. Three groups
can be considered when classifying biopolymers based on their source of origin:
plant‐based biopolymers, animal‐based biopolymers, and biopolymers produced by mi‐
croorganisms [51]. Figure 1 presents a list of biopolymers, which are mostly utilized for
soil improvement purposes, based on the source of production.
Figure 1. Common biopolymers used for soil improvement based on their source of production.
2.1. Plant‐Based Biopolymers
Plant‐based biopolymers are produced from plants and agricultural scraps. Bi‐
opolymers in geotechnics mainly include plant‐based products which are mostly poly‐
saccharides. Guar, lignin, agar, beta‐glucan, alginate, and carrageenan fall into this cat‐
egory. Guar gum (guaran) is a polysaccharide composed of two sugars galactose and
mannose, extracted from the guar plant. Among water‐soluble polysaccharides, guar
gum is the one with the highest molecular weight [52]. Guar gum is a naturally charged
polysaccharide that can be found in both cationic and anionic states. The world produc‐
tion for the guar gum family is more than 1 million tons each year so that it is commer‐
cially available at a reasonable cost. The presence of large hydroxyl groups in guar gum
produces a network of hydrogels among soil particles and hydrogen ions through hy‐
drogen bonds [53,54].
Lignin makes an influential contribution to the formation of cell walls, especially in
trees and barks. After cellulose, lignin is the most abundant biopolymer existing
throughout the world. It is relatively hydrophobic and a recalcitrant biopolymer (resistant
against acid‐ and base‐catalyzed hydrolysis) [55]. Due to it being a natural adhesive and its
phenolic nature, lignin has been considered a good replacement for wood adhesives [56].
Being cheaper, environment‐friendly, and non‐toxic has made lignin an appropriate alterna‐
tive for traditional stabilizers [57]. A stable soil structure is formed when lignin links soil
particles together and leads to the reduction of big pores in the soil [58].
Agar gum is a thermogelatin polysaccharide extracted from seaweed (i.e., marine
red algae) [59]. This biopolymer tends to dissolve in water at temperatures around 85 °C
and to form a gel when cooled to 32–43 °C [60]. The conventional agar production pro‐
cess consists of key stages of pre‐treatment, extraction, filtration, concentration, and de‐
hydration [61]. The properties of agar gum are greatly dependent on the seaweed utilized
for agar production [61]. Because of having comparatively long molecular structure and
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 4 of 39
low ionic inclination, agar gums act to coat and coagulate soil grains, and direct interac‐
tions with soil particles would be difficult for agar gum due to its neutral charged nature
[62]. Beta‐glucan biopolymer is a natural polymer found in the cell walls of yeast and
cellulose in plants. It is a biopolymer of D‐glucose monomers linked by glycosidic bonds
[63]. The potential of beta‐glucan biopolymer to form hydrogen bonds is relatively high
due to the hydroxyl and carboxyl (COO‐) on the edges, which cause surface polarization,
creating a greater capacity for water adsorption by beta‐glucan, and resulting in pore
filling and volumetric expansion of soil.
Sodium alginate is an anionic polysaccharide with the chemical formula
C5H7O4COONa, and it is a salt produced from alginic acid [64]. It is mostly produced
from the cell walls of marine brown algae [64]. Alginate is a water‐soluble biopolymer
and forms a viscous gum by linking with water molecules [65]. Biocompatibility, low
toxicity, and relatively low cost make alginate a good choice for soil improvement ap‐
plications. Also, pH can significantly affect the viscosity of alginate solution. A pH re‐
duction results in a decrease in viscosity [64]. Moreover, highly charged molecules, hy‐
drophobic and polar moieties, as well as the side chain carboxylates provide sodium al‐
ginate with a distinctive potential additive in soils [66]. Carrageenan is known as a linear
polysaccharide produced from red edible seaweeds. Carrageenan is an anionic biopol‐
ymer and is soluble in water. In low pH with high temperatures, the stability of carra‐
geenan is expected to decrease [67].
2.2. Microorganism‐Based Biopolymers
Biopolymers such as xanthan gum, gellan gum, and dextran, are the products of bac‐
terial fermentation processes, which are considered microorganism‐based biopolymers.
Xanthan gum is a microorganism‐based anionic polysaccharide, produced through glu‐
cose/sucrose fermentation by the Xanthomonas campestris bacterium. The most well‐known
characteristics of xanthan gum are pseudo‐plasticity [68] and high shear stability [69] even
at relatively low concentrations. Moreover, it has several desirable properties, including
pH stability, storage stability, and ionic salt compatibility xanthan has found a wide range
of applications in cosmetics, oil, paper, paint, pharmaceuticals, and food and textile indus‐
tries as a gelling, thickening, or suspending agent, and as a flocculent or for viscosity con‐
trol [70]. Gellan gum is a thermogelatin anionic polysaccharide with a high molecular
weight that is produced through bacterial fermentation of Sphingomonas elodea [71]. In
commercial applications, thermal behavior of gellan gum is used as deacylated polymer
which is soluble in water at temperatures higher than 90 °C. It then forms a gel when the
temperature is reduced [62]. This biopolymer has a remarkable ability to form high‐quality
gels, and has also been found to be stable at high temperatures and low pH conditions [72];
these features make this biopolymer a suitable additive for soil improvement.
Polylysine is a lysine homopolymer that includes functional carboxyl and ε‐amino
groups. It is a cationic polymer [73]. This biopolymer is produced by bacterial fermentation
typically in the strains in the genus Streptomyces and has both hydrophobic and hydrophilic
properties [74]. The positive charges of ε‐polylysine are capable of interacting with nega‐
tively charged surfaces such as fine clay [73]. Dextran is a natural polymer and a complex
branched glucan that is synthetized from sucrose by certain lactic‐acid bacteria. Dextran is
insoluble in water and pH does not affect its solubility. Dextran solutions behave like
Newtonian flow characteristics [75]. In geotechnical purposes, as dextran is produced
through a microbial process, a bacterium named Leuconostoc mesenteroides was cultured and
stimulated in fine sand to generate dextran to reduce the surface erosion rate [34].
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 5 of 39
2.3. Animal‐Derived Biopolymers
Animal‐derived biopolymers are the polymers produced from animal sources. Chi‐
tin and chitosan are produced from the waste crustacean shells such as shells of shrimps,
and protein‐based biopolymers are produced from milk and dairy products. Chitosan is
a water‐soluble biopolymer that tends to bind to negatively charged surfaces [76]. Chi‐
tosan is a linear polysaccharide of D‐glucosamie and N‐acetyl‐D‐glucosamine, which is
usually extracted from crustacean shells of the food processing industry [77]. Chitosan is
an animal‐based biopolymer with cationic nature, and because of the positive charges of
amino groups, it becomes a cationic polyelectrolyte after being dissolved in acetic acid
[78]. This cationic feature allows it to interact with chitosan and the negatively charged
double layer of clay [79,80]. Casein is a type of protein biopolymer which is negatively
charged at a pH of 6.6 with an isoelectric point is around 4.6 [81]. A high‐quality casein
for soil treatment applications is obtained when extracted from skim milk with the lowest
fat amount [82]. Compared with other biopolymers, protein‐based biopolymers have a
less hydrophilic tendency to water absorption [83]. As the polymeric chains of casein
reach into the soil particles, the soil and biopolymer are joined together through electro‐
static interaction among protein functional groups [82]. Table 1 presents the most im‐
portant details of the common biopolymers in soil strengthening.
Table 1. Characteristics of common biopolymers utilized for soil treatment and their potential environmental impacts.
Potential Environmental
Biopolymer Source Charge Type Water Solubility
Impact
glucose or sucrose fer‐
0.1 kg CO2e for production
mentation by the Xan‐
Xanthan Gum anionic soluble of 1 kg biopolymer, no
thomonas campestris
land use
bacterium
bacterial fermentation soluble at temperatures Low CO2 record, no land
Gellan gum anionic
of Sphingomonas elodea higher that 90 °C use, and no pesticides
Low carbon footprint, rel‐
in cell walls of yeast and
Beta glucan cationic soluble atively high water foot‐
cellulose in plants
print
Negligible carbon foot‐
Agar gum marine algae neutral soluble around 85 °C print and very low water
footprint
cell walls of trees and
barks Second largest biopolymer
Lignin and its deriva‐ (produced from the in nature, relatively high
mostly anionic insoluble
tives waste by‐product of land use, low carbon foot‐
paper manufacturing print
industry)
Low energy needed, low
Sodium alginate brown algae anionic soluble acidification by using hy‐
drochloric acid
Low greenhouse emissions
if it is used as fertilizer;
Chitosan waste crustacean shells cationic soluble
Producible from waste
animal products
Carrageenan red edible seaweeds anionic soluble ‐
High water and carbon
Casein (waste) dairy products anionic insoluble footprint;
Producible from waste
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 6 of 39
dairy product
Guar gum guar plant cationic/anionic soluble Low carbon footprint
Polylysine bacterial fermentation cationic soluble ‐
synthetized from su‐
Low CO2 record, no land
Dextran crose by certain lac‐ anionic/cationic insoluble
use, and no pesticides
tic‐acid bacteria
3. Assessment of Environmental Impacts of Biopolymers in Geotechnical Engineering
More recently, many industrial policies have been developed towards sustainability,
mainly to mitigate the harmful environmental impacts. In this way, the EU commission is
set to cut GHG emissions by more than 85% by 2050 compared to the level of 1990 [84].
With rising concerns about planet environmental consequences, soil improvement
methods are turning to less harmful methods and materials [85]. Some techniques, such
as life‐cycle assessment (LCA), have been developed to systematically analyze the envi‐
ronmental performance of processes or materials. LCA investigates the environmental
costs and impacts for the entire process from the extraction of the raw materials to final
disposal. As an example of a geotechnical work, the life cycle for a road construction
project can be summarized in five sections [86,87]:
1. Manufacturing processes for all materials used in the project, including extraction,
transportation of raw material from the source to the factory, processing to the final
product, and material transportation to the construction site.
2. Construction stage, which is a phase that consists of all the execution processes re‐
quired for a road to be taken. This includes all the components causing the produc‐
tion of greenhouse gas emissions, even the fuel consumed by the vehicles experi‐
encing delays caused by the project.
3. Use phase, in which most factors are related to the energy and air pollution resulting
from road vehicles. Leaching and runoff leading to water pollution is an important
parameter to be considered in the use phase.
4. Maintenance and rehabilitation (M&R), a very important section to keep the func‐
tionality of a road through its functional life span. Road works to repair possible
road damage as well as the traffic occurring due to delays are undertaken in this
part. More technically, this includes production and transportation of new materials
to the site, and destruction and discarding rubbish materials.
5. End‐of‐life stage includes the way that disposal materials are to be used, whether re‐
cycling or disposing of the materials into the environment. The activities are about
demolition and transportation, as well as leaching if the materials are disposed of at
the end.
Various factors must be considered when an environmental assessment work is be‐
ing studied, including acidification potential, aquatic toxicity, human toxicity potential,
eutrophication potential (considering the pollution of aquatic ecosystems), global
warming potential, non‐renewable resource depletion, ozone depletion potential, terres‐
trial ecotoxicity, and photochemical oxidants creation potential [84]. Among these, global
warming, acidification, eutrophication, and human toxicity are the most important ones
for geotechnical works [88]. Therefore, the environmental assessment for geotechnical
applications is necessary.
Chemical soil treatment is recommended to reduce the transportation cost of virgin
materials to the site and disposals in landfills [87]. Lime stabilization decreased the en‐
ergy consumption by 30% and the CO2 production by 27% compared with the employ‐
ment of virgin materials.
Although chemical soil treatment is more preferable to virgin materials, the lime and
cement industries contribute to the production of a considerable amount of GHG emis‐
sions. The cement industry generates about 2.8 billion tons of CO2, equal to 8% of total
CO2 amount. More than half of these emissions are produced through the chemical pro‐
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 7 of 39
cess of calcination for making the clinkers [89], which cannot be mitigated by increasing
energy efficiency or using renewable fuel resources. Hydrated lime manufacturing
comprises extracting limestone and transporting it to the factory, calcination, and quick‐
lime hydration; this is an energy‐intensive procedure (vertical kiln), and this energy is
mostly provided from non‐renewable resources [90].
For soil improvement using lime, more than 75% of all environmental impacts, in‐
cluding global warming, photochemical oxidation, and embodied energy, are contributed
by lime production [90]. Also, treated soil with low density lime binder showed twice
larger energy consumption than the treated soil with high‐density lime binder, when the
goal was reaching a certain strength [90,91]; it can be concluded that chemical soil treat‐
ment is preferred to be conducted using binders with high density and low content, which
is an advantage for biopolymers as much less content is needed compared with traditional
binders.
Recently, the goal of moving towards sustainability has been followed in polymeric
materials so that biopolymers have attracted more attention [92]. The biopolymer concept
is a polymer that is totally or partly generated from a bio‐based source and is somehow
biodegradable. The application of biopolymers in various industries helps them to pro‐
gress in the way of sustainability, however, the presence of some fundamental issues has
limited the development of biopolymers in certain industries [93]. Advancement in the
biopolymer industry can reduce not only the environmental impacts but also the costs,
and strong market potential for biopolymers is estimated in the near future. On the other
hand, some synthetic polymers give a better performance in terms of mechanical and
thermal resistance [84].
A comprehensive study conducted by the Institute for Energy and Environmental
Research (IFEU) concluded that biopolymers perform better than conventional polymers
in terms of climate impact, particularly in CO2 emissions and fossil fuel consumption
[94]. Although a bright future can be seen for biopolymers, the potential environmental
impacts of the biopolymers cannot be ignored. Few studies have been undertaken so far
on the economic and environmental impacts of the biopolymers because they are in an
early development stage and have a relatively small market share of the polymers. Most
LCA studies on biopolymers are incomplete or are based on a laboratory‐scale dataset.
The way biopolymers are degraded when they are used in large volume raises con‐
cerns about contamination by entering streams, rivers, and the ocean, as some biopoly‐
mers degrade slowly which makes them applicable for use in long‐term geotechnical
applications [95]. Another concern is the land use for biopolymer production that might
occupy the land required to grow crops for food industries. Expanding biopolymer
production requires fertilizers for the plants from which biopolymers are extracted, and
may lead to a higher level of water eutrophication and soil acidification than to the pro‐
duction of chemical polymers. Also, through the production process and transportation
of biopolymers, energy and water must be provided that causes GHG emissions, how‐
ever, the emission is around 85% less than conventional polymers and much less than
traditional adhesives, such as cement and lime.
Environmental impacts for the biopolymers used for soil improvement vary. The
amount of GHG emissions generated through biopolymer production cannot be meas‐
ured accurately, because it is dependent on many factors based on the local conditions
and available resources, such as the energy supply pathways, fuel source, and produc‐
tion method. Lignin combustion, which is used as biofuel, decreases GHG emissions by
more than 80% relative to gasoline [96]. There are a number of lignin production meth‐
ods, and climate change impact is variable for each of them, resulting from the highest
impact for the cheapest lignin to the least impact for the most expensive lignin. The car‐
bon footprint for xanthan gum is reported to be very low, at 0.1 kg CO2e for production of
1 kg biopolymer, with still unknown water footprint [97]. The carbon footprint comes to a
negligible amount for agar biopolymer [98]. Guar is a low‐emission crop that produces
CO2 mostly through irrigation, fertilization, and harvesting and threshing process; CO2
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 8 of 39
comes from electricity for irrigation, from production and application for fertilization,
and the fossil fuels for harvesting and threshing [99].
Beta‐glucan is usually produced from oats, and is considered as a low carbon foot‐
print. The carbon emission amount is variable based on the location of source and pro‐
cessing. The largest global warming contribution is from the production and the use of
nitrogen fertilizer, as well as the energy used through field activities [100]. The water
footprint for beta‐glucan is relatively higher with more than 300 gallons needed to pro‐
duce one kilogram of oats [101,102]. Sodium alginate has low environmental impact,
among which electricity accounts for 39% of this followed by the use of chemicals (hy‐
drochloric acid), 26% on average [103].
One of the main concerns of chitosan environmental impacts is that it is the source of
ammonia and greenhouse emissions for heat production and when it is used as fertilizer
[104]; 2.7% of global GHG emissions are attributed to dairy products, which do not con‐
tribute to CO2 production, significantly; they are dominated by methane (CH4) and ni‐
trous oxide (N2O). On average, 2.4 kg carbon dioxide equivalent is produced per kg of
milk, which makes the dairy industry one of the main contributors to climate change.
Land use and water consumption are the other impacts of dairy products [105,106]. Even
though producing casein causes serious environmental concerns, casein utilized for soil
improvement comes from waste dairy products that are usually dumped into the envi‐
ronment, so that casein cannot only be utilized in soil treatment, but also keeps the en‐
vironment from being contaminated and brings the recyclability into the dairy products’
life cycle [82,107]. Recently, significant advancement in biotechnology has provided the
opportunity for biopolymer production, such as xanthan, dextran, and gellan gum, di‐
rectly by microorganism fermentation of glucose or sucrose or genetically modified crops
[108], under controlled conditions; this provides the opportunity to have biopolymers
generating less CO2 and using less land, and there is no need for pesticides.
As mentioned, most of the environmental impacts in road works are related to the
material production phase, and low content binders with high efficiency are recom‐
mended; so utilizing biopolymers to a large extent meets both conditions by lowering the
GHG emissions in their production process and a comparatively low content is needed
for soil treatment. For a simple soil improvement project of biopolymer‐treated soil, the
life cycle can be assumed as shown in Figure 2, showing the process for xanthan bi‐
opolymer as the most commonly used biopolymer. Three major parts are included: bi‐
opolymer production and transportation, soil extraction and transportation, and blends
production.
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 9 of 39
Figure 2. Life‐cycle process of a xanthan treated soil.
4. Biopolymer–Soil Interaction
The way that a biopolymer interacts with different kinds of soils has always been
considered as an important factor because microstructural study leads to a better under‐
standing of the biopolymer‐treated soil behavior. Based on the soil type, the adhesion
mechanism of biopolymers is different from one soil to another. Figure 3 shows the
schematic form of biopolymer‐soil interaction.
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 10 of 39
Figure 3. Biopolymer interaction with different kinds of soils (a) sand, (b) kaolinite clay, (c)
montmorillonite.
4.1. Biopolymer–Sand Interaction
By adding biopolymer solution to sandy soils, the dissolved bound particles start to
permeate into the pores and soak the sand surface. The hydrophilic feature of the sand
surface, due to the presence of silica and silicate, as well as the water solubility of bi‐
opolymers, quicken the wetting process. When the biopolymer contacts the sand surface,
it coats the soil particles and forms a strong film, thus creating the necessary bridges to
start the bonding process. By allowing water evaporation over the curing period, the
dehydration process of the biopolymer matrix promotes the bonding strength, drawing
the particles closer to one another, thus compressing the pore spaces. Having shorter
connection chains makes them stronger against external forces so that the geotechnical
performance is enhanced during the drying procedure. More biopolymer (up to its op‐
timal content) leads to the formation of higher bonds amongst sand particles and higher
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 11 of 39
shear strength. Figure 3a shows the mechanism of biopolymer adhesion in typical bi‐
opolymer‐treated sand.
4.2. Biopolymer–Clay Interaction
The interaction mechanism of biopolymer with clayey soils is different from the
coarse‐grained soils because clay can be structurally transformed over time. In clay min‐
erals, the composition changes within the structures due to substitution of ions. Replac‐
ing one structural cation by another of a similar size without changing the basic structure
is called isomorphous substitution. This process determines the primary source of elec‐
trical charges (negative and positive) in clay minerals [109]. Kaolinite and montmorillo‐
nite are the most common clay minerals in the majority of soils. Kaolinite can carry both
negative and positive charges, while montmorillonite carries negative charge in most
cases [110]. Due to weathering of clay minerals in harsh climate conditions, hydrated
oxides of iron (goethite) and aluminum (gibbsite) are generated, thus forming cations
over clay sheets. In the case of gibbsite, hydroxyl ions bond with only two positive ions
Al3+, so that positive ions remain available in clay structure.
Based on the clay minerals, the inter‐layer bonding could have specific characteris‐
tics and a tendency to absorb water as well as ions. The layers in kaolinite clay are mostly
connected through hydrogen bonds, thus kaolinite has a relatively stable structure with a
lower tendency to absorb water and with lower swelling potential. The cation exchange
capacity (CEC) of kaolinite is in the range of 0.03–0.1 meg/100 g, which is lower than illite
and montmorillonite. This feature makes kaolinite less tendentious to absorb biopolymer
particles (see Figure 3b), although new cementitious compounds were produced after
adding xanthan to kaolinite clay and subsequently with their pore spaces filled [111].
In montmorillonite, clay sheets are joined by van der Waals bonding, which is a
comparatively weak chemical bond that allows water to easily enter between layers.
Montmorillonite has a higher expansion potential when it is subjected to water, because
of weak chemical bonding. Compared with kaolinite, as can be seen from Figure 3c,
higher negative charges exist in montmorillonite with a CEC in the range around 0.8–1.5
meg/100 g. Additionally, the specific surface area of montmorillonite is much larger than
that of kaolinite. Consequently, montmorillonite is more likely to absorb a biopolymer
solution thus reducing its swelling potential [109,112]. Illite is another silicate clay with a
relatively fluctuated structure similar to montmorillonite, the difference is that cations
are located among the surfaces causing the formation of ionic bonds. In terms of strength,
ionic bonds are stronger than van der Waals bonds, such that illite has a lesser tendency
to absorb water than montmorillonite.
In general, clay soils interact with biopolymer particles in a more complex way than
the sand. biopolymer can directly interact with clay particles due to the presence of elec‐
trical charges. These chemical bonds could be formed through different electrostatic in‐
teractions, hydrogen bonding, ionic bonds, or van der Waals bonds. The factors that de‐
termine the mechanism of biopolymer‐treated interaction include the electrical charges of
the biopolymer, natural cations inside the clay, and the amount of charge in the clay sheet
surfaces. Moreover, biopolymer coats the soil grains and connects detached particles by
forming bridges along with direct chemical bonds. It has also been shown that the spe‐
cific surface area is reduced when xanthan gum is added to the clay, due to filling the
pores [80,111,113–115]. Comparing sandy and clayey soils, biopolymer‐treated clay is
expected to have a better efficiency because of the stronger interparticle connections
between biopolymer and soil particles when compared with sand [113]. A summary of
recent studies on biopolymer‐treated soil is presented in Table 2.
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Table 2. A summary of recent studies on biopolymer‐treated soils.
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5. Geotechnical Properties of Biopolymer Treated Soils
In the current section, different aspects of biopolymer‐improved soil are discussed.
5.1. Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS)
The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) test is the most common test used for
evaluating the role of biopolymers in soil treatment [148]. As the interaction way of bi‐
opolymer with different soil types could be entirely different, in this section, the UCS is
separately discussed for each soil type.
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5.1.1. Unconfined Compressive Strength in Biopolymer‐Treated Sand
The UCS of sand treated by biopolymers is presented in this section. Figure 4 shows
the maximum compressive strength obtained after air curing. Since sand does not have
(or it is negligible) the ability to withstand a compressive force. Biopolymer‐treated sand
(1% and 2%) is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Biopolymer‐treated sand [66,82,113,121,149–151].
As seen in Figure 4, the available results show that xanthan biopolymer can increase
the UCS values up to 1700 kPa when used to treat sand. The improved UCS value is
variable depending on the type of biopolymer used. The lowest UCS value is observed
when sand is treated with agar due to the repelling negative charges of both agar and
sand. To improve the bond, adding a positively charged material as an intermediate
agent would enhance the compressive strength remarkably [149]. Casein and sodium al‐
ginate showed almost similar performances, while gellan gum had lower strength com‐
pared with casein and alginate. Qureshi et al. (2017) compared the effect of xanthan gum
and cement on the UCS variation of treated sand. In terms of peak UCS strength, using
2% xanthan is comparable to the strength obtained by using 10% cement. Xan‐
than‐treated sand gained a less ductile behavior compared to cement‐treated sand by
showing higher residual strength [151]. Xanthan also demonstrated a notable increase in
tensile strength which is in line with compressive strength improvement; the ratio of
tensile strength per compressive strength was shown to be constant regardless of the
biopolymer content [121].
5.1.2. UCS in Biopolymer‐Treated Fine‐Graded Soils
Figure 5 shows how biopolymers changed the compressive strength of fine‐graded
soils. In the case of agar and gellan gum, UCS increased to 2500 (114.8% growth) and 1800
kPa (52.2% growth) for 1% of gellan gum and agar, respectively. This higher amount of
strength for gellan gum is due to the presence of multiple hydrogen and hydroxyl groups
[62]. Xanthan gum has been comprehensively studied and the results are presented in
Figure 5b. In one of the first studies using xanthan gum on clay, the compressive strength
increased approximately 470% from 440 kPa for untreated clay and 2540 kPa for 1%
xanthan‐treated clay [113]. Latifi et al. (2017) showed that xanthan gum is capable of im‐
proving different types of clay significantly. For example, both bentonite and kaolinite
clays rendered high growth amounts after adding 1% of xanthan gum; however, this in‐
creased amount is higher for bentonite [111]. For xanthan gum, through forming hydro‐
gen bonds and cation bridges, monomers could directly interact with electrically charged
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 15 of 39
clay particle surfaces. The added biopolymer, however, lacks a tendency to approach
sand surfaces with no electrical charges, thus electrostatic and hydrogen bonding will not be
formed [113,152]. Also, different clay types exert different behavior when they are subject to
an external material because of the various structural configurations related to the layer lat‐
tice group of clays in which oxygen ions sheets are placed on top of one another and the
space between these sheets is filled with metallic cations such as Al3+ and Si4 [153].
Biopolymers improved the compressive strength of silty soils by adding a cohesive
component in addition to the silt’s frictional strength. Figure 5b shows the compressive
strength of silt stabilized by 2% of alginate, beta‐glucan, guar gum, and xanthan gum.
The same silt has been used for all these biopolymers. Xanthan gum gave a better per‐
formance in comparison with others, although all four biopolymers led to the enhance‐
ment in the compressive strength. Also, alginate and beta‐glucan increased the UCS to
almost the same level [117]. It has also been indicated that beta glucan effectively in‐
creased the compressive strength of hwangtoh soil (MH) up to 200% for 0.496% of bi‐
opolymer. The properties of beta glucan‐treated soil were governed by the available
cations in soil (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+), charges in the soil surface as well as electrical inter‐
actions between the biopolymer [154]. Other biopolymers such as lignin have also pre‐
sented good results on improving the geotechnical behavior of silt [58].
(a)
(b)
Figure 5. The effect of various biopolymers on unconfined compressive strength of fine‐graded
soils, (a) clay, (b) silt [62,111,113,118,130,143,155].
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 16 of 39
5.2. Shear Strength
Shear strength of biopolymer‐treated soils in their dried state and cured in the en‐
vironmental conditions have been presented in Figure 6. The most noticeable point is that
all biopolymers enhanced the shear strength, and this improvement continued by the
increase of biopolymer content. The highest growth rate is for xanthan‐treated sand in
terms of cohesion, which is in line with the UCS results.
The shear behavior of biopolymer‐treated sand is interpreted differently from the
cement‐treated sand; gellan‐treated sand is a compound of solid grains and gellan hy‐
drogels while the chemical structure of cemented sand is changed after the hydration
process (sand and C‐S‐H hydrates) [156]. No chemical reaction was found between agar
and sand grains, and the shear strength enhancement is due to the hydrogel generated by
agar gum [157]. Also, the reason for the increase in cohesion by increasing biopolymer
content is directly dependent on the biopolymer gel strength that is defined as the force
needed to fracture the gel [158]; 2% xanthan gum‐treated sand rendered a considerably
better performance compared with gypsum‐treated sand; however, 20% of gypsum led
to a much larger shear strength than 2.5% xanthan [159]. For gellan‐treated clay, it has
been shown that gellan gum contributed to increasing both friction and cohesion values.
As such, gellan gum plays an important role in the conglomeration of fine particles, this
behavior is almost similar to the cement‐treated clay [156].
Residual strength is the lowest amount of stress that a material can tolerate: so that,
if the applied stress is lower than residual resistance, no failure will occur [160]. The re‐
sidual strength of sand treated by xanthan gum was also studied [159]; the results
showed that the residual strength of dried samples experienced growth for both cohesion
and friction angle. This growth could be attributed to the presence of van der Waals
forces between xanthan hydrogel and sand aggregates. As biotreated sand samples re‐
main ductile after failure, their residual strength was higher than sand samples improved
by 10% and 20% gypsum. Unconsolidated‐undrained triaxial tests also showed that
xanthan and guar increased cohesion and frictional angle of coalmine waste. Xanthan
indicated better enhancement compared to guar gum after 7 days of curing [125]. Also,
Zhang et al. (2021) studied dynamic characteristics of lignin‐treated silt. It was reported
that dynamic shear strength and modulus were effectively increased using lignin, and a
decrease was observed in damping ratio [147]. The schematic form of soil with and
without biopolymer treatment under direct shear testing has been presented in Figure 7.
The natural soil has a low shear strength due to the lack of cohesion among soil particles.
The adhesive feature of biopolymer increases the cohesion among sand particles and
leads to the formation of larger aggregation [124].
(a)
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 17 of 39
(b)
Figure 6. Variation of shear strength parameters of biopolymer‐treated soils: (a) cohesion, (b) fric‐
tion angle [82,123,150,156,157,159].
Figure 7. Schematic patterns of sand motion under direct shear testing: (a) natural sand state, (b)
biopolymer‐treated sand.
5.3. Erosion Resistance
Through the interaction between fluids (both water and wind) and soil, if the drag
force of fluids overcomes both soil shear strength and gravity, soil erosion happens
[161,162]. Biological clogging using microbial biopolymers plays a crucial role in reducing
soil erosion by blocking the pathways of water within the pore spaces. Bioclogging leads to
the formation of a less permeable layer and the reduction in water flow rate throughout the
soil space [59]. It has been proven that using dextran improves the erosion resistance of soil
and critical shear strength. This high erosion strength is because of increasing the cohesion
and lowering the soil permeability and void ratio [34,163]. Under moderate and heavy rain
simulation, the water erosion content decreased from 60% for untreated soil to under 2%
for both beta‐glucan and xanthan‐treated soils, respectively [163]. Moreover, levee struc‐
tures can be stabilized by employing xanthan gum against flood conditions, where stiffer
soil surface with higher shear strength can be produced, thus excess pore water pressure is
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 18 of 39
prevented from building up within the levee structures. This stabilizing process keeps the
levee structures stable even after partial damage [127]. Water drip resistance test and water
runoff test demonstrated that biopolymers can effectively change the surface properties of
the sand and loose soils. However, carrageenan cannot stabilize the soil surface, and it
should be used along with other biopolymers [164]. Hydraulic flume testing was utilized in
order to simulate the hydraulic flow and evaluate the surface erosion resistance of bi‐
opolymer modified soil; it has been shown that adding xanthan gum resulted in 80% re‐
duction in hydraulic erosion by making a protective jelly layer on the sand surface, and is
even more effective than adding 10% of kaolinite clay to sand [127,128,165].
Another serious environmental problem occurring in dry sandy soils or anywhere
covered with loose soil is wind erosion. Fugitive dust, as a major consequence of wind
erosion, inevitably covers roads and crops leading to the reduction in farming produc‐
tivity [166]. Biopolymers potentially improve the soil resistance against wind erosion by
forming a firm crust over the sand surface, not even one crack was observed after a wind
tunnel test on biopolymer treated samples (Figure 8). Xanthan gum and guar gum gave
better performance compared to carrageenan and modified starch [120,166,167]. Moreo‐
ver, the durability of xanthan and chitosan‐treated soils is expected to be effective, at least
up to two weeks against wind erosion [166,168]. In a relatively large‐scale project aimed
at dust mitigation for 90 days, synthetic polymers demonstrated better efficiency in the
reduction of dust amount in comparison to guar gum as a biopolymer [169]. In terms of
mine tailing stabilization, the weight loss of mine tailings treated by both xanthan and
guar gums was smaller than water‐treated sample; however, after five cycles of wetting
and drying, the reduction was greater than the first cycle due to microstructural damage,
wet‐dry cycles, and ultraviolet (UV) radiation [170].
Figure 9 shows how soil resists wind erosion in both natural state and biopoly‐
mer‐treated soil. As seen, a set of forces including resistant forces and driving forces exist
during wind erosion. Driving forces consist of aerodynamic drag (Fd) and aerodynamic
lift (FL), which try to disconnect the soil grains from the soil mass. Resistant forces include
the gravity force (Fg) and the interparticle cohesive force (Fi), that prevent soils from be‐
ing eroded [167,171]. In the natural state of the sand, Fg is defined as the weight of one
soil grain. Typically, Fi has a small value because of the low amount of interaction among
soil particles so that the airflow is easily capable of eroding the soil. When the biopolymer
is added to the soil mass and after drying, the biopolymer hydrogel directly interacts
with the soil by coating the soil particles and forming strong chemical bonds, which leads
to the formation of a network consisting of soil grains and biopolymer. In this condition,
the Fg is the weight of the whole soil mass so that it has an amount much larger than that
in the natural state. Also, the inter‐particle force is significantly increased because of the
biopolymer network. The additional resistant force results in a higher total restraining
force than the driving force, which remains unchanged in both biotreated soil and natural
state.
Figure 8. Crust formation of sand treated by sodium alginate biopolymer [145].
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Figure 9. Mechanical trend of soil resistance against wind erosion: (a) sand in natural state, (b) biopolymer treated sand [154].
5.4. Atterberg Limits
Atterberg limits are considered a fundamental concept of soil consistency in soil
classification. Atterberg limit tests define the boundaries where clay and silt go through
four different physical changes (solid, semi‐solid, plastic, and liquid) by moisture content
variation.[172]. Figure 10 demonstrates how different biopolymers can affect the Atter‐
berg limits of soils. As seen, almost all biopolymers have an increasing effect on the liquid
limit (LL) (Figure 9a) and plastic limit (PL) (Figure 10b). Also, the more the biopolymer
content, the higher the PL and LL. However, the growth trends of LL and PL vary based
on the biopolymer type and soil characteristics; this difference of growth rates results in
having both decreasing and incremental trends for PI via the increase in biopolymer
content. The enhancement of LL for beta‐glucan treated clay is due to the high‐water
adsorption of beta‐glucan, a linear correlation to approximate the PI based on be‐
ta‐glucan content has also been presented [154]. Lignin‐treated silt experienced a reduc‐
tion in PI after rising the amount of lignin, while PL and LL were increased; due to the
quick cation exchange between silt and lignin, the lignin coated soil particles and formed
a strong network by filling the pores [173].
For soft marine soil, it was shown that LL and PL had a tendency to increase with
the increase in biopolymer to soil content, which is a result of forming hydrogel in pore
space and direct chemical interaction with charged clay surfaces [134]. For sand treat‐
ment by xanthan gum, the hydrophilic feature of xanthan adsorbs water which provides
the conditions to form xanthan hydrogel around and between sand particles, so that the
behavior of soil becomes plastic and cohesive. This good property of treated sand im‐
proved the shear strength and wind erosion resistance of cohesionless sand [151]. Chang
et al. (2019) studied the soil consistency characteristics for different kinds of clay mixed
with sand employing xanthan biopolymer. The presence of sand in the clay reduced the
value of LL and plasticity. Xanthan gum is able to transform the clay state from liquid to
plastic for the contents more than 8% [134]. Also, trends for LL variation were not the
same for different clay types. Xanthan‐treated montmorillonite clay indicated a decreas‐
ing variation by the increase in xanthan content which is a consequence of the higher
xanthan tendency to react with montmorillonite particles instead of pore fluid. The kao‐
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 20 of 39
linite‐sand mixture initially experienced an increase in LL, then it decreased to an almost
constant value; this shows xanthan simultaneously interacts with kaolinite particles and
forms a hydrogel in the pores [137].
The relationships of the LL and PI for biomodified soils are presented in the plastic‐
ity chart (Figure 10c). It can be seen that adding sodium alginate into loess resulted in
moving from the area of medium plasticity to high plasticity. This graph also shows that
other biopolymer‐treated soils tend to generate greater plasticity. This variation is di‐
rectly related to the amount of surface charge and the size of clay particles in which bi‐
opolymers can be effective, in terms of hydrogel formation and electrical interactions.
The cohesionless sand develops low plasticity after the addition of 1% xanthan gum. This
improvement for desert sand is in accordance with achieving high erosion resistance as
well as controlling soil degradation and desertification.
(a)
(b)
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 21 of 39
Details of the numbered coordinates
1 Loess 8 12% lignin‐treated silt
2 1% sodium alginate‐treated loess 9 1% xanthan‐treated sand
3 2% sodium alginate‐treated loess 10 2% xanthan‐treated sand
4 Korean residual soil (KRS) 11 High‐plasticity clay
5 0.8% beta glucan treated KRS 12 2% xanthan treated high‐plasticity clay
6 Silt 13 Silty clay
7 2% Lignin‐treated silt 14 1% xanthan treated silty clay
Figure 10. Variation of Atterberg limits by adding biopolymer, (a) liquid limit, (b) plasticity index,
(c) plasticity chart [102,111,120,123,130,138,141,161].
5.5. Compaction Test
The compaction behavior was different for various biopolymer‐treated soils. In the
case of beta glucan‐treated KRS (Korean residual soil), both optimal moisture content
(OMC) and maximum dry density (MDD) increase with increasing biopolymer content
[154], whereas the MDD of biotreated collapsible soil by guar and xanthan gum reduced
compared with untreated soil; this reduction was related to the lightweight collapsible
soil grains which allowed them to move around because of the effect of solution viscosity
[174]. For lignin‐treated silt, the MDD tends to increase with increasing lignin content,
but for lignin contents higher than 12%, the MDD reduced because 12% was reported to
be the optimal biopolymer content, thus the biopolymer did not act as a stabilizer. In
other words, it can be said that all the pores were filled by the biopolymer, and the larger
biopolymer content leads to the accumulation of lignin and the reduction in soil density.
OMC was also affected by the lignin in such a way that OMC would slightly decrease
compared with natural silt: it should be noted that this variation can change depending
on the biopolymer and soil characteristics [58,173].
For sand treated by xanthan gum, it has been reported that the MDD and OMC be‐
haviors were symmetrical such that 1% biopolymer caused the highest MDD and lowest
OMC to be reached, then by increasing the biopolymer content, MDD reduced and OMC
started to increase. The initial growth in MDD was due to the lubrication effect of bi‐
opolymer until 1%, while for higher content, xanthan showed a negative effect so that a
swelling behavior of the treated soil was observed [151,175]. The xanthan‐treated clay
showed different behavior in comparison to the biomodified sand. It has been shown that
MDD reduced when 3% xanthan was added to the clay and OMC increased [114]. As
most of the biopolymers used for soil improvement purposes are hydrophilic and tend to
absorb water, the moisture content of the biopolymer‐treated soil should be strictly con‐
trolled to achieve the appropriate degree of compaction, especially at the construction
site. To have a comparative outlook, it should be mentioned that increasing the content of
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 22 of 39
traditional and calcium‐based traditional stabilizers typically leads to the reduction in
MDD and the increase in OMC [173].
5.6. Durability
The variation of geotechnical properties of soil treated by different polymers under
different environmental conditions including cycles of wetting and drying as well as
freeze‐thaw, and decomposition has always been a concern [176]. As most biopolymers
employed in soil improvement are soluble in water, exposure to water would surely af‐
fect their performance during wet–dry cycles. After the first dehydration of gel‐
lan‐treated sand, once the dried samples were subjected to water, the dehydrated gel
began to absorb water and undergo volumetric expansion. Then, the outer parts of the
gel are slightly detached from the main gellan gel. This process leads to a reduction in the
compressive strength for the wet sample compared to the dried state. During redrying,
dissociated gellan gum fibrils attach to the main body again due to a lowering in mois‐
ture content. The wet and dry cycle leads to the detachment and attachment of some
minor parts of the gel which will result in weakening of the biotreated sample and in‐
complete recovery of all hydrogel. Repeating more cycles causes the compressive
strength to gradually reduce and converge to a specific level. Moreover, the stiffness
follows a similar trend and shows a more ductile behavior than traditional binders such
as cement and lime which experience a brittle collapse after a limited number of wetting
and drying cycles [177].
The durability of treated soils has also been studied using xanthan gum through
various experiments. Slake durability tests indicate that xanthan gum is capable of im‐
proving slake durability index to a value that is comparable with cement‐treated sand. A
higher amount of biopolymer led to better performance against wet–dry cycles. Although
xanthan gum adsorbed water which subsequently reduces the strength, the hydrogel
remained available for the subsequent cycles, that is why some proportions of xanthan
biopolymer performed better than cement [151,178]. As for decomposition, 750 days of
curing the Red Yellow soil enhanced by xanthan gum without wetting and drying
slightly increased the compressive strength and stiffness in comparison to 28‐day cured
samples. This procedure was also the same for curing time of 21 and 63 days for sand and
clay treated by xanthan gum which could be attributed to the high stability of xanthan
gum under temperature variation and dehydration [113]. In addition, keeping samples
for 30 days under real conditions with different temperature, humidity, as well as
wet‐dry cycles indicated a considerably better performance for xanthan treated sample
compared with untreated silt [117]. However, it has been presented that guar gum ren‐
dered a greater efficiency than xanthan gum in water erosion after five wet‐dry cycles,
whereas carrageenan showed poor performance in this regard and disappeared after the
second cycle [167]. Furthermore, xanthan gum‐treated silt performed much better than
virgin high plasticity silt after 12 days of freezing and thawing cycles [118]. The results in
the literature demonstrate that the durability of biopolymers in long‐term applications
requires more attention in order to explain how they can be affected by various envi‐
ronmental and destructive circumstances such as wetting and drying cycles, freezing and
thawing cycles, microorganisms, and UV attack [179,180].
5.7. Pavement Application
Currently, there are limited studies on the role of biopolymers in the enhancement
of pavement layers. The California bearing ratio (CBR) and resilient modulus tests are
parameters of evaluation for pavement layer stabilization. A considerable increase has
been reported in the resilient modulus of silt and clay by the addition of sodium alginate.
Up to 2% for clay and 4% for silt, the trend was increasing, then a declining trend was
observed for larger proportions. The better performance of sodium alginate in clay en‐
hancement is due to the existence of sufficient free cations tending to react with an ani‐
onic biopolymer and forming a gelling structure, and filling the pores; while the available
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 23 of 39
cations may not be enough to turn biopolymer into the gel form [181]. Sodium alginate
also has significant efficiency in enhancing the unsoaked CBR of dune sand [66]. A very
low amount of xanthan (0.4%) reduced 36% of the required thickness for the unstabilized
sand
Resilient modulus (RM) also increased when lignin, up to 12% (optimal content),
was added in silt which was in line with the UCS results [58,182–184]. This coincidence
was the same for adding protein‐based biopolymers including casein and sodium ca‐
seinate into the dune sand [82]. Thus, it can be seen that the variation of pavement pa‐
rameters (RM and CBR) for biopolymer‐treated soil is in line with the UCS results. The
criteria of pavement design consider a minimum amount for maximum compressive
strength obtained from the UCS test; this standard value is determined based on specific
conditions in different countries. The feasibility of using xanthan gum for sub‐base sta‐
bilization as well as road shoulder construction has been investigated and compared
with cement and geopolymers. The results showed that the UCS of xanthan‐treated silty
sand passed all design criteria in terms of the required UCS. Also, the higher ductility of
xanthan‐treated soil was a positive impact if compared against cement and fly ash [122].
However, more studies are still required to comprehensively investigate how different
types of biopolymer behave under various environmental and loading conditions.
6. Factors Affecting Geotechnical Properties of Biopolymer‐Treated Soils
Using biopolymer binders for soil improvement should be applied in optimal con‐
ditions because various parameters can influence the biomodified soil characteristics. In
this section, the important factors in geotechnical aspects of stabilized soils have been
critically evaluated. As the experimental conditions for these results vary in many as‐
pects, such as the soil types and curing conditions, they cannot simply be judged by the
same standards, hence specific understanding of each test condition or consideration is
important.
6.1. Biopolymer Concentration
Biopolymer content is usually the first parameter investigated in many studies of
biopolymer‐treated soils to develop an understanding of how the soil would eventually
react to the additives. Concentration is mostly demonstrated based on the biopolymer
ratio to the soil mass. In the dry state, the required biopolymer content for reaching a
specified strength is much lower than that of cement or other traditional stabilizers [150];
however, lignin needs a higher quantity compared with other biopolymers [58,185]. The
untreated soil strength has often been less than biopolymer‐treated soil regardless of bi‐
opolymer content. The effect of biopolymer content on the unconfined compressive
strength for biomodified soils in their dry states has been presented in Figure 11. As is the
case for treated sands, an increasing trend can be observed for almost all samples when
the biopolymer content increased, while this observation does not seem to apply to xan‐
than that tends to reduce by adding biopolymer higher than 2% by weight. When an ex‐
cessive amount of xanthan is added to the soil, the interaction of sand and hydrogel is
reduced by concentrating in localized places. Protein based biopolymers (casein and so‐
dium caseinate) continuously enhanced the sand compressive strength significantly up to
5% biopolymer content. Casein‐treated sand indicated a higher growth rate in compres‐
sive strength in comparison to agar and gellan‐treated sands [66,82,149–151,186].
The comparative results of silt‐treated soils are presented in Figure 11b. The proce‐
dure is also similar to coarse‐grained soil improvement and it was observed that all bi‐
opolymers improved the UCS. It was shown that UCS increases significantly when bi‐
opolymer, such as xanthan or beta‐glucan, is added to the soil. It was observed that con‐
siderable improvement takes place until an optimal level is reached, after which its rate
of improvement reduces e.g., lignin‐treated silt. It is noteworthy that the respective op‐
timal amounts for (a) lignin to treat low‐plasticity silt is 12%, (b) xanthan to treat benton‐
ite and kaolinite clays is 1% and 1.5%, respectively, (c) guar gum to treat silt with low
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 24 of 39
plasticity is 1%, and (d) xanthan on low‐plasticity silt is 2%. Higher lignin contents led to
the excessive local concentration within the soil pores so that the reduction in frictional
resistance would be a consequence of this effect [173]. Also, Soldo et al. (2020) observed
that the increase in the treated soil’s Young’s moduli increases in a similar fashion as the
optimal concentration for xanthan and guar gum for improving UCS [117]. However, for
biopolymers including beta‐glucan and casein, the optimal content cannot be accurately
specified due to the variable trends of results. These optimum values for some mixtures
of biopolymer–soil indicate that the optimized quantities should be rigorously investi‐
gated for more types of biopolymer‐treated soils to pave the way for using biopolymers
as alternative sources to traditional materials.
Sodium alginate and xanthan reduced the initial hydraulic conductivity of silty
sand, and higher biopolymer contents caused lower permeability, because of the high
tendency of xanthan gum to adsorb water and clay minerals [187]. Using a sufficient
concentration of casein has also satisfied the required UCS for typical (non‐fired) adobe
blocks (UCS ≥1.32–1.56 MPa), as well as traditional adobe block construction (UCS ≥1.18
MPa) [107,188–190]. Although, the minimum UCS required for fired block (UCS ≥10.3
MPa) is larger than the UCS obtained for casein‐treated soil [191]. Besides, it has been
indicated that the higher the biopolymer content, the higher the shear strength. In terms
of improving erosion resistance, the increase in adhesive content also resulted in better
performance.
(a)
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 25 of 39
(b)
(c)
Figure 11. Effect of biopolymer content on compressive strength of soils (a) biopolymer‐treated
sand, (b) biopolymer‐treated silt, (c) biopolymer‐treated clay [56,70,94,97,103,135,136,138,161].
6.2. Moisture Content
Water susceptibility is one of the main problems of using biopolymers in soil im‐
provement because dehydrated biopolymer tends to absorb water and then swell. This is
due to the hydrophilic property of most biopolymers that results in weakening the ge‐
otechnical behavior of treated soils [192]. Nevertheless, the mechanical strengths of
bio‐improved soil in saturated conditions are mostly higher than untreated soil samples.
Agar and gellan‐treated sand under submerged conditions showed behavior that was
independent of time, with the compressive strength remaining constant with time. This
fixed strength can be explained by the hypothesis that water content governs the me‐
chanical properties of these thermogelatin‐treated soils rather than time. Therefore, if
high UCS values are desired in dry conditions, reduction of water is the best option [62].
The geotechnical features of treated soils with the same amount of moisture could be
different in initial and submerged states. Resubmerging the samples after drying pro‐
vides the conditions for biopolymers to absorb water and return to their hydrogel state,
and the water content would often be less than the initial state [62,107]. For gellan gum,
the lower results after resubmergence can be explained by the fact that gellan gum is not
recoverable after one dehydration [150]. Casein performed better in the wet state than
some biopolymers such as beta‐glucan, xanthan gum, gellan, and agar. The reason for the
poor efficiency of these biopolymers is that the strengthening procedure of polysaccha‐
rides is mostly governed by hydrogen bonding and hydrogel behavior [15,107].
The most fundamental concern of collapsible soils is related to being saturated.
Adding xanthan gum improved this drawback significantly by increasing the wet shear
strength [174]. In addition, loess soil, which is unstable for undergoing the effect of water
and rainfall, was improved by adding sodium alginate, which helped the loess to stay
totally in shape after a long period of soaking, while the non‐treated loess was lost com‐
pletely after 30 s. Therefore, sodium alginate could prevent a loess slope from becoming
saturated and enhance slope stability [144]. In terms of shear strength, 2% xanthan gum
increased the cohesion and total shear strength of the soil, while the friction angle was
reduced compared to untreated sand. At the initial condition, the hydrogel bond strength
is responsible for the increase of shear resistance because, at this stage, there is still no
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 26 of 39
direct chemical interaction between biopolymer and the host soil. Meanwhile, in the re‐
submerged state, the residual biofilm close to sand particles along with hydrogel helps to
increase the shear strength of the sand [159].
Figure 12 demonstrates how moisture delays the formation of direct contact be‐
tween the clay surface and biopolymer. The presence of water and biopolymer together
means more time will be needed for biopolymer‐treated soil to dry, which can be at‐
tributed to the hydrophilicity and water retention of biopolymers [193]. More im‐
portantly, the initial moisture content is usually taken as OMC obtained from the com‐
paction test that is not necessarily the best choice for the highest compressive strength.
For a clay treated by 1% xanthan gum, 4% greater water content than OMC of treated
samples led to a more prominent stress‐strain behavior. Given this, there could be an
ideal initial moisture content for each biopolymer–soil mixture [131].
Figure 12. Moisture effect in interaction of biopolymer with clay sheets (a) moist biotreated sample,
(b) dried biotreated sample [121].
6.3. Temperature
Elevated temperature is a parameter that can affect the mechanical behavior of a
biopolymer. The most affected biopolymer group used in soil improvement is related to
thermogelatin biopolymers including agar and gellan. Thermo‐gelation biopolymers
tend to dissolve and are suspended in hot water (between 80 and 90 °C); following that,
they coagulate into a gel state after the temperature decreases to below 50 °C [194]. This
thermal process provides the conditions to obtain the highest efficiency of these bi‐
opolymers, which is why agar and gellan resulted in higher compressive strength of the
soil compared to the biomodified soil without thermal treatment, as well as higher sta‐
bility in submerged conditions [62]. Air‐dried curing (20 °C) caused the formation of a
solid layer in the external part, which then led to a delay in curing the inner part of the
sample. A similar sample cured at 40 °C experienced a uniform cementitious process on
both external and internal sections. Therefore, drying at 40 °C gave a greater performance
compared with air‐dried conditions [124].
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 27 of 39
Other types of biopolymer have also presented a similar behavior when the bi‐
opolymer‐treated soil is subjected to curing at different thermal conditions, in the way
that raising the temperature to an optimal value would be quite beneficial for improving
the strengthening process. Then, temperatures higher than the optimal value led to a
loose structure, and sometimes higher temperatures led to decomposition of the bi‐
opolymers because of weakening the bonds and connections amongst biopolymers and
soil grains became weaker [66,82,115]. For example, temperatures more than 60 °C for
casein‐treated sand caused the compressive strength to fall to a low of 48% which was
similar to the consequence of decomposing casein in amino acid [82]. According to the
literature review, the optimal temperature for different biopolymer‐treated soils can be
expressed as follows: 45 °C for sodium alginate‐treated sand, 60 °C for both casein and
sodium caseinate‐treated sand, and 60 °C for beta glucan‐treated silt [66,82,115].
6.4. Dehydration Time
After preparation of the biopolymer–soil mixture, hydrophilic biopolymers try to
absorb water and form hydrogel networks within the soil pores; thus, it is the inherent
geotechnical properties of the host soil that govern the eventual strength of the improved
soil. However, it has also been shown that some biopolymers can play a role in increasing
the initial compressive strength of soil [80,177]. Moreover, it is also not feasible to per‐
form unconfined compressive tests on biotreated sand when it is still wet because the
biopolymer has not effectively attached to the soil particles [66,82]. It is thought that
curing duration is directly related to the moisture content, therefore, elapsed time pro‐
vides the hydrogel the opportunity to lose water and dehydrate.
Figure 13 demonstrates the optimal curing time needed for each type of biopoly‐
mer‐treated soil. In this chart, the optimal time is considered the number of days that are
needed for a biopolymer‐treated soil to obtain greater than 80% of its final strength. As
shown, based on the biopolymer, the optimal curing time could be different for various
cases because of the biopolymer type as well as the soil type. For instance, the optimal
time for different types of clay treated by xanthan gum is usually around 28 days, while
this is less than five days for xanthan‐treated silt [111,114,117,118,133]. Moreover, the
higher amount of biopolymer could also increase the dehydration process, because more
water would be absorbed by the biopolymer [195].
Figure 13. Optimal time required for each biopolymer‐treated soil
[58,62,66,82,111,115,130,133,138,158,174,196,197].
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 28 of 39
6.5. Effect of Adding Fiber
Adding fiber to soils offers a solution to increasing the ductility (in case of brittle
behavior) and enhancing the swelling behavior of clay. This subject has still not been
comprehensively investigated, however, some research indicated that adding fiber was
effective in soil treatment. Both plant‐based and animal‐based fibers can be applied re‐
garding this matter. Date palm fibers along with xanthan gum were used to enhance
dune sand. Results showed that fiber increased the vane shear strength of the treated
sand at a low concentration of xanthan, while high xanthan contents (2%) experienced
almost the same strength with and without adding fiber [175]. The addition of sheep
wool along with sodium alginate showed significant growth in the compressive strength
performance of cohesive soil from 2.23 MPa for natural soil to 4.44 MPa for reinforced
biotreated soil. It should be noted that wool amount should be limited to keep the high
strength. Also, the flexural strength was increased by 30% using a mixture of wool and
alginate [196].
7. Potential Geotechnical Applications of Biopolymer‐Treated Soil
As shown, biopolymers can improve different soil characteristics so that they can be
useful in various geotechnical applications, some of which are discussed in this part of the
paper.
7.1. Base and Sub‐Base Stabilization
A successful pavement design satisfies the minimum structural criteria in terms of
shearing resistance, excessive deflections, and reduction of permanent deformations,
such that soil binders are used to ameliorate problematic soil properties and reduce the
required thickness of layers. When it comes to selecting a stabilizer, the following pa‐
rameters are of the highest importance: soil type, soil improvement type, required dura‐
bility and strength level, cost, and environmental considerations. General employable
materials for pavement improvement are cement, lime, lime‐cement blends, bitumen,
granular materials, and chemical products. A comprehensive geotechnical investigation
must be undertaken before and after stabilization to assess how a binder changes soil
property. These geotechnical tests include CBR, UCS, repeated load triaxial test,
wheel‐tracking test, indirect tensile modulus, flexural modulus, capillary rise test, verti‐
cal saturation test, erodibility test, and leaching test [197].
Currently, there are limited studies on the role of biopolymers in the enhancement
of pavement layers. CBR and resilient modulus tests are parameters of evaluation for
pavement layer stabilization. A considerable increase has been reported in the resilient
modulus of silt and clay by adding sodium alginate. Up to 2% for clay and 4% for silt, the
trend was increasing, then a declining trend was observed for larger proportions. The
better performance of sodium alginate in clay enhancement is due to the existence of
sufficient free cations tending to react with an anionic biopolymer and form a gelling
structure and filling the pores; while the available cations may not be enough to turn
biopolymer into the gel form [181]. Sodium alginate also has significant efficiency in en‐
hancing the unsoaked CBR of dune sand [66]. A very low amount of xanthan (0.4%) re‐
duced 36% of the required thickness for the unstabilized sand
Resilient modulus (RM) also increased when lignin, up to 12% (optimal content),
was added in silt which was in line with the UCS results [58,182]. This coincidence was
the same for adding protein‐based biopolymers including casein and sodium caseinate
into the dune sand [82]. Thus, it can be seen that the variation of pavement parameters
(RM and CBR) for biopolymer‐treated soil is in line with the UCS results. The criteria of
pavement design consider a minimum amount for maximum compressive strength ob‐
tained from the UCS test; this standard value is determined based on specific conditions
in different countries. The feasibility of using xanthan gum for sub‐base stabilization as
well as road shoulder construction has been investigated and compared with cement and
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 29 of 39
geopolymers. The presented results showed that the UCS of xanthan‐treated silty sand
passed all design criteria in terms of the required UCS. Also, the higher ductility of xan‐
than‐treated soil had a positive impact compared to cement and fly ash [122].
7.2. Increasing Soil Bearing Capacity for Shallow Foundations
Shallow foundations are designed based on an allowable bearing capacity that must
meet the safety factor for the prevention of shear failure.. When the applied load exceeds
the soil bearing capacity, the footing penetrates the soil either in horizontal or vertical
directions so that it could lead to a bearing capacity failure. Soil bearing capacity is var‐
iable for different soil conditions and is dependent on several factors [198]. A number of
works have already been studied the shear parameters of biopolymer treated soils espe‐
cially for cohesion increment. A good result is expected in the case of biopolymers as soil
binders. In a numerical model by PLAXIS 2D, it was shown that low amounts of guar and
xanthan increased the soil bearing capacity, attenuated the negative effect of saturation
degree, and decreased the settlement during and after saturation [174].
7.3. Landfills
One of the most common methods of waste disposal and management is landfill.
The surface system of a landfill needs to be sufficiently resistant against wind and water
erosion, promote vegetation if present by storing water, and satisfy aesthetic and eco‐
logical criteria. The cover system prevents the underlying layers from exposure to dam‐
aging environments, such as freeze‐thaw, desiccation, and ultraviolet light. Landfills
comprise a very low‐permeable barrier system to delay the contamination of leachate and
toxic components into the soil and groundwater system. The permeability of liners in a
landfill system should not exceed 10−7 cm/s, and the thickness must be more than 600 mm
[199]. Clay liners with low hydraulic conductivity are used in landfill systems, but their
drawbacks, mostly because of high volume change and cracking as well as
non‐renewability, limit their use [200]. Stabilizing the host soil with environ‐
ment‐friendly binders can be considered as an alternative to clay liners.
Biopolymer treated soils considerably improved the erodibility resistance by main‐
taining the soil ability of vegetation growth. Also, absorbing water due to the hydro‐
philicity of biopolymers enables the cover system to store water. The ability of vegetation
promotion growth for biopolymer treated soil was investigated in a large‐scale study for
a one year period; biopolymer increased the vegetation density and higher sprouts were
observed compared to the untreated soil [43]. Around 2.72 × 105 times decrease in hy‐
draulic conductivity was recorded when guar gum was added to the soil, while the shear
strength was also increased by more than 70%. Furthermore, durability indexes under
wet‐dry cycles were placed in the permissible range. It is also notable that biopolymer
treated soil is capable of enhancing the heavy metal attenuation capacity of the soil,
causing less harmful leachate containing heavy metal to pass through the soil to
groundwater [143]. Therefore, with the great potential of biopolymer‐treated soil in
landfill application, further use of biopolymers in research and practical applications is
expected in the future.
7.4. Biopolymers in Slurry Barrier Trench Excavations
Bentonite slurry is used to stabilize the sides for trench excavation, which is called
the slurry trench method of excavation. This technique enables excavation where a high
groundwater profile exists, and the trench needs to be extended below the water level
[201]. During the excavation process, the slurry is pumped into the trench to prevent the
sides from collapse by applying hydrostatic pressure towards the walls, penetrating in‐
side the pores, and forming a filter layer over the side surface. Usually, bentonite is the
main material in this technique, but recently biopolymer slurry has shown a potential to
be utilized as an alternative. The high gel strength of the biopolymer and low tendency to
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 30 of 39
lose water make it capable of being used in this technique [202]. To stop internal erosion
in an embankment dam, a biopolymer slurry trench can be excavated with partial pene‐
tration to reduce seepage occurring on the downstream slope in case the excavation
should be continued beneath the water level. In 1997, guar gum slurry was utilized to
stabilize sidewalls during the excavation process of installing a permeable iron barrier at
Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA. The biopolymer slurry trench method has also been used in
several other projects in different parts of the world [203].
8. Prospects and Limitations of Biopolymer in Soil Treatment
It can be said that the most important reason for introducing biopolymers in soil
strengthening is to mitigate the harmful effects of other environmentally unfriendly ma‐
terials. Biopolymers would provide the opportunity of using sustainable materials with
low impact on the environment as well as groundwater. Moreover, it has been shown
that a smaller content of biopolymers would be able to obtain the same or higher strength
compared with cement. Unlike some other soil improvement methods, the presence of
fine soil is not considered an obstacle to using biopolymers, while using the MICP tech‐
nique is also limited to coarse‐grained soils, to reach a uniform distribution of precipi‐
tated calcite. Introducing biopolymer into the soil can be performed through various
methods such as grouting, injection, mixing, and spraying [9,15,204]. In comparison to
the MICP method, less time and complexity are needed in terms of the application and
productivity of using biopolymers. In addition, biopolymers have the potential of mass
production as well as relatively immediate reaction with soil particles, which enable
them to be employed in temporary and rapid applications [15]. Furthermore, artificial
intelligence methods and algorithms could be readily developed and deployed to opti‐
mize the performance of biopolymers as a viable soil improvement method. For example,
genetic programming neural networks or Bayesian network have been successfully used
in the study of geopolymer concrete and brick, which could be emulated for biopolymers
[205,206].
More research needs to be performed to resolve some limitations of biopolymer
usage. The characteristics of biopolymer‐treated soil can change under real environ‐
mental conditions such as pH, temperature, wet‐dry cycles, as well as ultraviolet radia‐
tion [207]. Additionally, the durability of biopolymer mixed with soil should be more
comprehensively investigated, especially for degradation because of microorganisms.
The types of microorganisms can differ completely from one soil to another, which
means that each soil might need to be specifically evaluated in terms of biodegradability
and duration. Also, a biopolymer–soil mixture may work well at a certain time of the
year, while it has poor workability in a different season or atmospheric condition. Bi‐
opolymer‐treated soil performance under saturated conditions should be studied further,
as most biopolymers are quite sensitive to water.
Few studies have been performed to evaluate the effect of biopolymers in field con‐
ditions. Recently, a biopolymer was used to control the soil erosion in the field. Xanthan,
casein, and xanthan‐starch compound were utilized. Monitoring was carried out after
100 days to evaluate the vegetation density and shear strength. Biopolymer‐treated soils
exhibited an increase in shear strength compared to the untreated soil. In addition, the
vegetation density increased considerably due to the addition of biopolymers [43]. The
feasibility of utilizing biopolymers for pavement stabilization was studied in the treat‐
ment of a 50 m‐long pedestrian trail. The effectiveness was observed in enhanced surface
stiffness and erosion resistance [43].
In terms of economic feasibility, using biopolymers in geotechnical applications is
currently less feasible in comparison to traditional materials. The trend towards more
commercialization during the last few decades has led to the cost reduction of some bi‐
opolymers, such as xanthan gum, the price of which has decreased from 30,000 US$/ton
to 3000 US$/ton over 20 years [150]. Furthermore, the existing prices are usually for the
high‐quality grade of biopolymers, which are mostly used in food and medical applica‐
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 31 of 39
tions. In recent years, lower‐grade biopolymers have been successfully used in soil im‐
provement work [18]. Successful identification of new products or bacteria strains [208]
would enhance productivity as well as applying a wider use of technological tools [209]
incorporating soil improvement methods [210] and would thus provide another major
step towards mass application on real‐life projects [211–215].
9. Conclusions
Adding biopolymer to act as a binder into the host soils is one of the most effective
applications for soil treatment. In this study, a technical review has been conducted on
the role of biopolymers in soil improvement and how they change the geotechnical
properties of soils.
Biopolymers from various sources have been employed. The most common source is
biopolymers produced from plants. Animal‐based and microorganism‐based bi‐
opolymers have demonstrated great potential for geotechnical purposes. The ocean
is also a valuable resource for extracting biopolymers from marine plants and ani‐
mals.
Sand particles are neutral in charge, such that the biopolymer adhesion mechanism
is achieved via coating the soil particles and forming bridges amongst the particles.
On the other hand, clay sheets tend to directly interact with biopolymer particles
through different electrostatic interactions such as hydrogen bonding, ionic bonds,
as well as van der Waals bonds. This behavior is due to the existence of negative
charges and cations in clay minerals.
Important points of the geotechnical characteristics of biopolymer‐treated soils are
as follows:
The unconfined compressive test is usually considered the most common test
method to evaluate the behavior of biopolymer‐treated soils. The general conclusion
is that biopolymers increase the UCS values; however, the UCS improvement could
be variable depending on the biopolymer and the soil testing conditions. Xan‐
than‐treated sand achieved a compressive strength that was comparable to cement.
The reported results of direct shear tests have also shown improvements in shear
strengths, in particular on increasing the cohesion. Internal friction amongst soil
particles experiences relatively lower strength improvement during treatment.
By adding biopolymers, stiffer soil surfaces with improved strength could be
achieved to resist wind and water erosion. Using biopolymers to control wind ero‐
sion is an effective short‐term technique that could be resistant for at least one or two
weeks.
The physical soil properties have also been affected by adding biopolymer such that
higher additive content led to higher liquid and plastic limits. However, this trend
for the plasticity index (PI) was not the same, and both decreasing and increasing
trends were observed, respectively.
Variation of both the optimal moisture contents and maximum dry densities could
vary due to various biopolymer and soil types. As many of the biopolymers em‐
ployed for soil improvement are soluble in water, the moisture content is an im‐
portant parameter for further research so that the improved soils achieve the desir‐
able compaction conditions.
The lack of research can be observed in the role of biopolymers used in pavement ap‐
plications. However, the effective performance of biopolymers in increasing the CBR
strength, resilient modulus (RM), and UCS has been reported. However, further re‐
search is still needed to assess its long‐term cyclic durability under traffic or seismic
loadings.
Various factors can affect the biotreated soil behavior. The most important factors
are presented below:
Geosciences 2021, 11, 291 32 of 39
One advantage of using a biopolymer as a binder is the relatively low content needed
to achieve a compressive strength that is comparable to traditional materials such as
cement and lime. For some biopolymers, it can be seen that an optimal amount must
be ascertained otherwise reduction in soil strength may be expected. Compared with
other biopolymers, greater lignin content is needed to reach the optimal content.
Sensitivity to water is considered to be a fundamental issue of biopolymers in soil
treatment; strength loss and apparent swelling/shrinkage behavior are the draw‐
backs. The maximum strength of biopolymer‐treated soil is obtained in the dry state
and higher moisture content will lead to lower strength. Susceptibility to water is
also different from one biopolymer to another.
The durability of the biopolymer‐treated soil requires more attention because vari‐
ous environmental conditions including wetting–drying cycles, freeze–thaw cycles,
microorganisms, and ultraviolet radiation could significantly decrease the strength.
For gellan gum, exposure to wet–dry cycles resulted in major damage to the bi‐
opolymer matrix and thus loss of strength. However, xanthan gum offered a rela‐
tively better efficiency under wet–dry cycles.
Biopolymer‐treated soil properties could change significantly under different ther‐
mal variations. Thermogelatin biopolymers, such as agar and gellan gums, are
among the biopolymers most susceptible to temperature. Some biopolymers (casein,
alginate, and beta‐glucan) perform better at their optimal temperatures. Generally,
high temperatures may lead to the decomposition of the biopolymers.
The moisture content of the biopolymer soil mixture has a close relationship with
dehydration time, in such a way that time causes the biotreated sample to lose its
moisture and form the linked network. If the samples are under cured in normal
atmospheric conditions, it takes time for the specimens to achieve more than 90% of
their maximum strength value, which could be considered as the optimal dehydra‐
tion time. This optimal value could vary from 3 to 28 days, depending on soil and
biopolymer types.
The brittle behavior of biopolymer‐treated soils could be modified by adding fiber
into the mixture to increase their flexibility. Along with synthetic products, natural
fibers such as date palm fibers and animal wools have demonstrated a positive im‐
pact on the biotreated soil’s characteristics.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.F., D.E.L.O., J.Y. and I.C.; investigation, H.F.,
D.E.L.O., J.Y. and I.C.; writing—original draft preparation, H.F.; writing—review and editing,
D.E.L.O., J.Y. and I.C.; supervision, D.E.L.O., J.Y. and I.C. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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