THEME 3:

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS. THE FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE.

LANGUAGE IN USE. NEGOTIATION OF MEANING.

1. THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

2. THE FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE

a). Malinowski
b). Bühler
c). Roman Jakobson
d). James Britton
e). Halliday
f). Other Points of View

3. LANGUAGE IN USE

4. NEGOTIATION OF MEANING
1. THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

There have been many attempts to define the term communication. For
Widdowson, communication is understood to have the following characteristics:

 it is a form of social interaction.

 it involves a high degree of unpredictablility and creativity in form and
message.
 it takes place in discourse and socio-cultural contexts which provide
constraints on language use and clues as to correct interpretations of
utterances.
 it is carried out under psychological and other conditions.
 it always has a purpose.
 it is judged as successful or not on the basis of actual outcomes.

In addition, communication is understood as the exchange and negotiation of

information between at least two individuals through the use of verbal and non-
verbal symbols, oral and written modes and production and comprehension
processes.

I.A. Richards offered one of the first definitions of communication:

“Communication takes place when one mind so acts upon its environment that
another mind is influenced, and in that other mind an experience occurs which is
like the experience in the first mind, and is caused in part by that experience” .
This definition is general and rough, but it can be applied to nearly all kinds of
communication.

One of the most productive schematic models of a communication system emerged

from the speculations of the linguist Roman Jakobson. The simplicity of his model,
its clarity and its surface generality proved attractive to many students of
communication. The communication process would have six elements:

CONTEXT

ADDRESSER MESSAGE ADDRESSEE

CONTACT

CODE

The source or addresser sends a message to the receiver or addressee. To be

operative, the message requires a context referred to, either verbal or capable of
being verbalised. There is a code fully or partially common to the addresser and

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addressee and finally, a contact, a physical channel between the addresser and the
addressee.

When we think about the communication process, we usually think about language.
However, language is just one means of communication. All the definitions given
above refer to the exchange of meanings between individuals through a common
system of symbols, but not only linguistic symbols. This takes us to semiotics, a
field which investigates the structure of all possible sign systems and which deals
with human communication in all its modes - sound, sight, touch, smell and taste.

The structured use of the auditory-vocal channel results in the primary

manifestation of language: speech. But non-linguistic uses of the vocal tract are
also possible:

 physiological reflexes, such as coughing and snoring

 musical effects, such as whistling
 the communication of identity, in the form of voice quality.

The visual mode is used for a variety of purposes, some linguistic, some not. The
primary way in which visual effects have linguistic use is in the various sign
languages used by deaf people. Then, we have the development of the written
language and further writing-based codes, such as traffic lights, semaphores and
Morse code, which could be included here.

Tactile communication has a very limited linguistic function, apart from the use of
the Braille alphabet. Its main uses are non-linguistic, in the form of the various
ways in which bodily contact and physical distance may carry a meaning.

The communicative use of the visual and tactile mode is often referred to as ‘non-
verbal communication’, or ‘body language’. There seems to be little active role for
the olfactory and gustatory modes in human communication. However, they play an
important part in our reception of information about the outside world.

2. THE FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE

The most logical answer to the question ‘Why do we use language?’ could be ‘to
communicate ideas’, as this is probably the most widely recognised function of
language. But it would be wrong to think of it as the only way in which we use
language. People do different things with their language; they expect to achieve
by using it for a large number of different aims and different purposes. Below, we
can examine the way a number of scholars have attempted in this century to
classify and list these functions.

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a). Malinowski:

Malinowski classified the functions of language into the two broad categories of
pragmatic and magical. As an anthropologist, he was interested in the practical or
pragmatic uses of language on the one hand, and on the other hand in the ritual or
magical uses of language associated with ceremonial or religious activities in the
culture.

b). Bühler:

Bühler was concerned with the functions of language from the standpoint of the
individual. His classification had three types of functions: expressive language,
conative language and representational language.

 expressive language is orientated towards the self

 conative language is orientated towards the addressee
 representational language is orientated towards the rest of reality

Bühler was applying a conceptual framework inherited from Plato - the distinction
between first, second and third person - and he recognised three functions
according to their orientation to one or other of the three persons.

c). Roman Jakobson:

Bühler’s scheme was adopted by the Prague school and later extended by Roman
Jakobson, who, on the basis of the six factors of his own model of communication,
distinguished six different functions of language:

REFERENTIAL

EMOTIVE POETIC CONATIVE

PHATIC

METALINGUAL

i). The Referential Function:

As we have already said, to communicate our ideas is surely the most widely
recognised function of language. This use of language is often called referential or
ideational. It is when we use language in order to exchange facts and opinions.

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ii). The Emotive Function:

Another common use of language is the emotive or expressive function, when we

express our feelings about something. Swear words and obscenities are probably
the commonest expressive expressions, but there are also many emotive
utterances of a positive kind, such as involuntary verbal reactions to beautiful art
or the expression of fear or affection. The most common linguistic expressions of
emotion consist of conventional words or phrases ( Gosh, My, Damn) and the semi-
linguistic noises often called interjections ( Tut-tut, Ugh, Wow, Oops). At a more
sophisticated level, there are many literary devices of grammar and vocabulary
which convey the writer’s feelings. However, in these more complex cases it
becomes difficult to distinguish the emotional function of language from the
referential function.

iii). The Poetic Function:

The poetic function refers to the form of the message itself, when the form of
the message is more important than the content. This is the typical feature of
poetry and of some popular slogans (I Like Ike).

iv). The Conative Function:

The conative function is mainly found in commands and orders. With this use of
language, the addresser wants to influence the addressee’s behaviour or actions.

v). The Phatic Function:

The phatic function is when we use language in social interaction. In this case, we
are not trying to communicate ideas, but rather to maintain a comfortable
relationship between people. The use of phrases such as Pleased to meet you and
ritual exchanges about health and the weather do not communicate ideas and no
factual content is involved.

vi). The Metalingual Function:

The last of Jakobson’s functions is the metalingual function. It refers to the code
and it comprises all kinds of communication which refer directly to the language
itself, such as questions about the meaning of words, etc.

d). James Britton:

Britton was concerned with the development of writing abilities by children at

school and held the view that writing developed first in an expressive context and
the ability was then extended ‘outwards’ to transactional (or referential) writing
on the one hand, and to poetic writing on the other.

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e). Halliday:

Halliday proposed a different classification of language functions, based on the

semantic system of every language. He refers to them as experimental,
interpersonal, logical and textual. But his important contribution to the discussion
was that he said that all strands of meaning are interwoven in the fabric of the
discourse. We cannot pick out one word or one phrase and say that it has only
experiential meaning, or interpersonal meaning. And this is applicable to all
classifications studied so far. Every sentence in a text is multifunctional; but not
in such a way that you can point to one particular constituent or segment and say
that a particular segment has just one function. The meanings are woven together
in such a way that, to understand them, we do not look separately at the different
parts; rather, we look at the whole thing simultaneously from a number of
different angles, each perspective contributing towards the total interpretation.

f). Other Points of View:

Other functions, less common than those already mentioned, have been described
by scholars and linguists. Language can be used to control the reality, mainly, but
not always, in religious and magical contexts, in prayers and rites. The language
might be regarded as a form of referential communication with a supernatural
being as the recipient, but the response is usually appreciated only in the mind of
the speaker and there may be no evident response at all.

When language is used for the purpose of recording facts, it is very different
from that used in everyday conversation, as it displays a much greater degree of
organisation, impersonality and explicitness. This function of language is
represented by all kinds of record-keeping, such as historical records, scientific
reports, parliamentary acts, etc.

Language has been considered by some as the instrument of thought. People often
feel the need to speak their thoughts aloud. However, it is not essential that
language used in this way should always be spoken aloud or written down. Some
people can be seen to move their lips while they are thinking. Language is evidently
present, in a sub-vocal form. The subsequent question which constitutes an
interesting discussion is whether all thought, then, requires language.

3. LANGUAGE IN USE

In order to connect some ideas expressed above with the point we are going to
develop now, we have to remind ourselves that language is the most frequently
used and most highly developed form of human communication we possess. An act
of communication is basically the transmission of information of some kind - a
message - from a source to a receiver. In the case of language, both source and

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receiver are human and the message is transmitted either vocally - through the
air - or graphically - by marks on a surface. Language is therefore one form of
communication.

When speaking about language in use, it is important to bear in mind that someone
knowing a language knows more than how to understand, speak, read and write
sentences. He/She also knows how sentences are used to communicative effect;
he/she also acquires competence as to when to speak, when not to, and as to what
to talk about, with whom, when, where and in what manner. The acquisition of such
competence is of course produced by social experience, needs and motives.

Attention to the social dimension is thus not restricted to occasions on which

social factors seem to interfere with or restrict the grammatical. The
engagement of language in social life has a positive, productive aspect. There are
rules of use without which the rules of grammar would be useless. Just as rules of
syntax can control aspects of phonology, and just as semantic rules control
aspects of syntax, so rules of speech acts enter as a controlling factor for
linguistic form as a whole.

Once we accept the need to use language as communication, we can no longer think
of it in terms only of sentences. This has very important consequences in teaching
practice, as we must consider the nature of discourse and how best to teach it.
Instead of wanting our students to achieve grammatical competence or a
knowledge of sentences, we should aim at their achieving communicative
competence, as language does not occur in stray words or sentences but in
connected discourse.

Widdowson distinguishes two ways of looking at language beyond the limit of the
sentence:

 On the one hand, we can consider it as a text, a collection of formal

objects held together by patterns of equivalencies, frequencies or cohesive
devices.

 On the other hand, we can see it as a discourse, a use of sentences to

perform acts of communication which cohere into larger communicative
units.

Both approaches to the description of language have their purposes, and if he has
sometimes appeared to be recommending the latter at the expense of the former,
this is only to restore the balance for language teaching, which should be as much
concerned with discourse as with text.

From Widdowson, two new terms have been added to the list of grammatical
concepts: discourse analysis and text analysis. If we are to teach language in use,

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we have to shift our attention from sentences in isolation to the manner in which
they combine in text on the one hand, and to the manner in which they are used to
perform communicative acts in discourse on the other. Text and discourse analysis
are different but complementary ways of looking at language in use.

4. NEGOTIATION OF MEANING

The correct use of a language happens when there exists interaction between the
speaker and the listener, when their attention is focused on conveying and
receiving authentic messages. This exchange is the basic unit of discourse and a
triangular relationship is established between the sender, the receiver and the
context. Therefore, interaction involves not only the expression of one’s ideas but
the comprehension of those of others.

This act of communication includes the negotiation of meaning in a shared

context. This fact, which is applicable to every act of communication, must be
especially kept in mind when teaching a second language, as students need
strategies to be successful when they negotiate with meaning.

Scholars have described oral interactions in terms of routines, which are

conventional ways of presenting information. These routines can focus either on
information or interaction. Information routines contain recurring types of
information structures (narration, description, explanation) and interaction
routines refer to social situations. This distinction between information and
interaction routines mirrors the distinction between the referential and
interactional functions of language discussed above. As happened with functions,
any act of communication may contain elements of information and interaction
routines.

However, in any act of communication, and even more when learners of a second
language interact with native speakers or other learners, this negotiation of
meaning, or the efforts by the conversational partners to secure mutual
understanding, becomes difficult. This is due to a number of factors related to
meaning which we will examine below:

 The first aspect is the fact that defining terms, that is to say giving the
meaning of words, is not an easy task. Demonstration is possible with
concrete nouns, but this group is rather restricted. Circumlocution is a
roundabout speech which fits the same situation, as does the defined word.
This is what dictionaries do, and it is not an easy task. Translation is giving
a roughly equivalent form in one’s own language.

 Another problem is what we call displaced speech. This happens when the
normal meaning of an utterance is modified by the context. If a starving

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 beggar says ‘I’m hungry’, everybody will understand the primary meaning of
the sentence. However, if a child, at bedtime, says ‘I’m hungry’, his mother
may answer by packing him off to bed.

 Linguistic meanings are more specific than the meanings of non-linguistic

acts. A great deal of human co-operation is effected without language, by
such means as gestures (pointing at something), contact (caressing) or non-
linguistic sounds, both non-vocal (applause) and vocal (laughing). We must
mention especially the non-linguistic features of speech sound, such as the
different tones of voice: the manner of speech is speech in itself.

 Another set of problems is provoked by synonyms and homonyms. A

simplified view of any language would assume that each linguistic form has a
constant and specific meaning. If the forms are phonemically different, we
suppose that their meanings are also different, and therefore we suppose
that they are not real synonyms. Scholars say that any language tends to
avoid completely interchangeable words. However, for learning purposes, it
is better to simplify matters and pretend they exist. On the other hand, if
two forms are semantically different, they are not the same, even though
they may be alike as to phonetic form. Homonyms present a large set of
problems in the negotiation of meaning.

 Among meanings, we agree in viewing one of them as normal or central and

the others as marginal, metaphoric or transferred. The central meaning is
favoured in the sense that we understand a form in the central meaning
unless some feature of the practical situation forces us to look to a
transferred meaning. If we hear someone say ‘There goes a fox’, we look
for a real fox. Only if some situational feature forces us do we take the
form in the transferred sense: ‘Old Mr. Smith is a fox.’

 Another important way in which meanings show instability is the presence

of supplementary values which we call connotations. The meaning of a form
for any speaker is the result of the situations in which he has heard this
form. If he has not heard it many times, or if he has heard it under very
unusual circumstances, his use of the form may deviate from the
conventional. The most important connotations arise from the social
standing of the speakers who use a form. A form which is used by a less
privileged class of speakers often strikes us as coarse or vulgar, but
depending on the speaker, the listener or the context, they may bear a
connotation of danger or they may strike us as homely but poetic. A form
used by a more privileged class of speakers may strike us as over-formal or
prettified and affected.

If any of these problems hinders the act of communication, the negotiation of

meaning must develop strategies and tactics. Strategies are conversational

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devices used to avoid trouble. Examples are relinquishing topic control, selecting
salient topics and checking comprehension. Tactics are devices for repairing
trouble: topic switching or requests for clarification. Other devices such as using
a slow pace, repeating utterances, or stressing key words can serve as both
tactics and strategies.

As we are dealing with the process of learning a foreign language, it is important

to mention that the learner needs to contribute to the negotiation of meaning, as
it is a joint enterprise. He can do so by giving clear feedback, signals when he has
understood or not understood, and by refusing to give up. The result of
negotiation of meaning is that particular types of input and interaction result, so
that the negotiation makes input comprehensible.

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