MZUMBE UNIVERSITY

THE FACTORS INFLUENCING POOR CITIZEN PARTICIPATION IN LOCAL

GOVERNMENT ELECTIONS: A CASE STUDY OF MUHEZA DISTRICT COUNCIL
(TANGA)

Research Report (First draft)

ABRAHAM EMANUELI MMBAGA

BPA LGM

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I first give my thanks to God, the Almighty, for his excess grace, strength and love that have
been with me when preparing this research report. This research report has been made
possible due to various individual and institutional support without their contribution this
work would not have been made complete. It is not possible to list all those individuals and
institutions that have contributed in one way or another to this report, but I am sincerely
grateful for their invaluable and unforgettable contribution.

First and foremost, special regards should go to my supervisors, Dr. David Emmanuel
Ndikumana and Mr. Saiba Lusubilo, of the School of Administration and Management
(SAM) at Mzumbe University for their keen supervision and guidance throughout the initial
to final preparation and writing this report. In fact the successful completion of this work
would have not been possible without their keen supervision with constructive feedback for
continuous improvement.

I am grateful to express my sincere thanks to management of Muheza District Council for

granting permission to conduct both my practical trainings and research project. Many
thanks go to Mr. Nassib B. Mmbaga, a District Executive Officer (DED), Mr. Godhelp
Njileriko Ringo, a District Human Resources Officer (DHRO) and Mr. Nelson Mwankina, a
District Elections Officer (DEO). Thanks to Madam Ajesca Luvingo, Asia Athumani,
Maria Mgani, Zaituni Said and Mr. Lazaro Lemurua, with other staffs from Department of
Human Resources and Administration for their moral and courageous support, acceptance
to conduct my field research project without any procedural obstacles and their willingness
to provide information concerning my project. I owe a debt of gratitude to political parties’
representatives including CHADEMA and CCM as well as other staffs and citizens of
Muheza District Council who participated in the study.

Lastly but not list, special thanks to all my fellow third year students who showed courage
and moral support during the course of preparing this work especially those under Dr.
Ndikumana and Mr. Luisubilo supervision.

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 DEDICATION

This report is dedicated to my father, Emmanuel Eliamin; my lovely mother, Gladness

Emmanuel; my brothers and sister: John, Elybraison, Malack and Naomi; and the memory
of my beloved sister Vaileth Emmanuel.

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 ABBREVIATIONS

LGEs – Local Government Elections

LGAs – Local Government Authorities

DC – District Council

CHADEMA – Chama cha Demokrasia na Maendeleo

CCM – Chama Cha Mapinduzi

REPOA – Research on Poverty Alleviation

PO – RALG – President’s Office and Local Government

DED – District Executive Officer

DHRO – District Human Resources Officer

DEO – District Elections Officer

TACCEO – Tanzania Civil Society Consortium on Election Observation

LHRC – Local Human Rights Commission

SPSS – Statistical Package for Social Science

EMB – Elections Management Body

SDGS – Sustainable Development Goals

IMF – International Monetary Fund.

CSO – Civil Society Organization.

EUROMOV – European Movement

ECI – European Citizen Initiative

LGRP – Local Government Reform Program.

TEW – Tanzania Elections Watch

IDEA – Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance

EPD – European Partnership for Democracy

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CAG – Controller and Auditor General.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.........................................................................................................

DEDICATION..........................................................................................................................iii

ABBREVIATIONS..................................................................................................................iv

ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................................vii

CHAPTER 1...............................................................................................................................

1.0. BACKGROUND AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM........................................

1.1. Introduction..................................................................................................................

1.2. Background..................................................................................................................

1.3. Statement of a problem................................................................................................

1.4. Research objectives......................................................................................................

1.5. Research questions.......................................................................................................

1.6.0. Significance of the study...........................................................................................

1.7.0 Scope of the study......................................................................................................

1.8.0 Definition of key terms..............................................................................................

CHAPTER 2...............................................................................................................................

2.0. CITIZEN PARTICIPATION IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT ELECTIONS...................

2.1.0 Theoretical review.....................................................................................................

2.2.0. Empirical literature review.....................................................................................13

2.3.0. Research gap...........................................................................................................16

CHAPTER 3.............................................................................................................................17

3.0. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY..................................................................................17

3.1.0 Research design.......................................................................................................17

3.2.0 Type of the study.....................................................................................................17

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 3.3.0 Study area................................................................................................................17

3.4.0 Study population......................................................................................................17

3.5.0 Sample size and sampling techniques......................................................................18

3.6.0. Types and sources of data.......................................................................................18

3.7.0. Data analysis...........................................................................................................19

3.8.0. Reliability and validity............................................................................................19

3.9.0. Ethical consideration...............................................................................................19

CHAPTER 4.............................................................................................................................21

4.0 PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS..............................................21

4.1.0. Introduction.............................................................................................................21

4.2.0. Characteristics of study participants.......................................................................21

4.3.0. Key findings............................................................................................................24

4.3.2. Factors influencing poor citizen participation in local government elections:.......27

4.3.3. Ways to increase citizen participation in local government elections....................39

5.0. CHAPTER 5......................................................................................................................43

5.1.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS........................................................43

5.1.1. Conclusion..............................................................................................................43

5.1.2. Recommendations...................................................................................................43

5.1.3. Limitations of the study..........................................................................................44

5.1.4. Areas for further studies.........................................................................................45

APPENDICES..........................................................................................................................46

APPENDIX I....................................................................................................................46

QUESTIONNAIRE..........................................................................................................46

APPENDIX II.......................................................................................................................49

HOJAJI KWA WANANCHI KWA AJILI YA UCHUNGUZI JUU YA USHIRIKI

WAO KATIKA CHAGUZI ZA SERIKALI ZA MITAA................................................49

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 APPENDIX III.....................................................................................................................52

NTERVIEW CHECKLIST...............................................................................................52

REFERENCE...........................................................................................................................53

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viii
 ABSTRACT

This research was part of an undergraduate research within the Bachelor degree Program
offered at the Mzumbe University. Citizen`s participation in democratization processes
including elections is essential issue for development process. Despites this background,
experiences from around the world show that, citizen`s participation in local government
elections tends to be low even in areas where civic education and campaigns have been
widely made.

This research focused at exploring the factors influencing poor citizen`s participation in
local government elections, where by three objectives have been developed including; to
identify the extent to which citizens participates in local government election processes, to
understand factors influencing poor citizen participation in local government elections and
to find out ways in which citizen participation in local government elections can be
improved.

Different theories has been used to explain various concepts which demonstrates on several
forces for people not to participate in public and political participation including the local
government elections such as civic voluntarism model, social psychological model, the
mobilization model and the rational choice model. Even the Arstein’s model was used.

To acquire and capture primary and secondary data in responding the study objectives
together with research questions, the study employed unstructured interviews,
questionnaires and documentary reviews as the methods of data collection in which 50
respondents were sampled and the statistical, thematic and content analyses were used for
data processing and analysis. Data were collected from one district council and analyzed
between February to mid of April.

The study identified that the extent to which citizens participate in local government election
processes such as in registration process, selection and appointment of candidates, electoral
campaigns as well as casting polls in Election Day. The study here identified that the
participation of citizens in registration is not worse as stated in other literatures since much
efforts is being concentrated to meet the registration targets to the returning and assistant
returning officers, though not all targeted is citizens are registered but at least 88% to 92% of
total targeted voters were registered. The participation in campaigns is worse, citizens rarely
participates. But also the participation in casting polls is not satisfying since there is great
variation between the registered voters and those who casted polls.

The study explored different factors influenced poor citizen participation in local government
elections. The most obvious conclusion demographic factors like age, gender, sex, economic
status, marital status do not have a significant association with citizen participation in local
government election rather it seems that other factors affected the electoral participation such
as civic education, lack of relevant information on electoral laws, lack of basic information
on electoral laws, political efficacy, rules and guidelines, poor electoral system, government

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intervention and general electoral management, distance to polling and registration station,
economic factors as well as long queue. All in all the informational and education challenges
were most recorded from respondents.

The study went further finding ways to improve the citizen participation in local government
elections like provision of voter education, basic information, improving registration system,
free and fair elections, fulfillment of promises, mobilization campaigns as well as extending
time for registration together with increasing registration and polling locations. Based on
these suggested ways from the respondents, I would also suggest to have policies that would
enable to brand local elections to increase their impulse as general elections, more creative
techniques needs to be adopted.

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 CHAPTER 1

1.0. BACKGROUND AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

1.1. Introduction

Different countries across the globe both developed and developing countries recognize
citizen participation as most and important initiative to enhance democracy and promote
political, social and economic development. Local government elections are among of the
tool to facilitate citizen participation in governance as they choose their representatives who
will make decisions on their behalf. The present study focused on exploring factors
influencing citizen participation in local government and the ways to improve citizen
participation in Tanzania. This chapter covered background of the study, statement of the
problem, significance of the study, delimitations of the study and definition of key concepts.

1.2. Background

Citizen participation is desired and necessary part of community development and should
be encompassed in any policy formulation process (Kheyrodden &Hamzahlow 2019). A
number of bodies have documented citizen participation; for example, World Bank and the
International Monetary Fund (IMF), academia, governments and Civil Society
Organizations (CSOs) as a means of achieving successful local economic development.
Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) necessitates dynamic citizen
participation as an indispensable route to guaranteeing effective program and or project
implementation. Consequently, citizen participation becomes one of the key channels to
effective policy implementation at local government (Mwesigwa, (2021). To increase
citizen participation, different countries across the globe has been adopting different
initiatives and among of which is adoption of which is decentralization (establishment of
local governments). United States of America, East African countries like Uganda, Kenya
and Tanzania, Nigeria, Ghana, Australia and other countries adopted the different forms of
local government system to improve citizen participation and ensure effective and efficient
service delivery. The European Union in bringing European Union citizens closer to EU and
enhancing civic engagement allowing to restore and redefine EU purpose and objectives. It
has come up with European Citizen Initiatives (ECI) to increase civic engagement
(EUROMOV, 2019).

When it comes to Tanzania, local government were established since colonial period and
the same local government system was adopted after independence until the adoption of
centralized system of government in 1972, but this adopted system did not bring the desired
results among of which was to improve the delivery of public service to the society leading
to reinstatement of local government system in 1982 through the so called Decentralization
by Devolution (D by D). Following the reinstatement of local government in Tanzania,
there has been continuous reforms called Local Government Reform Program (LGRP)
which aims at strengthening decentralization by devolution. The program has a goal of
increasing citizen participation in decision making and local elections, giving local councils
powers over local affairs and creating accountable local government. Therefore, the

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establishment of local government in Tanzania has been seen as an important vehicle
towards increasing citizen participation.

For the purpose of meeting the goal of establishment of local government together with its
ongoing reforms of increasing democratic participation in Tanzania, there is elected local
government council made of elected and appointed councilors which is political organ
responsible for discussing issues within their jurisdiction like [passing by-laws, holding
local government staffs accountable as well as passing budget and representing citizens.
also there is leadership at the village council that is composed of village chairperson,
vitongoji chairperson as well as members of the village council. Both leaders of councilors
and the village council leaders are chosen in a full democratic process at a grass root level
(LGRP, 1996). These elections are held after every five years (TACCEO, 2014). Local
government elections constitute an important form of community participation in
democratizing society even though they are formal and regulated form of participation.
These local elections do not merely signal the right of the people to vote for a political party
but symbolically and ideally ‘expression of the voice of the people’ (Norris, 1999, 2002a b:
2004) as cited by (William, 2006). Election provides an opportunity to review citizen
arbitrations, compared to previous performance by elected representatives in providing legal
rights of citizens. It is also way to balance and regulating behaviors and performance of
officials and expressing legitimate demands of people (Khyroddin & Hamzehlow, 2017).
Furthermore, elections allow citizens to participate, choose their leaders and demonstrate
national promises on practicing government operations.

However, local elections being so important in different countries across the globe
especially in developing countries like Tanzania, the trends of citizen participation in these
local elections is not satisfying. The trend has continued to become worse where 2009 local
government elections in registration process; the general overview indicated that the LGEs
lacked the impulsion compared to the general elections (Senteuh, 2015). The turnout in this
election was also low. At least 8,778,583 people were registered as voters countrywide for
the LGEs but only 5,213,450 turned out on the polling day to cast their votes LHRC (2010).
Note that Tanzania is estimated to have more than 16.1 million people who are eligible to
vote. Therefore the stated number of 8.7 million registered voters was only 52 percent of all
prospective voters (LHRC, 2010). Even in the 2014 local government election basing on
report issued by PMORALG, there were a total of 11,491,661 (62%) voters turned out
among 18,587,742 voters registered(TACCEO, 2015). Even the 2019 trends on the citizen
participation in local government elections are not satisfying too since it was associated
with several irregularities and convictions (TEW, 2020).

Local Government Elections 2004 2009 2014 2019

Percentage of people casted their 94% 59.39% 62% 53%

votes of the registered voters.

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(Chaligha, 2014: LHRC, 2010 and TACCEO, 2015)

The decline in citizen participation was not only observed in voter’s turnout and registration
but also participation in electoral campaigns. In 2014 local government election discovered
that in most parts of Tanzania very few people attended these campaigns. Campaigns
attended by a crowd of people were the one addressed by the political parties' National
leaders. There was political apathy – very poor attendance and few people who were asked
on why there is low turnout they were of the view that there was lack of civic education
awareness (TACCEO, 2015). Even the 2019 election, very few people attended the electoral
campaigns, these also was contributed by the electoral irregularities that occurred during the
conduct of elections (TEW, 2020).

Various studies has been conducted including the study conducted by Senteuh (2015),
Nyando (2019), Damian (2012), Roberts (2009), Williams (2006), Mwaipopo (2013) and
others which most of them focused on the factors influencing voters turnout, managerial
factors affecting registration process in elections including local elections and others which
are based on citizen participation in local government elections. These studies came up with
factors influencing registration process and voters turnout such as voting procedures
(methods in which people may vote), weak political parties, the belief that a single vote
cannot make a significant change also took confidence in democratic value election but also
lack of significant competition in election, psychological issues, infrastructural neglect, lack
of enthusiasm to local government elections, inadequate voters education, limited time for
registration process, lack of mass sensitization as well as political stability affect electoral
participation. All these affect the right of the people but further more affect social economic
and political development of the respective countries.

Basing on these studies conducted at different points of time and in different locations still
there is a huge gap to be covered. Firstly the study area concerning citizen participation in
local government elections has not been extensively covered enough by scholars, secondly
much focus is on general elections rather than local elections even those conducted on local
government elections still the gap exist since the trend of citizen participation is very low,
more over the different time periods and locations in which the study was conducted also
makes a difference. Therefore these studies will explore factors influencing low citizen
participation in local government elections and the ways to increase citizen participation in
local government elections.

1.3. Statement of a problem

Citizen participation is recognized as most important and critical to democratic governance.

In Tanzania, it is recognized in the Constitution of United Republic of Tanzania of 1977 as
amended from time to time. This article ascertains that every citizen has a right to
participate in the governance of the country either directly or through their representative.
The establishment of local government in Tanzania in 1982 was purposely to increase mass
citizen participation in planning and making decision on matters affecting them. Together
with ongoing Local Government Reform Program which aimed at strengthening

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decentralization by devolution, it has a goal of increasing citizen participation on deciding
matters affecting their lives, planning and executing their development programs. The local
government reforms also stipulates for the leaders of local authorities to be chosen in full
democratic process (LGRPP, 1998). The local government elections that are stipulated
under several laws such as Local Government Act No. 7 and 8 of 1982 and Local elections
Act. These elections enable to increase citizen engagement by electing leaders who are
going to represent them and voices on their needs and finally improves service delivery.

Despite, citizen participation being so important in local government service delivery, there
is low citizen participation in 2009, 2014 and 2019 local government election, and the
number of people who registered to vote and who voted is not satisfying. According to
research conducted by Legal Human Rights Centre conducted about 2009 Local
government election. Its statistics were at least 8, 778, 583 people were registered as
countywide for local government election but only 5, 213, 430 turned out on the voting day
to cast their vote (LHRC, 2010). Therefore only 59.39 percentages of those who registered
voted and 40.61 percentages did not voted for various reasons (Senteuh, 2015).Furthermore,
voter’s turnout has been declining from years to years based on 2006 Citizenry Survey
conducted on 2006. Also the 2013 Citizenry Survey indicates that there was more
enthusiasm for general elections rather than local elections. If these trend will continue, the
desired results of decentralization by devolution will be compromised, there will be no
effective and efficient delivery of services to the local areas where majority resides.

Despite of various scholarly studies conducted at different time periods and different places,
no study that had comprehensively covered on the issue of citizen participation in local
government elections, only few studies most studies focused on the general elections. Other
deviations arise due to different time period and places which studies were conducted.
Therefore their findings cannot be generalized to be applied universally, there was need for
more studies pertaining the subject matter. This study explored the factors influencing poor
citizen participation in local government elections and the ways to increase citizen
participation in local government elections.

1.4. Research objectives

1.4.1. Main objective;

The main objective of this study was to explore factors influencing poor citizen
participation in local government elections.

1.4.2. Specific objectives;

To identify extent to which citizens participates in local government election processes.

To understand and asses factors influencing poor citizen participation in local government
elections.

To find out ways in which citizen participation in local government elections can be
improved.

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1.5. Research questions
1.5.1. Main research questions;

What are the factors influencing poor citizen participation in local government elections.

1.5.2. Specific research questions;

To what extent citizens do participate in local government election processes.

What are the factors influence poor citizen participation in local government elections.

How citizen participation in local government elections can be improved.

1.6.0. Significance of the study

The local government is established to ensure that delivery of public services is improved
by transferring power to the local people. The local government elections are means in
which local people participates in choosing their representatives who will make decisions
on their behalf. But in a real situation, the participation of citizens in registration, attendance
in rally electoral campaigns and casting polls is not satisfying. This study will help to reveal
on the factors influencing poor citizen participation in local government elections and ways
in which citizen participation can be improved.

Also despite the fact that, different studies on the present study subject matter were
conducted still the problem exists. Also the issue of citizen participation in local
government elections remains untapped by many researchers as most of them focused on
the general elections. Variations in location and time period in which similar study make us
not to rely on them to generalize the findings, more studies need to be conducted.

This study would be significant for partial fulfillment of my Bachelor degree of Public
Administration in Local Government Management at Mzumbe University.

1.7.0 Scope of the study

Geographically, the study was conducted in one region, Tanga specifically in Muheza
District Council since it is among the old local government authorities in Tanzania and has
enough experience concerning these local government elections so it was for a researcher to
obtain valid data. Furthermore, the researcher was interested to know the participation of
citizens in rural local government in which Muheza District Council is among.

In terms of time frame, the study covered the period of between 2004 and 2019; researcher
believed that fifteen years (a decade and a half) was an ample time for Muheza district
council to demonstrate their performance in the course of increasing citizen participation in
local democracy.

Content wise, the study was conducted on the relative participation of citizen in local
government elections. It covered these specific objective, to identify extent to which

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citizens participates in local election processes, to understand and asses factors influencing
poor citizen participation in local government elections and the ways to increase citizen
participation.

1.8.0 Definition of key terms

Citizen participation

Basing on the context of this study, it can be defined as the process by which citizen engage
in making decision affecting them as well as choosing their representatives who will make
decision on their behalf.

Local government

Is any government operating at local level within their area of jurisdiction? Local
governments established to ensure that powers are transferred to the lower levels to enable
people make decision on matters affecting them by selecting their representatives.

Election

To the context of this study, is a formal process by which people choose their representative
to hold public office especially local government authorities. It is a process by which people
elect their representatives such as village or mtaa chair persons, vitongoji chairperson,
committee leaders as well as different members of village or Mtaa council. It means
election prescribed under Local Government Authorities Act no 7 and 8 of 1982.

Voter’s turnout

In the context of this study, can be defined as total number of people who casted their vote
during the voting day in the local government election. It is simply number of qualified
registered voters who casted a poll per total number of registered qualified voters.

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 CHAPTER 2

2.0. CITIZEN PARTICIPATION IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT ELECTIONS

The main objective of this chapter was to make both theoretical and empirical reviews on
the citizen participation in local government elections in Tanzania. This chapter covered
theoretical and empirical literature reviews which demonstrate the way other scholars have
demonstrated their views on the issue of citizen participation in local government.

2.1.0 Theoretical review

This part reviewed set of assumptions on the nature of citizen participation, local
government, local democracy and local government elections taking into account the
perspective of different scholars.

2.1.1. Citizen participation:

Refer to citizen involvement in decision making. In different interpretations citizens may

either individuals or organized communities and participation may involve observation or
power. Citizens participation involves sharing, by citizens, in the benefits of development,
an active contributions of citizens in the development and participation at every. The idea of
citizen’s participation converges towards a common notion of citizens, influence and
control (Mwesigwa, 2021).

The means in which people participated include groups and formal organizations meeting,
inquiries, actions and technical assistance (Gasewinkel, 2001). Citizen participation in
election and other non-political matter is a critical at all levels of government to ensure that
government know the intensity and needs of the issues that are facing and affecting citizens
(Burby; Irvin and Stansbury 2004) as cited by (Mwaipopo, 2013).

2.1.1.1 Models of citizen participation;

Arstein’s ladder of citizen participation;

It was proposed by Shery Arstein in 1969 where it is a descriptive continuum of

participatory that moves from non-participation (no power) to degree of tokenism
(counterfeit power) to degree of citizen participation (actual power). It actually describes
how empowered public instituted and officials deny power to citizens and how levels of
citizen agency control and power has increased. The eight rungs of latter of citizen
participation include manipulation, therapy, informing, consultation, placation, partnership,
delegated power and total control.

Manipulation occurs when public institution or officials mislead citizens into believing that
they are being given power in a process that is manufactured to deny them power. Therapy
occurs when public officials “assumes that powerlessness is synonymous to mental illness”
and they create pseudo participatory programs that attempt to convince citizens that they are
the problem when in fact established institutions and policies that are creating problem for

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citizens. Informing here public officials come to citizens tells them what is needed to be
done without consulting the feedback from the citizens. Consultation is when public
officials consult citizen in conduct of various activities or programs though consulting them
does not assure that their opinion is taken into consideration. Placation occurs when citizens
are granted limited amount of influence in the course of action by public officials, this is
only for demonstrating that they were involved. Partnerships here the level of participation
is increased and is not partially as in earlier stages where public officials allow citizens to
negotiate better deals, veto decision and share funding. The power to citizen is extended in
latest stages of citizen control and delegated power (Arstein, 1969). From the theories
empowered public officials may hinder effective citizen participation because they are the
one who are holding power especially for local government elections which are largely
managed by the minister responsible for local government.

The civic voluntarism model

The most well-known and widely used model of political participation in political science
and was originally referred as resources model and has its origin in the work by (Sidney,
Verbal and Norman and Nye 1973). As summarized by Schlozman in a simple language as
individuals are more likely to take part when they can, when they want and when they are
asked (Schlozman, 2002) as cited by (Mourtez and et al. 2014). From the summarized
simple language three factors were identified resources, motivation and mobilization.
According to this model the social status of individuals- his job, education, and income
determine a large extent how much he participated. People involvement to politics is also
linked to people motives, individuals themselves are motivated to take part in politics as
well as because they are mobilized by friends and acquaintances at work, religious
communities or organizations. The central theme here is that, it focused on three factors for
political activity (Mourtez and et al. 2014). This model has been widely cited and reflected
and it’s probably the most important model of political participation in the literature today
(Mwaipopo, 2013).

The social psychological model

It is very important in understanding unorthodox forms of participation such as protest

behavior and rebellious collective action (Muller 1979; Finkel, Muller and Opp 1989, Dietz
Finkel 1991, Finkel and Opp 1991) as cited by (Whitelley & Seyd, 2005) which is based. It
is concerned with explaining the relationship between attitudes and behaviors. Fishbein
work aimed at explaining behaviors from attitudes, once the relationship appeared is very
weak. His solution to a problem was to focus closely on measuring of the individual
attitudes towards the behavior rather than toward the objective behavior. Fishbein believed
that the attitudes together with other factors make it possible to predict behavior socially
and accurately. He explained that the theory identifies kinds of variables that functions as
the basic determinants of behavior such as attitudes toward the basic behavior, normative
beliefs (both personal and social) and motivational to comply with norms. This model is
derived from the rational choice theory weaknesses vice versa. It suffers from several

8
weaknesses such as utility is not very well defined theoretically. This appears to be
evidence of the big gap between objective and subjective political efficacy.

The mobilization model

This model asserts that individual participates in response to political opportunities into his
environment and stimuli from the other people. To put it simply some participate because
opportunities for them to do so are greater than for the other people and because they are
persuaded to get involved by other people. The model can be linked to civic voluntarism
model point out on the earlier quite on the reason why do people do not become political
activists (Whitelley & Seyd, 2005).

The opportunities for participation are obviously linked to resources model since
individuals with high social economic status are more likely to have access to political
parties, interest groups or campaign organizations than low status individuals because those
kinds of institutions are more commonly found in the communities in which high status
individuals live. Social pressure to participate is linked to resources too, since if high
statuses individuals are more likely to participate are linked to resources too. This model
suffers from several weaknesses since it distorts the estimates of the relationship between
social economic status and participation. It also posses difficulties for rational choice
theory, since it assumes that individuals has already acquired the enough information to
decide whether they are going to participate. Its strength is that, it clearly highlights aspects
of political participation neglected by the model (Whitelley & Seyd, 2005).

Rational choice model

The theory asserts that citizens makes his or her mind to vote or not to vote through simple
calculus. A citizen decide to vote if he or she will benefit (citizens tends to compare the
benefits of voting than the cost, if the cost will be greater than the benefits he or she will not
decide to vote for the elections). The ‘calculus of voting’ model was firstly initiated by
Downs (1957) and further extended by Riker and Ordershook (1968). Based on the model
voter must estimate the expected benefit of voting. He or she firstly estimate the expected
benefits of voting (Blais, 2000).

2.1.2. Local democracy

Local self-government outlines the right and abilities of local authorities, within the limits
of the law, to regulate, manage a substantial share of public affairs. The local democracy is
now perceived as condition for effective and efficient allocation of resources because it
stimulates participation of people in planning and decision making which affect their lives.
Besides, it stimulates citizens to become politically active and participate in local elections,
organize themselves to articulate their needs and interests and hold government officials
accountable for their action (Lameck, 2014).

In a local democracy the rights offered conferred to councils or assemblies composed of

members freely elected by secret ballot and directly accountable to their own local

9
constituency. Local democracy can be promoted in practice through assigning clear
responsibilities to local government, ensuring accountability of local government, engaging
civil society in local decision making, fostering local participation (EPD, 2017). Local
democracy is viewed as the level of democracy in which citizens has the most effective
opportunity to actively and directly participate in decision made for the society (IDEA,
2001).

2.1.4. The local government election

Elections provide a framework for citizen participation in decision making in which people
chooses individuals, with specific qualities and quantities to hold public office on their
behalf. This is election for electing local authorities leaders. In rural areas leaders elected
are village chair persons, hamlets leaders and members of village council. In urban areas
leaders elected are local government chairpersons and local government committees. This
type of election is for Tanzania mainland only. The United Republic of Tanzania
constitution of 1977 as amended from time to time provides that sovereignty resides in the
people and it is from the people that governance through the constitution shall derive its
power and authority.

Fundamental roles of election includes peacefully resolves competitors for political power,
serves as a vehicle for citizen to express their will as to who has authority to govern. It also
allows the people to choose those who they believe will represent (TACCEO, 2015). Jury
theorem is automated representation providing that, under certain assumption, a decision
attained using majority voting in a large group majority is more likely to be correct then a
decision attained by a single expert. It serves as a formal argument for the idea of wisdom
of the crowd, for the decision of questions of facts by jury trial and for democracy in
general. It assumes that all votes have independent probabilities to vote for independent
vote for correct alternative, these probabilities are larger than a half and are the same for the
alternatives (Dietrich, 2021).

2.1.5. Legal and institutional framework for local government elections in Tanzania;

These laws provide for the qualification of voters and candidates and procedures for
registrations, candidates nomination, and election campaigns, voting, tallying, and
declaration of results during the electoral processes. As for candidates, the laws require
them to be sponsored by registered political party.26 further, the laws provides for the
election offences and penalties (TACCEO, 2015).

The Constitution of United Republic of Tanzania, 1977

At the hand of electoral legal system of Tanzania is the Constitution of United Republic of
Tanzania, 1977 as amended from time to time. The constitution is the basis of the
fundamental right of citizens to vote and to be voted for elective posts (UNDP, 2016).

10
The constitution of united republic of Tanzania of 1977 is the mother law from which other
laws are derived. The local government electoral laws and declarations derive their
legitimacy by complying with the national constitution.

Local Government Authorities Elections Act no.4 of 1979

This is the principal law that governs election of councilors in local government authorities
that is held after every five years together with the parliamentary and presidential elections.

Local Government Act (District Authorities) No.7 of 1982

The elections of village leaders and sub-villages (known by their Kiswahili name Vitongoji)
as well as the sub-ward committees in urban areas (mitaa in Kiswahili) are guided by
respective clauses from this act. Section 30(4) empowers the Minister responsible for
Regional Administration and Local Government (RALG) to issue regulations for elections
of vitongoji and mitaa chairpersons as well as their respective committee members (ALAT,
2011). Also section 56(1) of this act provides for election of village chairman and chairman
of all vitongoji within the village.

Local Government (Urban Authorities) Act No. 8 of 1982

This act provides for the conduct of election of chairman for mitaa and their vitongoji
located in respective areas. The Minister is given this authority vide section 70(c) of this
act. Civic elections (for lower level LG – villages and vitongoji and mitaa) are held a year
earlier than the general elections. It may be instructive to state at this juncture that there are
no recognized political or administrative traditional structures in Tanzania (ALAT, 2011).

Together with these laws, the Minister responsible for regional administration and local
government is empowered by the local government act no. 7 of 1982 through its
miscellaneous amendment no. 2 of 2009 to make regulations for the proper conduct of the
election as well as to issue government notice prescribing the schedule for the conduct of
election.

2.1.6. The electoral institutions

There are several institutions that are concerned with managing electoral process in
Tanzania which are President’s Office – Regional Administration and Local Government
(PO – RALG) Since coming to power in 2015, the Phase 5 government has transferred the
mandate to coordinate local government from the Prime Minister’s to the President’s
Office, Regional Administration and Local Government (PO-RALG). Legislation in 2002
bestowed sweeping powers on the ministry in charge of local government to regulate
elections, including the election of political office-bearers at neighborhood, village and
hamlet levels (TEW,2020) , Registrar of the Political Parties, Local Government
Authorities (LGAS). Other institutions are non-government organizations and civil society
organizations that act as watcher and monitor of the electoral process for evaluation for

11
instance Local Human Rights Commission (LHRC) and Tanzania Civil Society Consortium
on Electoral Observation (TACCEO).

2.1.7. The local government electoral process

The local government electoral process has been prescribed in various laws, but it is well
prescribed in regulations and government notice issued by the minister responsible for
President’s Office – Regional Administration and Local Government.

Registration of voters

The voter registration should include preparation of voters register, voter’s registration
process as well as complaints and their resolutions. The ward executive officers and village
executive officers should not be allowed to prepare a list of voters. During the registration
process the political parties can place their agents to monitor the registration process. After
the registration process the returning officer shall place the list of registered voters in public
notice boards and places and remain with a valid copy. Residents who are registered has to
check their details in the registered list if they are correct or not and raise objections
whenever their details are incorrect and it will be changed within 7 days after the place of
the list in public notice boards and places (POLICY FORUM, 2019).

Taking and submission of contesting forms

Any person who qualifies to contest for any position in local government election is
supposed to take, fill and submit forms within the time prescribed in the regulations and
electoral schedule in government notice issued by the Minister responsible. After filling,
forms shall be submitted to the assistant returning officers within the prescribed time.

Electoral campaigns

Campaigns are important part of the election cycle because they give contestants an
opportunity to express their political parties manifesto as well as pursuing the voters to
prove their competence. In order to accord equal playing ground for all contestants, the laws
of our country prohibit some practices which would unfairly induce voters to support
candidates (TACCEO, 2015). The electoral campaigns are important as they help citizens
formulate voting preferences, serves as a forum for debate, discussion, and deliberation as
well as gives an opportunity the marginalized groups to voice their opinions (Medric, 2018).

Polling

Votes should be casted with greater confidentiality; leaders who will be elected are
chairman for mitaa and villages together with their vitongoji, members of the village and
mtaa council. After residents have casted their votes should have a sign that identify them
that they have already turned out.

12
Counting of votes

Votes are counted by returning officer and assistant returning officer in front of the political
party’s agents and contestants. Also people who are eligible for voting are allowed to
observe the vote counting. Other people include the police officers and security guards
(POLICY FORUM, 2019).

Declaration of the results

A contestant who will get high number of votes will be declared a winner of the election in
the position of chairperson for hamlet (Kitongoji), Mtaa, Village and Members of village or
Mtaa council. The election results will be placed in the designated notice board(s). If the
number of votes equals among contestants then the returning officer shall plan to conduct
again the election within 14 days after the election (POLICY FORUM, 2014).

2.2.0. Empirical literature review

Various studies related to this research, have been conducted by different researchers.
Therefore for the purpose of doing this study the researcher reviewed different research
work.

The study conducted by Montanaro (2020) which aimed at looking for why Americans
don’t vote and it identified that there are strong socioeconomic correlations between voting
and not voting. Nonvoters tend to make less money, have lower levels of education, be less
likely to own their home or are less likely to be married. While only 21% of voters made
$50,000 a year or less, 43% of nonvoters did. Just over a quarter of voters had a high school
degree or less, but a majority (52%) of nonvoters did. Sixty percent of voters said they were
married, but just 44% of voters did, which impacts economic power in a society when dual-
income households are becoming increasingly necessary in more expensive parts of the
country.

The study conducted by Senteuh (2015) which aimed at assessing factors affecting
registration process of local government elections in 2014. It came out with several
findings; time announced for registration was few to accommodate all people, there were no
training for registration officers as well as people in the villages.

Also the study conducted by Nyando, (2019) which major objective was to assess the
factors influencing voter’s turnout in Tanzania, a case of Ilala Municipal. It came out with
several findings such as factors influencing voter’s turnout like electoral education, civic
education, favorable registration system and political stability. It revealed strategies to
influence voters’ turnout such as increased easy access to electoral information and public
civic education.

The study conducted by Damian (2012) which aimed at examining the cause of low voters
turnout in Tanzania 2010 general elections and influence of voter education and
mobilization of political partners on your turnout. The findings were as follows, voter’s

13
turnout was caused by combination of factors including voters concerns about economic
hardships, low political efficiency among voters, the belief that a single vote cannot make a
significant change also took confidence in democratic value election but also lack of
significant competition in election.

The study conducted by Mwaipopo (2013) which major objective was to explore reasons
for low citizens participation turnout in 2010 Presidential election at Kigoma Municipal
council. The findings for this study were citizen participation at Kigoma city council was
subsequently low in sense that citizens do not participate effectively in elections, to large
extent because of; lack of adequate consciousness, citizens perceptions on election and poor
voting system. The study recommended is that introducing electronic voting and registration
as well as provision of adequate political knowledge.

Roberts (2009) in his study explained the reasons for why people don’t vote and these were
reasons; US voter registration system (lack of automated registration system), electoral
system which can cause possibility of voters fatigue, low social capital such as lack of trust,
voting procedures, weak political parties and psychological issues.

The study by Athumani & Ahmed (2017) aimed at explaining why the central National
Electoral Commission should take control of local government elections in Tanzania
stated that current practice is that the Minister responsible for local
governments has substantial authority over the supervision and coordination of
local government elections and the Minister is one of the Members of Parliament and
a member of a political party participating in the elections. This practice
traverses acceptable democratic principles, which demand that the organ that
manages an election should not side with any of the contestants and be above
political parties. Democratic elections need to be guided by the notion that the EMB
has the trust and confidence of all stakeholders. After going through the structure of local
government authorities, the electoral system, and drawing on some practices of
other countries in relation to the management of both general and local
government elections, the article thus argues that the management of local
government elections should be taken over by a reformed National Electoral
Commission, who has full autonomy.

The study conducted by TACCEO (2015) as electoral observer and monitor identified
irregularities in the voting process which some can be linked to have effect on citizen
participation such as polling stations allocated in unofficial places, insufficient voting
materials, maladministration, delay in the opening of polling stations, lack of facility to
person with disabilities as well as voters register discrepancies.

The study conducted by Candia and Wesonga, (2017) aimed at identifying factors
influencing voter turnout in local government council elections in Uganda which came out
with several findings demographic factors such as education levels, political factors (trust to
the electoral commissions and economic factors (employment status and bribery) as well as
people with disability. And study by Brennan, (2020) found that citizens are not paying

14
attention to learning electoral rules hence affecting their right to exercise participation in
politics.

Another study was conducted by Chaligha (2008) which major objective was to examine
citizen’s participation in planning and local elections in six councils namely Mwanza City
Council, Bagamoyo District Council, Kilosa District Council, Ilala Municipal Council,
Iringa District Council and Moshi District Council. It came with several findings such as
citizens do not participate in elections due to the fact that, people are not interested with
elections, lack of information, voting impediment, political justification for not voting, age
limits and ignorance of citizens to elections.

Another study was conducted by (Schulz-Herzenberg, 2020) which aimed at exploring

factors for why people do not vote in South Africa and identified that demographic profile,
knowledge gap, political efficacy and mobilization agents influence the voters decision on
whether to vote or not to vote.

EMPIRICAL REVIEW SUMMARY

Author Country Sample Data Key Findings

and Collection
Date

Roberts, USA Documentar It explained the reasons as to why

2009 y reviews people don’t vote;

Voters registration system

Electoral system

Low social capital

Voting procedures

Weak political parties

Psychological issues.

15
Candia Uganda 4776 Surveys Factors for lower voters turnout in
& househol (Uganda Uganda;
Wesong ds National
a (2017) Governance Demographic factors (education
Baseline level)
Survey) Political factors (trust to electoral
commission)

Economic factors (employment

status)

Disability factors

Montan USA Non Surveys Nonvoters' reasons for not voting

aro, D voters include:
(2020)
 Not being registered to vote
(29%)
 Not being interested in politics
(23%)
 Not liking the candidates (20%)
 A feeling their vote wouldn't
have made a difference (16%)
 Being undecided on whom to
vote for (10%) There are
strong socioeconomic
correlations between voting
and not voting.

Nonvoters tend to make less money,

have lower levels of education, be
less likely to own their home or are
less likely to be married. Just over a
quarter of voters had a high school
degree or less, but a majority (52%)
of nonvoters did. Sixty percent of
voters said they were married, but just
44% of voters did.

16
 TACCE Tanzania Observation Irregularities observed in election;
O (composite/
(2015) hybrid Polling stations allocated in unofficial
method and places
ICT) Insufficient voting materials

Maladministration

Lack of facility to people with

disabilities.

Delay in opening of polling stations

Voting register discrepancies.

2.3.0. Research gap

The empirical review has been conducted on several studies concerning citizen’s
participation in various elections. But the problem of poor citizen participation still exists,
there is need for more studies in the area. Also there is no study that explains in details the
factors influencing poor citizen’s participation in local government elections. Most studies
conducted are basing on presidential elections but very few studies conducted on local
government elections. The studies were also conducted at different point of time and in
different places so still a gap exist. There is also a gap in terms of methodology where some
studies focused much on secondary sources of information and ignoring primary sources
which can lead to irrelevant findings. Therefore this study was exploring the factors
influencing citizen participation in local government elections in Tanzania and suggesting
ways in which the participation can be improved.

17
 CHAPTER 3

3.0. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter was made of several parts including the research design, study area, type of the
study population of the study, units of inquiry, sample and sampling techniques, types and
sources of data collection methods and data analysis techniques.

3.1.0 Research design

The objective of this study was to explore the factors influencing poor citizen participation
in local government elections. So, the study employed case study design as a blue print on
how the research was completed (Kumar, 2011). The case study design was employed in
order to provide detailed examination of phenomena (social problem). This case design also
allowed a researcher to use multiple methods of data collection.

3.2.0 Type of the study

Basing on the objectives of this study and for the purpose of achieving reliability and
validity, type of research was both qualitative and quantitative research study and will
employ both quantitative and qualitative research methods.

3.3.0 Study area

The study was conducted at Muheza District Council which is among the 184 Local
Government Authorities (LGAs) in Tanzania as per 2019 Controller and Auditor General
(CAG) report. Muheza is one of the eleven councils in Tanga region located in northeastern
Tanzania. According to 2012 census report Muheza District Council has about 204,461 total
populations (Muheza District Strategic Plan 2018/2019- 2012/2023). The researcher
selected the area since he was interested to know about the citizen participation in local
government elections in rural areas where Muheza DC is one among the rural councils in
Tanzania as well as he believed that Muheza DC has enough experience in conducting local
government elections so he could be able to obtain enough information concerning the
subject matter and hence meet the main objective of the study.

18
3.4.0 Study population

Basing on the objective of the study which was to explore factors influencing poor citizens’
participation in local government elections. So the unit of analysis was the officials who are
concerned with local government elections (returning officers and assistant returning
officers) who are District Executive Director, Ward Executive Officers and Village
Executive Officers and District Election Officer, representatives from political parties,
Village Chairpersons as well as citizens which will be sampled give the sum of 50
participants. The researcher thought that the aforementioned population would provide
enough information to generate valid and relevant findings of the study due to their
experience in participating elections.

3.5.0 Sample size and sampling techniques

3.5.1 Sample size

The total sample size employed in this study was 50 participants where 1 is District
Executive Director, 1 is District Election Officer, 2 are political parties representatives, 4
are Ward Executive Officers, 8 are Village Executive Officers and 7 are Village
Chairpersons and 27 are citizens or residents at Muheza DC. The researcher will use the
sample since it would help to get the required and reliable information concerning the study
topic. Furthermore, the sample will be optimum when it comes to the issue of
representativeness, efficiency, reliability and flexibility.

3.5.2 Sampling techniques:

This study employed both probability and non-probability sampling as techniques that
helped to acquire the sample for that will provide adequate, accurate and reliable
information. The study offered representativeness and are efficient to a researcher.

Probability sampling

Under this sampling technique, the simple random sampling was used and participants were
selected randomly to avoid biasness, but also to provide equal chance for participants. Also
stratified sampling was another technique that was employed under this category where the
population was divided into subgroups based on the desired characteristics to offer
proportionate representation, increase representation of minority groups as well as making
the findings of the study logically sound.

Non probability sampling

Under this technique, convenience and purposive sampling was employed. A researcher
used convenience sampling to select participants basing on their availability without
randomization. This was cheaper and simple to a researcher due to the fact that researcher’s
budget and time was limited. Another one is purposive sampling where a researcher chose a
sample of participants who have adequate and relevant information concerning the topic to
ensure that relevant and adequate data are collected.

19
3.6.0. Types and sources of data

The process of data collection and preliminary analysis took about 3 months from January
to April 2022. The data was both quantitative and qualitative data using their respective
methods. The sources of data was both primary and secondary data. Primary sources of data
was both interviews and questionnaires and documentary reviews as secondary sources of
data.

Interviews

Data was collected using interviews; it served to gain a perspective of participants

themselves, about their experiences, inner perceptions, attitudes and feelings and about a
specific subject of the study. In this study about four participants were interviewed to
capture information, their views and attitudes.

Questionnaires

In obtaining primary data researcher used questionnaire where by open ended

questionnaires were distributed to the respondents with the aim of giving adequate
information concerning the subject of the study as they can think deeply and can refer to
documents hence provide relevant information.

Secondary data

The secondary data was gathered through documentary reviews, documents will be
reviewed in Muheza DC include local government elections reports of Muheza DC of 2004,
2009, 2014 and 2019, the list of registered candidates for the four past elections and other
published documents related to local elections both online and manual.

3.7.0. Data analysis

The study used a combination of quantitative and qualitative analytical methods, and
analyses were performed based on the nature of data i.e. numerical data, verbal and text.
The numerical data extracted from the questionnaires were analyzed using statistical and
qualitative analyses, whilst the data acquired through interviews were analyzed based on
content and thematic analyses.

3.8.0. Reliability and validity

To ensure that data collected were reliable and valid, the study employed both qualitative
and quantitative data types, the selection of the sample, data collection methods and
analysis was done technically to ensure trustworthiness of the research findings. Researcher
employed reflective accounts through interview notes that show in detail recorded dialogue
and reflective summaries of each interview to ensure credibility. Moreover, the data after
being analyzed and interpreted were emailed back to some of the respondents to capture
their feedback for the so called member check. Furthermore for every stage of preparation
of this work, the work was shared with other colleagues together with respective Mzumbe

20
University research supervisors for their feedback and comments for continuous
improvement of this work.

3.9.0. Ethical consideration

Before starting collecting any data a researcher wrote a letter to the council management to
seek for the permission so that he may collect data without any disturbance such as
scheduling and interviewing council staffs, supplying questionnaires to council staffs and
residents as well as accessing council documents and files. Furthermore, Involvement in this
study was much voluntary, confidential and anonymous. Prior to conducting conversations.
Before start doing interviews researcher informed my respondents that he would adhere to
ethical principles. Data collected including questionnaires, interviews and documentary
reviews transcripts were confidentially stored and handled in such a way that no third party
got access to it. These raw data were to be accessed by a researcher and supervisors only.
The data collected were analyzed and information which denote respondent identity was not
included in the final report. No real name of respondent was mentioned.

21
 CHAPTER 4

4.0 PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

4.1.0. Introduction

The main objective of the study was to explore the factors influencing poor citizen
participation in local government elections. The specific objective was to understand the
extent to which people participate in local government election processes, factors affecting
citizen participation in local government elections and the ways to increase citizen
participation in local government elections. The focus was on four past local government
elections starting from 2004 to 2019 local government elections. This chapter presents the
results and discussion of the study and it includes the personal characteristics of the
respondents, general objectives of the study and procedures used to meet those objectives.
The data collected were processed and analyzed using both statistical tools including
Microsoft Excel and Statistical Package for Social Sciences as well as qualitative methods
of analysis that are content and thematic analyses.

4.2.0. Characteristics of study participants

For the purpose of obtaining valid, relevant and genuine information from the study, the
demographic details of respondents who provided the information was analyzed based on
gender, age, educational level, income level and occupation.

Gender

In this study about 26 respondents were female equals to 52.0% of total 50 respondents and
24 respondents were male equals to 48.0% of total 50 respondents.

Sex Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent
F 26 52.0 52.0 52.0
Valid M 24 48.0 48.0 100.0
Total 50 100.0 100.0

Age

Respondents aged 18 to 35 were about 24 equals to 48.0%, 36 to 45 were about 14 equals to

28%, 46 to 60 were about 6 equals to 12% as well as respondents aged 61 and above were
about 6 equals to 12% of the 50 total population creating 100%.

22
 Age

Age group Frequencies Percentage

18 – 35 24 48.0
36 – 45 14 28.0
46 – 60 6 12.0
61+ 6 12.0
Total 50 100

Study findings, 2022

Educational level

In this study about 39 respondents attended college or university education equals to 78.0%
of total 50 respondents, 4 respondents attended secondary education equals to 8% of total
50 respondents and 7 respondents attended only primary education equals to 14.0% of total
50 respondents.
Educational level Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
College/
39 78.0 78.0 78.0
University
Valid Primary 7 14.0 14.0 92.0
Secondary 4 8.0 8.0 100.0
Total 50 100.0 100.0

Source: study findings, (2022)

Marital status:

About 3 respondents were divorced equals to 6.0% of the 50 total respondents, 19

respondents were married equals to 38.0% of the 50 total respondents and 28 respondents
were single equals to 56.0% of the total 50 respondents.

Marital status Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent
Divorce
3 6.0 6.0 6.0
d
Valid Married 19 38.0 38.0 44.0
Single 28 56.0 56.0 100.0
Total 50 100.0 100.0

Source: Study findings, 2022

Occupation:

23
Data were collected from respondents who works in different cadres and sectors of the
economy even from unemployed citizens 1 respondents was businessman occupying 2.0%
of the total respondents, 17 respondents were civil servants (did not mentioned their job
titles) equals to 34.0% of the total respondents, 1 respondent was a driver equals to 2.0% of
the total respondents, 2 were young entrepreneurs occupying 4.0% of the total respondents,
8 were farmers equals to 16.0% of the total respondents, 2 were masons occupying 4.0% of
the total respondents, 9 were the peasants equals to 18.0% of the total population , 6 were
students equals to 6.0 of the total population, 6 were unemployed equals to 12.0% of the
total respondents and 1 respondent was teacher contributing to 2.0% of the total sample
size.

Occupation Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent
Businessman 1 2.0 2.0 2.0
Civil servant 17 34.0 34.0 36.0
Driver 1 2.0 2.0 38.0
Entrepreneur 2 4.0 4.0 42.0
Farmer 8 16.0 16.0 58.0
Valid Mason 2 4.0 4.0 62.0
Peasant 9 18.0 18.0 80.0
Student 3 6.0 6.0 86.0
Teacher 1 2.0 2.0 88.0
Unemployed 6 12.0 12.0 100.0
Total 50 100.0 100.0

Income level:

Data were collected from respondent with different income levels including participants
with middle, low and higher incomes. This is for the purpose of understanding the views if
income level can determine the rate of citizen participation in local government elections. 2
respondents were belonging to higher income ranking equals to 4.0% of the total
respondents, 30 respondents were belonging to middle income ranking equals to 60.0% and
18 respondents were belonging to lower income ranking equals to 36.0% of the total
respondents.

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent
Valid Highe
2 4.0 4.0 4.0
r
Low 18 36.0 36.0 40.0

24
 Middl
30 60.0 60.0 100.0
e
Total 50 100.0 100.0
Source: study findings, 2022

Disability:

Data were collected from disabled people and who are not disabled to ensure equal
representation of all groups, about 45 out of 50 respondent’s equals to 90.0% had no any
disability and 5 out of 50 respondents were disabled equals to 10% of total respondents.

Disability status Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent
v
No 45 90.0 90.0 90.0
a
l Yes 5 10.0 10.0 100.0
i
dTotal 50 100.0 100.0

Source: study findings (2022).

4.3.0. Key findings

4.3.1. The extent to which citizens participates in local government elections processes at
Muheza DC

Basing on the documentary reviews conducted shows that there is poor citizen participation
in local government elections in from registration of voters, appointment and selection of
candidates, electoral campaigns as well as casting votes during the polling day.

In the registration of voters;

There is a big gap between the projected number of voters to be registered and the actual
number of voters registered the documentary reviews reveal. From the four elections shows
a discrepancy of almost 5 to 7 thousands voters projected to be registered but did not.

25
 VOTERS REGISTRATION TREND
100,000
89,920
90,000 82,729
80,000
70,000 65,342
55,321 58,115
60,000
50,110
50,000 42,121
40,000 37,325
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
2004 2009 2014 2019

Projected voters to be registered Actual Voters registered

Field data, 2022.

The data reveals that there is a slight difference between the targeted voters to be registered
and actual voters registered for the elections where for the fourth past elections the
registration targets were reached to 88.5% and this was due to the fact that much efforts has
been taken by government to ensure that the village together with ward executive officers
meet the registration targets while study by Senteuh (2014) found that the registration
process was not effective. Despite reaching the registration targets still the process is faced
with some challenges such as lack of civic education, bad beliefs, bad weather, budgetary
constraints and time limit, though for the case of 2019 election budgetary constraints was
not observed as a constraint. This findings does not contradicts with the study by Senteuh
(2014) which also identified managerial challenges in registration process for local
government elections such as funds and time limit as well as lack of civic education but it
did also identified other challenges apart from managerial such as distance to registration
stations and weather condition.

Appointments and selection of candidates;

Data collected from the interviews shows that there is no involvement of citizens in
appointing candidates who are going to take the position, most candidates are appointed
using top down approach, party leaders are the one who appoint candidates based on their
wills regardless of whether candidates had influence to their citizens or not as well as their
ready to take for the new role. One of the interviewed respondent said

“…the candidates are appointed by party leaders regardless whether they are capable to
lead or not, this thing is not right at all, some party candidates are appointed even without
their consent, they don’t know that they are appointed, this has made many appointed
leaders to resign since they lack commitment, they don’t attend swearing ceremonies,
meetings…”.

26
The low commitment was justified after having reviewed some council documents from the
local elections files where about 144 elected village chairpersons, hamlets chairpersons and
other members of the village council elected in 2019 election have been resigned from their
positions due to various reasons like failing to attend swearing ceremonies, meetings,
implementing agreed plans and so forth.

Another interview respondent said that,

“…party leaders do not involve their members in appointing candidates, the appointment
of candidates needs to be participatory too….”

The Arstein’s ladder of citizen participation explains how the citizen participation can be
reduced by entrusted public officials and institution as well as ways in which can be
increased. Sherry Arstein explains manipulation as one among ways in which citizen
participation can be reduced. Political party leaders manipulate the processes of getting the
representative candidates to go for election, candidates are appointed without even
knowing. Different studies includes those by Candia and Wesonga, and Montanaro,
Mwaipopo, (2013) and Roberts, 2006 did not discovered this.

Participation in electoral campaigns;

Data collected from interviews shows that the participation in electoral campaigns is not
effective, citizens are not likely to attend campaigns, most rally electoral campaigns for the
local government elections are attended by very few people and mostly are school students.
One of the interviewed respondent said that,

“…citizens do not attend campaigns especially for these local government elections,
sometime people attend depending on the candidate influence to the public but also it
depend on the political party, sometime you can see campaigns are attended with school
children….”

The findings attest that there is poor citizen participation in local government rally
campaigns at Muheza DC while the study by Paget, (2019) found that Tanzania is the sub-
Saharan country with rally intensive campaigns when compared to other sub Saharan
countries like Zimbabwe, Uganda, Malawi, Cape Verde and Benin. This is due to the fact
that findings was based on two general elections of 2010 and 2015, it did not included the
case of local government elections. There is no study that has well explained on the citizen
participation in rally campaigns in Tanzania local government elections.

Participation in casting votes during the polling day;

Documentary review shows that there is also a difference between number of voters
registered and the number of voters who casted their votes/ turned out during the polling
day. Data from documentary review at Muheza DC were as follows;

27
 REGISTERED VOTERS AGAINST VOTERS TURNED
OUT DURING POLLING DAY
250000

200000
82,729

150000

58,115
0
100000
40,817 41,912
36,192

29,026 29,089 50,110

50000 0 0 39,417
17,800 18,392
25,010 25,100
19,430 19,987
37,325 29,875
18,239 19,086 14,840 15,035
0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Series1 2004 2009 2014 2019

Source: Field data, 2022

The above data shows the differences between the registered voters and those who turned
out during the polling day. Furthermore interviewed respondent said that,

“…people do not participate during polling day though may have been registered, some
did not register for the purpose of turning out during the polling day, some register to
obtain voter identity card for the purpose of facilitating processes in other businesses like
securing loans in banks, NIDA….”

Also responses collected from questionnaires shows that there is low citizen participation in
casting votes during polling day.

Participation status of respondents

Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative Percent
Percent
Valid Frequently participated
10 20.0 20.0 20.0
(4 times+)
Less frequently 3 6.0 6.0 26.0
participated (3 times)

28
 moderately participated
6 12.0 12.0 38.0
(2 times)
Rarely participated
16 32.0 32.0 70.0
(only 1 time)
Never participated 15 30.0 30.0 100.0
Total 50 100.0 100.0

Study findings, 2022

Those who never turned out some said that they did not know the essence of participating in
local government elections, some said that they were doing their studies in colleges and
universities and others said that they did not knew where election was conducted.

Based on the findings of the study showing participation in local government election for
the four past elections in Muheza DC shows that there is still a gap between the registered
voters and voters who casted a ballot during the polling day, citizens are likely to register
but not ready to cast a their votes during Election Day. These findings are congruent with
statistics presented by TACCEO (2014) and LHRC, (2010) where there has been a
discrepancy between registered voters and those who casted ballot 62% and 59% of the
registered voters casted ballot for the case of 2014 and 2009 local election respectively
except for the case of Tanzania 2019 local government election which all voters were
assumed to have participated since the candidates were from single political party and
assumed to have passed the election.

4.3.2. Factors influencing poor citizen participation in local government elections:

The main purpose of the study was to explore the factors influencing poor citizen
participation in local government elections, citizen participation from voter registration to
polling during Election Day. To meet the objective data were collected from interview
responses (interview with Ag. District Executive Director and District Elections Officer), 48
questionnaire responses and documentary reviews. Questionnaires were supplied to WEOs
and VEOs (who were assistant returning officers), political party representatives, village
chairpersons and citizens. Several factors influencing poor citizens participation in local
government elections were explored such as economic factors, long queue, poor electoral
system, beliefs, perceptions and attitudes of citizens, distance to polling stations, weather
conditions like rainfall, government intervention and the general electoral management,
failure of leaders to fulfill their promises, lack of civic education and awareness on the
importance of citizen participation in local government elections, low electoral impulse or
attractiveness, voter register discrepancies, political difference and corruption.

Demographic factors;

The study tried to check if there is any association between demographic characteristics of
respondents such as income level, age, education level and marital status and citizen
participation in local government elections.

29
Income level;

To find an association between the income level and the participation of citizens in local
government elections. The data were computed using chi test. The p-value obtained after
chi square test was 0.173 which is greater than 0.05 so here it can be stated that there is no
statistical significant association between level of income and their participation status in
local elections.

Crosstab
Count
Participation in LGAs Total
Frequently Less Fairly Rarely Never
participate frequently participate participate participate
participate
Highe
0 1 0 0 1 2
r
Income
Middl
level 6 2 5 11 7 31
e
Lower 4 0 1 5 7 17
Total 10 3 6 16 15 50

Source: Field data, 2022

Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 11.543a 8 .173
Likelihood Ratio 9.876 8 .274
Linear-by-Linear
.300 1 .584
Association
N of Valid Cases 50
a. 10 cells (66.7%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .12.
Source: Field data, 2022

Marital status;

The data were computed using the chi square test to see if there was any association
between married, single and divorced individuals and participation in local government
elections. The table below show the indication as follows;

Crosstab
Count
Participation in LGEs Total

30
 Frequently Less Fairly Rarely Never
participate frequently participate participate participat
participate e
Single 4 2 2 6 14 28
Marrie
Marital 6 0 4 9 0 19
d
status
Divorc
0 1 0 1 1 3
ed
Total 10 3 6 16 15 50
Source: Field data, 2022

Chi-Square Tests
Value Df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 21.302a 8 .006
Likelihood Ratio 26.181 8 .001
Linear-by-Linear
2.693 1 .101
Association
N of Valid Cases 50
a. 10 cells (66.7%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .18.
Source: Field data, 2022

From the computed p-value equals to .006 which is above the 0.05, then there is no a
statistical significant association between marital status and citizen participation in local
government elections.

Educational level

The study also intended to check the association between educational level and citizen
participation in local government elections. Responses were computed in a cross tab and chi
square test and below were the tables showing variables and values obtained.

Crosstab
Count
Participation in LGEs Total
Frequently Less Fairly Rarely Never
participate frequently participate participate participat
participate e
Primary
3 0 1 1 1 6
education
Secondary 2 1 2 4 4 13
education

31
 College and
higher 5 2 3 11 10 31
education
Total 10 3 6 16 15 50

Chi-Square Tests
Value Df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 4.851a 8 .773
Likelihood Ratio 4.578 8 .802
Linear-by-Linear
2.034 1 .154
Association
N of Valid Cases 50
a. 12 cells (80.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .36.

From the above table show that the p-value equals to 0.773 which is greater than 0.05 hence
null hypothesis is accepted since p-value 0.773>0.05 and there is no statistical significant
between educational level and participation in elections.

Age

Furthermore the study intended to measure if the age of participants was associated with
participation in local government elections, after computation using cross tabulation and chi
square the p-value obtained was 0.157 where p>0.05 and the null hypothesis is accepted
since there is no statistical significant association between age and the participation in local
elections.

Crosstab
Count
Participation in LGEs Total
Frequentl Less Fairly Rarely Never
y frequently participate participate participate
participat participate
e
18 to
5 1 3 12 11 32
35
36 to
0 1 1 4 2 8
Age 45
45 to
3 1 1 0 0 5
60
61 + 2 0 1 0 2 5
Total 10 3 6 16 15 50
Sources: Field data, 2022

Chi-Square Tests

32
 Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-
sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 16.813a 12 .157
Likelihood Ratio 20.904 12 .052
Linear-by-Linear Association 4.341 1 .037
N of Valid Cases 50
a. 17 cells (85.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .30.
Sources: Field data, 2022

Gender

The study wanted to check whether there is any association between gender and
participation in local government elections. The data collected were computed in a chi
square test and gives a p-value of 0.221 where p-value >0.05 hence there is no statistical
significant association between gender and participation in elections.

Crosstab
Count
Participation in LGEs Total
Frequently Less Fairly Rarely Never
participate frequently participate participate participate
participate
Se male 4 2 1 11 7 25
x female 6 1 5 5 8 25
Total 10 3 6 16 15 50

Chi-Square Tests
Value Df Asymp. Sig. (2-
sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 5.717a 4 .221
Likelihood Ratio 6.026 4 .197
Linear-by-Linear Association .443 1 .506
N of Valid Cases 50
a. 4 cells (40.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 1.50.

Source: Field data, 2022

The findings assert that demographic factors such as gender, age, income and education of
respondents do not have a significant association with the citizen participation in local
government elections. While the study by Candia and Wesonga, (2017) which stated that
educational level, income affected participation together with the study by (Montanaro,
2020) which explains that people with low level of education, marital status, low income
status are not likely to vote for the elections. Findings by Candia and Wesonga (2017) and
Montanaro (2020) are also supported by resource mobilization theory. For the case of this

33
findings are not the same, it seems that other factors rather than demographic factors may
have affected the citizen participation in local government elections at Muheza District
Council such as distance to polling and registration stations, lack of civic education and lack
of clear information to the targets which are going to be presented and discussed later. The
discrepancy between the literature and findings may vary due to factors such as the context
from which the study was conducted and the different methodologies employed in
conducting the studies.

Lack of civic education and awareness on the importance of citizen participation in local
government elections;

Citizens are not aware that participating in political activities and matters affecting their
lives is their legal and constitutional right. People are not likely and willing participate in
registration, campaigns, selection of candidates. Both interviewed respondents said,

“….the major challenge is citizens do not have awareness on essence of participating in

local government elections, we are trying to provide education in meetings but as you know
their participation in village meeting is also low too. Some register only for getting voter ID
for the purpose of using it for their own businesses like getting National Identity Number,
securing loans but not for casting their votes during polling day…”

Data collected from questionnaire responses, among 32 respondents out of 40 responded

that low participation of citizen is contributed by lack of awareness on the essence of citizen
participation on local government elections leading to associating registration process with
withcraft, 3 respondents stated that,

“…I do not participate in registration since my information can be used for witchcraft…”

The findings suggests that most citizens at Muheza District council lack education and
awareness on participation in elections as their constitutional rights, continue to have bad
beliefs where they associate local elections with witchcraft as well as registering to use the
voter identity for non-voting businesses. The findings by Mwaipopo, (2013) and Nyando,
(2019) are congruent with the findings of this study, though this study came with exciting
finding that citizens associate their participation and bad traditional beliefs such as
witchcraft concerning local government elections.

Economic factors;

Data collected from interview responses shows that citizens do not participate in elections
due to economic factors such focusing on their daily economic activities and economic
stress. People are not willing to attend campaigns, staying in a queue during voter
registration or casting votes and waiting for electoral results, they view it as wastage of
time. One of the interview respondent said that,

“…citizens are not ready to attend campaigns or go for registration even voting while
they had loans to pay back (in Swahili “marejesho”), they are not willing to close their

34
businesses even for a minute and attend campaigns, it comes to happen that campaigns are
being attended by children especially school children…”

Five questionnaire respondents said that economic factors also affect citizen participation in
elections as people cannot attend campaigns, registration while they suffer from economic
difficulties, even those with less economic stress said that they are not willing to close their
offices or businesses and attend campaigns.

Data suggests that people do not participate in local government elections because of
economic factors since people tend to focus on their economic activities rather than on
politics. The study by Damian, (2012) as well as (Montanaro, 2020) supports this finding.
But data collected from respondents shows that are not only low income citizens who do not
participate but also the citizens with higher incomes do not participates too, they tend to
focus on their economic businesses rather than participate in elections. The civic
voluntarism model also supports that participation in politics is influenced by the income
level where individuals with high economic status are highly to participate than lower
economic status, but for the case of this study findings, people with different economic
status (those with high and low) tend to focus on their economic activities rather than
elections. This discrepancies between the empirical and theoretical review and the findings
may be due to the differences between the time period the studies were conducted,
differences in geographical locations as well as nature of the elections researched as well as
the methodologies employed in each studies.

Weather conditions;

Data collected from documentary review revealed that sometime unfavorable weather
conditions such as heavy rainfall affects participation of citizens, For the case of 2019 local
government elections, the registration process was affected with heavy rainfall that started at
the end of September 2019 to early of November 2019. The heavy rainfall led to floods,
destruction of bridges and road infrastructures which made people fail to move to registration
stations to most areas of Muheza DC, affected wards were like Kicheba, Mbaramo, Genge,
Misozwe, Michungwani, Amani, Kisiwani, Magila, Ngomeni, Potwe, Kisiwani and
Masuguru. The registration week was hardly beat with the heavy rainfall (LOCAL
GOVERNMENT ELECTION REGISTRATION REPORT OF MUHEZA DC, 2019).

The findings reveals that weather conditions such as heavy rainfall is among of unforeseen
factors that can affect the participation of citizens in elections, some researchers such as
Senteuh, (2015) revealed that the time was not enough because it was a rainy season therefore
most of people were focusing on farming activities, Senteuh explained on how weather
conditions affected time for the registration process but for the case of this study identified
that heavy rainfall made some places impenetrable due to floods and severe destruction of
road infrastructures which lead to delay in distribution of registration equipment, difficult for
citizens to move to the registration stations. While the study by Candia and Wesonga (2017),
Roberts, (2006), Damian, (2012), Mwaipopo, (2013) as well as TACCEO, (2015) did not
identified weather conditions as one among of the factors that affected local government

35
elections, this can be due to differences between geographical and duration contexts of the
studies were conducted.

Lack of information on electoral laws, rules, regulations and guidelines;

Citizens are not aware with electoral laws together with rules and guidelines issued by the
Minister responsible for local governments. These rules and guidelines issued stipulates
everything on how the local government election could be conducted in a particular year.
Data from interview suggests that lack of awareness on electoral rules, regulations and
guidelines severely affected the past local government election of 2019 where most
candidates from opposition political parties such as CHADEMA, CUF and ACT Wazalendo
were disqualified from participating in elections. One among the interviewed respondent
said;

“…opposition candidates such as from CHADEMA, CUF and ACT Wazalendo were
disqualified since they did not met the criteria issued by the Minister responsible for local
governments, though these errors such as using different name and age in the register during
registration process and candidacy application were common for the past elections but for
the 2019 were taken seriously and were not entertained anymore. The errors also were
appearing to CCM candidates but for 2019 local elections, you know CCM are more
strategic, they used to fill the forms in the district election office to avoid all errors that may
disqualify them…”

Furthermore, the data from documentary review showed that there was no chance for
correcting errors appeared in the candidacy application and one of the Ward Executive
Officer was alleged of participating in helping a CHADEMA candidates in correcting his
information in the candidacy application.
Electoral rules also requires registered voters to check their information after the registered
voters’ names has been placed in the public notice boards and public places. Failing to check
their information may disqualify them if the discrepancy will be found uncorrected during the
polling day.
From the findings shows that people are not aware with the electoral rules and guidelines
hence leading to severe impact when it comes to participating in politics, similarly the same
findings also was identified in the work by Brennan, (2020) where he found that citizens are
not paying attention to learning electoral rules hence affecting their right to exercise
participation in politics.

Government intervention and the general electoral management;

Data collected from interviews reveals that the electoral process in local government is
under the Minister of President’s Office Regional Administration and Local Government,
responsible minister is the one who formulate electoral regulations for the particular
elections, appoints returning officers for the election, responsible for overall coordination of
electoral process for the Tanzania mainland. One of the interviewed respondent said that;

36
 “… the Minister responsible is appointed by the president and working parallel with the
President to implement their party manifesto (ruling party), he or she can receive any
instruction given by his/her superior (President), there is a need of an independent
commission like National Electoral Commission (NEC) though NEC is not totally
independent but to some extent it is, election being managed by PO-RALG poses many
challenges like budget constraints comparing to elections managed by NEC. We experience
a challenge when it comes to complaining about budget constraints to RALG, is like a child
complaining to his father while she/he knows in and out. Some citizens also lack motivation
to participate when they know there are these kind of institutional irregularities…”

Data collected from questionnaires, 5 respondent said that government tends to interfere
electoral process in local government, some said that,

“…these elections are not free and fair, sometimes opposition political parties are treated
harsh especially in past local government election of 2019 which made them withdraw from
participating in election…”

These issues make citizens loose interest from participating in politics.

The findings shows that the act of local government elections being managed by the
ministry responsible for President’s Office Regional Administration and Local Government
has made people lose interest to participate in elections since the institution is part and
parcel of the government, it can issue directives to these local government authorities in
favor of the ruling political party. Much power vested to government in managing these
elections has made central government to manipulate the electoral procedures. The findings
of the study are congruent with Arnstein’s Ladder of citizen participation which described
how empowered public institution and officials deny power to citizens and how citizen
participation can be increased. Findings revealed that government exerted a lot of control
and directives in three past elections and much more in 2019 election. Party leaders
manipulated procedures for obtaining candidates, appointed and selected leaders resulting
into getting leaders who are not willing to take the new roles. The study by Athumani &
Ahmed (2017)
stated that current practice is that the Minister responsible for local
governments has substantial authority over the supervision and coordination of
local government elections and the Minister is one of the Members of Parliament and
a member of a political party participating in the elections. This practice
traverses acceptable democratic principles, which demand that the organ that
manages an election should not side with any of the contestants and be above
political parties. Democratic elections need to be guided by the notion that the EMB
has the trust and confidence of all stakeholders. After going through the structure of local
government authorities, the electoral system, and drawing on some practices of
other countries in relation to the management of both general and local
government elections, the article thus argues that the management of local
government elections should be taken over by a reformed National Electoral
Commission, who has full autonomy.

37
Distance to polling and registration stations;

This challenge is experienced highly in interior villages where settlement is largely

scattered and there is long distance to public buildings where voter registration and polling
is conducted. Citizens under special groups are highly affected such as pregnant women,
elderly and disabled. Interviewed respondent said that,

“… distance to registration centers and polling stations is long especially in rural areas,
bad enough sometimes it is a raining season, some citizens falls under special groups like
pregnant women and disabled, people are not ready to pay for a motorcycle ‘bodaboda’ to
go for voting or registration…”

Citizen participation is also affected by distance, the polling stations or locations are not
convenient to voters, especially in rural areas where people can walk up to one hour to
reach a polling station. The findings by Brennan, (2020) also identified lack of enough
convenient polling locations affects the voters’ turnout and registration in local government
elections.

Political differences;

This is another factor influencing poor citizen participation in local government elections
where interview responses recorded reveals that people tend to participate in electoral
campaigns depending on whether a candidate belong to his/her political party like CCM,
CHADEMA, ACT or CUF. If a candidate is not of his political party he/she is not likely to
participate. Interviewed respondents said that

“… citizens tend to look if the candidate is belonging to his political party before attending
campaigns but in fact campaigns need to be participated by all citizens since development
has no party (in Swahili “Maendeleo hayana chama”), citizens are required to hear the
views from both political parties so that they can choose the right fit depending on their
needs…”

The findings asserts that the political affiliation among citizens has affected their
participation in electoral campaigns in local government elections, citizen tends to attend
rally campaigns to the parties which they belong only rather than participating to hear the
views of other political candidates. While the previous literature by Damian, (2012), Candia
and Wesonga, (2017) together with other aforementioned researchers in chapter two did not
mentioned this factor as one among the factors affect ting citizen participation, this could be
due to fact that the differences among the objectives, most of them focused on election
registration and the casting votes.

Lack of political efficacy;

Political efficacy involves individual’s subjective beliefs and feelings on his or her
capability to influence electoral process. Individuals with higher political efficacy are more
likely to participate when compared to individuals with lower political efficacy. Political

38
efficacy can be internal or external. Internal political efficacy refers to individual belief that
he or she can influence the outcomes of the politics but external efficacy entails that the
government or political processes can be responsive or irresponsive to the demands of the
people such as welfare matters of the community. Citizens at Muheza DC have a belief that
the politicians cannot solve their problems and meet their demands such as improving
welfare of the community. The respondents of the questionnaire stated that;

“… I don’t see the essence of participating in elections if the promises become unfulfilled
after every elections…”

“…I have stopped voting for a long period now, since politicians influence nothing on the
issues affecting my welfare, I think I can struggle again rather than depending on
politicians…”

About 11 questionnaire respondents out of 48 total also said that people do not participate in
elections since the political leaders in which power is entrusted to them does not take into
consideration their demands as well as some believe that a single vote cannot bring a
difference. These findings also supports the study conducted by (Schulz-Herzenberg, 2020)
which aimed at exploring factors for why people do not vote in South Africa and identified
that demographic profile, knowledge gap, political efficacy and mobilization agents
influence the voters decision on whether to vote or not to vote. The same findings are also
supported with the socio-psychological model which asserts that the attitudes, perceptions
that individuals have on politicians and political processes affect their decision to vote, has
made them to develop a non-voting behavior.

Long queue;

About 6 questionnaire respondents stated that long queue in the registration and polling day
discourages them from participating in elections. Long queue during voter registration and
voting day. This is happens when the polling and registration stations are not enough
especially in township wards where population is concentrated. Some of them said,

“…long queue is somehow tiresome and wastage of time…”

One among the interviewed respondent said that,

“… long queue happens when the citizens register lately, citizens ignore to register early,
wait until the deadline reaches…”

The findings are shows that long queue is among factors for why people do not participate
there is a need for voters education and mobilization to register during early days as well as
increasing polling stations. The study by Farmighetti, (n.y) found also long lines during
election day as a challenge to participation of people in elections, in his study explained that
the long lines is caused by malfunctions of machines used during the polling day, little
amount of available resources to process the number of voters arrived. Though his study
found the same factor but what causes long lines or queue is different. This could be due to

39
different in technological context between countries in which studies were conducted, since
the study by Farmighetti was conducted in the US.

Low electoral impulse or attractiveness;

Five questionnaire respondents stated that the local elections is less attractive or has little
shock/impulse compared to general election. Some respondents stated that,

“…these elections lacks impulse compared to general elections, people pay little attention
to these elections compared to general elections…”

The findings asserts that people do not participate since the local government has little
impression when compared to the general elections. The findings by REPOA, (2014)
reveals that based on the citizenry survey conducted at different period of time there was
more enthusiasm to the general elections rather than local government elections.
Furthermore, it identified that low voter turnout is a policy challenge, there is no effective
policy that encourage people to vote more in local elections.

Voter register discrepancies;

About 3 questionnaire respondents said that sometimes during the polling day their details
appears incorrect in the voter register disqualifying them from voting, these errors occur
during the registration process. Though from the interview both respondents said that
citizens are negligent when it comes to checking accuracy of their details after the list of
registered names has been placed to the public notice boards. One respondents during the
interview said;

“…citizens ignore to check their details if their accurate after we have placed the
registered names in public notice boards and they start complaining during the polling
day…”

The findings of this study suggests that people do not successfully cast a ballot due to the
fact that their information may appear incorrect in the register during polling day like
misspelled names. The findings are also similar with the study by TACCEO (2015).

Poor electoral system;

The electoral system from registration is not favorable, it is manually done, lack of
Biometric Voter Registration, the manual systems of registration of voters and polling led to
delay of the processes which lead to long queue. About 4 questionnaire respondents equals
to 4.0% of total responses stated poor electoral system as one among the factors for poor
participation in local elections.

One questionnaire respondent said that,

“…as we go digital we need an automated voter registration and polling system…”

40
The study identified that the electoral system for the local government is not favorable for
different people to participate effectively. This study supports finding by Roberts (2019),
Schulz-Herzenberg, (2020), which also mention voters registration and voting system as
among the factors influencing electoral participation.

Bar Chart
35

30

25

20
34.7
15

10
11.88 10.9
5 8.9
5.94 5.94 5.94 4.95
3.96 3.96 2.97
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Source: Field data, 2022

4.3.3. Ways to increase citizen participation in local government elections

Provision of civic education;

Citizens should be provided with education on the importance of participating in local

elections. They should be kept aware that participating in elections is their legal right and it
forms the basis of getting leaders who they want and can meet their needs. Provision of
education will help to minimize challenges in registration since some people register only
for getting voter identity card, something which is not right. About 32 responses equals to
38.6% of total suggested ways was provision of civic education. One of the interviewed
respondents;

“… For what I know the most important thing is providing information and education to
the citizens on the importance of participating in these elections since it is their
constitutional right…”

The civic education to citizens is very important in order to educate on the essence of
participating in local government elections, other researchers also recommended civic
education as one among the ways to increase citizen participation in elections such as
Senteuh, (2015), Nyando, (2019), Damian, (2012) as well as Brennan, (2020) who
suggested that more creativity is required in providing education and interacting with
underrepresented population. For example placing educative posters and fliers in public
places such as highways, marketplaces, supermarkets, shops also hiring trained people to
provide house to house educative campaigns.

41
Mobilization campaigns;

There is a need of having campaigns that will help to increase awareness and understanding
concerning importance of citizen participation in local government elections such as house
to house campaigns, public meetings. About 10 respondents suggested for this way as a
measure to increase citizen participation equals to 12.0% of the total responses. Some
respondents stated that,

“…there is a need to have house to house campaigns for mobilizing people….”

“…the world now has become digital there is a need of having campaigns in mass media
and social media…”

“…the use of village and hamlet meetings in these campaigns…”

From documentary review, house to house campaigns was adopted in 2019 during
registration stage after experiencing a period of heavy rainfall during the course of
registration process.

Elections should be conducted under free and fair environment;

Elections needs to be conducted under the free and fair environment which involve freedom
and fair processes leading up to the vote, a fair count of eligible voters who cast a ballot
without any suppression, fraud and other kinds of irregularities. There should be laws that
enhance free and fair elections, reducing much power of government from controlling the
local government elections. The free and fair elections will help to increase motivation of
people to participate in elections. Some interview respondents stated that,

“…I stopped voting since I know that CCM will win elections ‘goli la mkono’…”

Based on these kinds of environment, elections needs to be conducted under the

environment which is free and fair to increase trustworthiness to the citizens and encourage
them from voting. Study by Liviga and Ahmed, (2017) identified that people do not trust
Minister responsible for local government as electoral management body for local
government elections, they believe that the minister is party of the government and is
working to implement the ruling party manifesto, so the situation would compromise his or
her independence. Furthermore, the study by Roberts, (2009) advocates that Electoral
College in the US was not enough to ensure that the election is free and fair.

Improving the electoral system;

To have a good system for registering voters and polling will help to increase citizen
participation in local government elections, to have an automated registration system that
will allow voters to register and cast their votes digitally which will reduce wastage of time
and queue during the registration and casting polls. About 6 respondent equals to 8.7% of
total responses voted for this measure. Three of the respondent said that

42
 “…there is a need of automated registration system which will enable us to register
and even cast the votes without being in the place where we registered…”

Study reveals that having improved registration and polling system would improve the
electoral participation, the system for registering and casting polls in local government
elections in Tanzania is more traditional and paper based. Other researchers such as
Senteuh, (2015) and Brennan, (2020) insisted for having automated system of registering
voters in local government elections such as having mail ballots, same day registration as
well as online registration. Study by Nyando, (2019) also identified that we need a more
flexible registration system such as making voters registration a continuous process rather
than a one-time event after 5 years.

Increasing time for registration of voters;

There is a need to increase a time for registration of voters, for the past elections the
registration time has been almost one week where some areas especially in town areas has
higher population leading into long queue. But also there should be increase in registration
stations for the areas where population is dispersed to reduce number of citizens failing to
register and cast their votes due to long distance and in town areas where the population is
concentrated. This method was adopted in 2019 during registration when heavy rainfall
started and people failed to go to the designated stations for registration. The study by
Brennan, (2020) also suggests for extension of registration period as well as research by
Roberts, (2009) shows that there is a chance for registration during the Election Day.

Strengthening security and safety in the during campaigns and polling day

Based on the responses from questionnaire, about 5 respondents said that there is
occurrence of violation of peace and security during polling day due to mistrust that exist
between political party leaders. This can lead into harm and destructions, one among the
interviewed respondent said that these challenge occurred seriously in some wards like
Majengo and Tanganyika. Data collected from questionnaire, six respondents voted that
people do not participate in local elections because elected leaders do not fulfill their
promises.

Leaders should fulfill their promises to citizens

Responses collected from questionnaire suggests that citizens should fulfill their promises
to the citizens they have made during the electoral campaigns, this will increase the trust
and motivation for citizens to participate in these local elections.

Provision of basic information to citizens

Not only providing voter education but also providing the basic information to voters so as
to increase their awareness on important issues such as electoral laws, regulations, rules as
well as other information like when the election will be conducted, about the appointment
of candidates, expected dates for registration and campaigns. These information should be

43
advertised publicly in mass media, social media, in public meetings. Most opposition
candidates were disqualified in 2019 due to their ignorance of electoral laws, rules and
guidelines issued by the minister responsible for local government elections furthermore
some voters get disqualified from casting polls during election day due to failure to
crosscheck and correct discrepancies appeared in the register after the names were placed in
the public places and notice boards. Other researchers suggested provision of provision of
basic information on important aspects of the election processes such as date for
registration, appointment of candidates, as one among of the ways to increase voter turnout
in local government elections.

SUGGESTED MEASURES TO INCREASE CITIZEN PARTICIPATION IN LOCAL

GOVERNMENT ELECTIONS (QUESTIONNAIRE RESPONSES)

BAR CHART
40
30
20
P e r ce n ta g e s

10
0

Suggested ways

44
 5.0. CHAPTER 5

5.1.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The major aim of this study was to explore factors influencing poor citizen participation in
local government elections. This chapter presents the conclusion, recommendations and
limitations of the present study, as well as areas for further studies.

5.1.1. Conclusion
The study identified that the extent to which citizens participate in local government election
processes such as in registration process, selection and appointment of candidates, electoral
campaigns as well as casting polls in Election Day. The study here identified that the
participation of citizens in registration is not worse as stated in other literatures since much
efforts is being concentrated to meet the registration goals to the returning and assistant
returning officers, though not all targeted is citizens are registered but at least 88% to 92% of
total targeted voters were registered. The participation in campaigns is worse, citizens rarely
participates. But also the participation in casting polls is not satisfying since there is great
variation between the registered voters and those who casted polls.

The study has shown various factors influenced poor citizen participation in election of
village and mtaa chairpersons, members of village council and vitongoji chairpersons. The
most obvious conclusion demographic factors like age, gender, sex, economic status, marital
status do not have a significant association with citizen participation in local government
election but there are other factors that significantly affected the electoral participation such
as civic education, lack of relevant information on electoral laws, lack of basic information
on electoral laws, political efficacy, rules and guidelines, poor electoral system, government
intervention and general electoral management, distance to polling and registration station,
economic factors as well as long queue. All in all the informational and education challenges
were most recorded from respondents.

The study went further finding ways to improve the citizen participation in local government
elections like provision of voter education, basic information, improving registration system,
free and fair elections, fulfillment of promises, mobilization campaigns as well as extending
time for registration together with increasing registration and polling locations. Based on
these suggested ways from the respondents, I would also suggest to have policies that would
enable to brand local elections to increase their impulse as general elections, more creative
techniques needs to be adopted.

5.1.2. Recommendations

The researcher would like to present the recommendations based on the findings of the
study that show poor participation in local government electoral processes and the factors

45
influencing such poor participation. The following are the recommendations to be
undertaken in order to ensure that citizen`s participation in presidential elections and other
elections are improved to the maximum level.

Provision of civic education, the government should make efforts to ensure that education
reaches the targets, the researcher would like to advice the government to use both physical
means to reach the crowd but also much efforts should be employed in using the digital
channels to reach people such as educative short text messages (Short Message Service
SMS) via mobile phones when collaborating with mobile network companies, use of social
media such as Facebook, Instagram and Twitter to provide basic information, educative
campaigns to ensure that citizens get awareness that their participation matters. Furthermore
researcher recommends the use of physical means to provide education such as house to
house educative campaigns, government should hire citizens who will provide the education
to the citizens. Educative posters, fliers, banners needs to be placed in public places and
most visited places such as shops, supermarkets, markets and areas near religious
institutions. Moreover the use of non-governmental institutions, religious institutions and
civil society organizations to provide education to the citizens.

Establishing independent body for managing elections, local government elections needs to
be managed under the independent body rather than Minister responsible for local
government who is party of the government and working toward implementing ruling party
manifesto. This will ensure that the elections are free and fair and motivates citizens from
participating.

Automated registration system, the government should change the system of registering
voters for the local government elections, the current system of local government electoral
registration is done manually and during the voting day there is no specific voter identity
card commanded, a voter is required to present any identity such as national identity,
driving license.

Increasing the registration and polling locations and time, researcher recommends for the
extension of the registration and polling stations in those areas where the population is
highly scattered as well as in those areas which population is highly concentrated especially
in township wards. Furthermore, the government should device its registration time, instead
of being a one-time event, it needs to be conducted continuously to have a clear data of
qualified voters as well as allowing registration during the polling day would help to reduce
the number of disqualified voters during polling day for not registering. By solving the
challenge of registration and polling station challenges would reduce the issue long queue
and wastage of time.

5.1.3. Limitations of the study

Despite the findings that were presented in previous chapters, several challenges a
researcher experienced such as some respondents were not ready to provide information
though after starting providing awareness to them filled out the questionnaires but still
others rejected, some respondents did not returned back the questionnaires (they kept

46
postponing a researcher), limited time for interview respondents (both interview
respondents were very busy occupied with other council office tasks such as supervising
daily operations and development projects so their schedule was full occupied the
researcher used little time to interview them and focused on main issues only). Furthermore,
poor records management of the council affected a researcher to conduct in detail
documentary review, review was done only to available records.

5.1.4. Areas for further studies

Despite of the findings and recommendations presented by the researcher in chapters and
sections, based on the limitations that would have affected findings in one way or another
then the findings of this study cannot be generalized for all local government councils in
Tanzania. The researcher suggests that other researchers can conduct similar studies on
other local government councils. Also other researchers may focus on how demographic
characteristics of citizens such as age, gender, occupation, income level and education can
influence citizen participation in local governance and politics, conducting research on
adoption of electronic systems for registration and polling for both local government and
general elections (their feasibility and implications in increasing turnout), also the adoption
of mail ballots and on the day registration (during the polling day).

47
 APPENDICES

APPENDIX I

QUESTIONNAIRE

(Will be distributed to the respondents of Muheza District Council)

Dear, sir/madam,

The researcher is a student of Mzumbe University, pursuing a Bachelor of Public

Administration in Local Government Management. This questionnaire is for conducting a
research on factors influencing poor citizen participation in local government elections at
Muheza District Council. The main objective of this study is to explore the factors
influencing poor citizen participation in local government elections at Muheza District
Council. Please I’m kindly requesting your cooperation so as to accomplish the purpose of
this study. More importantly, findings from the study will be a secrecy and being useful for
government issues, also will be helpful to Muheza District Council in the process of
improving Citizen`s participation in elections for strengthening and promoting good
governance. Please fill in the blanks or tick in boxes provided and for the open ended
questions please record answers in the space provided, if the space provided is not sufficient
you can use another sheet, the sheet should be numbered to correspond with the number of
questionnaire.

Section A: Personal characteristics of respondents

1. Age of respondent _______________________________

2. Sex of respondent
A. Female
b. Male ________________________________

3. Education level
a. Primary level
b. Secondary level
C. College/University level
d. Others _________________________________

4. Marital status
a. Single
b. Married
c. Widow

48
d. Divorced

5. Occupation ____________________________________

6. Income of level ____________________________________

Section B: Participation in Elections

1. Do you have any information about citizen’s participation in Local government
elections?
1. Yes ( ) 2. No. ( )
2. Did you participate in any last local government election?

Local government 2004 2009 2014 2019

election

3. If no please explain …………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………
4. How many local government elections have you registered for voting?
a. 1 election
b. 2 to 3 elections
c. 4 and more ___________________________________

4. How many local government elections have you attended electoral campaigns?
a. 1 election
b. 2 to 3 elections
c. 4 and more ___________________________________

4. How many local government elections have you voted?

a. 1 election
b. 2 to 3 elections
c. 4 and more ___________________________________

Section D: Factors influencing citizen participation in local government elections

1. Which among these factors affected citizen participation at Muheza District Council?
a. Suitable Electoral System
b. Provision of civic education
c. Favorable Registration system
d. Register discrepancies
e. Limited time for voter’s registration
f. Awareness on the importance of local government elections
g. Political stability ______________________________________
Other factors, rather than aforementioned factor

49
 1. ______________________________________
2. ______________________________________
3.______________________________________
4.______________________________________
5.______________________________________

2. Briefly, give reasons for your answer in question (1) above

1. ______________________________________
2.______________________________________
3. ______________________________________
4. ______________________________________
5.______________________________________
6. ______________________________________

What do you think are the main purposes of citizen’s participation in local government
elections at Muheza District Council?
1. ______________________________________
2. ______________________________________
3.______________________________________
4.______________________________________
5.______________________________________
. Do you think citizens’ participation in local government elections is important?
(1) Yes (2) No. ( )
4.5. If yes, why is important?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………
Section 3: Measures that can be adopted to increase citizen participation in local
government elections
What do you think are the ways to increase citizen participation in local government
elections?
1. ______________________________________
2. ______________________________________
3.______________________________________
4.______________________________________
5.______________________________________

50
 APPENDIX II

HOJAJI KWA WANANCHI KWA AJILI YA UCHUNGUZI JUU YA USHIRIKI

WAO KATIKA CHAGUZI ZA SERIKALI ZA MITAA
Ndugu,

Mtafiti ni Mwanafunzi wa Chuo Kikuu Mzumbe katika Shahada ya kwanza ya Utawala na

Usimamizi wa Serikali za Mitaa (BPA-LGM). Dodoso hili ni kwa ajili ya utafiti juu ya
ushiriki hafifu wa raia katika chaguzi, za serikali za mitaa katika Halmashauri ya Wilaya ya
Muheza. Lengo kuu nikutaka kujua sababu za ushiriki hafifu katika chaguzi za serikali za
mitaa. Tafadhali naomba ushirikiano wenu ili niweze kufanishakisha lengo la kufanya
utafiti huu.

Sehemu A: Taarifa binafsi za washiriki

1. Umri _______________________________

2. Jinsia
a. Mwanaume
b. Mwanamke ________________________________
3. Kiwango cha elimu
a. Msingi
b. Sekondari
c. Chuo
d. Nyingine _________________________________
4. Hali ya ndoa
a. Sijaoa
b. Nimeoa
c. Mjane/ Mgane
d. Mtalaka ___________________________________
5. Kazi ____________________________________
6. Kiwango cha kipato
a. kiwango cha chini.
b.kiwango cha kati.
c. kiwango cha juu.
Sehemu B: Ushiriki katika chaguzi
1. Je! Una taarifa zozote juu ya ushiriki wa wananchi katika chaguzi za serikali za mitaa?
1. Ndiyo ( ) 2. Hapana ( )
2. Je ulishiriki chaguzi yeyote kati ya hizi zifuatazo?

51
 Chaguzi za serikali za 2004 2009 2014 2019
mitaaa

3. Kama hakuna, eleza ………………………………………………………….. …….

…………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Je! Umewahi kujiandikisha chaguzi ngapi za serikali za mitaa?
a. Chaguzi 1
b. 2 hadi 3
c. 4 na zaidi ___________________________________
4. Je! Umewahi kushiriki kampeni za chaguzi ngapi za serikali za mitaaa?
a. Chaguzi 1
b. 2 hadi 3
c. 4 na zaidi ___________________________________
4. Je, umewahi kushiriki kupiga kura mara ngapi ?
a. Chaguzi 1
b. 2 hadi 3
c. 4 na zaidi ___________________________________
Sehemu D: Sababu zinzoathiri ushiriki wa wananchi katika chaguzi za serikali za mitaa
1. Je! Ni sababu zipi zilizoathiri ushiriki wa wananchi katika chaguzi za serikali za mitaa?
a. Mfumo wa uchaguzi
b. Utoaji wa elimu kwa wananchi
c. Mfumo wa kujiandikisha
d. Makosa katika daftari la kujiandikisha
e. Muda hafifu wa zoezi la kujiandikisha
f. Kukosa uelewa juu ya umuhimu wa chaguzi za serikali za mitaa
______________________________________
Sababu zingine, ukiachana na zilizotajwa hapo juu
1. ______________________________________
2. ______________________________________
3.______________________________________
4.______________________________________
5.______________________________________

2. Kwa kifupi, toa maelezo ya sabababu zilizotajwa hapo juu

1. ______________________________________
2.______________________________________
3. ______________________________________
4. ______________________________________
5.______________________________________
6. ______________________________________
Je, unafikiri ni zipi sababu za watu kushiriki katika chaguzi za serikali za mitaa?
1. ______________________________________

52
2. ______________________________________
3.______________________________________
4.______________________________________
5.______________________________________
Je, unafikiri ushiriki wa wananchi katika chaguzi za serikali za mitaa ni muhimu?
(1) Ndiyo (2) Hapana. ( )
4.5. Kama ndiyo, eleza ni kwa nini?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………
Sehemu 3: Njia zinazoweza kutumika kuongeza ushiriki wa wananchi katika chaguzi za
serikali za mitaa
Je, unafikiri ni njia zipi zinazoweza kuongeza ushiriki wa wananchi katika chaguzi za
serikali za mitaa ?
1. ______________________________________
2. ______________________________________
3.______________________________________
4.______________________________________
5.______________________________________

53
 APPENDIX III

NTERVIEW CHECKLIST
(To be answered by District Executive Director and District Elections Officer, Muheza
District Council).

1. Do citizens in Muheza District Council participate actively in local elections? How and to
what extent?

2. What should be done to improve citizen’s participation in local elections in Muheza

District Council?

3. Do you think elections should depend on citizen`s participation? Why and how?

4. Do you think citizens’ participation in local elections is important in Muheza District

Council? how?

5. what are the main reasons for low citizen`s participation on local elections in Muheza
District Council? Why and how?

6. Are citizens aware on the importance of local elections in Muheza District Council? Why
and how?

54
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