PETERSON'S

GRAMMAR
FI.ASH
The Quick Way to
Bullcl Grammar Power

Milada Broukal

• TOEFL® AND TWE® ARE REGISTERED TRADEMARKS OF EDUCATIONAL TESTING SERVICE, WHICH

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Peterson's
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TOEFL* GRAMMAR Flash was adapted from TOEFL® Test Assistant: Grammar by
Milada Broukal and published by Heinle & Heinle/ITP.

Broukal, Milada.
TOEFL grammar flash : the quick way to build grammar power I Milada Broukal.
p. em.
ISBN 1-56079-951-X
1. English language-Textbooks for foreign speakers. 2. English language­
Grammar-Examinations-Study guides. 3. Test of English as a foreign language­
Study guides. 4. English language-Examinations-Study guides. I. Title.
PE1128.B71473 1997
428.2'4'076-dc21 97-34268
CIP

Executive Editor: Mark Moscowitz

Senior Production Editor: Bernadette Boylan
Xyvision Product Manager: Gary Rozmierski
Proofreader: Catherine Magnola

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Acknowledgments vii
To the Teacher ix
To the Student xi
The Structure and Written Expression Section of
the TOEFL® Test xiii

PART 1: TYPES OF STRUCTURE AND WRimN EXPRESSION

OUESTIONS 1

CHAPTER 1: NOUNS 2
Introduction: The Brain 2
Grammar: Singular and Plural Nouns 4
On the TOEFL® Test 8
Exercises on Nouns 9

CHAPTER 2: PRONOUNS 11
Introduction: Penguins 11
Grammar: Pronouns 13
On the TOEFL® Test 19
Exercises on Pronouns 21

CHAPTER 3 PARTS OF A SENnNCE 23

Introduction: Phyllis Wheatley 23
Grammar: Parts of a Sentence 24
On the TOEFL® Test 30
Exercises on Parts of a Sentence 31

CHAPTER 4: VERBS 33
Introduction: The Olympics 33
Grammar: Verbs 35
On the TOEFL® Test 44
Exercises on Verbs 46

ill
iv TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

CHAPTER 5: PREPOSITIONS 48
Introduction: Mount St. Helens 48
Grammar: Prepositions 49
On the TOEfL® Test 55
Exercises on Prepositions 56
CHAPTER 6: ARTICLES 58
Introduction: Islands 58
Grammar: Articles 60
On the TOEfL® Test 65
Exercises on Articles 66
CHAPTER 7: NOUN ClAUSES 68
Introduction: Michael Faraday 68
Grammar: Noun Clauses 69
On the TOEFL® Test 73
Exercises on Noun Clauses 74
CHAPTER 8: ADJECTIVE ClAUSES 76
Introduction: American Indian Smoke Signals 76
Grammar: Adjective Clauses 77
On the TOEfL® Test 82
Exercises on Adjective Clauses 83
CHAPTER 9: ADVERB ClAUSES 85
Introduction: Distant Galaxies 85
Grammar: Adverb Clauses 86"
On the TOEfL® Test 91
Exercises on Adverb Clauses 92
CHAPTER 1 0: PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES 94
Introduction: Land Art 94
Grammar: Prepositional Phrases 95
On the TOEfL® Test 98
Exercises on Prepositional Phrases 99
CHAPTER 11: COMPARATIVES AND SUPERlATIVES 102
Introduction: Violins 102
Grammar: Comparatives and Superlatives 103
On the TOEFL® Test 107
Exercises on Comparatives and Superlatives 108
 CONTENTS v

CHAPTER 12: CONJUNCTIONS 110

Introduction: The Soya Bean's Industrial Uses 110
Grammar: Conjunctions Ill
On the TOEFL® Test 115
Exercises on Conjunctions 116

CHAPTER 13:· PARALLEL STRUCTURE 118

Introduction: Vitamin C 118
Grammar: Parallel Structure 119
On the TOEFL® Test 122
Exercises on Parallel Structure 123

CHAPTER 14: WORD ORDER 125

Introduction: Computers 125
Grammar: Word Order 127
On the TOEFL® Test 130
Exercises on Inversion 131

CHAPTER 15: WORD FORMS 133

Introduction: Benjamin Franklin 133
Grammar: Word Forms 134
On the TOEFL® Test 139
Exercises on Word Forms 140

CHAPTER 1&: WORD CHOICE AND REDUNDANCY 142

Introduction: Asbestos 142
Grammar: Word Choice 144
Redundancy 149
On the TOEFL® Test 150
Exercises on Word Choice and Redundancy 151

PART II: STRUCTURE AND WRinEN EXPRESSION

PRACTICE TESTS 153
PRACTICE TEST 1 154
PRACTICE TEST 2 1&0
PRACTICE TEST 3 1&&
PRACTICE TEST 4 172
PRACTICE TEST 5 178

Answer Key 185

 ACK·IIDILEDGMEIITS.

I would like to thank the following professionals for their contribution by

reviewing TOEFL® Grammar Flash and giving many helpful insights and
suggestions:

Paul Abraham, Simmons College

Lida Baker, University of California, Los Angeles
Kelly Franklin, Maryville College
Tom Leverett, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale
Virginia Martin, Bowling Green State University
Nancy Pfmgstag, University of North Carolina at Charlotte
Bruce Rogers, Econotnics Institute

vii
 TO THE TEACHER

TOEFL® Grammar Flash prepares students for Section 2, Structure and Written
Expression, of the TOEFL® Test. The text is designed for both self-study and
classroom use.
The book is divided into Parts I and II. Part I includes sixteen chapters,
each focusing on a grammar area tested in the Structure and Written Expression
section of the test. Part II provides five Structure and Written Expression
practice tests.
In Part I, the chapters are organized in order of difficulty, and not
according to the frequency of errors that occur on the test. However, if time is
limited, the five chapters indicated below, which treat grammatical issues that
most often cause errors on the TOEFL® Test, can be studied first. The remaining
chapters have about the same ratio of error frequency and can be studied in any
order.

Chapter 1 5 Word Forms

Chapter 16 Word Choice and Redundancy
Chapter 4 Verbs
Chapter 1 3 Parallel Structure
Chapter 2 Pronouns

In each chapter the errors made in both the Structure part and the Written
Expression part of the TOEFL® Test are covered together. The "On the TOEFL®
Test" section of each chapter gives examples of errors tested in the Structure
part or the Written Expression part as they occur on the test. Also, the grammar
focus exercise that follows is based on errors made in the Structure and Written
Expression section.
Each chapter in Part I opens with a reading passage of general interest.
The aim of this passage is to provide a context for the grammar focused on in
the chapter as well as introduce students to the academic content areas covered
in the Structure and Written Expression section. The level of difficulty in these
initial passages is lower than that of the reading passages in the Vocabulary and
Reading Comprehension section of the TOEfL® Test, since their aim is not to
improve reading skills but to provide a context for the grammar focused on in
the chapter and make the grammar section of the exam more engaging and
interesting for the student.

ix
x TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

Structure of Each Chapter

INTRODUCTION
The Reading passage focuses on the grammar area of the chapter and at the
same time covers a content area of the TOEFL® Test through a subject of general
interest. Exercises based on the reading passage introduce and reinforce the
structure or grammar area focused on in the chapter.

FOCUS ON GRAMMAR AREA

This part covers one of the grammar areas tested in the Structure and Written
Expression section of the TOEFL® Test. The examples and exercises are related
in subject matter to the content area of the chapter. Strategies are given
throughout this part.

ON THE TOEFL® TEST

This part focuses on the identification of errors found on the TOEFL® Test,
giving specific examples.

EXERCISES ON GRAMMAR FOCUS AREA

This part provides practice with TOEFL® Test-type questions on the grammar
area focused on in the chapter. Items are in areas of mixed content.
 lO THE STUDENT

Peterson's TOEFL® Grammar Flash will prepare you for Section 2, Structure
and Written Expression, of the TOEFL® Test. The book is designed for both
self-study and use in a classroom with a teacher. In sixteen chapters it covers all
the main areas of grammar tested in this section of the test and provides you
with simple explanations, TOEFL® Test-type examples, and practice. For further
practice there are five Structure and Written Expression practice tests in Part II
of the book. You can check your answers to the exercises in the book and the
practice tests in the Answer Key at the back of the book.
As well as preparing you for the types of errors that are tested in the
Structure and Written Expression section of the TOEFL® Test, this book
introduces and familiarizes you with the major content areas that appear on the
TOEFL® Test. These content areas are physical sciences, social sciences, and the
arts and humanities.
I hope this book will make the content areas and grammar more
interesting and accessible to you.

xi
The Structure and Written Expression Section of
the TOEFL® Test
Section 2 of the TOEFL® Test tests your understanding of English grammar. The
section is divided into two parts, with a different type of question in each part:

A: Structure (questions 1-1 5) tests sentence completion.

8: Written Expression (questions 16-40) tests error identification.

The number of items in the Structure and Written Expression parts are as
follows:

Short Long
Form Form
Structure 15 23
Written Expression 25 37
Total 40 60
Time 25 minutes 35 minutes

• Language: Section 2 tests standard written English. The language in this

section is more formal than the language in the listening Comprehension
section. There will be no contractions (there's) or idiomatic expressions.
• Topics: The topics in Section 2 are about academic subjects: the physical
sciences (astronomy, geology), social sciences (anthropology, nutrition), or
the arts and humanities (music, art). But you do not have to know about these
subjects to answer the questions.

There are cultural references to the United States and Canada. These
references may be to people, places, or things related to the United States and
Canada, but you do not have to know any of these references or facts. All you
have to do is concentrate on the structure of the sentence. A knowledge of the
facts referred to in this section are entirely irrelevant to your score.

• Grammar points tested: Although a wide range of grammar points is tested,

certain grammar points occur over and over again. Each chapter of this text
concentrates on a particular grammar point tested on the TOEFL® Test.

xiii
xiv TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

TACTICS
There are two ways of answering the questions appearing on the TOEFL® Test.

1. By analyzing the grammar of a sentence: In the Structure part you can

analyze the part that is missing, and in the Written Expression part the
incorrect underlined item can be worked out.

2. By using your intuition: Some people "feel" an answer is right or

wrong, although they may not know the grammar. This way may work
for a person who has learned English by listening and speaking.

STRATEGIES FOR STRUCTURE AND WRinEN

EXPRESSION
• Familiarize yourself with the directions for both parts so you do not waste
time reading the directions and examples.
• Answer every item. If you do not know the answer, do not leave a blank
space. Always guess, even if you do not know. Wrong answers will not count
against you. You can use a "guess" letter. A guess letter is one letter, A, B, C,
or D, that you can use to answer all the items you do not know. You are more
likely to get some correct if you use the same letter through the whole test
than if you change letters all the time.
• Use your time carefully. Always read the four choices, even if they seem easy.
You may make a careless mistake by answering a question too quickly. Don't
lose time thinking about something you do not know. Mark the item lightly
on your answer sheet so you can go back to it later. Go on to the next item.
You should not spend more than thirty seconds per item.
 STRUCTURE AND WRITIEN EXPRESSION xv

Strategies for Structure: Questions 1-15

This part of the test consists of fifteen incomplete sentences. A part of each
sentence is replaced by a blank. Under each sentence four choices are
listed, A, B, C, and D. One of the choices logically and grammatically
completes the sentence.
• Look at the answer choice$ first.
• If they are short, you can get an idea of what to look for when you read
the sentence.
• If they are long, read the sentence (stem) first. Analyze its structure.
Work out how many clauses there are. See if the clauses have subjects
and verbs. look for connectors that join the clauses. Then look at the
four choices. If you still do not know the answer, eliminate as many
distractors as you can and take a guess from your remaining choices.
• Read all the choices. Never choose an answer before reading all four
choices. Some of the choices may be very similar, and you may make a
careless mistake.
• Read the senlence complelely with the answer you have chosen. Make
sure your answer fits. If the answer does not sound right , it may not be. If
you do not know, guess and go on. If you have time you can come back
to the difficult items later.
• Watch For the following when you insert your answer into the sentence:
• Your answer may have an unnecessary word or phrase.
• It may be incomplete.
• It may be ungrammatical. If so, discard that answer and reconsider the
remaining three.
• Use your time carefully. Do not spend so much time that you will not have
enough time to finish the Written Expression part. Budget your time
carefully. Do not spend more than thirty seconds on each item.
xvi TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

= foe: Written Expression: Questions 16-30

Strategies
This port of the test consists of twenty-Five sentences. Each sentence has four
words or phrases, A, B, C and D that are underlined. You must identify the
incorrect word or phrase.
• Read the complete sentence quickly. Do not read just the underlined words
or phrases. The underlined words or phrases may be correct on their own
but incorrect in the context of the sentence.
• The error will always be unc/erlined. Do not look for errors in other parts
of the sentence. The rest of the sentence will only provide you with the
clues to help you Find the error.
• If you cannot find the error, go through a mental checklist of the most
common types of errors (see the following table for a list of common
errors) and see whether one of the underlined parts Fits into one of the
categories.
• lf.you still cannot find the error, elimina�'the parts that seem correct, and
then take a guess from your remaining options.

Most Common Errors in Written Expression·

Error Category Frequency
Word form 21%
Word choice 15
Verbs 12
Parallel structure 9
Pronouns 7
Singular/plural nouns 6
Verbals (inflnitives, gerunds, participles) 6
Prepositions 6
Articles 5
Comparative and superlatives 4
Word order 4
Conjunctions 2
Redundancy 1
Other types of errors 2

Based on Bruce Roger's analysis of 20 different exams that test takers were
allowed to keep after Disclosed Test Admission.
a Typ e s of S tru c t ure ancl
Wr i tt en E x pre s s i on
Qu e s t i ons
 '
1 NOUNS

Introduction: The Brain

The brain can store

�
The human brain weighs
100 trillion pieces

/"''
/�;�:,:",
of information.

In each second the brain

receives more than 1 00
� � omooo
brain.

The brain weighs

one-fiftieth as
The brain loses much as the body,
1 ,000 cells per _____ but uses one-fourth
day, which are --�-­ (25 percent) of the
not replaced. and body's oxygen.
yet memories
The left side of the
are maintained.
-brain controls the

The brain cannot -­ right side of the body;

feel pain. If a the right side of the

surgeon operates
on the brain, the
patient feels no
/ brain controls the left
side of the body.

pain.

During the first six brain; if you are left-handed,

months of a baby's life, you have a strong
its brain doubles in size. right brain.

The left brain controls math,

language, and logic. The right
brain controls art, color, and music.

2
 CHAPTER 1 NOUNS 3

EXERCISE 1

[• ==..-- -
_

1.
.
.
.... �·-· � ...
dl :t

The brain stores 100 trillion pieces of ______

) ,�?

2. Men's brains are heavier than ______ brains.

3. The brain uses one-quarter, or ______ , of the body's oxygen.

4. The left brain controls math, ______ , and ______

5. The right brain controls color, ______ , and ______

6. The human brain weighs about 3.5 ______

7. The brain cannot feel ______

8. The brain receives more than 100 ____________

messages from the body.

ExERCISE 2
"
From the Nading, work out wMther these statements are ,�'
..
true or false. Check T for true and F for faJ... ,,,
..
,

1. The weight of the brain depends on intelligence. T F

2. A jazz musician has a dominant right brain. T F

3. A left-handed person has a dominant left brain. T F

4. When you play a game of chess, you use the left side of your
�� T F

5. Your lost brain cells are always replaced. T F

6. The brain feels pain when you have a headache. T F

4 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

Grammar: Singular and Plural Nouns

Nouns can be classified into two groups: count nouns, which can be counted
and which take an s, and noncount nouns, which cannot be counted and which
usually do not take an s

STRATEGY
Look for a noncount noun that is pluralized where it generally should not be.

Look at the following table:

Singular Plural
Count noun a cell cells
one .cell two cells
some cells
a lot of cells
many cells
Noncount noun information
some information
a lot of information
much information

Count nouns
1. Take a/an or one in the singular.
2. Usually take a fmal s/es in the plural.

Noncount nouns
1. Do not take a/an in the singular.

2. Do not generally have a plural form.

Some count nouns are irregular and do not take an s in the plural. Here are
some common irregular count nouns:

man-men foot-feet
woman-women tooth-teeth
child-children fish-fish
 CHAPTER l NOUNS 5

Noncount nouns cannot be counted because they come in a mass or in an

uncountable form. Nouns such as blood, music, and excitement cannot be
counted. The following is a short list of some noncount nouns:

Food: rice, sugar, fruit, milk, bread, butter, cheese

Fluids: blood, water, oil, coffee, tea, gasoline
Raw materials: wood, paper, glass, iron, silver, wool
Gases: oxygen, nitrogen, air, pollution, steam
General: furniture, mail, money, traffic, equipment
Groups: jewelry, machinery,)uggage, clothing, cash
Languages: English, Chinese, Japanese, Spanish
Academic subjects: chemistry, mathematics, psychology
'
Abstract things: education, health, intelligence, beauty, knowledge,
sleep, hope, music, time

QUANTIFIERS
A quantifier is a word that indicates an amount or quantity.

1. Some quantifiers are used only with plural count nouns.

both many a few several fewer

They are controlled by several nerves.

We have fewer cells as we get older.

2. Some quantifiers are used only with singular count nouns.

another each every

Each gland has a different purpose.

Every muscle has its own group of nerves.

3. Some quantifiers are used only with noncount nouns.

a little much less amount

The amount of oxygen available to the brain is important.

If your brain gets less oxygen than it needs, you could become
unconscious.

4. Some quantifiers are used with both plural count nouns and noncount
nouns.

all plenty of any

a lot of enough most
lots of some more

Brain cells use up a lot of energy.

Most animals rely on instinct.
6 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

ExERCISE 3

Correct the errors in noun forms in the following sentences.

1. Intelligence is the ability to use thought and knowledges to understand

things and solve problems.

2. Hormones help adjust the mixture of sugar, salt, and waters in your
body.

3. Psychology, meaning the study pf the mind and how it works, comes
from a Greek word meaning lifes or soul.

4. Brain cells use up a lot of energy, so they need a constant supply of

oxygens.

5. Each hemisphere of the brain receives informations about the opposite

side of the visual field.

6. Although millions of brain neurons are active at any one time, they do
not use much electric powers.

7. Lights entering the eye forms an image on 1 30 million tiny light cells.

8. Most animal are not able to rely on learning and memory.

COMPOUND NOUNS

Strategy
look for compound nouns in which both nouns are pluralized, instead of just
the second noun.

Compound nouns are two nouns that are used together to make one word
or idea. The first noun acts as an adjective to the second noun and usually does
not take s. The second noun can be plural.

brain cell
brain wave
computer scientists

Compound nouns may also be used with number expressions.

 CHAPTER 1 NOUNS 7

Strategy
Beware of compound nouns with numbers, where the compound noun used
as an adjective may be in the plural form!

The brain uses as much power as a ten-watt lightbulb. (noun used as an

adjective)
The brain uses as much power as a lightbulb of ten watts. (noun used as
a noun)
He recited a 16,000-page book from memory. (noun used as an
adjective)
He recited a book of 16,000 pages from memory. (noun used as a noun)

NUMBERS

Strategy
When you see noons invoMng numbers, such as hundred, thousand, or mil­
lion, make sure that they are not in the plural form when they follow numbers.

Numbers such as hundred, thousand, million, and trillion are plural when
there are no numbers before them.
The brain receives 100 million messages a second.
The brain stores trillions of messages.

ExERCISE 4

Correct the errors in the following sentences.

1. People's brains weigh more now than they did 100 year ago.
2. Nerves impulses can travel at speeds of up to 488 feet per second.

3. The brain contains between 10 trillions and 1 00 trillions neurons.

4. Each neuron is linked by synapses to thousand of other neurons.

5. Nerves endings below the skin's surface pick up sensations of cold,

heat, and touch.

6. There are three to four millions pain receptors in the skin.

7. A three-years-old child's brain is two-thirds the size it will finally be.

8. The brain uses 25 percents of the blood's oxygen.
8 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

On the TOEFL® Test

Nouns are tested in the Written Expression section of the exam. Check for the
following types of errors with nouns.

1. A noncount noun may be pluralized.

Example: In a person's lifetime, the brain can store 100 trillion

A B
pieces of informations.
C D

The correct answer is (D); information is a noncount noun and cannot

be plural.

2. A plural noun may be used when the verb or phrase requires a singular
noun.

Example: Each part of the brains controls a separate part of the

A B C
body.
D

The best answer is (B); a singular noun brain must be used with "part
of the."

3. A singular noun may be used when the verb requires a plural noun.

Example: Human brain are more powerful than those

A
of other species because of their complex circuitry.
B C D

The correct answer is (A); a plural noun brains must be used because
the verb are is plural.

4. In compound nouns where two nouns are used together, both nouns
may be pluralized instead of just the second noun.

Example: Brains cells die at the rate of 1 00,000 per day by age 60, and
A B C
they are not replaced like other body cells.
D

The correct answer is (A); the correct form is brain cells.

 CHAPTER l NOUNS 9

5. In compound nouns involving numbers and measurements, the com­

pound noun used as an adjective may be in the plural form.

Example: Man's three-pounds brain is the most complex and orderly

A B
arrangement of matter in the universe.
C D

The best answer is (B); when a compound noun is used as an adjective,

it is singular. Therefore the correct answer is threepound.

6. When noun phrases involving a number such as hundred, thousand, or

million follow another number, the plural form may be used.

Example: The brain loses fifty thousands neurons a day and yet
A B
maintains its basic patterns and memories.
C D

The best answer is (A); the singular form thousand should be used
when it follows a number.

Exercises on Nouns
From the four underlined words or phrases (A), (B), (C), or (D), identify the one
that is not correct.

1. The potato was the .staple of Ireland, and when the crop failed in 1840,
A B C
there was mass starvations.
D

2. Shark can maneuver considerably faster than other fish because they
A B C
have no bones.
D

3. Although sugar cane and sugar beet look very different, the sugars that is
A B C
refined from them tastes almost the same.
D
4. Textiles industries are as widespread as food industries because both
A B
supply basic human needs.
C D

5. Many animal species are totally colorsblind, but the condition is very
A B C
rare in humans.
D

6. Our skulls is made up of eight cranial and fourteen facial bones.

A B C D
10 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

7. Diamonds, which is about 40 times as hard as talc, is made up of

A B C
pure carbon.
D

8. The oceans contain about 97 percent of the world's water supply, and
A B C
about another 2 percent of the world's water supply is ices.
D

9. Brain waves patterns vary among different people and in

A B C
different activities.
D

10. The ancestor of today's horse was a little mammal called eohippus,
A B
which first appeared 54 millions years ago.
C D

11. Lasers are of great value in areas such as communications, industry,

A B
medicine, and scientifics research.
C D

12. Dinosaurs are classified as reptiles, although some appear to have been
A B C
warms-blooded.
D
 2 PRONOUNS

Introduction: Penguins
There are eighteen different kinds of penguins, and they all live south of the
equator. The largest are the emperor penguins, which live in Antarctica. They
lay their eggs about fifty miles from the coast. There the penguins have nothing
to make a nest out of, but the eggs cannot be laid directly on the ice, or they
would freeze. The emperor penguins have to take care of their eggs in a special
way.
The female produces one egg. As soon as she lays her egg, the male
penguin rolls it on top of his feet. A special fold of skin on the bottom of his
stomach comes down over the egg to protect it from the cold. For two months
the male penguins stand _together to protect themselves from the cold with their
eggs on their feet. They cannot move or eat.
The female goes to fmd food as soon as she lays her egg. Finally, after two
months she returns and takes the egg from the male. The male penguin, which
now has had no food for two months, returns to the sea.
After the egg is hatched, the female and the male take turns carrying the
baby penguin on their feet. When the weather gets cold, the baby is covered by
the fold of skin, which keeps it warm.

11
12 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

ExERCISE 1

Pronouns are tested on the TOEfL® Test. Answer the following

questions using a pronoun.

1. Where do the emperor penguins live?

2. How many eggs does the female emperor produce at a time?

3. What does the male emperor penguin use to protect the egg from the cold?

4. Why do the male emperor penguins stand together?

5. Where do the males put their eggs when they stand together?

6. Where does the female go?

7. When does she return'

8. What does the male penguin do after she returns?

 CHAPTER 2 PRONOUNS 13

ExERCISE 2

From the reading, work out whether these statements are

true or false. Check T for true and F for false.

1. There are no penguins on the North Pole. T F

2. All penguins live south of the equator. T F

3. All penguins are the same. T F

4. All penguins have folds under their abdomen. T F

s. The fold of skin is used only to keep the egg warm. T F

6. Only the female takes care of the penguin chick. T F

7. Emperor penguins do not make nests. T F

8. Emperor penguins lay their eggs very near the sea. T F

Grammar: Pronouns
There are five forms of pronouns in English: subject pronouns, object pronouns,
possessive pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and relative pronouns. Possessive
adjectives will also be included in this chapter, although they are not pronouns.

Strategy
It is important to know the fi�e forms of pronouns and the possessive
adjectives that are often confused with them. Errors may include the use of
one type or form of pronoun in place of another.
I

SUBJECT PRONOUNS
we
you you
he/she/it they
The subject pronoun is used
1. When it is the subject of a verb.
They live south of the equator.
2. When the subjects of the two clauses are compared.
They are more protected against the cold than we (are).
3. After the verb to be.
It is be with the egg.
4. After as and than.
She is not as tired as be (is).
14 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

EXERCISE 3

Circle the correct pronoun.

1. It is she/her who goes to find food.

2. He/Him has the responsibility of incubating the egg.

3. She/Her lays one egg.

4. John is stronger than 1/me.

5. He/Him and his father are both great explorers.

6. Are you sure that they/them are here?

OBJECT PRONOUNS
me us
you you
him/her/it them

The object pronoun is used

1. When it is the direct object of a verb.

She gives him the egg.

2. After prepositions.

When she returns, she takes over the egg from him.

But when the preposition introduces a new clause, the subject pronoun
must be used because the pronoun is now the subject of the new
clause.

He leaves after she returns.

3. When the objects of two clauses are compared.

It is easier for them than us.

 CHAPTER 2 PRONOUNS 15

EXERCISE 4

Conoect the � errors in the �lowing sentences where

necessary.

1. He helps she take care of the baby penguin.

2. She lays her egg and then leaves.

3. They feed them until they can swim.

4. It is not easy for they to survive under such conditions.

5. It is harder for him than for she.

6. He goes to the sea after she returns.

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
my our
your your
his/her/its their

The possessive adjective is used.

1. To modify a noun and show ownership.

They lay their eggs about fifty miles from the coast.

2. To refer to parts of the body.

The male penguin rolls the egg on top of his feet.

3. To modify a gerund.

We are surprised by their nesting in such harsh conditions.

16 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

ExERCISE 5

Complete the sentences with the cot:DCt pronoun.

1. She lays ____ egg.

2. He has a special fold of skin on the bottom of ____ stomach.

3. They take care of ____ young in a special way.

4. It is protected from the cold by ____ father.

5. They keep the eggs on feet.

6. The male penguin looks forward to ____ coming back from the
sea.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
mine ours
yours yours
his/hers/its theirs

The possessive pronoun is used

1. To replace a possessive adjective and a noun.

She takes her turn, and he takes his (his turn).

2. After the verb to be.

The egg is hers.

3. After the preposition of when it means "one of many."

It is a habit of theirs.

4. To replace the second possessive adjective and noun when they are
being compared.

Their life seems more difficult than ours.

 CHAPTER 2 PRONOUNS 17

ExERCISE 6

Circle the correct pronoun.

1. It is an experiment of his/him.

2. The Adelie penguins live in a cold climate, but the emperor penguins
live in a harsher climate than them/theirs.

3. Seven nations claim that Antarctica is their/theirs.

4. The researcher in the picture is a friend of ours/us.

5. His research was good but her/hers is better.

6. Studying penguins is a hobby of mine/my.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
myself ourselves
yourself yourselves
himself/herself/itself themselves

The reflexive pronoun is used

1. To emphasize the subject noun or pronoun it refers to and to emphasize

the fact that the subject did the action alone.

He takes care of the egg himself

Or: He himself takes care of the egg.

2. As the object of a verb when the subject and object are the same.

They stand together to protect themselves from the cold.

3. As the object of the preposition by when the subject did the action
alone.

The penguin chick is unable to get food by itself.

18 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

EXERCISE 7

Complete the sentences with the correct reflexive pronoun.

1. Penguins push ____ along the ice using their flippers.

2. To protect from the cold, the penguin has a layer of fat

under its feathers.

3. The female lays her egg and walks back to the sea by ____

4. During the two months the male penguin cannot feed ____

5. The male penguin incubates the egg.

6. Since humans do not have the insulation that penguins do, we cannot
protect from such temperatures without special clothing.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS
The relative pronouns in English are who, whom, whose, which, and that.

Strategy
It is important to make sure that the relative pronoun agrees with the subject.

Who refers to people and household animals.

Whom refers to people and household animals. It is used in the object
position in formal written English or with who plus a preposition in spoken
English.
Whose refers to people, animals, and things. It shows possession.
Which refers to things, collective nouns, and animals.
That refers to people, animals, and things.
 CHAPTER 2 PRONOUNS 19

ExERCISE 8

Correct relative pronoun errors where necessary in the

following sentences.

1. There are eighteen different kinds of penguins whom live south of the
equator.

2. The biologist which went to the South Pole is studying emperor

penguins.

3. Emperor penguins survive winds who blow at speeds of up to ninety­

five rrtiles an hour in winter.

4. Emperor penguins, whose nesting ground is fifty miles inland from the
coast, have a special way of incubating their eggs.

5. Emperor penguins, who are the largest among penguins, do not make
nests.

6. The United States has sent researchers to Antarctica which are making
experiments to measure the energy expended by emperor penguins.

On the TOEfL® Test

Pronouns are tested in the Written Expression section of the exam. Check for
the following types of errors with pronouns.

1. The incorrect pronoun form or type may be used. The possessive

pronoun (hers) may be used instead of the possessive adjective (her).

Example: The young emperor chick stands in front of one of !! parents

A B C
to be protected from the cold.
D

The best answer is (C); the possessive form its must be used, not the
object form.

Example: Some penguins they live in warmer places like to make

A B
their nests in holes in the ground.
C D
The correct answer is (A); the relative pronoun which or that must be
used instead of the subject they.
20 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

2. The pronoun may not agree with the noun it refers to.

Example: Sometimes penguins slide on their stomachs, pushing itself

A B C
with their flippers.
0

The correct answer is (C); The noun penguins is plural; therefore, the
reflexive pronoun referring to penguins must also be plural. The correct
answer is themselves.

Example: Penguins have special glands who remove salt from the
A B
water they drink and the food they eat.
c 0

The best answer is (B); the relative pronoun who refers to people. In
this sentence, the referent is glands; therefore, either that or which
should be used.

3. Pronouns that are not necessary may be included.

Example: The male Adelle penguin which may not leave the nest until
A B C
his mate returns.
0

The correct answer is (B); the relative pronoun which is not necessary
in this sentence because there is only one verb, leave.

Example: Under the feathers is a layer of fat that it protects

A B C
the penguin from the cold.
0

The best answer is (C); the pronoun it is not necessary.

 CHAPTER 2 PRONOUNS 21

Exercises on Pronouns

From the four underlined words or phrases (A), (8), (C), o r

'(D), ic*ltify the one that is not corTeCt.

1. The penguin chicks cannot go into the water to get themselves own
A B
food until they have waterproof coats of feathers like their parents.
C D

2. Balloons rise into the air because they contain a gas who is less dense,
A B C
or lighter, than air.
D

3. The narwhal is the only animal in the world that has a tusk on
A B
only one side of it body.
C D

4. Silver is too soft to use by itself, so it is mixed with another metal to

A B C
make themselves harder.
D

5. Most slugs and snails breathe using a lung which opens through a small
A B
hole in the side of its bodies.
C D

6. Every fuel has their own p articular temperature at which it begins to

A B C D
bum.

7. Harriet Tubman, she an escaped slave, led more than

A
three hundred slaves to freedom on the Underground Railroad.
B C D
8. Dreaming, like all other mental processes, it is a product of the brain
A B C
and its activity.
D

9. Snails produce a colorless, sticky discharge that forms a protective

A B
carpet under them as their travel along.
C D
22 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

10. George Washington Carver won international fame for

A
his agricultural research, who involved extensive work with peanuts.
B C D
11. Enzymes enable the smallest virus to enter cells in order to
A B C
rep roduce themselves.
D

12. Jack London, whom was known for his stories of Alaska, lived there
A B C
during the Klondike gold rush.
D
•
...

13
PA RTS O F A
S ENT ENC E
u

Introduction: Phyllis Wheatley

Phyllis Wheatley was kidnapped from Africa at the age of eight. She was brought
to Boston in 1 76 1 , a sickly child only able to speak Senegalese. At the age of
thirteen she wrote her first poem. In 1773 her first book of poems was
published, the second volume of poetry published by a woman in America.
At the Boston slave market, Phyllis was purchased by John Wheatley, a
tailor whose wife, impressed by the child's aptitude, taught her to speak, read,
and write English. In a few years Phyllis had also learned geography, history, and
Latin and had developed a liking for classical poets such as Horace and Virgil.
Her first poem, a translation from the Latin of Ovid, so amazed the literary
circles in Boston that they had it published. In 1 768 she wrote "To the King's
Most Excellent Health," and in 1772 she composed a poem to her mistress, who
was so moved that she freed Phyllis and sent her to England to regain her health.
With the London publication of her book, Poems on Various Subjects,
Religious and Moral, her fame spread on both sides of the Atlantic, and she
became a celebrity.

EXERCISE 1

The various parts that make up a sentence are tested on the

TOEFL• Test. Underline the subiect and circle the verb in the
following sentences.

1. At the Boston slave market, Phyllis was purchased by John Wheatley.

2. In a few years, Phyllis had learned geography, history, and Latin.
3. Her mistress, Mrs. Wheatley, was impressed by the child's aptitude.
4. At the age of thirteen, she wrote her first poem.
5. In 1773 her fust book of poems was published.
6. With the London publication of her book, her fame spread on both sides
of the Atlantic.

23
24 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

ExERCISE 2

In some sentences the verb agrees with the subject; in some

sentences=the verb does not agree with the subject. Write C
for correct and NC for not correctA

1. Phyllis Wheatley was kidnapped from Africa.

2. History, geography, and Latin was the subjects she learned.

3. Classical poets such as Horace and Virgil were Phillis's favorites.

4. Phillis was purchased by Mr. Wheatley, whose wife were impressed by

her and taught her to speak English.

5. The literary circles in Boston were impressed by her poem.

6. On both sides of the Atlantic her poetry was famous.

Grammar: Parts of a Sentence

The clause has a subject and a verb. It can stand independently or alone.

1. A simple sentence contains a single clause.

She wrote a book
subject verb object

2. A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a

conjunction (such as and or but).

At age thirteen she wrote her first poem

independent clause
and
conjunction
in 1 773 she wrote her first book.
independent clause

{
3. A complex sentence contains an independent (main) clause and a
dependent (subordinate) clause. The subordinate clause may be a noun
clause, an adverb clause, or an adjective clause.

Noun clause
(that, what, how . . . )
Main clause Subordinate clause Adverb clause
(because, although, if . . . )
Adjective clause
(who, which, where . . . )
 CHAPTER 3 PARTS OF A SENTENCE 25

Her mistress realized that Phyllis was talented.

noun clause
She wrote a poem for her mistress, who was very impressed.
adjective clause
She went to England because she had health problems.
adverb clause

The three types of subordinate clauses are dealt with in Chapters 7, 8, and 9.

SUBJECT AND VERB

A clause has a subject and a verb. Some verbs (action verbs) take an object.
She wrote a book.
subject verb object

The Verb
The verb may be a single word (wrote in the previous example) or a verb phrase
with one or more auxiliary verbs and a main verb (would have written). The
verb may be in active form (wrote) or passive form (was written). See Chapter
4, on verbs.

The Subject
A subject may consist of one or more nouns or a phrase:

Noun: Phyllis wrote her first poem at the age of thirteen.

Phrase: The first black woman poet in America produced her first book
in 1773.

The subject may take various forms:

1. A noun:
The woman wrote a book.
2. A pronoun:
She wrote a book.
3. A clause:
What she wrote amazed everyone.
4. A gerund:
Writing was her talent.
5. A gerund phrase:
Writing poetry was her talent.
6. An infinitive:
To write requires special talent.
7. An infinitive phrase:
To write poetry in Latin requires special talent.
26 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

--

Strategy .•

There is only one subject in a douse. Be aware that on the test, the subject
may be repeated. This is on error.
C�rrect: Phyllis- Wheo�ey wrote poetry books.
Error: Phyllis Wheo�ey she wrote poetry books.
•

SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT

The subject and verb must agree in person and number.

Strategy
j
Sub"ect and verb agreement often presents difficulty to some learners of
Eng ish since there ore some subjects that take singular verbs and others that
take plural verbs.

Subjects Taking a Singular Verb

1. Subjects with the following prepositional phrases take a singular verb:

as well as together with

along with in addition to
accompanied by among

Among her works is To the King's Most Excellent Health.

2. When the words below are used. as subjects they take a singular verb:

one each any some every

plus singular plus singular
noun noun
nobody either anybody somebody everybody
no one neither anyone someone everyone
nothing anything something everything

Everyone was amazed by her poems.

3. When it introduces a sentence, it takes a singular verb.

It was her poems that amazed everyone.

 C HAPTER 3 PARTS OF A SENTENCE 27

Subjects Taking a Plural Verb

1. When subj ects at:e joined by and or both . . . and, the verb is plural.
Both her mother and father were proud.

2. The words several, both, many, and few always take a plural verb.

Many were amazed by her talent.

Subjects Taking Either a Singular or a Plural Verb

1. A number of takes a plural verb, but the number of takes a singular

verb.

A number ofpeople were at the reading.

The number ofpeople at the banquet was amazing.

2. The words below take a singular or plural verb depending on the noun
that follows them:

none no all some

most half any majority

All of her poems were good.

All of her work was good.
3. When subjects are j oined by either . . . or, neither . . . nor, or not only
. . . but also, the verb is singular or plural depending on the subject
nearest to it.

Not only her master but also her mistress was proud of her.
Not only her mistress but also the literary circles were amazed by
her talent.
28 TOEFL GRAMMAR FlASH

EXERCISE 3

Choose the option (A), (B), (C), or (D) that best completes the
sentence.

1. During the war 5. Outstanding for his talent as an

wrote a poem for General essayist, inventor, mathemati­
Washington, who compli- cian, and astrologer in the
mented her on her "style and I 770s , who also
manner. " published a popular almanac.
(A) Phyllis Wheatley was (A) were Benjamin Banneker
(B) it was Phyllis Wheatley (B) it was Benjamin Banneker
(C) Phyllis Wheatley (C) was Benjamin Banneker
(D) Phyllis Wheatley she (D) Benjamin Banneker
2. was initially by 6. During the eighteenth century,
horse or foot in the colonial communication within and
period. between cities at

(A) It was land travel first.

(B) Land travel (A) were difficult

(C) That land travel (B) they were difficult
(D) Because land travel (C) difficult
(D) was difficult
3. In 1 736, the number of poor
people in Boston receiving
public assistance
about 4,000.
(A) was
(B) were
(C) it was
(D) they were
4. , Jupiter Hannon,
was the first American black to
publish his own verse.

(A) He was a poet and Baptist

preacher of Long Island
(B) The poet and Baptist
preacher of Long Island
(C) The poet and Baptist
preacher of Long Island he
was
(D) The poet and he was a
Baptist preacher of Long
Island
 CHAPTER 3 PARTS OF A SENTENCE 29

IT AND THERE

Some sentences or clauses begin with it or there. Be aware of the construc­

tions that follow these subjects. In the Structure section parts of a sentence
including it and there may be omiHed.

A sentence or clause may begin with the words it or there.

It is used in three ways:

1. It is used as subject followed by the verb to be:

It was in 1 761 that she came to Boston. (It + to be + that. . . . )

2. It is used as subject when the information is related to an adjective:
It was important to be free. (It + to be + adjective + infinitive)

3. It is used as a subject when it is used with a time phrase:

It took her a few years to learn English. (It + take + time phrase +

infmitive)

There shows that something or someone exists at a special time or place.

In this use, the word there follows this construction:

there + to be + subject

There are many books about Phyllis Wheatley today.

There were not many famous women poets in the 1770s.

EXERCISE 4

Circle the letter of the word that best completes the sentence.

1. not a single 2. in 1 776 that the

hard-surfaced road during the Declaration of Independence
entire colonial period aside was signed.
from city streets. (A) It was
(A) It was (B) There was
(B) There was (C) There
(C) It (D) It
(D) There were
30 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

3. more than 300,000 5. After the Revolution, although

people in Philadelphia by the some advances were made in
end of the colonial period, education, ____ a slow
making it the largest city in the process.
colonies. (A) they were
(A) There was (B) it
(B) It was (C) it was
(C) They were (D) there was
(D) There were
4. In the eighteenth c entury,
____ not many women
who had access to formal
education in the colonies.
(A) there were
(B) it was
. (C) were
(D) were there

On the TOEfL® Test

Parts of a sentence are tested in the Structure section, where

any part of the sentence may be missing. The sublect, the
verb, or � may be missing.

Example: Postal service ____ almost nonexistent in the colonies.

(A) that was
(B) was
(C) it was
(D) being
The best answer is (B); (A) is incorrect because that is needed only to
connect a relative c lause to an independent clause, and in this case there
is only one clause. (C) is incorrect because it repeats the subject. (D) is
incorrect because the -ing form cannot be the main verb of a clause.

Example: twenty-two colonial newspapers by 1 775.

(A) About
(B) About were
(C) Were about
(D) There were about
The correct answer is (D); (A) is incorrect because it lacks a verb. (B) is
incorrect because there is no subject. (C) is incorrect because it has the
wrong word order.
 CHAPTER 3 PARTS OF A SENTENCE 31

Exercises on Parts of a Sentence

From the four words or phrases (A), (B), (C), or (D), choose the one that
best completes the sentence.
, ,,

1. in fluorescent 6. today was devel-

lamps, television tubes, and oped by the Swiss scientist
other devices. Horace de Sassure around 1773 .

(A) Phosphors are used (A) Mountaineering it as we

(B) It is phosphors know
(C) To use phosphors (B) Mountaineering as we
(D) Using phosphors know it
(C) We know mountaineering
2. The tips of some undersea
is
mountains islands
(D) We know there is moun-
in the middle of the ocean.
taineering
(A) to form
(B) they form 7. of the surface of

(C) form the Earth is covered by water.

(D) forming (A) Three-quarters is nearly

(B) There is nearly three-
3. of fish: jawless fish,
quarters
cartilaginous fish, and bony fish.
(C) It is nearly three-quarters
(A) It is three types (D) Nearly three-quarters
(B) There are three types
(C) Three types 8. By the mid-eighteenth century

(D) Three types are so many new

immigrants entering North
4. to stop yourself America from Europe that the
from blinking except for a short original colonies in the North-
period of time. east were overcrowded.
(A) Impossible it (A) it were
(B) Impossible (B) were
(C) It impossible (C) there
(D) It is impossible (D) there were
5. the sitka spruce a
hundred years to grow eleven
inches.

(A) · It takes
(B) To take
(C) By taking
(D) That takes
32 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

9. · not until the end of 12. in space, a rocket

the seventeenth century that has to be powerful enough to
scientists began to stress the break out of the pull of the
importance of experiment as a Earth's gravity.
way of gaining knowledge. (A) To travel
(A) There was (B) It is travel
(B) It was (C) That travel
(C) There (D) Travel
(D) It
10. ____ are the most
poisonous fish in the world.
(A) There are stonefish
(B) That the stonefish
(C) They are the stonefish
(D) Stonefish
11. Seismic prospecting ____

used to map out rock structures

below the ground.

(A) widely
(B) are widely
(C) is widely
(D) it is widely
 V E R BS

Introduction: The Olympics

The word "olympic" comes from the name of the town Olympia in Greece,
where the ancient Olympic Games were always held. The frrst recorded
Olympic Games were held in 776 a.c.; the Games took place every fourth year
after that date until they were abolished by a Roman emperor in A.D. 394.
It was not until 1 875, when archeologists discovered the ruins of the
Olympic Stadium in Greece, that interest in the Games was renewed. Baron
Pierre de Coubertin, a French scholar and educator, proposed that the Games
should be revived as an international competition to encourage both sport and
world peace.
The first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens in " 1 896. Like their
classical predecessors, the athletes were men only; women were admitted to the
Games in 1900. Since that time, the Games have been held at four-year intervals
as in ancient Greece. However, since de Coubertin's dream of world peace has
not been realized, the two World Wars prevented those of 1 9 1 6, 1 940, and 1 944
from being held.
The Olympic Games have been confmed to amateur athletes despite a few
recent exceptions. There are pressures on the Olympic authorities to admit
other professionals to the Games. Such a step would damage the entire concept
of the Olympics. The following words appear on the scoreboard at every
Olympic opening: "The most important thing is not to win but to take part. " In
contrast, the aim of every professional is to win.

ExERCISE 1

I Verb forms �re tested on the TOEFL® Test.

Complete the sentences with the correct form of the verb in parentheses.

1. The word "olympic" (come) from Olympia in Greece.

2. In A . D. 394, a Roman emperor (abolish) the Olympic Games.

3. In 1875 archeologists (discover) the ruins of the Olympic

Stadium in Greece.

33
34 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

4. The French educator Pierre de Coubertin (propose) that the

Games be revived.

5. Since 1 896 the Olympic Games (be held) every four years
with some exceptions.

6. In the Olympic Games of 1 896 the athletes (be) men only.

7. Women (be admitted) ____ in 1 900.

ExERCISE 2

1_
.·
.... _ _ "' ... ,._....
neceuary.
.
.
__

1. The Olympics have taken place every four years between 776 o.c. and
A.D. 394.

2. Women started to participate in the Games in 1900.

3. From 1896 to the present, the Olympic Games were held every four
years.

4. With a few recent exceptions, professional athletes do not take part in

the Olympic Games.

5. With this international competition, Pierre de Coubertin has wanted to

encourage both sport and world peace.

6. In 1916, 1940, and 1944 the Olympic Games have not taken place.
 CHAPTER 4 VERBS 35

Grammar: Verbs

Verbs are tested in both the Structure and the Written Expres·
sion sections of the ex-am.

Strategy
'
It is important to:
1. Recognize the verb in a sentence (the verb is the action). Words that look
like verbs such as gerunds, inAnitives, and participles are nat verbs.
2. Check if the verb agrees with the subject ( see Chapter 3).
3. Check if the tense of the verb is correct. The time words and the context
will help you do this.

TENSES
The following tables review verb tenses:

Usage Examples
Present Continuous Tense
1. An activity that is in progress at Mary is watching TV right now.
the moment
2. A general activity that takes place I'm training for the Olympics.
this week, this month, or this
year
3. Future arrangements I'm going to Sweden next winter.

Simple Present Tense

1. A habitual action I run every morning.
2. A general fact The sun rises in the east.
3. Future timetables The ticket office opens at 9:00.

Simple Past Tense

1. An action that began and ended at We won a gold medal last year.
a specific time in the past
2. An action that occurred over a She skated for fifteen years.
period of time and was com­
pleted in the past
3. An activity that took place regu­ She trained every morning before
larly in the past work.
36 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

Usage Examples

Past Continuous Tense

1. An interrupted action I was watching the Olympics on
TV, when he walked in.
2. A repeated or continuous state in I was making many new friends at
the past the Olympic Village.

Future Tense (going to)

1. Expressing a prior plan My brother is going to go with me
next week.
2. Predicting something that is likely We are going to win. I know it.
to happen in the future

Future Tense (will)

1. Predicting something that is likely You will win the race. I know it.
to happen in the future
2. Expressing willingness to do some­ I will go with you if you like.
thing
3. Making a decision at the time of I will call you in a few minutes
speaking then.

Future Continuous Tense

1. An action that will be continuing This time next week I will be
at a particular time in the future training for the race.

Present Perfect Tense

1. An action that happened at an un­ I have seen him on television.
specified time in the past
2. An action that has happened re­ She has just gone out.
cently
3. An action that began in the past She has been training for two
and continues in the present years.
(usually with "for" or "since")
4. Repetition of an action before now He has been to the Olympics sev­
eral times.

Present Perfect Continuous Tense

1. Expressing the duration o f a n ac­ John has been swimming for two
tion that began in the past and hours.
continues in the present (with
"for, " "since," "all morning,"
"all day")
 CHAPTER 4 VERBS 37

Usage Examples
2. A general action in progress· re­ I have been thinking about com­
cently for which no specific peting next year.
time is mentioned
3. An action that began in the past Have you been crying? Your eyes
and has just recently ended are red.

Past Perfect Tense

1. A past action that occurred before She had just left when I arrived
another action in the past there.
2. An action that was expected to I had hoped to get their decision
occur in the past before today.

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

1. Expressing the duration o f a n ac­ She had been competing for six
tivity that occurred before years before she tried out for
another action in the past year the Olympics last year.
2. An action occurring recently be­ He looked tired because he had
fore another action in the past been running for six hours.

Future Perfect Tense

1. An action that will b e completed By next June I will have partici­
before a particular time in the pated in four Olympics.
future

Future Perfect Continuous Tense

1. Expressing the duration of time By next May I will have been train­
that has occurred before a spe­ ing at this gym for eleven years.
cific time in the future

MODAL$
A modal is always followed by the base form of a verb.
The following is a list of some modals:

can may will shall must had better

could might would should have to ought to

A modal expresses mood or attitude:

Ability: She can run in the race.

Possibility: She could run in the race.
She might run in the race.
She may run in the race.
Advisability: She had better run in the race.
She ought to run in the race.
She should run in the race.
38 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

Necessity: She must run in the race.

She has to run in the race.
Intention: She shall run in the race.
She will run in the race.
Past Habit: She would run in the race.

Remember the correct word order for modals.

Correct word order: She would run in the race. Incorrect word order: She
run would in the race.

ExERCISE 3

Circle 1M letter of 1M word or phrale that correctly

completes the sentence;

1. When archeologists discovered 3. The Olympic Games are held

the ruins of the Olympic every four years in a selected
Stadium, interest in the Games country, and to
athletes of all nations.

(A) was renewed (A) they are opened

(B) were renewed (B) are opened
(C) they were renewed (C) they are open
(D) renewed (D) it is open
2. The ancient Olympic Games 4. Winning first place in an event
as amateur contests, was the only glory in the
but in time became profes- ancient Games because second
sional. and third places

(A) begun (A) did not recognize

(B) began (B) are not recognized
(C) beginning (C) was not recognized
(D) they began (D) were not recognized
 CHAPTER 4 VERBS 39

s. The winners received a wreath 7. The marathon, first staged in

from the branches 1 896, the legendary
of the sacred olive tree. feat of a Greek soldier who
(A) made carried news of victory from
(B) was made the battlefield at Marathon to
(C) making Athens.
(D) to make (A) was commemorated
(B) commemorated
6. After more than 1 , 500 years,
(C) commemorates
Athens for the site
(D) commemorating
of the first modern Olympics.
(A) were chosen 8. The Olympic torch
(B) was chosen throughout the Games and is
(C) is chosen then extinguished at the closing
(D) chosen ceremony.
(A) burning
(B) is burned
(C) burned
(D) burns

PASSIVE VOICE

Strategy
A frequent error is to use an active verb instead of a pa ssive or a passive
instead of an active. Remember that if the subject does the action, the verb is
active; if the subject receives the action, the verb is passive.

The passive is formed by be + a verb ending in ed (past participle or an irregular

past participle). In a passive sentence, the object of an active verb becomes the
subject of the passive verb. The passive is used when the person or the thing
done is more important, or when the agent who did the action is not known.
Active: Archeologists discovered the ruins.
Passive: The ruins were discovered by archeologists.

The following table shows how to form the passive:

Active Voice Passive Voice

1. The flame opens the Games. The Games are opened by the
flame.
2. The flame is opening the Games. The Games are being opened by
the flame.
3. The flame has opened the Games. The Games have been opened by
the flame.
40 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

Active Voice Passive Voice

4. The flame opened the Games. The Games were opened by the
flame.
5. The flame was opening the The Games were being opened by
Games. the flame.
6. The flame had opened the Games. The Games had been opened by
the flame.
7. The flame will open the Games. The Games will be opened by the
flame.
8. The flame is going to open the The Games are going to be
Games. opened by the flame.
9. The flame will have opened the The Games will have been opened
Games. by the flame.

ExERCISE 4

. �� . . . . �
Place the verbs tft parentheses 1ft passwe vo1ce to complete
the following Anlences.
·

1. The flrst modem Olympic series (hold) ____ in Athens in 1 896.

2. The flrst Olyll).pic Village (build) ____ for the Games in 1 932.

3. The Olympic flag (fly) for the flrst time in 1 920.

4. In the 1936 Olympics, the orchestra (lead) ____ by the composer

Richard Strauss.

5. The Olympic Games (cancel) ____ in 1916 because of World War

I.

6. The Summer Games (show) ____ on television for the first time
in 1936.
 CHAPTER 4 VERBS 41

GERUNDS

A gerund, an infinitive, or a participle is a verbal, not a verb. Gerunds or

infinitives con never toke the place J a main wrb in a sentence. When there
is a verb missing in -one of the 1e1t items, make sure you choose a verb and
not a verbal.

The gerund is formed by adding -ing to the base form of a verb. The gerund is
used as a noun. It can function as a subject, object, or object of a preposition.

Running is my favorite sport. (subject)

He tried running faster. (object)
She was afraid of losing. (object of preposition)

When the gerund is the subject of the sentence, the verb is singular.

1. Gerund after Noun + Prepositions.

The following are some nouns + prepositions that take gerunds:

choice of excuse for intention of

possibility of/for reason for method of/for

He has no intention of giving up now.

Ibere was no reason for canceling the race.
2. Gerund after Adjectives + Prepositions

The following are some adjectives + prepositions that take the gerund:

accustomed to afraid of capable of

fond of good at interested in
successful in tired of

She is accustomed to training for many hours.

He is good at running the 200-meter race.
42 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH ·

3. Gerunds after Verbs

The following are some verbs that take the gerund:

admit deny postpone resume

advise discuss practice risk
anticipate enjoy quit suggest
appreciate excuse recall tolerate
avoid finish recommend try
can't help keep regret understand
consider mind resent imagine
delay miss resist

He kept nmning until the end.

She enjoys running for competition.
4. Gerund after Verb + Preposition (Two-Word Verbs)
The following are some two-word verbs that take the gerund:

approve of give up rely on

be better off insist on succeed in
call for keep on think about
confess to look forward to think of
count on object to worry about
depend on put off prevent from

He succeeded in winning the race.

She did not give up hoping.
5. Gerund or Infinitive
Some verbs can take either a gerund or an infinitive, with no difference
in meaning. The following are verbs that can take either a gerund or
infmitive:

advise dread mean remember

agree forget neglect start
allow hate permit stop
attempt intend plan study
begin leave prefer try
continue like propose
dislike love regret

I love to watch the track races.

I love watching the track races.
 CHAPTER 4 VERBS 43

INFINITIVES
The infinitive is formed by adding to to the base form of a verb. The infinitive
can be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.

To train ts bard work. (noun)

She always bas energy to spend. (adjective)
He ran to win. (adverb)

1. Verbs That Take the l'ffinlttve

agree decide hope prepare threaten
appear demand intend pretend tend
arrange deserve Jearn promise try
ask desire manage refuse volunteer
attempt expect mean regret wait
beg fail need seem want
care forget offer struggle wish
claim hire order

2. Verb + Noun/Pronoun + l'ffinittve

The following verbs can be followed by a noun/pronoun and an
infinitive:

advise convince force order teach

allow challenge hire permit tell
ask encourage instruct persuade want
cause expect invite remind warn
need require

He reminded me to keep calm.

I taught him to swim
3. Adjective + Inflntttve

The following are some adjectives that are followed by the infinitive:

anxious easy hard ready

boring good pleased strange
dangerous prepared usual
difficult

She was anxious to bear the results.

It is hard to lose.
44 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

ExERCISE 5

1. The authorities permitted 4. Women were not allowed

women in in more than
track and field events in the three events in 1932.
1928 Winter Games. (A) participating
(A) to take part (B) to participate
(B) taking part
5. The Roman Emperor Theodo-
2. Because of a lack of snow, sius ordered .the Games
three thousand Austrian soldiers in A.D. 394.
were hired in (A) stopping
snow for the ski trails in 1964. (B) to stop
(A) bringing
6. The two World Wars prevented
(B) to bring
the Olympics from
3. In ancient Greece it was agreed place.
wars for the (A) taking
Olympic Games. (B) to take
(A) to stop
(B) stopping

ON THE TOEFL® TEST

In the Structure section, verb errors may involve the following:

1. A verb may not agree with its subject. A singular subject requires a
singular verb and a plural subject requires a plural verb.

2. A verb may be in the wrong tense. The time words and the context will
indicate the correct tense.

3. A verb may be in the active form instead of the passive or vice versa.
If the subject does the action, the verb must be active; if the subject
receives the action, the verb is passive.
 CHAPTER 4 VERBS 45

4. A verbal is not a verb. A gerund or participle cannot be a main verb.

Example: Electronic timing ____ for the first time in the 1 9 1 2
Olympics in Sweden.
(A) were used
(B) was used
(C) using
(D) used
The best answer is (B). (A) is incorrect because the subject is in gerund
form and therefore requires a singular verb. (C) is incorrect because the
-ing form is not a verb and a clause requires a verb. (D) is incorrect
because the verb is active and a passive verb is needed.

In the Written Expression section, verb errors often involve the following:

1. A main verb may be used instead of a participle or vice versa. The

main verb, for example eat or ate, may be used instead of eaten, or the
main verb is eating instead of eating.

2. The gerund may be used instead of the infinitive. For example, eating
instead of to eat.

3. The wrong infinitive form may be used. For example, make may be
used instead of to make.

4. The wrong form of the participle may be used. The present participle
may be used instead of the past participle or vice 'versa.

Example In the 1931 Winter Olympics many competitors were

A
prevented from to participate because of the economic
B C D
depression.

The best choice is (C) because an infinitive cannot be used after a

preposition. The gerund form participating must be used.
46 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

Exercises on Verbs

From the four worcb 0.. phi'CIIe$, choo" the one that best
complete• !"• sen-.nce.
'

1. The first systematic chart ever 5. Some fish

made of an ocean current distortions of electrical field
by Benjamin through spec�al receptors.
Franklin. (A) sense
(A) published (B) are sensing
(B) was published (C) are sensed
(C) publishing (D) senses
(D) has been published
6. The widespread use of oil and
2. Petroleum on gas to make chemicals
every continent and beneath during the
every ocean. 1 920s.
(A) is found (A) has begun
(B) found (B) began
(C) are found (C) beginning
(D) find (D) begun
3. Animals on
Earth for at least 700 million
years.
(A) living
(B) lived
(C) have lived
(D) have been lived
4. During the Ice Age, glaciers
______ and retreated
several times over large areas of
the earth.
(A) had been advanced
(B) were advanced
(C) have advanced
(D) advanced
 CHAPTER 4 VERBS 47

I
From the r.ur underlined words or phnues, ld1nllfy the one
that •• not correct. . ,
. .

7. The American architect, Frank lloyd Wright, developed a theory of

A
architecture stressed the needs of the people who used it.
B C D

8. Pelicans have a long, straight bill with a flexible pouch makes of skin on
A B C
the underside.
D

9. In some countries, octopuses and snails are considered being great

A B
delicacies to eat.
C D

10. Many dyslexics have difficulty to remembering the sequence of letters in

A B C
a word and in distinguishing right from left.
D

11. Men and women in the Peace Corps work with people in developing
A B
countries to help them improving their living conditions.
C D

12. Seahorses spend much of their time clung with their tails to underwater
A B C D
plants.
 ••

15
u
PRE POS I T I ONS

Introduction: Mount St. Helens

Mount St. Helens, a volcano in the state of Washington in the United States,
erupted on May 18, 1980. Sixty-two people died due to the eruption. No one
was surprised by the eruption on Mount St. Helens. Scientists had been
predicting that an eruption was likely for almost two years before it happened.
In March 1 980 a small eruption occurred and in April one side of the
mountain started to swell and crack. The scientists issued warnings and asked
people to clear the area. On May 18 the mountain exploded. Hot gases burst
out, followed by hot ash, which ran down the mountain slopes burning
everything in its path. Two cubic kilometers of earth was thrown 60,000 feet
straight up into the atmosphere . Cities and towns were covered with powder.
The ash from the volcano was found as far away as the Atlantic Ocean, on the
other side of the continent.
The top of the mountain was blown away and about 600 square kilometers
(230 miles) of land was destroyed, killing both animals and plants. Many thought
it would take decades for the land to recover, but the return of life was
remarkable. Today the slopes and valleys of Mount St. Helens once again have
abundant wildlife.

EXERCISE 1

Prepositions are tested on the TOEFL® Test. Complef!t the

sentences with the correct prepositions.
" .

1. Mount St. Helens erupted ____ May 1 8, 1980.

2. Scientists had predicted that an eruption was likely, so no one was
surprised it.

3. ____ April 1 980 one side ____ the mountain started to swell.
4. The explosion of hot gases was followed ____ hot ash.
5. Cities were covered ____ ash from the mountain.

6. The ash ____ the mountain went as far as the Atlantic Ocean
____ the other side of the continent.

48
 CHAPTER 5 PREPOSITIONS 49

ExERCISE 2

Loek at the dtart below lhowint ftaiUral ....... Describe

lhe dlaaster, incluclhle when .It oceurr.cl, whelw it occumad,
ancl wt,at hapfMIMCI clue. to the ......,.. ·

Disaster Where When What Happened

Volcanic Krakatoa, Indonesia August 27, 1883 36,000 people died

eruption

Potato Ireland 1 840s 1 . 5 million people

famine died

Flood Johnstown, May 1889 2, 200 people died

Pennsylvania, U.S.

Earthquake Tangshan, China July 28, 1 976 242,000 people

died

Tidal wave Bangladesh 1 970 200,000 people

died

Tornado Ohio, U.S. April 3, 1 974 3 1 5 people died

Fire Yellowstone 1 980 1 . 3 million acres

Park, U.S. burned

A volcanic eruption occurred in Krakatoa on August 2 7, 1883. Due

to the eruption, 36,000 people died.

Grammar: Prepositions
Prepositions are not only used to show time, place, and agent but are also used
in combination with verbs, adjectives, nouns, and in many common set
expressions. All prepositions cannot be listed in this chapter, but it will present
the important groups:

1. Verb + Preposition 4. Other Combinations with

Prepositions
depend on lead to
as a result of in addition to
2. Adjective/Participle + Preposi-
tion 5 . Prepositions of Time and Place
surprised at famous for on May 1 6 i n Washington
3. Noun + Preposition 6. Prepositions in Common
Expressions
example of possibility of
at present in general
50 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

Strategy
Since the use of prepositions and their rules con be very confusing for many
learners of English, it is best to leorn. as many prepositions as possible in
combination with other words. Errors on the exam may include the wrong
preposition being used or a preposition being omitted where it should not be.

VERB + PREPOSITION-
account for contribute to insist on plan on
believe in depend on lead to rely on
belong to detach from obtain from result in
confmed to fight for overcome by withdraw from

ExERCISE 3

Complete the sentences with the correct prepositions.

1. The destructive phenomena of Mount St. Helens were not confmed

____ volcanic debris.

2. Valuable chemical products are obtained ____ volcanic sub-

stances, including gold and silver.

3. The 1989 San Francisco earthquake resulted ____ 59 deaths and

massive property damage.

4. One growing season after another without rain quickly leads ____

starvation in many parts of the world.

5. Disease can sometimes be overcome ____ advances in modem

medicine.

6. Since the Irish depended their potato crop for food, the
potato famine had devastating results.

7. Poor farming practices contributed ____ the dust bowl as much

as weather conditions.

8. When there is famine in a country, the people must rely the

goodwill of other countries to provide them with the food they need.
 CHAPTER 5 PREPOSITIONS 51

ADJECTIVE/PARTICIPLE + PREPOSITION
accustomed to different from necessary for responsible for
afraid of expert at opposed to successful in
based on free from possible for surprised at
compared to famous for related to typical of

EXERCISE 4

1. The 1 980 Mount St. Helens eruption ranks low compared ____

other volcanic eruptions.

2. Some people think it is necessary ____ forest fires to happen

occasionally so that new trees will grow.

3. Typical American enterprise, a thriving cottage industry

developed in marketing the ash from Mount St. Helens.

4. Volcanic ash in the atmosphere is responsible ____ brilliant red

sunsets and sunrises.

5. The earth looks very different ____ the way it looked millions of
years ago.

6. The type of gas ejected from a volcanic eruption is related ____

the volcano and the type of eruption.

7. Countries whose economy is entirely based ____ agriculture

suffer most when a crop fails.

8. People were surprised the amount of destruction the

eruption of Mount St. Helens caused.

NOUN + PREPOSITION
cause of equivalent of influence on result of
cost of evidence of need for use of
danger of example of possibility of solution to
effect on increase in reason for supply of
52 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

ExERCISE 5

1. Mount St. Helens exploded in an eruption with the energy equivalent

____ 10 million tons of TNT.

2. With the ever-growing need _____ power, volcanoes and their

by-products are of increasing value.

3. To the scientist, volcanoes provide first-hand evidence ____ the

composition of the earth.

4. An example ____ an island that consists entirely of volcanic

material is Iceland.

5. Iceland, Italy, New Zealand, and the state of California make practical
use ____ volcanic steam.

6. The El Chichon eruption in Mexico had the greatest effect ____

the world's weather.

7. In recent years, the crater of Vesuvius has been sealed off to lessen the
danger another explosion.

8. Plague and famine can be results ____ social problems within a

community.

OTHER COMBINATIONS WITH PREPOSITIONS

according to in the process of
as a consequence of in view of
as a result of on account of
because of on behalf of
by means of on the basis of
in addition to prior to
in spite of with the exception of
in terms of with the purpose of
 CHAPTER 5 PREPOSITIONS 53

ExERCISE 6

Complete 1tte sentences with ltte correct prepositions.

' I
1. According some reports, the effect of the tsunami from
Krakatoa was felt 1 1 ,000 miles away.

2. In addition seismographs, tilt meters measure deformations

of the surface before volcanic activity.

3. The loss in terms ____ individual trees after the Mount St. Helens
eruptions came to six million.

4. Airplanes and trains were affected because ____ poor visibility

after the eruption.

5. In view their devastating results, much thought has been

given to forecasting volcanic eruptions.

6. Thirty-five people died as a result ____ the Mount St. Helens

eruption.

7. In spite the death and destruction volcanoes cause, they

benefit the land in many ways.

8. Prior the eruption, a 300-foot bulge was observed on one

side of Mount St. Helens.

PREPOSITIONS OF TIME AND PLACE

1. Prepositions of Time
at time of day (at 8 a.m.)
noon, night, midnight
in parts of the day (in the morning/evening/
afternoon)
month (in July)
season (in the fall)
year (in 1 980)
decade (in the 1 980s)
century (in the nineteenth century)
on days of the week (on Monday)
dates (on March 20)
for/since duration of time (for three days)
point in time (since March 20)
from . . . to beginning time . . . ending from (from 8 a.m. to
5 p.m.)
54 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

2. Prepositions of Place
at address (at 200 Main Street)
on street/road/avenue (on Kings Road)
floor (on the second floor)
in building (in the drugstore)
city (in Los Angeles)
state (in California)
country (in Japan)
continent (in Africa)
from . . . to beginning point . . . ending point (from Alaska to
California)

ExERCISE 7

Complete the Mntences with the correct prepositiont.

. I

1. Mount St. Helens had last erupted ____ 1857.

2. Mount St. Helens exploded ____ about 8 a.m. Sunday.

3. The eruption was ____ May 18, 1980.

4. ____ the summer of 1 8 1 6 the weather ____ the United

States was affected by volcanic activity.

5. Mount St. Helens is ____ the state of Washington.

6. The volcano Paricutin Mexico erupted ____ 1 943.

7. Before the eruption, Mount St. Helens was in one of the most beautiful
areas North America.

8. Most houses ____ Reykjavik ____ Iceland are heated by

natural steam.

9. Mount St. Helens started to be active ____ March 20 ____

May 18, 1 980.

10. A chain of volcanoes runs ____ the East Indies ____ the
Mediterranean.

PREPOSITIONS IN COMMON EXPRESSIONS

at times by land/sea/air in common on fire
at present by far in general on the other hand
at first/last by chance in existence on the whole
at the moment by accident in the future/past on purpose
by day/night in theory on land
 CHAPTER 5 PREPOSITIONS 55

EXERCISE 8

Complete the sentences with the correct prepositions.

1. Volcanoes land are best known, but those beneath the sea
sometimes make headline news.

2. ____ times volcanoes have affected world weather.

3. theory, volcanic eruptions are difficult to classify.

4. There are about 500 volcanoes existence.

5. It looked as if the mountain were ____ fire.

6. Volcanic ash is destructive; ____ the other hand, it later produces

a very fertile soil.

7. general, a temperature of 1 00°C is reached at about 10,000

feet in the earth's crust.

8. Mount St. Helens was ____ far the most publicized eruption in
recent times.

On the TOEFL® Test

Prepositions are tested in the Written Expression section of the exam. Check for
these two types of errors with prepositions:

1. The wrong preposition is used.

Example: Mount St. Helens, � volcano in Washington state

A B
in the United States, erupted in May 1 8, 1 980.
C D
The correct answer is (C); the preposition on must be used before a
date (in is used before a month without a date).

Example: After the eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1 980, the height of
A B C
the mountain was reduced of 400 meters.
D
The correct answer is (D); the preposition by should be used after the
verb "reduce" in this sentence.
56 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

2. A preposition may be omitted or a preposition may be used when it is

not necessary.

Example: Despite of its isolation in the Sunda Strait between Java and
A B C
Sumatra, over 36,000 people died in the tidal waves follow-
0
ing the explosion of Krakatoa.

The correct answer is (A); the preposition of should not be used in this
phrase (of is used in the phrase in spite of, but despite, which has the
same meaning, does not take a preposition).

Example: According experts 60,000 cubic feet of earth was thrown

i'. B
into the air in the explosion of Mount St. Helens.
C D
The best answer is (A); the preposition to has been omitted from the
phrase according to.

Exercises on Prepositions

Identify one of the underlined words or phrases (A), (B), (C), or (D) that
should be rewritten or corrected.

1. The rocky island of Alcatraz in San Francisco Bay was discovered by the
A B
Spanish in 1 769 and named by its large pelican colony.
C D
2. Bacteria are responsible of many of the textures and flavors in our food
A B C
and are particularly important in milk products.
D
3. Art Nouveau, a style that was in fashion in the 1890s, was based of long
A B C
curving lines inspired by climbing plants.
D
4. The brain is made up of billions of neurons that differ with each other
A B C
greatly in size and shape.
D
5. Wood, the hardened material from which trees are composed, is
A B
made up of millions of tiny tubes of fibers packed together.
C D
 CHAPTER 5 PREPOSITIONS 57

6. Animals that live in areas that are covered in snow in winter change the
A B C
color of their coat according the seasons.
D
7. The need for vitamins of our diet was discovered by the Dutch doctor
A B C
Christiaan Eijkman in 189q.
D

8. Many of the satellites of space carry telescopes and other instruments

A B
used in astronomy to look at the stars.
C D

9. Homes that have cable television get their programs

A
from a local television station through a cable connected with the set.
B C D
10. Henry David Thoreau stressed the importance in individuality and
A
of living in harmony with nature.
B C D

11. The hormone insulin controls by the amount of sugar in the blood,
A B C
which provides energy for the body.
D

12. Frogs get much of their oxygen by means blood capillaries in the surface
A B C
of the skin.
D
- '

...

I
... . ...
6
�
..
.
ART I C L ES

Introduction: Islands
The world's ten largest islands (drawn to scale)

Island Ocean Island Ocean

1 . Greenland Arctic 6. Sumatra Indian
2 . New Guinea Pacific 7. Honshu Pacific
3 . Borneo Pacific 8. Great Britain Atlantic
4. Madagascar Indian 9. Victoria Arctic
5 . Baffm Island Arctic 10. Ellesmere Arctic

Baffin
Island
(Canada)

f
Great Britain

0 500 km I& Victoria (Canada)

EIIesmere
(Canada)

58
 CHAPTER 6 ARTICLES 59

Some islands were originally parts of continents. These islands were separated
from the mainland as a result of a rise in sea level. For example, Great Britain
was connected to the mainland of Europe about 1 1 ,000 years ago. As the
climate got warmer, ice melted and the sea level rose. As a result, water covered
the land that had connected Great Britain to the mainland.
Other islands rise from the ocean. Some are volcanoes, such as the islands
of Hawaii and the islands of Japan. Some volcanic islands are millions of years
old, but new islands are forming all the time. For example, Iceland was formed
millions of years ago by a volcano. In 1 963, a volcano started to form a new
island called Surtsey near Iceland.
Islands differ greatly in size. Greenland is the largest island in the world.
The difference between an island and a continent is based on size. Because
Australia is three times the size of Greenland, geographers classify Australia as a
continent.

ExERCISE 1

Articles are tested on the TOEFL® Test. Complete the

sentences with the name of the country or island.

1. Honshu is the biggest island in _______

2. _______ is the biggest island in the world.

3. According to geographers, _______ is not an island but a

continent.

4. About 1 1 ,000 years ago _______ was connected to Europe.

5. _______ was formed by a volcano millions of years ago.

6. _______ is a new island formed in 1963.

60 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

ExERCISE 2

Complete the sentenc:ei below with i� from thi

chart.

1. Greenland is the largest island. It is in the ______ Ocean.

2. ______ is the second largest island. It is in the

______ Ocean.

3. ______ is ______ largest island. It is in __

______ Ocean.

4. ______ is ______ largest island. It is in __

______ Ocean.

5. ______ is __ ftfth largest island. It is in __

______ Ocean.

6. ______ is ______ largest island. It is in __

______ Ocean.

Grammar: Articles
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE A OR AN
'

Avoid confusion between a and an. Remember, an is used before a vowel ·

sound.
<

The indefmite article a or an is used:

1. Before singular count nouns to mean one. It is not used before non·
count nouns.

Australia is a continent.

2. An is used before a word that begins with a vowel sound (a, e, i, o, u).
When words begin with "h" or "u," either a or an can be used
depending on the sound:

an uncle a home
a university an hour
a union an honor
 CHAPTER 6 ARTICLES 61

3. In a general statement:

An island i s a body o f land surrounded by water.

4. To introduce a subject that has not been mentioned before:

I saw a snake.

5. With certain numerical expressions:

a dozen a couple a hundred a third a half

a great many a great deal a lot of •fifty miles •$ 1 0 a day
an hour
• In this case a/an is a replacement for per.

6. With names of professions:

He is an engineer. She is a biologist.

ExERCISE 3

Circle a or -. in the folew.. ....... ....._ 11CH on the

left If the ...... .. COf'Nd. 'Wrfle HNC'' If the Mlllellce is
... COiftd. Correct .... ........

1. Indonesia i s a country made u p o f thousands o f islands.

2. Greenland is an big island with a permanent ice cap covering it.

3. The Bahamas, which consist of 700 islands, have a superb

climate.

___ 4. Robinson Crusoe is a character in a book by Daniel Defoe.

5. Robinson Crusoe spent twenty years with his friend Man Friday
on a uninhabited island.

___ 6. New Guinea is a country where there are a 700 languages.

___ 7. Etna is an active volcano on the island of Sicily.
___ 8. On the island of Borneo, there is a snake that can fly or leap up
to 20 meters.

___ 9. The plants and an animals that live on an island may develop to
be quite different.
62 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

THE DEFINITE ARTICLE THE

Do not confuse a/an with the. Learn the rules for the use of a/an ancJ the.
The articles· ore often used one in place of � on the exam.

The definite article the can be used before any noun, singular, plural, count, and
noncount, when the noun is specific.

The island
The islands
The water
The definite article is used:

1. When there is only one of the thing mentioned:

The sun is shining.

The sky is blue.
2. When it is clear to both the speaker and the listener which thing or
person is referred to:

Could you open the door please? (Both the speaker and the listener
know which door it ts.)

3. Before a noun mentioned for the second time:

A bird flew into the classroom.

The bird sat on my desk.
4. Before superlative adjectives:
The biggest island is Greenland.
The most beautiful coral island is very small.
5. Before names of musical instruments:
He plays the piano.
6. Before a singular noun representative of a class of things (names of
animals, plants, inventions, and parts of the body):

The dodo is an extinct bird.

The Rafflesia is the world's largest flower.
Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone.
He bit me on the head.
 CHAPTER 6 ARTICLES 63

Strategy
Remember the uses of the definite article. It may be omitted when it should
not be on the exam.

7. Before decades and centuries:

the 1 BOOs the twenties the twentieth century

8. Before expressions of time and place:
the morning the future
the afternoon the present
the evening the past

the north the front

the south the back
the east the middle
the west the top
the bottom

9. Before ordinal numbers (the definite article is not used with cardinal
numbers):
Ordinal numbers: Cardinal numbers:
The first One
The second day Day two
The sixth lesson Lesson six

10. When speaking about a specific noun:

Coffee originated in Ethiopia. (general)

The coffee I had this morning was Brazilian. (specific)
1 1 . Before names of countries, states, cities, universities, colleges, and
schools that contain the word "of," and before countries that have a
plural name or have an adjective in the name, except for Great Britain:

The United States of America

The state of Florida
The city of Boston
The University of Texas
But: Boston University
The Netherlands
The Philippines
64 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

12. Before names of oceans, rivers, seas, gulfs, and plural names of moun·
tains, islands, and lakes (no article is used with singular mountains,
islands, and lakes):

The Pacific Ocean The Mississippi River

The Gulf of Mexico The Black Sea
The Appalachian Mountains Mount Washington
The Hawaiian islands Manhattan Island
The Great Lakes Lake Michigan

13. Before geographic areas, but not before names of continents:

The Middle East Asia

The Orient Europe

14. Before the names of fields of study when they contain the word of

The History of the United States History

The Literature of the Sixties Biology

15. Before the names of wars (not including the World Wars):

The War of Independence The Civil War

World War II The Second World War

16. Before the names of ships, planes, trains, and people's family names (the
definite article is not used with the names of people and names of
magazines):

The Browns Robert Brown

The Mayflower Time Magazine
The Orient Express

EXERCISE 4

Fill in the blanks with the coiTect article a, an, lite, or -.

1. Islands make up ___ entire land area of some countries, including

___ Japan and ___ Philippines.

2. ___ Florida Keys are coastal islands built on coral reefs.

3. ___ Mackinac Island in ___ Lake Michigan is ___ lake island.

4. ___ city of Montreal, in ___ Canada, is built on ___ large river

island.

5. ___ Aleutian Islands, part of ___ Alaska, are ___ string of

coastal islands that were built by ___ volcanoes.
 CHAPTER 6 ARTICLES 65

6. On ___ big island of Hawaii is one of ___ world's greatest

volcanoes, ___ Mauna Loa.

7. Kilauea is most active volcano in state of Hawaii.

8. The early settlers of ___ Pacific Islands, ___ Polynesians, always

carried coconuts with them in their canoes.

9. In ___ Indonesia is ___ huge lizard, ___ Komodo Dragon, that

eats deer and attacks people.

10. ___ dodo, a giant bird now extinct, lived on ___ island of
MaUritius, in ___ Indian Ocean.

On the TOEfL® Test

Articles are tested in the Written Expression section of the exam. Check for
these three types of errors with articles:

1. The article may be used when it is not necessary, or not used when it is
necessary.

Example: Pelican Island in Florida and Oregon Islands in Oregon are

A B C
wildlife refuges.
D
The best answer is (C); the definite article the should not be omitted
from the name of a plural group of islands.

Example: The most coral islands develop from reefs that grow up
A B C
around volcanic islands.
D
The best answer is (A). This is not a superlative form; therefore the
article is not necessary.

2. An is used instead of a or vice versa. Also a or an may be used instead

of the or vice versa.

Example: A broad expanse of sea with a large number of islands is

A B C
called a archipelago.
D
The best answer is (D). An must be used before a noun beginning with
a vowel sound.

Example: When the island of Surtsey was eighteen months old a fust
A B C
leafy green plant appeared.
D
The best answer is (C). The defmite article the must be used with an
ordinal number.
66 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

3. Another word like a possessive adjective may be used instead of the

article or vice versa.

Example: The new island of Surtsey is its ideal natural laboratory

A B C
for scientists.
D

The best answer is (C). The indefinite article an meaning "one" must be
used.

Example: Coral reefs are limestone formations composed of

A B
tiny sea organisms and the remains.
C D

The best answer is (D). The possessive adjective their must replace the
definite article the to show its reference to sea organisms.

Exercises on Articles
'

From the four underlined worda or phrases (A), (1), (C), or '

(D), Identify the one that is not correct. ·

•·

1. The watt is named after James Watt, the British engineer who developed
A B
the steam engine in 1 760s.
C D

2. Methane is a odorless burning gas and is the main ingredient of

A B C
natural gas.
D

3. The alcohol acts as a narcotic on the nervous system and the brain.
A B C D

4. Zachary Taylor was first president to be elected from a state west of

A B C
the Mississippi River.
D

5. Barnacles, which are related to lobsters, shrimp, and crabs, make

A B C
strongest glue.
D

6. ln the 1 860s Louis Pasteur discovered that bacteria in air caused

A B
the perishable food to go bad.
C D
 CHAPTER 6 ARTICLES 67

7. Land covers almost third of the earth's surface, of which two-thirds is

A B C D
too cold or too dry for fanning.

8. "Old Faithful" in the Yellowstone National Park is probably the world's

A B C
most famous geyser.
D
9. Thermographs are special pictures that show the variation in heat
A B C
emitted by different areas of body.
D
10. The world's fastest animal is cheetah, but if birds are included,
A B
the fastest of all animals is the spine-tailed swift.
C D
11. The most of the energy used in our homes and factories is generated
A B
from coal, oil, and natural gas.
C D
12. Soybeans were first grown in the Orient and brought to the Western
A B C
world during the World War Two.
D
 NOUN C L AUS E S

Introduction: Michael Faraday

During the last 400 years, most scientists have relied on mathematics in their
development of their inventions or discoveries. However, one great British
scientist, Michael Faraday, did not make use of mathematics. Faraday, the son of
a poor blacksmith, was born in London in 1791 and had no education beyond
reading and writing.
ln 1 8 1 2 Faraday was hired as a bottle washer by the great chemist
Humphry Davy. Later, Faraday became a greater scientist than Davy, making the
last years of Davy's life embittered with jealousy.
Faraday made the first electric motor in 1 82 1 , a device that used electricity
to produce movement. Then Faraday became interested in the relationship
between electricity and magnetism. In 1 8 3 1 he discovered that when a magnet
is moved near a wire, electricity flows in the wire. With this discovery he
produced a machine for making electricity called a dynamo. Faraday then went
on to show how electricity affects chemical substances.
Because Faraday believed that money should be given to the poor, when
he grew old, he was destitute. However, Queen Victoria rewarded him for his
discoveries by giving him a stipend and a house. He died in 1 867.

EXERCISE 1

Noun clauses are tested on the TOEFL� Test. Complete the

blanks in the following sentences with that and how.

1. Humphry Davy was jealous Faraday became a greater scientist

than he.

2. Faraday discovered when a magnet is moved near a wire it

produces electricity.

3. Faraday showed electricity affects chemical substances.

4. Faraday showed great scientific discoveries could be made

without the use of mathematics.

68
 CHAPTER 7 NOUN CLAUSES 69

5. Faraday believed money should be given to the poor.

6. Faraday's invention meant homes could be heated by electric

power and lit by electric light.

ExERCISE 2

Choose the correct noun clause to complete the sentence.

1. Faraday discovered ____ 4. Faraday believed ____

(A) that a magnet creates (A) what everybody told him

electricity in a wire (B) that money was not
(B) what electricity is important

2. Faraday showed ____ 5. It can be seen ____

(A) why electricity does not (A) how mathematics is

affect chemicals important to scientific
(B) how electricity affects discovery
chemical substances (B) that mathematics is not
necessarily important in
3. It was obvious ____
scientific discovery
(A) why Humphry Davy was
jealous of Faraday
(B) how Humphry Davy was
jealous of Faraday

Grammar: Noun Clauses

A noun clause is a subordinate clause. A noun clause has a subject and a verb,
and can be used like a noun, either as a subject or an object.

1. As Subject

His discovery was important.

Noun
His discovery is a noun. It is the subject of the sentence.
What he discovered was important.
Noun clause
What he discovered is a noun clause. It is the subject of the sentence. It
has a subject he and a verb discovered.
70 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

2. As Object

People believed his discovery.

Noun
His discovery is a noun. It is the object of the verb believed.
People believed what he discovered.
Noun clause
What be discovered is a noun clause. It is the object of the verb
believed.

Noun clauses are introduced by the following words:

when who/whom whether that
where what if
why which
how whose

NOUN CLAUSES BEGINNING WITH A

QUESTION WORD
Question words such as when, where, why, bow, who/whom, what, which, and
whose can introduce a noun clause.
Question Noun Clause
1. What did he discover? I don't know what be discovered.
2. When did he discover I'm not sure when be discovered it.
it?
3. Where did he discover It is not known where be discovered it.
it?
4. How did he discover it? I'm not certain bow be discovered it.
5. Who is Faraday? I don't know who be is.
6. Whose discovery is that? It is not certain whose discovery that is.
7. What did he discover? What be discovered is not certain. (What
be discovered is the subject of the sen­
tence.)
 CHAPTER 7 NOUN ClAUSES 71

Strategy
Do not use question word order in a noun clause. The subject comes before
the verb in a noun clause.

ExERCISE 3

Which oif the following sentences do not have correct word

�
order in the noun clause? Write 11C" for correct or 11NC" for
not correct. '

1. It is amazing what discovered Faraday in the field of science

without the use of mathematics.

___ 2. Early scientists did not know how a strong, steady electrical
current could be produced.

___ 3. How Faraday did his experiments without the use of mathemat­
ics is not known.

___ 4. In the early 1 800s it was unknown what was the electric
current.

5. People have known what are the effects of electricity since

ancient times.

___ 6. Before Faraday's experiments, people were unsure what the

connection between electricity and magnetism was.

NOUN CLAUSES BEGINNING WITH WHETHER OR IF

When a yes/no question is changed to a noun clause, whether or if is used to
introduce the clause.

Question Noun Clause

Will it work? He wonders whether it will work.
He wonders if it will work.
Did they believe him? I don't know whether they believed him.
I don't know if they believed him.
72 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

NOUN CLAUSES BEGINNING WITH THAT

For a statement of a fact or an idea, the word that is used to introduce the noun
clause.
Statement Noun Clause
1. The world is round. We know that the world is round. (That the
world is round is the object of the verb
know.)
2. The world is round. We know the world is round. (The word that is
frequently omitted in spoken English.)
3. The world is round. That the world is round is a fact. (That the
world is round is the subject of the sentence.
The word that cannot be omitted when it in­
troduces a noun clause that is the subject of a
sentence.)

Strategy
A noun clause must have a subject and a verb. Look for a subject and a verb
when the noun clause is the object or the subject of a sentence.

EXERCISE 4

Circle the letter of the correct noun clause that completes the
sentence• '
·-

1. Faraday argued that ___ 2. It is a fact that ___ form

(A) electricity in a wire of energy.
magnetic effect (A) electricity is the most
(B) electricity in a wire by useful
magnetic effect (B) electricity the most useful
(C) electricity in a wire (C) the most useful in
produced a magnetic electricity
effect (D) electricity being the most
(D) a magnetic effect pro­ useful
duced by electricity in a
wire
 CHAPTER 7 NOUN CLAUSES 73

3. over long distances is 5. in science was

a fact. important for Faraday.
(A) That electricity can be (A) Children that were
transmitted interested
(B) That electricity transmit­ (B) That children interested
ting (C) That children should be
(C) That electricity interested
(D) That interested children
(D) That can be transmitted
4. Today it is known that
6. After listening to Humphry
Davy, Faraday realized that
____ magnetism.
(A) electricity relating to
(B) electricity is related to (A) wanting to be a scientist
(C) relating to electricity
(B) being a scientist
(C) wanted to be a scientist
(D) as electricity to he wanted to be a scientist
(D)

On the TOEfL® Test

In a typical noun clause error, a part of the noun clause is missing from the
stem. The missing part may be the introductory word, the subject, the verb, or
even the whole noun clause.
It is important to:

1. Look for the correct word order in the distractors.

2. See if the noun clause has a subject and a verb.
3. Find the correct introductory word for the noun clause.

Example: ____ was flat was believed by most people in the fifteenth
century.
(A) The Earth
(B) That the Earth
(C) As the Earth
(D) Whether the Earth
The best answer is (B). (A) is not correct because there are two verbs­
was and was believed-and only one subject. (C) is incorrect because
the introductory word does not make sense in the sentence. (D) is
incorrect because it does not have a subject.

Example: Many scientists have shown ____ can be used for an

ever-increasing number of tasks.
(A) that lasers how
(B) lasers how
(C) how lasers
(D) that what lasers
The best answer is (C).
74 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

Exercises on Noun Clauses

From the four words or phrases (A), (B), (C), or (D), choose
the one that best completes the sentence.

1. Astronomers studied the 1987 5. It has been estimated

Supernova to learn milligram of skin scales have
when a star explodes. over half a million bacteria.
(A) what happens (A) that a
(B) that happens (B) how a
(C) that is happen (C) a
(D) what does happen (D) to be a
2. Despite recent attempts to 6. It is only in the last 200 years
prove did indeed have begun climbing
reach the North Pole in 1 909, mountains.
the evidence still remains (A) because people
questionable. (B) that people
(A) what Robert Peary (C) people
(B) that Robert Peary (D) as people
(C) Robert Peary, who
7. of smell might,
(D) Robert Peary was
without our realizing it, affect
3. Around 1 789, Antoine Lavoisier who we choose as friends has
was the first person to demon- been suggested.
strate all kinds of (A) That our sense
burning involve the addition of (B) Sense
oxygen. (C) For our sense
(A) if (D) Because our sense
(B) what
8. From the existence of radio
(C) that
waves, most scientists were
(D) so that
convinced really
4. Where is the com- happened.
monest form of color-blindness. (A) the Big Bang was
(A) are the red and green not (B) it was the Big Bang
easily distinguished (C) how the Big Bang
(B) they are not easily (D) that the Big Bang
distinguished red and
green
(C) are not easily distinguished
red and green
(D) red and green are not
easily distinguished
 CHAPTER 7 NOUN CLAUSES 75

9. Samples of rock showed 12. Science fiction writers believe

4600 million years ___ in the future, with
old. new material and greater
(A) that the moon is knowledge, their vision will
(B) how is the moon become reality.
(C) when is the moon (A) that they
(D) to be the moon (B) they
(C) that
10. was lowered to the
(D) they will
sea bed in a glass container to
make observations is debated.
(A) Alexander the Great who
(B) Whether Alexander the
Great
(C) Alexander the Great
(D) What Alexander the Great
11. so incredible is that it
can grow 385 miles of roots in
foll[ months, or about 3 miles
in a day.
(A) That makes the rye plant
(B) What makes the rye plant
(C) The rye plant
(D) The rye plant which was
 -

IB
u
A D J E C T I V E C LAUS E S

Introduction: American Indian Smoke Signals

The smoke signals used by American Indians did not convey the complex
messages seen in Hollywood movies. Smoke signals were in fact used among the
seminomadic tribes of the Great Plains. However, their content was limited to a
few simple messages whose meaning had been agreed upon in advance. For
example, Piman warriors in Arizona who had just finished a successful raid
might send up a column of smoke, and the village would reply with two
columns of smoke. Smoke signals were most commonly used to broadcast news
of victory in battle, or to warn of sickness in a camp or dangers such as
approaching enemies.
Fires fed with damp grass or boughs of evergreen sent up the one or two
simple, unbroken columns of smoke needed to send a message. The place that
the signal came from-whether on a hill or in a valley-conveyed most of the
meaning. When Apaches out hunting spotted another group of Indians in the
distance, they lit a fire conspicuously to the right of their own party that meant,
"Who are you?" If the others were friends, they would then use a prearranged
reply.

ExERCISE 1

Adiective clauses are tested on the TOEFL• Test. Complete the

sentences, with the relative pronouns which, who, who••·

1. The smoke signals _______ the American Indians used did not
convey complex messages.

2. The signals contained simple messages _______ meaning had

been agreed upon in advance.

3. A warrior had finished a successful raid might send a

simple column of smoke to his village.

4. They made fires _______ were fed with damp grass.

76
 CHAPTER 8 ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 77

5. It was the place the signal came from _______ conveyed most
of the message.

6. When one group spotted another group of Indians, they lit a flre to their
right meant, "Who are you?"

ExERCISE 2

Choose the conect relative pronoun in parentheses to

complete the sentence.

1. The seminomadic tribes of the Great Plains used smoke signals (which/
who) were simple.

2. A signal (whose/which) conveyed victory in battle was agreed upon in

advance.

3. The Hollywood movies (which/whom) we watch do not give a true

picture of the Indians.

4. A party would send a column of smoke (which/whom) the other

understood.

5. Drumbeats (whose/which) are used by tribes in Africa can give more

complex signals.

6. A warrior (who/which) saw an enemy approaching might send a smoke

signal.

Grammar: Adiective Clauses

An adjective clause contains a subject and a verb. An adjective clause is a
subordinate or dependent clause, it must be connected to a main or
independent clause. An adjective clause modifies a noun. Adjective clauses
begin with a relative pronoun such as who, whom, whose, which, that, or a
relative adverb such as when or where.
78 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

IDENTIFYING ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

Clause
Marker Use Example
who People The tribes who lived in the Great Plains used
(subject) smoke signals.
whom People The woman whom we met was called Light-
(object) ning Cloud.
whose People/things He sent a message whose meaning we had
(possessive) agreed upon in advance.
which Things That is a tribe which interests me. (subject)
(subject/object)
The drumbeats which we heard sent a mes-
sage. (object)
that People/things The Apache is a tribe that I will research.
(subject/object) (object)
The smoke that you see is from the hills.
(subject)
where Place That is the valley where the tribe lived.
(adverb)
when Time That is the day when we get the signal.
(adverb)

Check for the correcf clause marker and a subject and verb in an adjective
clause.

ExERCISE 3

Underline the ad� clause• Jn the following Hntencet.

1. Sacagawea, who was a Shoshoni Indian, guided Lewis and Clark to the
Columbia River.

2. The giant redwood trees that grow in California are named after
Sequoyah, who created an alphabet for the Indian people.

3- Sequoyah became a teacher and moved to Oklahoma where he contin­

ued to teach the alphabet.

4. The Shoshoni were a group · of Indians who lived in the western plains
of Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, and Idaho.
 CHAPTER 8 ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 79

5. Each group of Shoshoni was known to the others by the type of food
that was plentiful in its particular region.

6. The Mossi people of West Africa use talking drums as a means of

preserving their history, which has been handed down by generations .

........,
Remember that sometimes the relatMa � mQ)' be omitted faa -
ciHjec:tM douse. The relcmv. � which, thot, who, and wltOitt can bt
omitted when they are the object of the odjectiw clause.

OMISSION OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN

When the relative pronoun is the subject of the adjective clause, it cannot be
omitted.

Tbe man who played the drum was from West Africa. (subject)
If the relative pronoun is the object of the adjective clause, it can be
omitted.

Tbe man whom I saw was a Native American. (object)

Tbe man I saw was a Native American.

Tbe drumbeat that I heard was a signal. (object)

Tbe drumbeat I heard was a signal.
The relative pronouns whose, where, and whereby cannot be omitted.

Sequoyah, whose alphabet for the Indian people consisted of 85

characters, was acclaimed a genius by his people. (Whose cannot be
omitted.)

Tbat was the area where the tribe lived. (Where cannot be omitted.)

Sequoyah devised an alphabet whereby all the different tribes could

read a common language. (Whereby cannot be omitted.)
80 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

St1ategy
Loo k for pr�sitions that come before adjective clauses.

PREPOSITIONS THAT COME BEFORE ADJECTIVE

CLAUSES
Sometimes an adjective clause is used with a preposition.

There are a number of ways by which a message can be sent.

In spoken English the preposition usually goes at the end of the clause, but in
formal written English it goes at the beginning of the clause.

Formal: That was the man to whom I was referring.

Informal: That was the man whom I was referring to.

EXERCISE 4

Circle the number of the sentence. where the relative

pronoun/adverb or a preposition is missing.

1. Lewis and Clark went to South Dakota, where they spent a bitter winter
among the Mandan tribe.

2. It is . countries such as Ghana, Dahoney, and Nigeria the use of talking

drums is mostly highly developed.

3. The most celebrated talking drummers of West Africa are the Yorubas
whose principal instrument is known as a dondon.

4. Talking drums, play a central role in African cultural and social life, have
many uses besides the sending of long-<listance messages.

5. There are a number of colors which the Pueblo Indians of America

identified direction.

6. Drumbeats which the actual words of their tribal language is communi­

cated is a traditional form of communication in Africa.
 CHAPTER 8 ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 81

Strategy
Look for a reduced adjective clause, also called an adjective phrase. An
adjective phrase does not contain a subject and a verb.

REDUCED ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

Adjective clauses can be reduced to phrases. An adjective phrase modifies a
noun. An adjective phrase does not contain a subject and a verb.

Adjective Clause: The man who is drumming is African.

Adjective Phrase: The man drumming is African.
Only adjectives that have a subject pronoun, who, which, or that, can
be reduced.

Clause: The man who is playing the drums is well-known.

Phrase: The man playing the drums is well-known.
Clause: The man (whom) I met was well-known.
Phrase: not possible
There are two ways to reduce an adjective phrase.

1. The subject pronoun and the be form of the verb are omitted.

Clause: The man who is playing is my friend.

Phrase: The man playing is my friend.
Clause: The signals which are given are simple.
Phrase: The signals given are simple.
Clause: The tones that are in the language are important.
Phrase: The tones in the language are important.
2. When there is no form of be in the adjective clause, you can omit the
subject pronoun and change the verb to the -ing form.

Clause: The Cherokee Indians have an alphabet that consists of

eighty-five characters.
Phrase: The Cherokee Indians have an alphabet consisting of eighty-
five characters.
Clause: Anyone who wants to get the news can listen to the message.
Phrase: Anyone wanting to get the news can listen to the message.
Adjective phrases are usually separated by commas, as in adjective clauses.

Clause: Sequoyah, who was the inventor of an Indian alphabet, was a

Cherokee Indian.
Phrase: Sequoyah, the inventor of an Indian alphabet, was a Cherokee
Indian.
82 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

ExERCISE 5

Where possible, reduce the adiecfive clauses to phrases.

1. Sequoyah, who was the son of an Indian mother and a European father,
was born in Tennessee.

2. Sequoyah, who was first a hunter, became a trader after a hunting

accident.

3. Sequoyah, who had no education, believed that reading and writing

were important.

4. Sequoyah, who worked on the alphabet for twelve years, finally com­
pleted it in 1823.

5. His alphabet, which consists of eighty-five sounds, was an important

invention for his people.

6. A Cherokee newspaper whose columns had news both in English and

Cherokee was soon published.

7. Thousands of Cherokees who did not know how to read or write started
to write using the new alphabet.

On the TOEfL® Test

Adjective clauses are tested in the Structure section of the exam. In the item,
certain or all parts of an adjective clause may be missing. It is important to
remember what an adjective clause is and what an adjective phrase is; that is, if
a subject and verb are necessary or not.

Example: Pythons live in rugged tropical areas ____ heavy rainfall

and forests.
(A) they have
(B) that have
(C) where the
(D) have

The best answer is (B). (C) is incorrect because where is the incorrect
connector and the clause does not have a verb. (A) is incorrect because
there is no connector joining the first and second clause. (D) is incor­
rect because there is no connector between the verb have and the rest
of the sentence.

Reduced adjective clauses are also tested in the Structure section. Again,
part or all of the phrase may be missing from the stem.
 CHAPTER 8 ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 83

Example: In 1 880, George Eastman, dry-plate manufacturer,

introduced the Kodak box camera.
(A) who an American
(B) he was an American
(C) an American
(D) was an American
The best choice is (C); (A) is incorrect because there is no verb in the
relative clause. (B) does not have a connector to join the clause to the
rest of the sentence. (D) is not correct because it contains a· verb and a
phrase cannot have a verb.

ExERCISES ON ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

Prom the four wwds or ,.....

.. .. (A), (8), (C), or (D), choose
'
.... - that best compl.... .... tentence. '

1. The thyroid gland, , is 3- According to legend, Betsy Ross

located in the neck. was the woman the
(A) where the hormone first American stars and stripes
thyroxine is produced flag.
(B) where produced is the (A) whom she made
hormone thyroxine (B) made
(C) the hormone thyroxine is (C) who made
produced there (D) and she made
(D) at which is produced the
4. Pumpkin seeds,
hormone thyroxine
protein and iron, are a popular
2. Dragonflies feed on a large snack.
variety of insects (A) that
catch in flight. (B) provide
(A) in which they (C) which
(B) which they (D) which provide
(C) there are to
5. The spinal cord is a long, thick
(D) there are a
bundle of nerves from
the brain to the lower part of
the back.
(A) that runs
(B) is running
(C) it runs
(D) whom it runs
84 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

6. George Pullman introduced a 10. The pepper plant bears a small,

dining car its own green berry red as it
kitchen in 1868. ripens.

(A) it had (A) which turns

(B) that had (B) turns
(C) that it had (C) it turns
(D) having (D) that it turns
7. In 1898, pharmacolo- 11. Quinine, once used to
gist, John H. Abel, isolated the cure malaria, was taken from
hormone adrenaline. the bark of a South American
(A) an American who tree, the cinchona.

(B) who, an American (A) it is a famous drug

(C) an American (B) is a famous drug
(D) he was an American (C) a famous drug
(D) is a famous drug whose
8. Nitrogen gas, up
about 78 percent of our 12. Billie Holiday, unique
atmosphere, is constantly being singing style made her famous,
used by plants and animals. was also known as Lady Day.
(A) which it makes (A) she is a
(B) it makes (B) whom
(C) makes (C) who
(D) which makes (D) whose

9. Paper is made from cellulose

fibers, in all cells.

(A) are
(B) which are
(C) they are
(D) which they are
 9 A D V E R B C LAUS ES

Introduction: Distant Galaxies

The development of the radio telescope has led to two of the most important
discoveries in modem astronomy: the identification of the most distant galaxies
and the smallest stars ever seen. Before these discoveries were made, new large
telescopes had to be built.
The most distant galaxies are called quasars. They were discovered in 1 963
when astronomers noticed strong radio signals coming from small points in the
sky. When the radio astronomer Maarten Schmidt from Mount Palomar
Observatory looked at these points, he saw faint galaxies that could be seen only
because they were shining brightly. These galaxies, or quasars, were the most
powerful objects ever discovered, and are the most distant objects even seen.
Some are over 1 3,000 million light-years away. They get their power from a
huge black hole at their center.
A black hole is a region of space where the pull of gravity is so strong that
even light cannot escape. When gas and dust fall into the black hole at the
center of a quasar, they produce large amounts of light and heat. Although black
holes are very small, they are extremely heavy. A black hole less than a
centimeter across can weigh the same amount as the Earth. The black holes in
the center of quasars may weigh up to I 00 million times as much as our sun.

ExERCISE 1

Adverb clauses are tested on the TOEfL® Test. The blanks in

the sentences introduce adverb clauses. Complete the
blanks with one of the following words:

before when because although

1. New, large telescopes had to be built _______ important

discoveries were made.

2. Quasars were discovered _______ astronomers noticed radio

signals.

85
86 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

3. Maarten Schmidt saw faint galaxies _______ he looked at points

in the sky.

4. The points could be seen _______ they shone brightly.

5. light and heat are produced in the center of a quasar ------­

gas and dust fall into it.

6. _______ black holes are small, they are extremely heavy.

ExERCISE 2

Choose the correct aclverlt douse marker from the ·

parentheses.

1. Quasars are an important discovery (because/although) they are the

most powerful objects ever seen.

2. The outer planets are cooler than the inner ones (as/whereas) they are
further from the sun.

3. A black hole is a region of space (where/whenever) the gravitational

pull is so strong that nothing can escape.

4. Radio waves from distant regions of space could be studied (while/after)

the radio telescope was invented.

5. Telescopes see distant objects more clearly (whereas/because) radio

telescopes collect radio waves.

6. Astronomers did not know about quasars (before/so that) radio tele­
scopes were invented.

Grammar: Adverb Clauses

An adverb clause is a subordinate clause (dependent clause) with a subject and
a verb. An adverb clause may come before or after the main clause (independent
clause). When it comes before the main clause or at the beginning, it is usually
separated from the main clause by a comma.

When Schmidt looked at the small points, he saw galaxies.

Schmidt saw galaxies when he looked at the small points.
 CHAPTER 9 ADVERB CLAUSES 87

ADVERB CLAUSE MARKERS

The following are some common words used to introduce an adverb clause.

1. Clause markers showing time:

after by the time until
as once when
before since whenever
as soon as till while

Meteors glow as they burn up in the atmosphere.

It was difficult to observe the stars before the telescope was invented.

2. Clause markers showing manner:

as as if as though just as like

Ancient peoples used the stars as if they were calendars.

The Milky Way looks as though it is a faint band of light.

3. Clause markers showing cause and effect:

because since as
now that as long as so that

Spacesuits were designed for astronauts so that they could breathe in

space.
Since some planets are too far away to send people, computer­
operated space probes are sent.
4. Clause markers showing opposition:

although while
though whereas
even though

Most stars are white while some are colored.

Although helium is rare on Earth, it is common in the universe.

5. Clause markers showing condition:

if in the event that provided that unless
even if in case that
only if

You will see hundreds of stars ifyou look at the sky.

You can study distant stars provided that you have a radio telescope.
88 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

6. Clause markers showing purpose:

so that in order that so (that)
in order to (That is often omitted in
spoken English.)

Astronomers improved telescopes so that they would discover more

about the stars.
Astronomers developed bigger and bigger telescopes in order to see
the stars more clearly.

7. Clause markers showing result:

so . . . that such . . . that

The stars are so far away that they cannot be seen without a tele­
scope.
The meteor hit the Earth with such force that it made a crater.

8. Clause markers showing place:

where wherever everywhere

There were stars wherever she looked.

A crater was formed where the meteor hit the earth.

Strategy
Look for the adverb clause markers and make sure that the adverb clause
has both a sub;ect and a verb.

EXERCISE 3

Underline the adverb clauses in the following sentences.

1. Although millions of meteors hit the earth's atmosphere, few of them

are noticed.

2. A meteor leaves a bright trail as it streaks across the night sky.

3. Many meteorite falls are not noticed because they hit the earth in
remote uninhabited areas.

4. The rate of the sun's radiation is so great that about 3 million tons of
matter is converted into energy every second.

5. In ancient times, farmers planted crops when they saw a planet in the
right part ·of the sky.

6. Even though a planet moves among the stars, it returns to the same part
of the sky at the same time each year.
 CHAPTER 9 ADVERB CLAUSES 89

REDUCED ADVERB CLAUSES

Adverb clauses may be reduced to modifying phrases in the same way as
adjective clauses are reduced to modifying phrases. A reduced adverb clause or
modifying phrase does not contain a subject or a verb. It consists of a participle
(present or past participle) or an adjective and clause marker (although, when,
or while).

Full: After the space probes landed on Mars, they sent back pictures.
Reduced: After landing on Mars, the space probes sent back
pictures.
Full: Although the moon rocks were expensive to obtain, they pro­
vided valuable information.
Reduced: Although expensive to obtain, the moon rocks provided
valuable information.

An adverb clause may be changed to a modifying phrase only when the subject
of the main clause and the adverb clause are the same.

Adverb clause: After the space probe landed on Venus, it mapped the
surface.
Modifying phrase: After landing on Venus, it mapped the surface.
Adverb clause: After the space probe sent pictures, astronomers
examined them.
Modifying phrase: not possible

PREPOSITIONAL EXPRESSIONS
Some prepositions have almost the same meaning as some of the clause
markers, but they can be used only with nouns, noun phrases, or pronouns.
They cannot be used with clauses.

Strategy
The following prepositions cannot be used in clau5es: because oF, on
account of, in case of, in spite of, despite, during. When you see them, look
for nouns, noun phrases, or pronouns in the distractors.

Cause/effect: Many of the planets are cratered because of meteor

bombardment.
Concession: In spite of the damage to the spacecraft, the astronauts
got back to Earth safely.
Condition: In case of contamination, special suits were worn.
Time: Radio receivers were used during the Second World War.
90 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

EXERCISE 4

The followtns� ...... conlain octw.ta clau..., reduced

adverb ct.u..., ancl ,..,....... ..,...... Circle ....
....... of the best ClftiWW that compl.... the ......tee.

1. the Ancient Chinese 5. the 1987 supernova

and Egyptians took astronomy was so near, astronomers were
seriously, the Greeks were the able to study it carefully.
first to study the stars scientill- (A) Although
cally. (B) Since
(A) Although (C) It was
(B) Despite (D) As it was
(C) For
6. used simple instru-
(D) Nevertheless
ments, the ancient Greek
2. the development of astronomer, Hipparchus, made
radio telescopes, distant regions the fust accurate map of the
of the Universe can be ob- stars 2 1 00 years ago.
served. (A) Even though
(A) The reason (B) Even though he
(B) Because of (C) Nevertheless
(C) Because (D) In spite of
(D) It is because
3. Supernovas are caused
a star dies.
(A) as when
(B) that
(C) when
(D) it is
4. In 1 987 a Canadian astronomer,
Ian Shelton, spotted a super-
nova , looking at some
photographs of the stars.
(A) was
(B) during
(C) as if
(D) while he was
 CHAPTER 9 ADVERB CLAUSES 91

On the TOEfL® Test

Adverb clauses are tested in the Structure part of the exam. In these items, any
part of the adverb clause may be missing from the stem: it may be the clause
marker, the subject, the verb, or other parts of the clause.
It is important to remember the following:

1. An adverb clause contains a subject and a verb.

2. A reduced adverb clause does not contain a subject and a verb.

3. Use the correct clause marker for the adverb clause.

Example: the solar system may seem big, it is a very small part
of the universe.
(A) Despite
(B) Although
(C) Even though it
(D) Because
The best answer is (B). (A) is incorrect because despite cannot be used
in an adverb clause that has a subject and a verb. (C) is incorrect
because it contains a subject, tt, which is repeated again in the same
clause. (D) is incorrect because it contains the wrong clause marker,
giving reason instead of concession.

Example: Ancient astronomers looked at the stars ____ could

make predictions about the future.
(A) they
(B) so
(C) so that they
(D) as they
The best answer is (C).
92 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

ExERCISES ON ADVERB CLAusEs

From the four words or phrases (A), (B), (C), or (D), choose
the one thcit best completes the sentence.

1. Plexiglas is used in aircraft 5. Stars are hot bodies that give

windows is almost out light of their own,
unbreakable. planets shine only by reflecting

(A) it light.

(B) because it (A) however there are

(C) because (B) since
(D) it because (C) whereas
(D) while they
2. American Indians grew popcorn
for a few thousand years 6. A silkworm has glands that
arrival of European secrete a liquid that hardens
explorers in the 1 400s. into silk comes into
(A) before contact with air.

(B) before the (A) as it

(C) since (B) when
(D) since they (C) that
(D) it
3. The body uses proteins for
energy and fats 7. their immense
cannot meet its energy needs. distances, quasars have rela-
(A) that carbohydrates tively high magnitudes.

(B) when carbohydrates (A) Whereas

(C) when they are carbohy- (B) In spite of
drates (C) Although
(D) that when carbohydrates (D) Yet
4. Spider monkeys are the best 8. body's activities put
climbers in the jungle, strains on certain bones, these
they do not have thumbs. bones strengthen themselves
(A) nevertheless where the stress is greatest.
(B) for (A) That if
(C) despite (B) That
(D) although (C) Because of
(D) If the
 CHAPTER 9 ADVERB CLAUSES 93

9. Herman Melville is 1 1 . Limestone powder is added to

now regarded as one of animal feed animals
America's finest writers, his form good strong bones.
greatest works mystified readers (A) why
in his own lifetime. (B) so that
(A) It is despite (C) as a result of
(B) Despite (D) it is that
(C) Even though
12. sodium chloride (salt)
(D)
___
In spite of
is not used by sea-living
10. laser beam can be organisms, it forms the domi­
moved easily in all directions, it nant mineral in seawater.
can be used for highly accurate (A) Since
cutting in industry. (B) It is since
(A) Because of (C) Although
(B) It is a (D) Although it
(C) A
(D) As a
 PR E POS I T I ONA L
PH RAS E S

Introduction: Land Art

The land art movement first appeared in the U.S. in the late 1 960s. Most of the
work was created in a landscape setting, using whatever materials the artist
came across. Part of its appeal is that in many cases the artist's work is quickly
changed by the forces of nature. For example, Robert Smithson built a vast
spiral jetty from earth and stones in the Great Salt Lake in Utah. Now deposits of
salt and sulphur have completely changed the way it looks.
Some land artists welcomed such impermanence, because it meant their
work could not be owned. As land art is often in wild, out-of-the-way places, it
is rarely seen by the public. Many artists therefore record there activities in
words, photographs, and so on.
Richard Long is one of the most famous and successful- land artists. Much
of his work consists of going for long, carefully planned walks in wild and lonely
parts of the world. Sometimes he leaves his mark by making small changes to
the landscape, such as forming a line of stones. More recently he has brought
back objects from his walks and used them to make up sculptures in art
galleries.

EXERCISE 1

-
PreposltionaJ phrases are tem.d on the TOEFL• t..t. F1H in
the blanks with the correct preposition in the prepositional
phrase.
·-

1. It was the 1 960s ____ the United States that an art

movement called land art started.

2. Land art is created ____ landscape setting ____ wild parts

____ the world.

3. Many times the artist's work is changed ____ nature.

4. Robert Smithson built a jetty ____ earth and stone ____ the
Great Salt Lake Utah.

94
 CHAPTER 1 0 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES 95

5. Land art is found ____ out-of-reach places and is therefore not seen
___ many people.

6. Land artists often record their work ____ text or photographs.

EXERCISE 2

Conwct. the prepositions in the following sentences.

1. Richard Long leaves his mark by making changes with the landscape.
2. Richard Long brings back found objects of his walks.

3. Richard Long uses the objects in sculptures that are shown on art galleries.

4. Land art involves the artist going into nature, usually from a remote area.
5. The only record that remains of land art is photographic, sometimes
combined of maps.

Grammar: Prepositional Phrases

The following are some common prepositions:
about behind in through
above below in spite of throughout
across beneath into till
after beside like/unlike to
against between near toward
along beyond of under
among by off until
around despite on up
as down out upon
at during out of with
because of for over within
before from since without
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition and an object. The object
may be a noun or a pronoun.
The work is changed nature
subject verb preposition object ofpreposition
The work is changed by it
subject verb preposition object ofpreposition

The noun may have modifiers. In this case it is called a noun phrase.
Land art is in wild places
subject verb preposition modifier object ofpreposition
96 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

EXERCISE 3

Mark the subiecf S, verb V, object 0, and pi..positional

phrases PP in the following sentences.
' ,
v--
1 . Art
'S. 0 _e -;:).
�s have pamted ��tur
. 1� centunes.
.
-
2. Richa� Long _:.ecotded his �ork ® different ways.
3. Most �rals are Painted in naturalistic style.
- .

(9 The r�le of a� Western culture has ch�ged �the last hundred years.
V"

�
5. Futurism emc:_rgec(ffi) northem Italy befo � the First World War.

6. Some contemporary artists l!.ave r �e '

�
�ed art gillenes f r political
reasons.

I
Strategy
look for the preposition and its object. Some words used as prepositions
may not be used in a prepositional phrase.

Do not confuse a clause with a prepositional phrase.

Not a prepositional phrase: Because it changed, the work was

impermanent.
Prepositional phrase: Because of change, the work was impermanent.
In other cases, a phrasal verb may cause confusion. A phrasal verb is a verb with
one or two prepositions that together have a special meaning.

C
Not a prepositional phrase: The artist ran across an object.
( (the phrasal verb "run across" means to meet by accident)
l Prepositional phrase: The artist ran across the room to get a canvas.
 CHAPTER 1 0 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES 97

ExERCISE 4

Underline the prepositional · phrases in the following

sentences.

";. \) 0
1. The invention of photograph�Os encouraged artists to attempt
even greater realis �their paintings. -- .. -
----=-- -·
� As the nineteenth cen;� wor�me artists began � questi�n_!!_1_! C:
!_leeQ. for art to refer to the ��_de !:.Orld

3. By the nineteenth century, art dealers had begun to sell uncommissioned

art § wider Q�b!ic-:--
4. Monet was more concerned with expressing an almo_� mystical sense of
cQ_mmunion with 1?-��re than w-ith ":_oridilgSpo�taneously.
5. With the Industrial Revolution the landscape began to change more and
more, and-- artists began i:OloOk into its negative and positive aspects.

____.,.
6. Land art involves the artist going out into nature, usually in a remote
-- --
�· and making his or her mark �-

Strategy
Make sure you choose the correct prepositiQO. To review prepositions, see
Chapter 5.

ExERCISE 5

Choose the co_rrect preposition to complete the sentence.

Circle the letter of the best answer.

1. Artists have painted nature 2. As Europe became more

-- centuries. industrialized, art began to
-,----
vf:A) for reflect a growing nostalgia
(B) in ___ the old rural way of
(C) since life.
(D) by (A) in
./(B) for
(C) of
(D) to
98 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

3. By the twentieth century, artists 6. The key role of the still life in
were becoming less conven- modern art has been as a focus
tiona! the way they technical and stylistic
portrayed landscape and nature experiments.
in general. (A) in
(A) by <{B) on
(B) as (C) with
./(C) in (D) to
(D) for
7. Futurists were inspired
4. Cubism was the result the dynamism of the
a gradual process of change. machine age.
(A) on (A) with
(B) with (B) of
(C) in (C) by
J(D) of (D) on
51 with landscape, 8. Op art became a very trendy
seventeenth century Dutch movement and had a big
artists were the ftrst to paint influence fashion.
still lifes for their own sake. (A) in
/(A) As (B) to
(B) In (C) with
(C) Since -/(D) on
(D) Beyond

On the TOEfL® Test

Prepositional phrases often appear at the beginning of a sentence but may also
appear in other parts of the sentence.
The wrong preposition will appear in the distractors, or a clause may be
used in the distractors without a connector to join it to the other clause.
It is important to remember that the subject of a sentence cannot be the
object of a preposition.
Example: turn of the century, the frrst art galleries and
museums were built.
(A) The
(B) Around the
(C) It was around the
(D) When the
Choice (B) best completes the sentence. (A) is not correct as there is no
connector joining the noun phrase "the turn of the century" with the
rest of the sentence. (C) is a clause, but there is no connector joining it
 CHAPTER 1 0 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES 99

to the other clause. (D) looks like a subordirtate clause but does not
have a verb.
Example: realistic painting or sculpture, emotion is expressed
mainly through people's poses and expression.
(A) In a
(B) It is in a
(C) As
(D) A
The best answer is (A). (B) is a clause but there is no connector joining
it to the other clause. (C) looks like a clause but does not have a verb.
(D) is not correct as there is no connector joining it to the rest of the
sentence.

EXERCISES ON PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

"'-' the '"'

,..,..... ....
-v;..
.......
er plra1t1, chGatt ..,. ... ... belt

1. Camels store water ___ of fat in their humps.

(A) with the form
v(B) in the form
(C) by the form
(D) form
2. Tears contain an antiseptic that helps protect our eyes ___

infection.
(A) from bacterial
(B) in bacterial
(C) bacterial
(D) with bacterial
3. So far only two other of our neighboring planets ___ the solar
system have been visited by unmanned spacecraft.
(A) by
(B) that they are in
(C) in
(D) they are by
1 00 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

4. Many tropical orchids grow branches of trees and have aerial

roots that absorb water from the moist air around them.
(A) of the
(B) the
(C) they are in the
(D) in the
5. compact disc, sound is stored as digital information in tiny pits
on the surface.
(A) On a
(B) A
(C) It is on a
(D) Of a
6. Giraffes sleep only an hour at a time and often do not sleep at
all during twenty-four hours.
(A) by
(B) for
(C) in
(D) during
7. were invented, patients had to be held down by force during
painful operations.
(A) As anesthetics
(B) Because anesthetics
(C) Before anesthetics
(D) Anesthetics
8. The surface of a cactus is coated ___ waxy layer that prevents
water from evaporating from the plant.
(A) it is a
(B) a
(C) by a
(D) with a
9. eighteenth century, people began to realize that certain
chemicals are affected and changed by light.
(A) By the
(B) The
(C) It was the
(D) That in the
 CHAPTER 1 0 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES 1 01

10. In addition to their homes, the Porno Indians of California built dance
houses ___ religious ceremonies.
(A) of
(B) for
(C) in which
(D) were for
11. The wood of many pine species makes excellent pulp ___ manu-
facture of paper.
(A) in
(B) to
(C) for the
(D) the
12. The photos of the American Civil War made by Matthew Brady and his
assistants rank finest war pictures of all time.
(A) the
(B) in the
(C) between the
(D) among the
 -

il l
...
COM PARA T I V E S AN D
SUPE R L A T I V ES
u

Introduction: Violins

Violino Violin Viola Cello Double Bass

Piccolo

For 1 00 or more years the violin was looked down on as a lesser musical
instrument; music was not composed especially for it except in overtures to
court pageants or background music for aristocratic drawing rooms. However,
beginning around 1 680 into the nineteenth century a succession of Italian
violinist composers created an enormous amount of music for the violin­
people such as Corelli, Vivaldi, Pugnani, Paganini, and Viotti.
The violin is the principal member of the violin family. The other members
are the viola, the cello, and the double bass. The full-size violin, which is the
smallest and highest pitched of the stringed instruments played with a bow, has
a body size of fourteen inches. The viola is slightly larger than the violin, and it
has a slightly richer but less brilliant tone. It is really an alto violin, and it fills the
gap between the violin and the cello.

1 02
 CHAPTER 1 1 COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES 1 03

The greatest of the violin makers was Antonio Stradivari, who was born in
1644. During his lifetime, Stradivari made over a thousand stringed instruments,
of which about six hundred are still in existence.

ExERCISE 1

Comparatives and superlatives are tested on the TOEfL® Test.

Complete the seme.,ces with the comparative or superlative
form\ from the reading.

1. People looked down on the violin as a ______ musical instru-

ment.

2. The violin is the _____ and ______ pitched of the

stringed instruments played with a bow.

3. The viola is than the violin.

4. The viola has a tone than the violin.

5. But the viola has a less tone than the violin.

6. Antonio Stradivari was the violin maker.

ExERCISE 2
Fill in the blanks with one of the words in the box.

small big smaller bigger biggest smallest

1. The double bass is the of the violin family.

2. The cello is than the double bass.

3. The cello is than the viola.

4. The viola is not as as the cello.

5. The violin is not as as the viola.

6. The violin is the of the violin family.

Grammar: Comparatives and Superlatives

THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE OF
ADJECTIVES
There are three forms of comparison: the absolute (the base form of the
adjective), the comparative, and the superlative.
1 04 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

1 . The absolute form is used to describe a thing or person.

The violin is a smaU instrument.

2. The comparative is used when comparing rwo things, or when compar­
ing something(s) with other things.

The violin is smaller than the cello.

3. The superlative is used when comparing more than rwo things, or when
one in a group has the greatest amount of a quality.

The violin is the smallest of the violin family.

Strategy
Check to see that the correct form of the comparative and superlative is used
where needed on the TOEFl® Test.
,.

a. The comparative and the superlative of one-syllable adjectives are

formed by adding -er and -est to the absolute.
Absolute Comparative Superlative
small smaller smallest
high higher highest

b. The comparative and the superlative of adjectives of three or more

syllables are formed by adding more and most.
Absolute Comparative Superlative
brilliant more brilliant most brilliant
important more important most important
 CHAPTER 1 1 COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES 1 05

Strategy
Check to see that the absolute, comparative, and superlative structures are
formed correc�y in TOEFL® Test questions.

c. Some adjectives ending in -er, -y, or -le form comparatives and superla­
tives by adding -er or -est to the absolute form ("y" changes to "i").

Absolute Comparative Superlative

early earlier earliest
simple simpler simplest

THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE OF

ADVERBS
The forms used for the comparison of adjectives are also used for the
comparison of adverbs.

d. For the comparative and superlative forms of all one-syllable adverbs use
-er and -est.
Absolute Comparative Superlative
fast faster fastest
early earlier earliest

e. For all other adverbs use more and most.

Absolute Comparative Superlative

slowly more slowly most slowly
commonly more commonly most commonly

f. The following are irregular comparatives and superlatives of adjectives

and adverbs.

Absolute Comparative Superlative

good (adj) better best
well (adv) better best
bad (adj) worse worst
badly (adv) worse worst
little (adj/adv) less least
many (adj) more most
much (adj/adv) more most
far (adj/adv) farther farthest
further furthest
late (adv) later last
old (adj) older oldest
elder eldest
1 06 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

g. The comparative form less and the superlative from least are used with
both adjectives and adverbs to show that something does not have as
much as something else.

1bts mass-produced violin is less expensive.

Of the mass-produced violins, this one is the least expensive.

OTHER FORMS OF THE COMPARATIVE

1. As . . . as I Not as . . as I Not so . . . as
.

When things that are equal are compared, the following forms can be
used:

as . . . as
not as (positive) as
not so (positive) as

1bere are not as many violin makers today as there were in the past.
Playing the violin ts not as difficult as you might think.

2. The Double Comparative

The double comparative is used to show parallel increase or decrease.

the + comparative . . . the + comparative

The more be plays, the more be improves.

The shorter the string, the higher the note.
3. As and Like
In a simple comparison, like is used before a noun or pronoun.

You play the cello with a bow like the violin.

If a verb follows the noun and pronoun, as must be used.

You,play the cello with a bow as you do the violin.

 CHAPTER l l COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES 1 07

ExERCISE 3
' -

Underline the compaaatlvel lhcd Cll"e lncorNct In the

following sentences.

1. Stretching a string more tightly gives a highest note.

2. The violin is probably the most importantest of all orchestral instru·
ments.

3. The viols are bowed strings that are more older than the violin family.
4. The viols do not have as bright a sound the violin family.

5. The heavier the string, the low the note it sounds.

6. Small violins have short strings than full-sized instruments, but they play
the same notes.

7. Andres Segovia is the more famous classical guitarist in the world.

8. It is said that a special varnish used on a violin helps to produce the

more beautiful tone.

On the TOEfL® Test

In the Structure section, adjectives are usually compared. The forms as . . . as,
the more . . . the more, similar to, differentfrom, unlike, and so on may appear
in this section.

Example: tilted toward the sun, the more heat it receives and
the hotter it is.
(A) As more as the earth is
(B) The more the earth is
(C) The earth is more than
(D) The earth is most
The best choice is (B); it should have the construction the more . . . the
more.
In the Written Expression section, the three forms of the comparative and
superlative (the absolute, comparative, or superlative) may be used incorrectly.

Example: The Great Plains region of the United States suffered one of
A
the worse droughts in history from 1 9 3 1 to 1 938.
B C D
The best answer is (B); the sentence does not compare two groups and
therefore, the superlative worst is required.
1 08 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

ExERCISES ON CoMPARATIVES AND SuPERLATIVES

From the four words or phrates (A), (1), (C), 01' (D), choose
the one that best comple... the ......._. ,

1. Temperature, the simplest 5. Impalas cannot move as

weather element to measure, is ___ cheetahs, but they are
probably used than more efficient runners.
any other kind of data. (A) faster than
(A) more frequently (B) fast as
(B) most frequently (C) fast
(C) as frequently (D) are fast as
(D) frequently
6. Apart from Pluto, the outer
2. Paprika is red or planets the inner
cayenne pepper, and it has a planets and are made mainly of
sweeter taste. lighter materials such as
(A) least biting hydrogen and helium.
(B) less biting than (A) are larger than
(C) lesser biting than (B) are the largest
(D) less as (C) larger than
(D) are large
3. The foods that contain
___ are made of animal fat
whereas vegetables have the
least energy.
(A) as much energy as
(B) the more energy
(C) the most energy
(D) more energy than
4. Albert Einstein's contributions
to scientific theory were
___ those of Galileo and
Newton.
(A) important than
(B) more important
(C) the most important
(D) as important as
 CHAPTER 1 1 COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES 1 09

From the four underlined words or phrases, (A), (B), (C), or

(D), identify the one that is not correct.

7. During the 1700s, Philadelphia developed into the most wealthy city in
A B C
the American colonies.
D
8. According to Freud, the mind experiences more unconsciouser than
A B C
conscious activity.
D
9. Eleanor Roosevelt was one of the most activest and influential frrst
-- --

A B C D
ladies.

10. The Sahara Desert in Africa is by far the most large desert in the world,
A B
covering an area nearly as big as the United States.
C D
11. Peanuts are closely related to peas than to nuts.
A B C D
12. Most evergreens have needle-like leaves that require least water than
A B C
regular leaves.
D
 CONJ UNC T I ONS

Introduction: The Soya Bean's Industrial Uses

Soya is not only used in the manufacture of food for human and animal
consumption but also in a variety of industrial processes. These range from the
manufacture of adhesives and plastics to dynamite and waterproofing
preparations.
For many years soya bean oil has been used in the manufacture of paints,
both for domestic and industrial use. It is also used in the printing industry in
printing inks, adhesives, and paper. In the United States the soya bean is used in
the brewing industry to help the yeast ferment and enhance the flavor of beer.
Soya is even used in fire-fighting as a foam agent. When mixed with water
and air it produces the fire-fighting foam. Water might put out the surface
flames, but the fire could still be burning underneath. Fire-fighting foam on the
other hand clings to most surfaces and does not drain as quickly as water. If oil
has caught fire, the foam floats on the surface! and smothers the flames.
Glycerine, which is a byproduct of vegetable oils including soya, is used in
nearly every industry. It is an ingredient in many medicines including cough
mixtures and is also a basic medium in toothpaste. Glycerine is not only used in
glues to prevent quick drying, but also in the manufacture of explosives. No
doubt as research and experiments continue, even more uses for this versatile
crop will be found.

EXERCISE 1

Coniunctions are tested on the TOEFL• Test. Fill in the blanks

with one of the following coniunctions: and, but, or or.

1. Soya is used in the printing industry in printing inks, adhesives,

____ paper.

2. In the brewing industry soya helps the yeast to ferment ____

enhances the flavor of the beer.

3. When soya is mixed with water ____ air it produces a fire-fighting

foam.

1 10
 CHAPTER 1 2 CONJUNCTIONS 111

4. Water might put out the flames ___ the fire would still be burning
underneath.
5. Fire-fighting foam clings to surfaces ____ does not drain as quickly
as water.
6. Glycerine is used in many medicines including cough mixtures ____

is the basic medium in toothpaste.

ExERCISE 2

Correct the mistakes with the

sentences: not .only· INit a&o or
• • •
� conltructions In the
• • • fiiHL

1. Soya is used not only in many food processes and also in many industrial
processes.
2. Soya has been used in the manufacture of paints for both industrial or
domestic use.
3. Glycerine is used not only in glues but in the manufacture of explosives.
4. Soya is used in the manufacture of food for both human consumption
but also animal consumption.
5. American farmers have been encouraged to grow more soya not only
because the export market has expanded also because the demand at
home has increased.
6. The ancient Chinese used the soya bean for both food and also medi­
cine.

Grammar: Coniunctions
Conjunctions are tested in both the Structure and Written Expression sections.
The two kinds of conjunctions tested are:
a. Coordinating conjunctions
b. Correlative conjunctions
1 12 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
Coordinating conjunctions connect words or phrases that have the same
function in a sentence. The coordinating conjunctions tested on the TOEFL®
Test are and, but, or, and so.

1. And
And joins two or more words, phrases, or clauses of similar function and
is used to show addition.

Like peas and broad beans, soya beans grow in pods.

lbe plant is ready for harvesting when the leaves turn yellow and
drop off, and the pods and stems dry out.
Note: When and joins two subjects, the verb is plural.

Soya beans and peas have pods.

2. But

But joins two or more words, phrases, or clauses and is used to show
contrast.

In the U.S. soya is not harvested by band but my machine.

Soya is not a new discovery but is one of the oldest crops grown in the
Orient.
3. Or

Or joins two or more words, phrases, or clauses. It is used to give a

choice.

lbe beans may be yellow, green, brown, or mottled.

After being chilled, the margarine is packed into tubs or cut in blocks.
4. So

So joins a clause. It does not join single words or phrases. So is used to

show effect.

lbe soya bean is versatile, so it is grown widely.

 CHAPTER 1 2 CONJUNCTIONS 1 13

Strategy
Although other conjunctions are not.tested diredly ,i n the. Structure section,
some conjunctive. adverbs like moreover, ll8Vef1heless, and therefore may
appear in the distractors, in which case thE!)' will. . be the wrong choice.
However, when these words appear with conjunctitins like and, but, or or,,
they may, be used to join clauses.
Example: and therefore
but nevertheless
and moreover

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
Like coordinating conjunctions, these words are used to join words, phrases,
and clauses. Correlative conjunctions or paired conjunctions appear in two
parts:

either . . . or
neither . . . nor
both . . . and
not only , , , but also
whether . . . or

Each of the pair of words should be followed by a word of the same

grammatical form.

Either (noun) or (noun)

Not only (adj) but also (adj)
1. Either . . . or

Either . . . or is used to indicate alternatives.

Soya can be used in either fish feed or chicken feed.

The subject closest to the verb will determine if the verb is singular or
plural.

2. Neither . . . nor
Neither . . . nor is used to indicate negative alternatives.
Soya is dangerous to neither humans nor animals.
The subject closest to the verb will determine if the verb is singular or
plural.
1 14 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

3. Both . . . and
Both . . . and indicates addition.

Soya protein isolate is used in both meat and fish products.

Subjects connected with both . . . and take a plural verb.

4. Not only . . . but also

Not only . . . but also rnJ.phasizes addition.

Soya is not only the most efficient but also the least costly source of
protein.
The not only clause must come before the phrase it refers to. The
subject closest to the verb will determine if the verb is singular or
plural.

5. Whether . . . or
Whether . . . or indicates a condition.

Whether it is in the print of a newspaper or the food we eat, our lives

are touched by soya.

EXERCISE 3

Circle the lettw of the word or .,..rase � correctly

eotnpletes the sentence. · ,

1. Around 1 9 1 0 chemists and 2. The expansion of the industry

manufacturers came to recog· was not only due to the world
nize the value of the soya bean, shortage of edible oils,
____ the great soya ____ to the Second World
processing industry was born. War, which put traditional
(A) with sources of protein in short
(B) and supply.
(C) but (A) but also
(D) or (B) as well as
(C) and so
(D) but also as
 CHAPTER 1 2 CONJUNCTIONS 1 15

3. Research began in the United 6. The ground bran from soya is

States into ways of using soya used either in breakfast cereals
meal for human food, in animal feed.
it was not until the 1 950s that (A) nor
the first edible soya protein was (B) or
produced. (C) and also
(A) nevertheless (D) and
(B) or
7. Soya protein isolate is used
(C) but
where a high level of protein is
(D) and
required, whether it is dietetic
4. The soya plant is an annual, hospital food.
new seeds must be (A) or
planted every year. (B) nor
(A) such (C) and also
(B) and since (D) but also
(C) while
8. Today most margarine is made
(D) so
of vegetable oils
5. The soya plant is attacked by originally it was made from
both fungus disease animal fats.
virus disease. (A) except
(A) and (B) but
(B) and also (C) nevertheless
(C) but also (D) thus
(D) or

On the TOEfL® Test

In the Structure section errors with conjunctions include:

1. Coordinating conjunctions:

and (addition)
but (contrast)
or (choice)
2. Correlative conjunctions:

either . . . or
neither . . . nor
both . . . and
not only . . . but also
whether . . . or
Since correlative conjunctions are in two parts, there is usually an error in one
of the parts.
1 16 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

Example: Soya is an important crop used in ____ food and industrial

processes.
(A) either
(B) both
(C) and
(D) just
The best answer is (B); the correct construction is both . . . and; the other
distractors do not follow this construction.

In the Written Expression section errors with conjunctions also include:

1. Coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or

2. Correlative conjunctions: either . . . or, neither . . . nor, both . . . and,

not only . . . but also, whether . . . or

Example: Soya beans contain not only vitamins and also important
A B C D
minerals.

The correct answer is (C); the correct construction is not only . . . but
also.

ExERCISES oN CoNJUNCTIONS

From the four words or phrases (A), (B), (C), or (D), choose
the one that best completes the sentence.

1. Both diamond 3. Normally, piranhas swim alone

graphite are made of the same and feed on smaller fish
element, which is carbon. on seeds in the water.
(A) and (A) but
(B) except (B) either
(C) tQgether (C) instead
(D) both (D) or
2. Blinking helps keep the surface 4. Most rodents eat grain, seeds,
of the eye clean and nuts, some eat
moist. almost anything.
(A) to (A) contrary
(B) or (B) they
(C) and (C) but
(D) so (D) instead
 CHAPTER 1 2 CONJUNCTIONS 1 17

5. Fungi do not absorb sunlight 6. Recently doctors warned that

but use animals and plants, too much animal fat in the diet
___ dead and living, as can lead to heart disease,
their source of food. ___ special types of
(A) furthermore margarine made with vegetable
(B) both oils are becoming popular.
(C) together (A) because
(D) besides (B) so
(C) and since
(D) except

.
I
- the laur u.......,. w.onls or ...,_, ......,. ..., OM
. that it. not COI"'"eCt.

7. Peppermint originated in Europe, but the early English colonists

A B
brought !! to North America.
C D
8. The central core of the earth is made of both very hot or dense material.
A B C D
9. Many meteorite falls go unnoticed because they either happen at night
A B C
nor they hit the earth in uninhabited areas.
D
10. Octopuses have not only large brains and also � well-developed nervous
A B C D
system.

1 1 . Most scholars are unsure whether the wheel was first used by potters in
A B C
Mesopotamia and in the central or eastern parts of Europe.
D
12. Compact discs are affected neither by scratching and by dust.
A B C D
 PARA L L E L
S TRUC TUR E

Introduction: Vitamin C
In the past people suffered from a disease called scurvy. Theil- gums bled, their
skin became rough, their wounds did not heal, and their muscles wasted away.
The cause of these symptoms was a lack of vitamin C; people ate preserved
meats and foods and could not get fresh vegetables and fruits.
The best sources of vitamin C are oranges, lemons, grapefruit,
cantaloupes, strawberries, and fresh vegetables. These fruits must be fresh
because vitamin C is destroyed by heat, storage, or exposure to air.
Although today more people take vitamin C pills than any other
supplement, some people still have scurvy, including some of the elderly,
alcoholics, and the chronically ill.
Research shows that vitamin C reduces the severity of colds and can help
prevent cancer. There is also evidence that vitamin C prevents heart disease,
speeds wound healing, helps prevent gum disease, and helps protect us from
pollutants such as cigarette smoke. Some recent research also shows that
vitamin C has a positive effect on some mental disorders and increases life span.

EXERCISE 1

Parallel Structure is tested on the TOEFL® Test. Complete the

following sentences with words from the passage that have
parallel structure.

1. In the past, people got scurvy because they did not get
_______ and _______ .

2. When people got scurvy their _______ , _______

_______ , and _______

3. Vitamin C is destroyed by _______ _______ , or

4. Today some people like ______ ______ , and

_______ have scurvy.

1 18
 CHAPTER 1 3 PARALLEL STRUCTURE 1 19

5. There is evidence that vitamin C prevents heart disease,

______ ______ , and ____________

6. Recent research shows that vitamin C helps some mental disorders and

ExERCISE 2

Correct the claims for and against vitamin C supplements by

putting them in the same form . Use the simple present tense
for the verba.

For

1. Lowering cholesterol and fights heart disease.

______ 2. Helps to keep good eyesight.

______ 3. Protects against smoking and various pollutants.
______ 4. Diabetes fights.

______ 5. Will fight gum disease.

______ 6. Strengthen immunity against colds.

Against

______ 1. Is a waste of money because the body excretes excess vitamin

c.

______ 2. Will cause kidney stones or gout in some people.

______ 3. May cause diarrhea and stomach cramps in some people.

______ 4. Cause stones in the bladder in some people.

Grammar: Parallel Structure

Many sentences present information in a series or list. The series may have two,
three, or more parts that all have the same grammatical structure. This is known
as parallel structure.

Shategy . .

Make sure that words in a sequence have the same form. These may be
nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, phrases, and so on.
1 20 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

a. Series Containing Nouns, Adjectives, Adverbs, or Phrases

Nouns: Vitamin C is destroyed by beat, storage, or exposure to

air.

Adjectives: The criticism that taking vitamin C supplements is a

waste of money is considered to be inaccurate and
unwarranted by some.

Verbs: There is evidence that vitamin C prevents heart disease,

speeds wound healing, and helps gum disease.
Adverbs: Vitamin supplements can be prepared naturaUy and
syntheticaUy.
Phrases: Large amounts of vitamin C can be bought in the form
of crystals, or in the form of granules.
b. Gerunds or Infinitives

Infinitive: When people get scurvy their cells tend to disintegrate

and to faU apart.

Gerund: Claims for vitamin C such as reducing stress and

improving athletic performance have not been scientifi­
cally demonstrated.
c. Correlative Conjunctions
both . . . and neither . . . nor
either . . . or not only . . . but also

Both fruits and vegetables are rich sources of vitamin C.

Since vitamin A is not created in the body, it must be supplied by
either food or supplements.

ExERCISE 3

The folloWing sentences contain a series. Underline the

parallel structure, then say what type of series the sentence
contains by using the following abbreviations: nouns (N),
verbs (V), ad;ectives (ADJ), adverbs (ADV).

1. Vitamin E protects against heart disease, prevents cancer, and fights skin
problems.

2. The mineral fluoride is found naturally in soils, water, plants, and animal
tissue.
 CHAPTER 1 3 PARALLEL STRUCTURE 121

3. The tomato plant needs a long growing season and light, rich, well·
drained soil.

4. Vitamin E is being employed slowly but steadily in medicine in an

expanding range of ailments.

5. Studies have shown that vitamin C can reduce the severity and length of
colds, but not the number of colds a person gets.

6. If you do not have enough iron, you can suffer from anemia, which
makes you pale, tired, and weak.

EXERCISE 4

1. Iron-deficiency anemia has been implicated in emotion, social, and

learning difficulties in infants, adolescents, and adults.

2. All "B" vitamins are needed for a healthy appetite, energy production in
cells, healthy nervous, and skin.

3. Some vitamins may cause toxic, allergy reactions in some people.

4. Symptoms of a mild case of vitamin C deficiency may be weakness,
irritable, loss of weight, and apathy.

5. Claims that vitamin C will prevent, relief, or cure colds and winter
illnesses are unwarranted, according to Hodges.

6. Magnesium deficiency is characterized by loss of appetite, nausea,

confusing, loss of coordination, and tremors.

ExERCISE 5

Identify and correct errors in parallel structure related to

infinitive• and gerund• in ·the following sentences.

1. Some people take vitamin E to relieve muscular cramps, to extend life

span, and fighting skin problems.

2. The Nobel laureate Dr. linus Pauling persistently claimed that vitamin C
is effective in preventing and alleviating colds and to treat cancer.
1 22 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

3. Many food processes such as drying, flavoring, canning, and to tenderize

may add salt.

4. It is important to select foods that are in their best state, storing them
properly, and prepare them to ensure the maximum retention of vitamin C.

5. Avoiding the purchase of foods with salt content while marketing or to

eat out is helpful.

6. The major function of vitamin D is to ensure an adequate supply of

calcium and phosphorus in the bones, to prevent rickets in children,
and maintaining good levels of calcium apd phosphorus in the blood.

EXERCISE 6

Identify and correct errors in parallel structure related to

correiGfive conjunctions in the following sentences.

1. Very large intakes of any of the essential nutrients may result in both
undesirable toxic symptoms and seriously side effects.

2. Minerals in the cell influence not only the vital processes of oxidation
but also secreting and growth.

3. Many people feel that both frozen and can fruits and vegetables are
inferior to fresh produce.

4. Canned food can be kept neither for unlimited lengths of time nor any
temperature.

5. Fruit grown either sheltered from sunlight or growing in a season of

many rainy days will not have much vitamin C.

6. Good peaches should be neither too hard, nor too softness.

On the TOEfL® Test

Parallel structure is tested in both the Structure section and the Written
Expression section. Words in parallel structure must have the same form in a
sequence. In the Structure section look for words from the choice of (A), (B),
(C), and (D) that follow the same form as in the main sentence.

Example: Vitamin C boosts immunity against colds, ____ asthma,

and helps maintain good vision.
(A) counteracting
(B) counteracts
(C) will counteract
(D) it is counteractive to
 CHAPTER 1 3 PARALLEL STRUCTURE 1 23

The best answer is (B) because it is parallel with the other items in the
sequence: boosts immunity and helps maintain good vision. Answer choices (A),
(C), and (D) are not in the simple present tense and therefore are not parallel.

In the Written Expression section, sentences have the same errors in

parallel structure as in the Structure section. Sentences have a sequence of three
or more items, but here one of the items in the sequence is not grammatically
parallel with the other items in the sequence.

Example: Symptoms of mild vitamin C deficiency may be weakness,

A
irritability, losing weight, and apathy.
B C D
The best answer choice is (C) because it is not parallel with the other
items in the series: losing is a gerund whereas the other items are nouns.

ExERCISES ON PARALLEL STRUCTURE

From the four underlined words or phrases (A), (B), (C), or

(D), iclentify the one that is not correct.
' '

1. In the human body, phosphorus compounds are found chiefly in

A
the bones, brain, and nervous.
B C D
2. Pipelines are continually inspected for leaks and for damage caused by
A
such conditions as freezing temperatures, heavy rain, and soil erode.
B C D
3. The sounds produced by a musical instrument, to whistle, or a siren
A B C
have seven frequencies at the same time.
D
4. Plastics used to make textiles can be drawn into fine threads, then
A B
woven
---
or --
knit into fabrics.
c D
5. Insufficient protein in the diet may cause a lack of energy,
A B
stunted growth, and lowering resistance to disease.
C D
1 24 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

6. Chemical substances called hormones, many of which are proteins,

A
control such processes as growth, develop, and reproduction.
B C D

From the four words or phrases (A), (B), (C), or (0), choose
the one that best completes the sentence.

7. To qualify as a language, a 10. Morse invented a code in which

communication system must letters, numbers, and
have the features of meaningful- are changed into short and long
ness, , and productiv- signals called dots and dashes.
ity.
(A) punctuate
(A) displacement (B) punctuating
(B) to displace (C) to punctuate
(C) displacing (D) punctuation
(D) to be displaced
1 1 . Hormones have many jobs,
8. Many mental disorders are from promoting bodily growth
believed to result from a to to regulating
combination of emotional, metabolism.
, and biological factors.
(A) aid digestion
(A) society (B) aiding digestion
(B) social (C) be of aid to digestion
(C) socially (D) an aid of digestion
(D) to be social
12. Thomas Malthus claimed that
9. A neuron cell can not only disease, war, famine, and
receive messages from sense act as checks on
organs, but it can also population growth.

(A) moral restraining

(A) to transmit messages (B) morally restrain
throughout the body. (C) moral restraint
(B) by transmitting messages (D) by moral restraint
throughout the body
(C) transmit messages through-
out the body
(D) a transmitter of messages
throughout the body
 WOR D OR D E R

Introduction: Computers
It is relatively easy for computers to speak. A computer that says "please" and
"thank you" in the right places is no miracle of science, but recognizing the
words that make up normal, continuous human speech is another matter.
Not until now have computers been programmed to react to a range of
spoken commands. Until recently it was thought that computers would have to
be programmed to the accent and speech habits of each user, and only then
would be able to respond accurately to their master's or mistress's voice. Now
rapid progress is being made with systems programmed to adapt easily to each
new speaker.
The IBM Tangora system, under development at the end of the 1 980s, was
claimed to recognize a spoken vocabulary of 20,000 words with 95 percent
accuracy. The system includes a processor that can make informed guesses as to
what is a likely sentence. The system has been programmed not only with
grammatical rules, but also with an analysis of a vast quantity of office
correspondence. On the basis of this information, the machine can calculate the
probability of one particular word following another.
Statistical probability is necessary for computers to interpret not only
speech but also visual data. Security systems can distinguish between faces they
have been taught to recognize, but never has a computer been able to match a
human's ability to make sense of a three-dimensional scene by identifying all
objects in it.

1 25
1 26 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

ExERCISE 1
'
Word Order ia luted on the TOEFL• Tftt. Correct the word
order in the following sentences.

1. For computers to speak relatively easy is.

2. Until recently it thought was computers would have to be programmed

to the accent and speech habits of the user.

3. It is claimed that the IDM Tangora system can recognize a vocabulary

spoken of 20,000 words.

4. Statistical probability necessary is for computers to interpret not only

speech but visual data as well.

5. Up to now have computers not been programmed to react to a range of

spoken commands.

6. The machine can calculate the probability of one word particular

following another.

EXERCISE 2

With sentences starting with a negative word, word order is

reversed. Complete the sentences with the c.orrect negative
word . ·

1. (Not until/Never) now have computers been programmed to react to

spoken commands.
2. (Never/Not only) has a computer been able to match a human's ability
to make sense of a three-dimensional scene.

3. (Only/Not only) are grammatical rules programmed into the computer

but also an analysis of office correspondence.

4. (Not until/Scarcely) recently was it thought that computers would have

to be programmed to the speech and accent of the user.

5. (Only/No sooner than) recently has progress been made in recognizing

human speech.

6. (Nor/Not only) can a computer recognize a three-dimensional scene by

identifying all objects in it.
 CHAPTER 1 4 WORD ORDER 1 27

Grammar: Word Order

INVERSION
In English the usual word order is

subject (S) + verb (V) + object (0)

In some situations the order is changed, and the verb is placed before the
subject.

1. In a question the subject follows the aux-word or verb.

Usual word order: You are using a computer.

s v 0

Inversion: Are J!!!!!:. using a computer?

s 0

2. When there is a prepositional phrase indicating place at the beginning of

a sentence, inversion occurs.
Usual word order: The workings of the computer are inside the
system unit.
Inversion: Inside the system unit are the workings of the
computer.
Usual word order: The computer programs are fed into the
computer.
Inversion: Into the comuter are fed the computer pro­
grams.

3. When the conditional " if ' has been omitted, inverted word order is
correct.
Usual word order: If I had used a computer it would have been
finished now.
Inversion: Had I used a computer, it would have been
finished now.
Usual word order: Ifyou should need the information, it will be
in the computer.
Inversion: Should you need the information, it will be in
the computer.
1 28 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

4. When a statement begins with a negative word or phrase, inversion

occurs.

When the words below begin a sentence or an independent clause,

there is a change in word order.
never only
nor only after
neither only once
hardly ever only once
no sooner than only in this way
not often only only then
not only . . . as well rarely
not only . . . but also scarcely
not until seldom
nowhere under no circumstances
on no account so
Usual word order: I will never again write on a typewriter.
Inversion: Never again will I write on a typewriter.
Usual word order: The computer not only examines information
but also performs logical operations.
Inversion: Not only does the computer examine informa­
tion but it also performs logical operations.

ExERCISE 3

Rewrite the sentences with inverted word order.

1. If you should make an error, it can be corrected easily.

2. Information is stored on a magnetic disk.

3. If he had been more careful, we would not have lost all that data.
4. The computer not only stores information but also distributes it.

5. Personal computers no sooner were invented than typewriters began to

be replaced.

6. The impact of the computer has been strongly felt only recently.
 CHAPTER 1 4 WORD ORDER 1 29

OTHER WORDS REVERSED ON THE TOEFL® TEST

Strategy
Be. aware that other_ words such as nouns and adjectives, adverbs, and
adjectives, and so on are reversed in order in the Written Expression section.

Other words that are reversed in order that appear in the Written Expression
section may include:

1. Noun/adjective
Correct: important information
Error: information important

2. Adjective/adverb
Correct: an extremely accurate document
Error: an accurate extremely document

3. Relative pronoun/preposition
Correct: It has transformed the way in which people
work. 'I 1
Error: It has transformed the way which in people
work.

4. Enough plus adjective

Correct: simple enough
Error: enough simple

5. Indirect questions
Correct: He asked how expensive it was.
Error: He asked how expensive was it.

6. Participle/adverb
Correct: an accurately typed document
Error: a typed accurately document

7. Adjective/adverb
Correct: increasingly important machine
Error: important increasingly machine
1 30 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

ExERCISE 4

Identify one. of the four underlined words or phrases (A),

· (B), (C), or (D) that is not correct.

1. The development of voice recognition will enable the computer

A B
to respond to commands spoken.
C D
2. The direction which in computers are moving in education is what we
A B
learn rather than how we learn.
-- --

c D
3. The keyboard with alphabet keys is enough easy to use to give program
A B C D
instructions to the computer.

4. Computers are machines flexible that can adapt to a wide variety of

A B C D
tasks.

5. Computers can also produce complex and original highly music.

A B C D
6. Images and sounds often added are to games to make them
A B C
more realistic and more exciting.
D

On the TOEFL® Test

In the Written Exp�ession section, word order problems involve two words
in reverse order. These words may be:

1. Adjective/noun

2. Main verb/auxiliary
3. Enough/adjective
4. Indirect question word order

5. Adjective/adverb
 CHAPTER 1 4 WORD ORDER 131

6. Participle/adverb

7. Relative pronoun/preposition
Example: A pocket computer is generally enough small to fit into a
A B C
pocket or a small case.
D
The best answer is (C); the correct word order is adjective + enough: ·

small enough.
In the Structure section, word order problems involve sentences
beginning with negative words or conditionals.
Example: used for making decisions in the business world, but
also for forecasting and planning.
(A) Not only are computers
(B) Computers are
(C) Not only computers are
(D) Only computers are
The correct answer is (A); reversed subject/verb order is needed in
sentences beginning with the negative not only . . . but also construction.

EXERCISES ON INVERSION

'
I
'-' the four undootlnocl -.k or ......,_, ldonllfy the -
that Ia not correct.
.
1. In the nineteenth century, Ada Lovelace devised several computer
A B
programs for a calculating machine which in coded cards were used.
C D
2. In 1 82 1 , Babbage found !_! difficult to make a machine's parts
A B
enough accurate to prevent errors in calculation.
.

C D
3. Does seldom a computer make a mistake.
A B C D
4. Science � the process of gathering knowledge and answering questions
A B C
about the world and how works it.
D
1 32 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

5. The telescope first used was in 1 608 � a war weapon � on enemy

A B C D
ships.

6. When the weather � warm, or during exercise strenuous, the sweat

A B C
glands increase their production.
D

From the four words or phraset (A), (8), (C), or (D), choose
the one that best completes the senteJtce.

7. reptiles hunt at 11. ___ in medicine relieve

temperatures of l2°C or below. distress but they also prevent
(A) Seldom do and cure illness.
(B) Do seldom (A) Not only do computers
(C) Do (B) Do computers
(D) Seldom (C) Computers
(D) Computers not only
8. learn during their
sleep by listening to tape 12. Not only in the field
recordings. of psychology but animal
(A) People rarely can behavior is examined as well.
(B) Can people rarely (A) human behavior is studied
(C) Rarely can people (B) is human behavior studied
(D) Can rarely people (C) is studied human behavior
(D) human behavior
9. continental crust
older than 200 million years.
(A) It is nowhere the
(B) Nowhere is the
(C) Is nowhere the
(D) Is the nowhere
10. lay its eggs in the
sand on the beach that it goes
back to the sea.
(A) No sooner a turtle does
(B) A turtle does no sooner
(C) Does no sooner a turtle
(D) No sooner does a turtle
 WOR D FORMS

Introduction: Beniamin Franklin

Benjamin Franklin was an American politician, inventor, and scientist. He was
born in 1 706 and at the age of ten set to work in his father's candle and soap
business. However, he disliked his work and two years later he went to work for
a printer. He eventually became a successful printer, producing a weekly
newspaper and popular books. He also became a politician and helped the
United States become free from British rule. His inventions included a smokeless
stove, bifocal lenses, and new types of fertilizer.
In 1 752 Franklin conducted a dangerous experiment. By flying a kite during
a storm, he discovered that a lightning bolt is just a large electric spark. Franklin
put his discovery to use and invented the lightning conductor. This is a thick metal
wire that ran from the top of a building to the ground. If lightning struck the
building, the electricity would travel down the wire to the ground and therefore
would not damage the building or harm the people inside. This discovery was the
first step in developing ways of making use of electricity to power machines.

ExERCISE 1

Word forms are tested on the TOEFL® Test. Fill in the blanks
with the correct words from the readin$1•

1. Franklin was a famous politician and _______

2. After working in his father's business, he worked for a

3. Later he became a _______ and helped the United States

become free from the British.

4. 1n 1 752 Franklin did a ______ experiment by flying a kite in a storm.

5. A lightning conductor was a _______ _______ wire

that ran from the top of a building to the ground.

6. What Franklin discovered during the storm was put to good

_______ by his invention of the lightning conductor.

1 33
1 34 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

ExERCISE 2

From the reading decide whether these statements are true

or fcr#se.

1. Benjamin Franklin was not a success as a printer. T F

2. Benjamin Franklin is famous only in politics and for his invention

of fertilizers. T F

3. Franklin's kite experiment in a storm was dangerous. T F

4. The lightning conductor is a thick electric wire that runs from

the top of a building to the ground. T F

5. Franklin discovered that lightning is electricity. T F

6. Franklin's discovery helped to develop ways of using electricity as

a source of power. T F

Grammar: Word Forms

It is important to know if a word is a noun, a verb, an adjective, or an adverb .
This is one of the most common types of error tested in the Written Expression
section. As many as twenty percent of the items in this part of the test may be
word form problems. These errors involve using one part of speech for
another-a noun instead of a verb, an adjective instead of an adverb, and so on.
The form of a word depends on its position in a sentence. Look at how the
word electricity changes form.

Noun form: Electricity traveled down the wire.

Verb form: Franklin was not electrocuted by lightning.
Adjective form: An electrical current ran down the wire.
Adverb form: The machine runs electricaUy.

NOUNS
Nouns can be identified by their position and/or function in a sentence.
Knowing noun endings (suffixes) will also help identify nouns.

Strategy
Remember the correct noun form for a field of study and the nome of the
person who practices in that field. · '
�·
 CHAPTER 1 5 WORD FORMS 1 35

NOUN ENDINGS FOR PEOPLE:

Connected with a place or thing:
-ian politician
-ist scientist
People who do things:
-ee employee
-er printer
-or inventor

NOUNS CONNECTED WITII FIELDS OF STIJDY:

-ogy biology
-ic(s) politics
-ation administration
-y chemistry
-ce science

ExERCISE 3

Choose the correct word in parentheles.

1. Franklin was a (politics/politician).

2. Franklin was also an (invention/inventor).

3. Franklin is known in the field of (science/scientist).

4. Franklin became a successful (printer/printing).

5. In 1 820 a Danish (physicist/physics) proved that electricity produced

magnetism.

6. One scientist who helped modem (chemist/chemistry) was Antoine

Lavoisier.
Other noun endings (suffixes) include:
-acy -en -in -ling
-age -ess -ing -ment
-ance/ence -ful -ion -ness
-ant/ent -hood -ism -ocracy
-ate -ia -ite -ry(ary/ery)
-ation -ide -ty -ship
-dom -ster
-ive
-y/ie
1 36 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

Strategy
Remember the correct noun or verb ending. Avoid confusion between nouns
and verbs.

VERBS
Verbs are used to show the action of the subject.
Franklin discovered that lightning is electricity.
Verb endings include:
-ate circulate -er discover
-en sharpen -ify electrify
-ing developing -ize politicize
-ed invented

EXERCISE 4

Make verbs from the following words:

1. active

2. thick

3. sympathy
4. regular

5. solid
6. light

ExERCISE 5

Look at the underlined verbs or nouns. If the word is not �

correct, write the correct form.

1. In Franklin's time electricity was mainly used as a form of entertain.

2. Franklin wanted free for the United States from British rule.
3. Franklin discovery that lightning was electricity.
4. Franklin was the only man to signature all four key documents that
helped to make the United States independent.
 CHAPTER 1 5 WORD FORMS 1 37

5. Besides his many activities in the serve of his country, he found time to
be an inventor.

6. Franklin development the first pair of bifocal spectacles.

ADJECTIVES
Adjectives modify or describe nouns. They usually come before nouns or after
the verb to be. Adjectives usually answer the question "What kind?"
Adjectives have only one form, which is used with both singular and plural
nouns.
Franklin was a brave scientist.
Adjective endings include:
-al/ial -ing
-able/ible -ish
-ant/ent -ive
-ary -less
-ory -like
-ed -ly
-er -some
-ful -ous
-ic -worthy
-ile -y

Strategy
The. most common � of word form error occ�rs ..:men an adjective is -used
as on odv� or an adverb is used as on adjective. Keep in mind that on
adjective O!Uwers the question 'What kind?" and an adverb answers the
question "How?" Look at the endings of adjectives and adverbs.

ADVERBS
Adverbs modify verbs, adverbs, and adjectives. Adverbs usually answer the
question "How?" Adverbs are often formed by adding -ly to an adjective.
Adjective: brave
Adverb: bravely
Exceptions: The adverbs hard, fast, and high have the same form as
adjectives.
Some adjectives end in -ly like adverbs: friendly, costly, yearly.
Adverb endings include:
-ly
-ward
-wise
1 38 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

ExERCISE 6

1. Franklin became a (successfully/successful) printer.

2. At age 40, Franklin became (interested/interestingly) in electricity.
3. Franklin produced a (week/weekly) newspaper and many popular
books.

4. The lightning conductor attracted lightning and carried it (safe/safely) to

the ground.

5. Among his many inventions was a (smokelessly/smokeless) stove.

6. Franklin put his invention to (well!good) use.

ExERCISE 7

Identify the followi"' words •• a noun (NJ, a ..,. (VJ, an

adjecflve (ADJJ, or an adve,., (ADVJ.

1. dangerous 6. experiment

2. electricity 7. discovery

3. invention 8. development

4. scientist 9. brilliantly
5. successful 10. conductor
 CHAPTER 1 5 WORD FORMS 1 39

ExERCISE 8

Identify the underlined word as a noun (N), a verb (V), an

adiective (ADJ), or an adVerb (ADV).

1. Benjamin Franklin was cautious in performing his famous kite experi­

ment.
2. The first two men who tried to repeat Franklin's experiment were
electrocuted.
3. He flew a kite fitted with a metal key into a storm cloud.
4. Franklin eventually became a successful printer.
5. When lightning hit the key, sparks flew off it.
6. Franklin proved that storm clouds are charged with electricity.

7. Lightning is caused by the discharge of electricity in the form of a spark.

8. Franklin was able to prove that storm clouds have static electricity.

On the TOEfL® Test

In the Written Expression section, the most common errors tested are word
form errors. Of these, the most frequent are the following:

1. The use of an adjective instead of an adverb or an adverb instead of an

adjective.
Example: Around 1 750, electricity experiments became popularly as
A B C
entertainment at the court of the French King, Louis XV.
D
The best answer is (C). An adjective, popular, not an adverb, is re­
quired.
Example: 1n 1 780, Italian scientist Luigi Galvani mistaken concluded
A B
that frogs' legs contain electricity.
C D
The correct answer is (B). An adverb, mistakenly, is needed to moduy
the verb concluded.
1 40 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

2. The name of a field of study is mistakenly used for the person who
practices it, or a field of study is confused with an adjective describing
it.

Example: A:. well as being successful in his many careers, Benjamin

A B
Franklin was well-known as a science.
C D
The best answer is (D). Science is the name of the field. The correct
answer is scientist, the name of the person who practices in the field.

3. Other word form errors include the use of incorrect forms for nouns,
verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.

Example: Electricity produced by nature is called static electricity

A B
because it exerts a forceful when it is stationary .
C D
The best answer is (C). The noun force, not the adjective forceful, is
needed.

Example: When lightning strikes an unprotected building, the electric

A B
charge can cause considering damage.
C D
The correct answer is (C). The adjective considerable is needed instead
of the gerund considering.

ExERCISES oN WoRD FoRMs

From the four underlined words or phra�e� (A), (B), (C), or

(D), identify the OM that is not correct.

1. Diamonds are graded according to weigh, color, and cut.

A B C D
2. A:. an educator, John Dewey opposed the traditional method of learning
A B
by memory under the authorize of teachers.
C D
3. A substantial proportional of the printers and newspaper publishers in
A B C
colonial America were women.
D
 CHAPTER 1 5 WORD FORMS 141

4. Many seeds remain dormantly in the ground until conditions involving

A B
heat and water are correct for germination.
C D
5. Lavoisier was the first to recognize the importance of accurately
A B
measurements when studying chemical changes.
C D
6. Nails act as a hard base for the sensitive skin of the fingertips and toe
A B
tips to press against, so they may help our sensitively to touch.
C D
7. Lichens can survive extremes of heat, cold, and dry.
A B C D
8. Diamond is the hardest known mineral, whereas graphite is very soft
A B C
and flake.
D
9. Medicine in the future will make increasing use of high technology for
A B
the investigate and diagnosis of illnesses, as well as for their treatment.
C D
10. Herman Melville's work, which is complexity, philosophical, and
A B
humorous, is recognized as one of the most astonishing achievements in
C D
all American literature.

11. Cells carry out the essentially processes that produce energy and sustain
A B C D
life.

12. Like their ancestors, most sharks are streamline, fast-swimming hunters
A B C
living in the upper waters of warm seas.
D
 WOR D C H O I C E AN D
R E DUN D AN C Y

Introduction: Asbestos
Asbestos is a type of mineral found in rocks that has a fibrous structure and so
can be woven. Unlike other flexible woven material, it is capable of
withstanding very high temperatures, and at the same time deflecting heat.
Woven metal wire, for example, might do the first job, but would not do the
second. For this reason, asbestos gloves, suits, and shields have been vital for
protection in fire fighting. There are hundreds of uses for asbestos in industry
and construction. Asbestos can be mixed with other materials, such as rubber,
graphite, paint, and cement, for special purposes that demand extra flexibility,
slipperiness, coating quality, or hardness. Asbestos is so useful that it was once
found in almost all modern buildings and machines. Modern industry has also
benefited from its uses as a material for electrical and sound insulation.
The unique properties of asbestos have led to its continued but restricted
use. In this century, industries in the United States alone have used more than
30 million tons of asbestos. However, after 1 950 health warnings about asbestos
began to appear. Its small fibers, so useful in other respects, could also be
inhaled and lodge in the lungs to cause a disease called asbestosis. This disease
restricts normal breathing. Chronic shortness of breath turns sufferers into
invalids. Worse still, there is also the risk that lung cancer may follow.

1 42
 CHAPTER 1 6 WORD CHOICE AND REDUNDANCY 1 43

ExERCISE 1

1. Unlike/like other woven material, asbestos is capable of withstanding

high temperature and at the same time deflecting heat.

2. Asbestos is such/so useful that it was once used in a lot of modem

buildings.

3. After/afterwards 1 950, health warnings about asbestos began to appear.

4. Previously asbestos was used in almost/most all modem buildings and

machines.

5. Woven metal wire can withstand heat and/but cannot deflect heat.

6. There are hundreds of uses of asbestos in industry and/or construction.

ExERCISE 2

A wwcl can have the 1C11M ....... CIS clnother word, but
two words with the same meantne cannot be uHCI ......_.
Match .... wonk In the box wllh the word• ...... In
.... ......cea below.

a. such as b. chiefly c. carefully

d. beneficial e. single

1. Asbestos is mainly used in industry and construction.

2. Asbestos can be mixed with other materials, for example, rubber.

3. The small fibers of asbestos, so useful in other ways, could harm the
body.

4. Asbestos has some unique qualities.

5. When removing asbestos today, it is important to handle it cautiously.

1 44 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

Grammar: Word Choice

A number of words in English often cause problems because they have similar
meanings (make/do) or sound alike (alike/unlike). Many times one word is used
incorrectly in place of another.

Strategy
Learn the expressions with make and c/o. Whenever you hear a new
expression, add it to the list. In the Written Expression section of the test,
whenever make or do is underlined, look for an error.

Make or Do
The verb to make means to produce or create, whereas to do means to perform,
to act. These two verbs are found in a number of expressions.
Expressions with make include:
make a mistake make a plan
make a difference make an investment
make a comparison make an offer
make a discovery make a choice
make use of make an attempt
make a profit make a decision
make a suggestion make a prediction

Expressions with do include:

do one's duty do harm
do homework do research
do justice to do an assignment
do business do one's best
do wrong do a service
do work do damage
do a kindness do wonders

ExERCISE 3

Underline the word that correctly completes the sentence.

1. A wide range of new products is now available to (do/make) many of

the jobs once (done/made) by materials (made/done) with asbestos.

2. Modern products (made/done) with asbestos look different from the

ones that caused problems in the past.
 CHAPTER 1 6 WORD CHOICE AND REDUNDANCY 1 45

3 . Usually radon disperses in the open air and would (do/make) no harm to
your body.

4. When radium was mixed with other substances it (made/did) them

luminous.

5. Marie Curie (made/did) a great contribution to science through her

discovery of radium, although it proved fatal to her.

6. A distinction has been (made/done) between the dangers of blue and

white asbestos.

LIKE/ALIKE/UNLIKE

Strategy
Look for the different pam of speech of the words /ike/alike/unlike as � as
their different meanings to avoid confusion.

Like is a preposition that means "similar." It is followed by an object.

Like many other people, I did not know the dangers of asbestos.
Alike is an adverb that means "equally"; as an adjective, it means "similar."

The new information on asbestos caused panic in construction and

industry alike.
Unlike is a preposition that means "not similar. " It is followed by an object.
Unlike other woven material, asbestos is capable of withstanding high
temperatures and at the same time deflecting beat.

ExERCISE 4

Underline the word that correctly completes the sentence.

1. (Unlike/Alike) blue asbestos, white asbestos is safe when its fibers are
sealed off and left undisturbed.

2. Both blue and brown asbestos are (alike/like) in that they are both
dangerous.

3. (Like/Alike) all metals, alkaline-earth metals conduct heat and electricity

well.

4. Radon, (like/alike) radium, is radioactive.

1 46 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

5. Today synthetic plastic foam is used for insulation, but (unlike/alike)

asbestos it cannot be used where there are high temperatures.

6. Asbestos and radium are (alike/like) in that they are both dangerous.

OTHER/THE OTHER/ANOTHER
Another means "one more . " It can be used before a singular noun.

We need to find another way.

Other means "more of the ones in the group we are talking about. " It is
used before a plural noun.

Asbestos protects other materials from fire.

The other means "the last one of the group we are talking about. " It is used
before a singular noun, or a noncount noun. It is preceded by a determiner such
as the, some, any, no, or one.

No other material is capable of withstanding such temperature.

One type of asbestos is dangerous; the other type is not as dangerous.

ExERCISE 5

Circle the word that correctly completes the sentence.

1. Another/Other airy material is glass fiber.

2. Ancient Egyptians used asbestos to weave funeral garments for kings and
other/another important people.

3. White asbestos, or chyrsolite, is another/other kind of asbestos.

4. Asbestos can be mixed with another/other materials such as rubber,

paint, <,�nd cement.

5. Other/Another products are now available to do jobs where asbestos

was once used.

6. Besides being a good heat and electrical insulator, other/the other use of
asbestos has been to keep down noise levels in public buildings.
 CHAPTER 1 6 WORD CHOICE AND REDUNDANCY 1 47

SO/SUCH/TOO
Both so . . . that and such . . . that have the same meaning, but they are used
with different constructions. So . . . that is used with many, few, much, and
little.

so + adverb/adjective + that

Asbestos was so convenient that everybody used it.

such + adjective + noun + that

Asbestos bad such unique qualities that it was used widely.

Too means more than necessary. It comes before an adjective or adverb and is
followed by an infinitive.
Asbestos is too dangerous to be used widely.

ExERCISE 6

1. Asbestos has such/so many properties that it was used in all modern
buildings.
2. Asbestos is so/such dangerous that it has been banned in many countries.

3. Asbestos is considered to be so/too dangerous to be used in buildings today.

4. Asbestos was so/too widely used in construction that it is creating
problems today.
5. Asbestos can stand such/too high temperatures that it was used as
protective clothing by fire fighters.
6. Asbestos is too/so dangerous to be removed without wearing protective
clothing or gloves.

MUCH/MANY/FEW/LinLE
Many and few are used with count nouns.
Example: Many old buildings have asbestos.
Much and little are used with noncount nouns.
Example: There is much caution when dealing with the material today.
1 48 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

EXERCISE 7

Circle the worcl that correctly completes the sentence.

1. Much/Many blue asbestos is mined in South Africa, Bolivia, and Australia.

2. A small amount of radiation can help cure someone, whereas too

much/many will cause harm.

3. Madame Curie, after many/much years of exposure to radium, died of

anemia.

4. A little/few radon can be found in much/many types of soil.

5. Few/Little people have had the bad luck to live in an area with a high
natural background level of radiation.

6. There was little/few information about the dangers of asbestos before

the 1 950s.

OTHER COMMONLY CONFUSED WORDS

Strategy
Other words may also be used in word choice errors.. The most common
words used on the test are listed below. learn the difference between the
words in pairs by looking them up in the dictionary to find out what parts of
speech they are and the difference in meaning.

The following words may also be used in word choice problems.

number/amount near/nearly
few/a few after/afterward
little/a little no/not
because/because of and/but/or
despite/in spite of/although most/almost
percent/percentage ago/before
hard/hardly age/old
twice/double either . . . or/neither . . . nor
some/somewhat person/people
 CHAPTER 1 6 WORD CHOICE AND REDUNDANCY 1 49

EXERCISE 8

Circle the word ihat correctly completes ihe sentence.

1. An amount/A number of contaminated buildings are known to release

dangerous amounts of radioactivity over a period of years.

2. Because of/Although its danger to health, asbestos has been banned in

many countries.

3. Synthetic plastic foam should no/not be used where there are high
temperatures or any risk of fire.

4. Afterward/After the danger of asbestos was known, glass fiber began to

be used widely for heat insulation.

5. Radon is radioactive, and it decays to produce some/somewhat very

unhealthy properties.

6. Radon gas is not a threat to human life almost/most of the time.

Grammar: Redundancy
Redundancy is the unnecessary repetition of an idea.
Correct: Tbe party proceeded toward the west.
Redundant: Tbe party proceeded forward toward the west.
The word proceeded has the same meaning as forward. Therefore, the word
forward is unnecessary.
The following pairs of words have the same meaning; only one in the pair
is necessary.
connect together incorrect mistake
repeat again important significant
join together carefully cautiously
proceed forward established founded
progress forward protect guard
advance forward original first
only unique rarely seldom
new innovations transmit send out
reread again single only
return back around approximately
same identical chief main
sufficient enough such as for example
separated apart from necessary needed
1 50 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

EXERCISE 9

Circle the number ol each aentence that contains a

redundant expression.

1. Asbestos can be mixed with other materials, for example such as rubber,
paint, and cement.

2. Because asbestos does not bum and only melts at high temperatures, it
can protect and guard other material against fire.

3. One of the main and chief uses of asbestos is to weave gloves, aprons,
and other clothing for workers in hot places such as metal foundries.

4. When asbestos fibers are breathed in or swallowed, they can cause

serious disease, even cancer.

5. Asbestos shields off, or insulates against, heat, flames, electricity, and

noise.

6. The unique and single properties of asbestos mean that it ha� many
important uses.

7. No new innovations have been developed to replace asbestos being

used for brake linings on cars.

8. For around approximately thirty years, only white asbestos has been
used for protective clothing because it is safer than other forms of
asbestos.

On the TOEFL® Test

Word choice errors that involve the incorrect use of one word for another
appear in the Written Expression section. The words given in this chapter are
frequently used in word choice errors. The following are some of the most
common errors:

1. Wrong use of so . . . that, such . . . that, and too:

Example: Asbestos is so a useful material that it was used � almost all

A B C D
modern buildings.

The best choice is (B); the correct construction is such + adjective +

noun + that clause.

 CHAPTER 1 6 WORD CHOICE AND REDUNDANCY 151

2. Wrong use of another, other, the other:

Example: Other, more common, name for crocidolite is blue asbestos

A B
because of its color.
C D
The best answer is (A); other is used incorrectly instead of another.

3. Wrong use of make and do

Example: When asbestos fibers are breathed in, they may make damage
A B C
� our lungs.
D
The best choice is (C); the expression is do damage and not make
damage.

ExERCISES ON WoRD CHOICE AND REDUNDANCY

·'

From the four underlined words or phrases, (A), (B), (C), or

(D), identify the One that is not correct.

1. About 200 million years before all the continents were � of one vast
A B C D
land mass called Pangaea.

2. Investment banks do not accept deposits from the public or do loans to

A B C
businesses or individuals.
D
3. White blood cells live only for a little days because they are poisoned by
A B C
the bacteria they capture.
D
4. When actively hunting, a dolphin sends out transmitting about five
A B C
signals every second.
D
5. A mainframe computer is large and is usually used to operate a network
A B C
of another computers.
D
1 52 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

6: So far most a million different species of insects have been identifie�

A B C D
and named.

7. The sun contains 99.9 percentage of the mass � the solar system.
A B C D
8. Lewis and Clark had been gone for such long on their expedition that
A B
many thought they were dead.
C D
9. A living polyp looks like little sea anemone, with tentacles to trap tiny
A B C
animals for food.
D
10. The giant panda eats chiefly mainly bamboo shoots, though it also eats
A B
some other plants and occasionally feeds on fish and small rodents.
C D
1 1 . Most of the Egyptian woman Hypatia's writings on medicine have been
A
lost, but there are an amount of references to them by other scientists.
B C D
12. Alike most frogs, the clawed frog catches its prey with its hands.
A B C D
 S t r u c t u r e a n d W r i tt e n
Express i o n Practice
1-- Te sts
Ill:

2
...
u

-� 1 == PRA C T I C E T E S T 1

..

Directions
l�s in the first�rt of this section are incomplete sentences. Under each of
these sentences, there are four words or phrases. You will choose the one
word or phrase-(A), (8),_ (C), or (D)-that best completes the sentence.

EXAMPLE I
Reflexes very valuable in protecting the body against harm.
(A) that are
(B) being
(C) are
(D) are being
The sentence should read, "Reflexes are very valuable in protecting the body
against harm." You should therefore choose (C).

EXAMPLE II
Seismographs are used to locate oil, to determine ocean depth, and ___

and measure earthquakes.

(A) · detect
(B) to detect
(C) be detecting
(D) are detecting
The sentence should read, "Seismographs are used to locate oil, to determine
ocean depth, and to detect and measure earthquakes." You should therefore
choose (B).

1 54
 PRACTICE TEST l 1 55

1. Snakes have a n organ i n a pit 6. other cells in the

on their heads body, nerve cells are not healed
infrared rays. or replaced when they are

(A) detects damaged or destroyed.

(B) a detection of (A) Different
(C) it detects (B) Unlikely
(D) that detects (C) Unlike
(D) But
2. Helium is not inflammable,
therefore safer than 7. The higher the content of
hydrogen. carbon dioxide in the air,
(A) that is
(B) and is (A) more heat it retains
(C) but is (B) than it retains more heat
(D) and it (C) it retains more heat
(D) the more heat it retains
3. In 1849 Walter Hunt,
American inventor, patented a 8. most brilliant Greek
design that served as the basis inventor was Archimedes, who
for modern safety pins. lived about 2,250 years ago.

(A) an (A) The

(B) he was an (B) One of the
(C) being (C) As the
(D) who was, as an (D) Of the
4. Ansel Adams was a landscape 9. flying, a bat emits a
photographer rapid series of ultrasonic signals,
photographs of the western which bounce off any obj ect in
United States show nature on a its path.
grand scale. (A) When it
(A) whose (B) When it is
(B) of his (C) It is
(C) of whom (D) When is
(D) his
10. does not circle
s. Contact lenses of around the earth was proven by
acrylic are more transparent and Galileo.
less fragile than lenses made of (A) Since the rest of the
glass. universe
(A) making (B) As the rest of the universe
(B) made (C) The rest of the universe
(C) are made (D) That the rest of the
(D) which make universe
1 56 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

11. cell i n the body i s far 14. phobias do not

from a capillary. involve loss of contact with
(A) Not reality, they may severely limit a

(B) No person's life.

(C) Not only a (A) Although

(D) Neither a (B) Despite
(C) That
12. Ralph Waldo Emerson's belief
(D) As
___ the individual
freedom of all people greatly 1 5 . During the 1930s, unsuitable
influenced later American farming techniques and
thinkers. excessive grazing of grassland in
(A) as of the Great Plains produced
(B) on
(C) in (A) which it became known as
(D) as in the Dust Bowl

13. Thomas Malthus claimed that

(B) what became known as
the Dust Bowl
disease, war, famine, and
(C) it became known as the
___ act as checks on
Dust Bowl
population growth.
(D) that it became known as
(A) moral restraining the Dust Bowl
(B) morally restrain
(C) by moral restraint
(D) moral restraint
 PRACTICE TEST 1 1 57

Directions
The rest of the items in this section consist of sentences in which four words
or phrases have been underlined.
You must identify the one underlined expression-(A), (B), (C), or (D)-that
must be changed in order to correct the sentence.

EXAMPLE I
Navajo Indians are far more numerous today � they were !!! the past.
A B C D

The sentence should read, "Navajo Indians are far more numerous today
than they were in the past." You should therefore choose answer (C).

Though it is one of the rarest metals, gold was one of the first to be
A B C
discover.
D

The sentence should read, "Though it is one of the rarest metals, gold was
one of the first to be discovered. " You should therefore choose answer (D).

16. The first laser is made by an American scientist called Theodore Maiman
A B C
working in California in 1 960.
D

17. Almost medical doctors have had some training !!! psychology and
A B. C D
psychiatry.

18. Washington Irving, one of America's most famous authors, was a lawyer,
A B
a businessman, and � United States diplomatic to England and Spain.
C D

1 9 . The Douglas fir is a very tall American evergreen tree that is grown not
A
only for ornament and for its high-quality timber.
B C D
20. Nuclear energy, � almost limitless source of power, was harnessed
A B C
during the mid- 1 900s.
D
1 58 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

21. Plants, which make up 90 percentage of visible living organisms, get

A B C
their food energy from sunlight.
D
22. Total eclipses of the moon are considerably rarest than total eclipses of
A B C D
the sun.

23. According to Freud, mental life is characterized by internal conflicts who

A B C
are largely unconscious.
D
24. In 1 729, Benjamin Franklin published the Pennsylvania Gazette, which
A D
soon became the most read widely newspaper in the colonies.
C D
25. Large, perfect shaped pearls rank !!! value with the most precious
A B C D
stones.

26. Algae range !!! size from microscope one-celled plants to huge masses of
A B C D
seaweed.

27. The pharmacology is a recent science, but it is closely connected with

A B
one of the oldest, the giving of remedies to relieve diseases.
C D
28. Frances Perkins, the first woman to become � U.S. cabinet member, was
A B
instrument in the adoption of the Social Security Act.
C D
29. In the company of human beings, parrots demonstrate a remarkable
A B
talent for mimicry, for which they never use in the forest.
C D
30. The first national known male singers � popu1ar music appeared during
A B C D
the 1 920s.

31. The Puffer is � type of fish that can inflate one's body like a balloon.
A B C D
 PRACTICE TEST 1 1 59

32. The Louisiana Purchase, made in 1803, almost was doubled the size of
A B C D
the United States.

33. Psychology did not develop into a science based of careful observation
A B C
and experimentation until the late 1 800s.
D
34. When a mineral forms, it grows � the addition of various element to its
A B C D
structure.

35. Energy exists � different forms, such as light, heat, and chemical,
A B
mechanic, and electrical energy.
C D
36. Modern art began in second half of the 1800s, after the camera was
A B C D
invented.

37. Although polar bears hunt other animals, they seldom rarely kill people.
A B C D
38. Mushrooms get their food � causing vegetable matter decaying.
A B C D
39. Limestone long has been quarried for to use � a building stone.
A B C D
40. The newborn marsupial is � a least developed stage of life than a
A B C
newborn kitten or human being.
D
 PRA C T I C E T ES T 2

Directions
'
Items in the �rst pdrt of this section are incomplete sentences. Under eqch of
these sentences, there are four words or phrases. You will choose the one
word or phrase-(A), (B), (C), or (D)-that best completes the sentence.

EXAMPLE I
Reflexes very valuable in protecting the body against harm.
(A) that are
(B) being
(C) are
(D) are being
The sentence should read, "Reflexes are very valuable in protecting the body
against harm." You should therefore choose (C).

EXAMPLE II
Seismographs are used to locate oil, to determine ocean depth, and ___

and measure earthquakes.

(A) detect
(B) to detect
(C) be detecting
(D) are detecting
The sentence should read, "Seismographs are used to locate oil, to determine
ocean depth, and to detect and measure earthquakes. " You should therefore
choose (B).

1 60
 PRACTICE TEST 2 161

1 . The core of the moon i s much 6. mosquito bites a

smaller, in relation to its size, human being or other animal
of the planets suffering from a certain disease,
(A) those it carries off the disease germs
(B) than those in its saliva.
(C) ones (A) A
(D) than are those (B) Should a
(C) Whenever a
2. Silver is sometimes mixed with
(D) That a
copper an alloy that is
harder and stronger than pure 7. in 1 607, Jamestown in
silver. Virginia was the ftrst settlement
(A) to form in the New World.
(B) forms (A) Founded
(C) it forms (B) It was founded
(D) the forming of (C) Founding
(D) To be found
3. Samuel Clemens,
under the pen name Mark 8. Both the lantern ftsh and the
Twain, created characters that deep sea angler a
reflected purely American traits luminous gland system in their
and habits. bodies.
(A) he wrote (A) they have
(B) and he wrote (B) have
(C) who wrote (C) had
(D) wrote (D) having
4. beetles have hard 9. An effective paragraph must
wing cases that protect the be unilled and
wings when not in use. ordered but also complete.
(A) Of all (A) in addition
(B) All (B) either
(C) Because all (C) not only
(D) They are all (D) as well
5. Not anywhere in the 10. , the Mormons fled
thirteen colonies before the from Illinois in 1846.
American Revolution. (A) Their religious beliefs
(A) a single bank made
(B) a bank existed single (B) Their religious beliefs
(C) existed a single bank because
(D) a single bank existed (C) Because their beliefs,
religious
(D) Because of their religious
beliefs
1 62 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

11. Aristotle, the greatest 14. Henry Ford, , was an

of the Greek philosophers, outstanding innovator.
wrote extensively about physics (A) he founded the Ford
and other sciences. Motor Company
(A) one of (B) founded the Ford Motor
(B) he is one of Company
(C) of (C) who founded the Ford
(D) it is he one of Motor Company
(D) the Ford Motor Company
12. Exactly we can
founded
replace our soil disappearing
through erosion is not known. 15. Pheasants spend most of their
(A) what time on the ground,
(B) how many species perch in trees at
(C) if night.
(D) by which (A) as well as
13. varieties of potato
(B) in spite of
(C) because
that produce three-quarters of
(D) although
the U.S. potato crop.
(A) There are four
(B) They are four
(C) Four of the
(D) Of the four
 PRACTICE TEST 2 1 63

Directions
The rest of the items in this section consist of sentences in which four words
or phrases have been underlined. You must identify the one underlined
expression-{A), (B), (C), or (D)-that must be changed in order to correct
the sentence.

EXAMPLE I
Navajo Indians are far more numerous today � they were � the past.
A B C D
The sentence should read, "Navajo Indians are far more numerous today
than they were in the past." You should therefore choose answer (C).
Though it is one of the rarest metals, gold was one of the first to be
A B C
discover.
D
The sentence should read, "Though it is one of the rarest metals, gold was
one of the first to be discovered. " You should therefore choose answer (D).
Though it is one of the rarest metals, gold was one of the first to be
A B C
discover.
D
The sentence should read, "Though it is one of the rarest metals, gold was
one of the first to be discovered. " You should therefore choose answer (D).

16. Wind erodes the land by picking up grains of sand and hurling it against
A B C D
rocks.

17. The Kodak was the first camera designed specifically for both mass
A B C
production or amateur use.
D
18. Phlebitis, an inflammation of a vein, can develop in any part � the body,
A B
but it most commonly occurs in their legs.
C D
19. Certain b.acteria can capture light energy and uses it to make food.
A B C D
1 64 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

20. During the 1 850s and 1 860s many people began to experiment with the
A B C
artist possibilities of photography.
D
21. Aristotle believed that the mind or soul, who the Greeks called psyche,
A B
was separate from the body.
C D
22. The earth is the only planet with a large number of oxygen in its
A B C D
atmosphere.

23. The exciting, naturally, free movement of modem dance began with
A B C D
Isadora Duncan.

24. Albany, !!: city on the Hudson River, was the capital of New York State
A B C D
since 1 797.

25. Birds have a poor sense of smell but very good hearings and eyesight.
A B C D
26. Placebos look like real drugs, but most consist only !!:! sugar or a salt
A B C D
solution.

27. The Pueblo Indians have traditionally live in stone or adobe structures
A B C
that resemble apartment buildings.
D
28. Fabrics woven from plastic fibers feel soft, but the fibers are make from
A B C
hard plastics.
D
29. In about 1 960, chemists have developed synthetic pheromones that are
A B C
used to control insect pests.
D
30. The spinal cord is the main pathway for messages traveling between the
A B C
brain � the rest of the body.
D
 PRACTICE TEST 2 1 65

31. After Yellowstone National Park was set up in 1 87 1 as the first National
A B
Park, another national parks have been established throughout the
C D
world.

32. Nearly all chemical agents are hannful to living tissue if enough of them
A B C
is taken.
D
33. 1n 1875, the American philosopher William James founded what was
A B
probable the world's fust psychology laboratory.
C D
34. Few natural prairie regions remain in the world because of most of them
A B C
have been turned into farms or grazing land.
D
35. Most species of pigeons live in flocks, and many of the flocks consist
A B C
more than one species.
D
36. Astronomers do not think are there � planets in the solar system
A B C D
beyond Pluto.

37. When an enemy scares a porcupine fish, it enters a hole in a rock and
A B
to fill its stomach with water to make its spines stick out.
C D
38. Robert Frost was not well known � a poet until he reached the forties.
A B C D
39. Mushrooms get their food by to cause vegetable matter to decay.
A B C D
40. The pharynx plays an important significant role in speech, especially �
A B C D
the production of vowel sounds.
 ...
u

&3
-

t;
... PRA C T I C E T E S T 3
....
a:
a.

Directions
Items in the first part of this section are incomplete sentences. Under each of
these sentences, there ore Four words or phrases. You will choose the one
word or phrose-(A), (B), (C), or (D)-that best completes the sentence.

EXAMPLE I
Reflexes very valuable in protecting the body against harm.
(A) that are
(B) being
(C) are
(D) are being
The sentence should read, "Reflexes are very valuable in protecting the body
against harm." You should therefore choose (C).

EXAMPLE II
Seismographs are used to locate oil, to determine ocean depth, and ___

and measure earthquakes.

(A) detect
(B) to detect
(C) be detecting
(D) are detecting
The sentence should read, "Seismographs are used to locate oil, to d_etermine
ocean depth, and to detect and measure earthquakes. " You should therefore
choose (B).

1 66
 PRACTICE TEST 3 1 67

1. Dow Jones and Company, 6. , scientists have greatly

, computes averages increased the yield of crops
for each trading hour of every such as corn, rice, and wheat.
business day. (A) As using the laws of
(A) a fmancial publishing firm genetics
(B) is a fmancial publishing (B) Using the laws of genetics
firm (C) The laws of genetics
(C) that is a fmancial publish- (D) The laws of genetics are to
ing firm be used
(D) it is a financial publishing
7. , and they are sepa-
flflTI
rated from one another by vast
2. pipelines are expen- distances.
sive to build, they are relatively (A) Being millions of galaxies
cheap to operate and maintain. (B) Are millions of galaxies
(A) Because (C) Of the millions of galaxies
(B) That (D) There are millions of
(C) Although galaxies
(D) Despite
8. In 1776 Thomas Paine's popular
3. The pulse rate of children is and influential pamphlet
faster healthy adult. Common Sense the
(A) the average American colonists to declare
(B) than that of the average their independence from
(C) that of the average English rule.
(D) as that of the average (A) urged
4. During the 1970s, Thomas G.
(B) to urge
(C) to be urged
Stockham, Jr., a U.S. electrical
(D) that urged
engineer, digital
recording. 9. Artificial satellites provide data
(A) he developed on atmospheric temperatures,
(B) that developed solar radiation, and
(C) that he has developed the earth's surface.
(D) developed (A) reflect
5. In 1850 established
(B) reflecting
(C) the reflection of
one of the first detective
(D) can reflect
agencies in the United States.
(A) detective Allan Pinkerton
(B) it was detective Allan
Pinkerton
(C) detective Allan Pinkerton
who
(D) when detective Allan
Pinkerton
1 68 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

10. The United States leads the 13. When direct-dial telephones
world in the production of achieved in the 1 960s,
plastics, about half nationwide faxing became
the total output. possible.

(A) it supplies (A) used widespread

(B) supplying (B) were used widespread
(C) to supply (C) being used widespread
(D) supplies (D) widespread use
11. affect a person's body 14. Willa Cather, ___ a
has long been known by prominent American writer,
doctor�. grew up in Nebraska during the
(A) That emotional distur- early farming years.
bances (A) who became
(B) Emotional disturbances (B) became
(C) As emotional disturbances (C) she became
(D) If emotional disturbances (D) it is she who became
12. Regarded as one of the greatest 15. few species that live
physicists, ____ on the ground, most monkeys
(A) the relationship between live in trees.
force and motion was first (A) There are
expressed by Isaac (B) A
Newton (C) All but
(B) the first to express the (D) Except for a
relationship between force
and motion was Isaac
Newton
(C) Isaac Newton was the first
to express the relationship
between force and motion
(D) it was Isaac Newton who
was the first to express
the relationship between
force and motion
 PRACTICE TEST 3 1 69

Directions
The rest of the items in this section consist of sentences in which four words
or phrases have been underlined. You.· must identify the one underlined
expression-(A), (8), (C), or (Or-that must be changed in order to correct
the sentence.

EXAMPLE I
Navajo Indians are far more numerous today � they were � the past.
A B C D
The sentence should read, "Navajo Indians are far more numerous today
than they were in the past." You should therefore choose answer (C).
Though it is one of the rarest metals, gold was one of the first to be
A B C
discover.
D
The sentence should read, "Though it is one of the rarest metals, gold was
one of the fust to be discovered." You should therefore choose answer (D).

16. � Geiger counter is an electronic instrument is used to measure the

A B C
presence and intensity of radiation.
D

17. Warning coloration protects a skunk by reminding the animal's enemies

A B
of their ability to spray a
c
foul-smelling liquid.
D
18. Natural gas was probably formed from plants and animals that decayed
A B C
million of years ago.
D
19. Three months after they have been laid, crocodile eggs are ready
A B C
hatched.
D
1 70 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

20. The terrain of Antarctica, near one and a half times as big � the United
A B C
States, is amazingly varied.
D
21 . Peas require rich soil, constant moistures, and a cool growing season to
A B C
develop well.
D
22. The amount of pectin � a fruit depends the species and ripeness.
A B C D
23. Most pageants are plays of special significant such as � drama portraying
A B C D
the growth of a city or the development of medicine.

24. Joseph Priestley is immortal in the history of chemistry as the discover

A B C D
of oxygen, in 1 774.

25. Mosses are useful � nature because of they are among the first plants to
A B C D
grow in barren lands.

26. Dreaming sleep may play a role � restoring the brain's ability to handle
A B
such tasks as focused attention, memorize, and learning.
C D
27. The most desert animals avoid the extreme tnidday heat by feeding at
A B C D
night.

28. Although fewer Americans work on farms today, they are too productive
A B C
that the U.S. is now the world's top food exporter.
D
29. Seals, turtles, and seabirds can navigate over thousands of miles of open
A B
ocean with amazing accurate.
C D
30. Most mollusks have � hard shell that is protected their soft bodies.
A B C D
31. Foods of animal origin generally supply greatest amounts of iron to the
A B C D
diet than do foods of plant origin.
 PRACTICE TEST 3 171

32. A dolphin locates underwater objects � its path by doing a series of

A B C
clicking and whistling sounds.
D
33. In 1829, James Smithson set aside money for creating of the Smithsonian
A B C D
Institute.

34. � pheromone is a chemical substance released by many kinds of animals

A B
to communicate with another members of their species.
C D
35. The skin receives nearly the third of the blood pumped out by the heart.
A B C D
36. Alike most small bats that fly by night, the large flying foxes fly by day.
A B C D
37. Recognition for Herman Melville did not come until more than thirty
A B C
years afterward his death in 189 1 .
D
38. The Dewey system � widely used by libraries throughout the world; the
A B
classification be constantly revised.
C D
39. Ten percent of blood plasma is made up mainly � blood proteins which
A B C
enable itself to clot.
D
40. The American frontiersman, politician, and soldier Davy Crockett is one
A
of the most popular � American hero.
B C D
...

�4i
a:
....
PRA C T I C E T E S T 4

A.

Directions
Items in the first port of this section are incomplete sentences. Under each of
these sentences, there are four words or phrases. You will choose the one
word or phrase-{A), (B), (C), or (D}-that best completes the sentence.

EXAMPLE I
Reflexes very valuable in protecting the body against harm.
(A) that are
(B) being
(C) are
(D) are being
The sentence should read, "Reflexes are very valuable in protecting the body
against harm." You should therefore choose (C).

EXAMPLE II
Seismographs are used to locate oil, to determine ocean depth, and ___

and measure earthquakes.

(A) detect
(B) to detect
(C) be detecting
(D) are detecting
The sentence should read, "Seismographs are used to locate oil, to determine
ocean depth, and to detect and measure earthquakes." You should therefore
choose (B).

1 72
 PRACTICE TEST 4 1 73

1. Blood in vessels just under the 6. Carbonated beverages became

nasal lining up its popular in 1832 after
heat to warm the air. an apparatus for charging water
(A) gives with carbon dioxide gas.
(B) it gives (A) invented John Mathews
(C) giving (B) John Mathews invented
(D) is given (C) inventing John Mathews
(D) John Mathews inventing
2. The shuttle, reusable
spacecraft, lifts off like a rocket 7. The Pawnee Indians regarded
and lands like an airplane. corn sacred gift, and
(A) it is a many of their religious ceremo-
(B) a nies are centered around this
(C) which, as a crop.
(D) is a (A) as being
(B) since a
3. forms of life, the most
(C) as a
varied are the insects.
(D) like being
(A) All are
(B) All 8. On Jupiter the winds have
(C) They are all created storms big
(D) Of all that astronomers on Earth can
see them through their tele-
4. The first American a scopes.
professional sculptor was a
(A) so
woman, Patience Lovell Wright.
(B) such
(A) she became as (C) as
(B) became (D) how
(C) to become
(D) who she became 9. Larger animals than
smaller animals of the same
5. Tears not only foreign type.
substances from the eyes, but
also contain chemicals that fight
(A) longer live generally
(B) they generally live long
many common pathogens.
(C) generally live longer
(A) for washing (D) live generally long
(B) are washing
(C) washing 10. The tails of comets generally
(D) wash point away from the sun
the comet is ap-
proaching the sun or receding.
(A) either
(B) whether
(C) and if
(D) both
1 74 TOEFL GR�MMAR FLASH

11. A desert is described as a region 14. ___ rain at all falls in the
___ an average of less dry season in the savanna
than ten inches of rain falls in a regions of Africa.
year. (A) Not
(A) there is (B) Without
(B) which has (C) No
(C) in which is (D) Neither
(D) in which
15. In a Rorschach test, the subject
12. Regular radio broadcasting to describes sees in a
inform and entertain the general series of inkblots.
public in the 1920s. (A) that he or she
(A) started (B) he or she
(B) starting (C) seeing he or she
(C) a start (D) what he or she
(D) to start
13. ___ was made of minute
particles called corpuscles was
believed by scientists.
(A) Light
(B) That light
(C) As light
(D) Whereas light
 PRACTICE TEST 4 1 75

Directions
The rest of the items in -this section consist of sentences in which four words
or phrases have been underlined. You must _identify the one , underlined
expression-{A), (B), (C), or (0)-.-that must be chooged in order to correct
the sentence.

EXAMPLE I
Navajo Indians are far more numerous today as they were in the past.
A 8 c D
The sentence should read, " Navajo Indians are far more numerous today
than they were in the past. " You should therefore choose answer (C).
Though it is one of the rarest metals, gold was one of the first to be
---
A-- --B-- (:
discover.
D

The sentence should read, "Though it is one of the rarest metals, gold was
one of the first to be discovered. " You should therefore choose answer (D).

16. Pigeons, like many migratory birds, read the positions of

A ---s-
the sun and stars in order to orient them.
c ----r>
17. The cracking of rocks is caused of intense heat during the day followed
A B
by rapid cooling at night.
-0 -
c
18. Our nervous system has over ten billions nerve cells in a network
-A - --
S
covering every
- inch of our skin and organs.
- c --o--
19. Great quantities of the seaweed are found in the Sargasso Sea.
-x- B <: D
20. Giant tortoises live to great ages, and specimens have been known
-x- B
to live from 1 00 and 1 50 years.
c
---- o
1 76 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

21. Fermentation, the breaking down of simple sugars, produces either

A
lactic acid or ethyl alcoholic and carbon dioxide.
B C D

22. Most pines grow rapidly and form straight, tall trunks that are ideally for
--
� -B- C D
Iumber.

23. By measuring the color of a star, astronomers can tell how hot is it.
A B --c D
24. Many fruits contain large amounts of vitamin C, as well as sugar, which
� B C
provide energy.
-- D

25. Valuable pearls come from some species of oysters and another mollusks
A ---B-
that live in tropical seas.
c 0
26. Freud's ideas have had a great influence on the study of personality, but
A B C
they are highly controversy.
D

27. The Dodge brothers began doing their own automobiles in 1 9 1 4 , and
-;:-
produced one of the first American automobiles with an all-steel body.
--
-B- C D

28. Children's ears are able to detect a wide variety of pitches than adults.
--
A B ---c- D

29. Euglena is a single-celled organism that has characteristic of both plants

A B c l)
and animals.

30. Morse code was an important way to send messages before the tele-
--A-- B C
phone and radio are invented.
o
31. Many plains, such the Great Plains in the United States, have few trees
� B
because of dry or cold climates.
C D
32. Much psychologists do not associate themselves with a particular school
-y- B --c D
or theory.
 PRACTICE TEST 4 1 77

33. Prussic acid is one of the most poisonous substances known, neither as
- C
----x:- B D
- --

a liquid or a gas.

34. Compact discs, which appeared on the market in the early 1980s,
A-
-

produce sound of better quality than those of standard phonograph

B ----c- D
records.

35. The Pony Express began at a time when not railway went farther west
- e
�B
-

than the Mississippi and Missouri rivers.

---r>
36. The Homestead Act of 1862 granted 1 60 acres of land to any settler
T
which would spend five years on the land.
-- - C-
B D
37. Dust storms occur however wind erosion is strong and loose material is
A B-
-
- C- D -

exposed.

38. Pewter ranks as one of the oldest known alloys and may have been used
� --
B c-
as early as 1 500 B. C . ago.
D
39. Warm and moisture help microbes grow and thus assist the decay
� B- --c ])
-

process.

40. Parrots are noisy, sociable birds that live mainly chiefly in forested areas
-- --- - -
A B C
in lowlands and mountains.
o
 PRA C T I C E T E S T 5

. Dlnctionl
� Items in the Arst part of this section are inclomplete sentances. Under each of
these sentences, there ora four words or �· You wt11 dioose the one
word or phrose-(A) , (8), (C), or (D}-:-4hot best compl,tas the sentence.
� '

EXAMPLE I
Reflexes very valuable in protecting the body against harm.
(A) that are
(B) being
(C) are
(D) are being
The sentence should read, "Reflexes are very valuable in protecting the body
against harm." You should therefore choose (C).

EXAMPLE II
Seismographs are used t o locate oil, to determine ocean depth, and ___

and measure earthquakes.

(A) detect
(B) to detect
(C) be detecting
(D) are detecting
The sentence should read, "Seismographs are used to locate oil, to determine
ocean depth, and to detect and measure earthquakes. " You should therefore
choose (B).

1 78
 PRACTICE TEST 5 1 79

1. The behavior of many volcanoes 6. energy for growth or

very difficult to repair, a plant must carry out
predict, especially the more photosynthesis.
explosive types. (A) To obtain
(A) are (B) It obtains
(B) is (C) It is obtaining
(C) that (D) Obtaining
(D) being
7. Nicotine, found in
2. more than 2 ,000 tobacco, is named after the
minerals are known, nearly all French diplomat Jean Nicot.
rocks are formed from (A) it is a chemical compound
seven mineral groups. (B) is a chemical compound
(A) Although (C) a chemical compound
(B) However (D) chemical compound is
(C) Despite
8. the world's most
(D) Since
successful artificial language.
3. Alexander Graham Bell worked (A) As Esperanto is
with deaf students before (B) That Esperanto
the first telephone in (C) It is Esperanto
1876. (D) Esperanto is
(A) designed
9. food we eat lacks
(B) was designed
minerals, then the body can use
(C) to design
the stores from its bones for
(D) designing
more urgent needs.
4. An enzyme works by coming in (A) As the
contact with a particular (B) If the
substance, with it, (C) The
and changing it. (D) Since
(A) combines
10. an organism to
(B) combining
become a fossil.
(C) it combines
(D) to combine (A) Rarely
(B) It is rare
5. Foods of animal origin generally (C) Rare is
supply greater amounts of iron (D) It is rare for
to the diet than
(A) are foods of plant origin
1 1 . Among sea horses,
carries and hatches the eggs in
(B) foods of plant origins
a special breeding pouch.
(C) do foods of plant origin
(D) plant origin foods (A) it is the male which
(B) the male it
(C) it is the male
(D) the male who
1 80 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

12. will be increasingly 14. The discovery that electricity

used as a source of petrochemi· could produce magnetism
cals when oil begins to run out. in 1 820 by the Danish
(A) No matter coal physicist, . Hans Christian
(B) No doubt coal Oersted.
(C) If coal (A) by accident
(D) That coal (B) was an accident
(C) was made by accident
13. Scientists have discovered that
(D) by accident was
the jellylike material in cells
proteins and other 1 5. Digital systems work first by
substances. changing quantity and then
(A) is actually a complex into strips of num-
mixture bers.
(B) it is actually a complex (A) convert the measurements
mixture (B) the measurements convert
(C) actually is a complex (C) to convert the measure-
mixture of ments
(D) that actually are a complex (D) converting the measure-
mixture of ments
 PRACTICE TEST 5 181

Directions
The rest of the items in this section consist of sentences in which four words
or phrases have been underlined. You must identify the one underlined
expression-{A), (B), (C), or (D)-that must be changed in order to correct
the sentence.

EXAMPLE I
Navajo Indians are far more numerous today � they were � the past.
A B C D
The sentence should read, "Navajo Indians are far more numerous today
than they were in the past." You should therefore choose answer (C).
Though it is one of the rarest metals, gold was one of the first to be
A B C
discover.
D
The sentence should read, "Though it is one of the rarest metals, gold was
one of the first to be discovered. " You should therefore choose answer (D).

16. National forests including land for animal grazing, as well as wilderness
A B C
areas with scenic mountains and lakes.
D
17. The Pony Express from 1860 to 1861 became one of the most colorful
A B
episodes in American post history.
C D
18. Contact lenses made of acrylic are more transparent and least fragile
A B
than lenses made of glass.
C D
19. There is no oxygen in space to support the combustion of fuels as �
A B C
there in the air on Earth.
D
20. As early as 4000 s.c.,
people used irons from meteorites to make
A B
ornaments, weapons, tools and utensils.
C D
1 82 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

21. The pioneers raised corn as their chief crop because they kept well in
A B C
any season and could be used in many ways.
D
22. A coral reef consists in millions of tiny coral polyps which are � form of
A B
small animal related to anemones and jellyfishes.
C D
23. In an ordinary optical microscope, � electric bulb or sunlight is used as
A B C
light for the stage.
D
24. Eleanor Roosevelt had long a career of public service as a champion of
A B
human rights, a writer, and a delegate to the United Nations.
C D
25. Psychologists use standardized tests to help measure abilities, aptitudes,
A B
interesting, and personality traits.
C D
26. Meriwether Lewis and William Clark were commissioned by the U.S.
A B
government to map the lands between St. Louis to the Pacific.
C D
27. As a pure white sugar, dextrose used mainly � candy, baked goods, and
A B C
canned goods.
D
28. Paul Dunbar wrote poetry in standard English about tradition poetic
A B
subjects and about the heroes of black Americans.
C D
29. It is estimated that at least a million meteors have hit the Earth's land
----- ----- ------

A B C
surface, which is only 25 percentage of the planet.
D
30. The pituitary gland is a small endocrine gland � the base of the brain
A
that releases many, hormones and regulates another endocrine glands.
B C D
31. A persimmon tastes best when it is such ripe that it looks wrinkled and
A B C
almost spoiled.
D
 PRACTICE TEST 5 1 83

32. American pioneers did water systems from logs with holes bored
A B
through their centers.
C D
33. Polls following scientific procedures began in 1935 with the experiment
A B C
nationwide surveys of George Gallup and Elm Roper.
D
34. In America, the Indians used crude oil for fuel and medicine hundreds of
A B
years before the first white settlers arrive.
C D
35. When radio programs became popular, approximately around 1 925,
A B C
many people stopped attending movies.
D
36. Musical comedies, � an American form of entertainment, often take its
A B C
subjects from America's present or past.
D
37. Of all seashore plants, seaweeds are best able to tolerate long periods
A B
out of water, followed by long periods covering by water.
C D
38. The fruit of the plantain looks much like a banana, and it is not so sweet
A B
or so pleasing in flavor.
C D
39. The viceroy butterfly, an insect that birds like to eat, has a color pattern
A
similar � that � the monarch butterfly, whom birds do not like to eat.
B C D
40. Behavior therapy uses rewards and punishments to encourage patients
A
to act !:!! a � healthier.
B C D
 ANSWER KEY
CHAPTER 1 7. A three-yeat-old child's brain is two-thirds
Exercise 1 the size it will finally be.

1. information 8. The brain uses twenty-five percent of the

blood's oxygen.
2. women's
3. one-fourth Exercise ON NOUNS
4. language, logic 1. D
5. art, music 2. A
6. pounds 3. c
7. pain 4. A
8. million nerve 5. B

Exercise 2 6. A.

1. F 7. A

2. · T 8. D
3. F 9. A
4. T 10. c
5. F 11. D
6. F 12. D

Exercise 3
1. Intelligence is the ability to use thought
CHAPTER 2
and knowledge to understand things and Exercise 1
solve problems. 1. They live in Antarctica.
2. Hormones help adjust the mixture of 2. She produces one egg.
sugat, salt, and water in your body. 3. He uses a special fold of skin.
·
3. Psychology, the study of the mind and 4. They stand together to protect them-
how it works, comes from a Greek word selves from the cold.
meaning life or soul. 5. They put their eggs on their feet.
4. Brain cells use up a lot of energy, so they 6. She goes to find food.
need a constant supply of oxygen. 7. She returns after two months.
5. Each hemisphere of the brain receives 8. He returns to the sea.
information about the opposite side of Exercise 2
the visual field.
1. T
6. Although millions of brain neurons ate
2. T
active at any one time, they do not use
3. F
much electric power.
4. F
7. Light entering the eye forms an image on
5. F
130 million tiny light cells. 6. F
8. Most animals ate not able to rely on
7. T
learning and memory.
8. F
Exercise 4' Exercise 3
1. People's brains weigh more now than
1. she
they did 100 years ago.
2. He
2. Nerve impulses travel at speeds of up to
3. She
488 feet per second. 4. I
3. The brain contains between I 0 trillion
5. He
and I 00 trillion neurons.
6. they
4. Each neuron is linked by synapses to
thousands of other neurons.
5. Nerve endings below the skin's surface
pick up sensations of cold, heat, and
touch.
6. There are three to four million pain
receptors in the skin.

1 85
1 86 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

Exercise 4 Exercise ON PRONOUNS

1. He helps her take care of the baby 1. B
penguin. 2• . c
2. Correct 3. D
3. Correct 4. D
4. It is not easy for them to survive under 5. D
such conditions. 6. A
5. It is harder for him than for her. 7. A
6. Correct 8. B
9. D
Exercise 5
10. c
1. her 11. D
2. his 12. A
3. their
4. its
5. their CHAPTER 3
6. her Exercise 1
1. At the Boston slave market, Phyllis
Exercise 6
1. his � by John Wheatley.
2. theirs 2. In a few years, Phyllis �
3. theirs geography, history, and �
4. ours 3. Her mistress, Mrs. Wheatley,
5. hers
� by the child's aptitude.
6.
C3
mine
4. At the age of thirteen, she her
Exercise 7 first poem.
1. themselves 5. In I 773 her first book of poems
2. itself
3.
4.
herself
itself/himself 6.
�
With the London
5. himself book, her fame
6. ourselves the Atlantic.

Exercise 8 Exercise 2
1. There are eighteen different kinds of 1. c
penguins that live south of the equator. 2. NC
2. The biologist who went to the south 3. c
pole is studying emperor penguins. 4. NC
3. The Emperor penguins survive winds 5. c
that blow at speeds of up to ninety-five 6. c
miles an hour In winter.
4. Correct
Exercise 3
5- The emperor penguins, which are the
1. c
largest among penguins, do not make
2. B
nests.
3. A

6. The United States has sent researchers to

4. B
Antarctica who are making experiments
5- c
to measure the energy expended by
6. D
emperor penguins. Exercise 4
1. B
2. A
3. D
4. A
5. c
 ANSWER KEY 1 87

Exercise ON PARTS OF A SENTENCE Exercise 5

1. A 1. A
2. c 2. B
3- B 3. A
4. D 4. B
5- A 5. B
6. B 6. A
7. D
Exercise ON VERBS
8. D
1. B
9. B
2. A
10. D
3- c
11. c
4. D
12. A
5. A
6. B
CHAPTER 4 7. B
Exercise 1 8. c
1. comes 9. B
2. abolished 10. B
3. discovered 11. c
4. proposed 12. c
5. has been held
6.
7.
were
were admitted
CHAPTER 5
Exercise 1
Exercise 2 1. on
1. The Olympics took place every four 2. by
years from 776 s.c. to 394 A.o. 3. In, of
2. Correct 4. by
3. From 1896 to the present, the Olympic 5. with
Games have been held every four years. 6. from, on
4. Correct
Exercise 2
5- With this international competition Pierre
1. A potato famine occurred in Ireland in
de Corubertin wanted to encourage both
the 1840s. Due to the famine 1 . 5 million
sport and world peace.
people died.
6. In 1916, 1940, and 1944 the Olympic
2. A flood occurred in Johnstown, Pennsyl­
Games did not take place.
vania, U.S., in May 1889. Due to the
Exercise 3 flood 2,200 people died.
1. A 3. An earthquake occurred in Tangshan,
2. B China, on July 28, 1976. Due to the
3- c earthquake 242,000 people died.
4. D 4. A tidal wave occurred in Bangladesh in
5. A 1970. Due to the tidal wave 200,000
6. B people died.
7. B 5. A tornado occurred in Ohio, U.S., on
8. D April 3, 1974. Due to the tornado 3 1 5
people died.
Exercise 4
6. A fire occurred in Yellowstone Park, U.S.,
1. was held
in 1980. Due to the ftre 1 .3 million acres
2. was built
burned.
3. was flown
4. was led
5. were cancelled
6. were shown
1 88 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

Exercise 3 Exercise ON PREPOSffiONS

1. to 1. 0
2. from 2. A
3. " in 3. c
4. to 4. c
5. by 5. B
6. on 6. 0
7. to 7. B
8. on 8. B
9. 0
Exercise 4
10. A
1. to
11. A
2. for
12. B
3. of
4. for
5. from CHAPTER 6
6. to Exercise 1
7. on 1. Japan
8. at 2. Greenland
3. Australia
Exercise 5
4. Great Britain
1. of
2. for 5. Iceland
6. SurtSey
3. of
4. of Exercise 2
5. of 1. Arctic
6. on 2. New Guinea, Pacific
7. of 3. Borneo, the third, the Pacific
8. of 4. Madagascar, the fourth, the Indian
Exercise 6 5. Baffin Island, the Arctic
6. Sumatra, the fifth, the Pacific
1. to
2. to Exercise 3
3. of 1. c
4. of 2. NC, a big island
5. of 3. c
6. of 4. c
7. of 5. an uninhabited island
8. to 6. c
Exercise 7 7. c
8. c
1. in
9. animals
2. at, on
3. on Exercise 4
4. In, in 1. the, 0, the
5. in 2. The,
6. in, in 3. 0, 0, a
7. of 4. The, 0, a
8. in, in 5. The, 0, a, 0
9. from, to 6. the, the, 0
10. from, to 7. the, the, 0
the, the, 0
Exercise 8 8.
1. on 9. 0, a, the
2. At
10. The, the, the
3. In
4. in
5. on
6. on
7. In
8. by
 ANSWER KEY 1 89

Exercise ON ARTICLES CHAPTER EIGHT

1. D Exercise 1
2. B 1. which
3. A 2. whose
4. A 3. who
5. D 4. which
6. c 5. which
7. B 6. which
8. B
9. D Exercise 2
10. B 1. which
11. A 2. which
12. D 3. which
4. which
5. which
CHAPTER 7 6. who
Exercise 1
1. that Exercise 3
2. that 1. Sacagewea. who was a Shoshoni Indian,
guided Lewis and Clark to the Columbia
3. how
River.
4. that/how
5. that 2. The giant redwood trees that grow in
California, are named after Sequoyah,
6. that
who created an alphabet for the Indian
Exercise 2 people.
1. A 3. Sequoyah became a teacher and moved
2. B to Oklahoma where he continued to
3. A teach the alphabet.
4. B 4. The Shoshoni were a group of Indians
5. B who lived in the western plains of

Exercise 3 Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, and Idaho.

5. Each group of Shoshoni was known to
1. NC
the others by the type of food that was
2. c
plentiful in its particular region-
.---
3. c
4. NC
6. The Mossi people of West Africa use

5. NC
talking drums as a means of preserving
their history, which has been handed
6. c
down by generations.
Exercise 4
Exercise 4
1. c
2. A 2, 3, 5, 6,
3. A Exercise 5
4. B 1. Sequoyah, the son of an Indian mother
5. c and a European father, was born in
6. D Tennessee.

Exercise ON NOUN CLAUSES 2. Sequoyah, first a hunter, became a trader

after a hunting accident.
1. A
3. Correct
2. B
4. Correct
3. c
5. His alphabet consisting of eighry·five
4. D
sounds · was an important invention for
5. A
his people.
6. B
7. A 6. Correct
7. Correct
8. D
9. A
10. B
11. B
12. c
1 90 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

Exercise ON ADJECTIVE ClAUSES Exercise ON ADVERB ClAUSES

1. A 1. B
2. B 2. B
3. € 3. B
4. D 4. D
5. A 5. c
6. B 6. B
7. c 7. B
8. D 8. D
9. B 9. c
10. A 10. D
11. c 11. B
12. D 12. A

CHAPTER NINE CHAPTER TEN

Exercise 1 Exercise 1
1. before 1. in, in
2. when 2. in, in, of
3. when 3. by
4. because 4. from, in, in
5. when 5. in, by
6. although 6. in
Exercise 2 Exercise 2
1. because 1. Richard Long leaves his mark by making
2. as changes in the landscape.
3. where 2. Richard Long brings back found objects
4. after from his walks.
5. whereas 3. Richard Long uses the objects in sculp­
6. before tures that are shown in art galleries.
4. Land art involves the artist going into
Exercise 3
nature, usually in a remote area.
1. Although millions of meteors hit the
5. The only record that remains of land art
earth's atmosphere, few of them are
is photographic, sometimes combined
noticed.
with maps.
2. A meteor leaves a bright trail as it streaks
across the night sky. Exercise 3
3. Many meteorite falls are not noticed 1. Artists have painted nature for centuries.
because they hit the earth in remote s v 0 pp
uninhabited areas. 2. Richard Long _
recorded
_ _ __
his
_
work
o_
4. The rate of the sun's radiation is so great s v
that about 3 million tons of matter is in different ways.
converted into energy every second. pp
5. In ancient times, farmers planted crops 3. Most murals are painted
when thev saw a planet in the right part s v
in a naturalistic style.
of the sky.
pp
6. Even though a planet moves among the
4. The role of art in western culture
stars, it returns to the same part of the
s
sky at the same time each year.
has changed in the last hundred years.
Exercise 4 v pp
1. A 5. Futurism emerged in northern Italy
2. B s v pp
before the First World War.
3. c
pp
4. D
6. Some contemporary artists have rejected
5. B
s v
6. B
art galleries for political reasons.
0 pp
 ANSWER KEY 1 91

Exercise 4 Exercise 2
1. The invention of photography in the 1. biggest
1820s encouraged anists to attempt even 2. smaller
gteater realism in their paintings. 3. bigger
2. As the 19th century wore on, some 4. big
anists began to question the need for art s. big
to refer to the outside world. 6. smallest
3. By the 19th century, art dealers had
Exercise 3
begun to sell uncommissioned art -
to a
1. highest
wider public.
2. irnportantest
4. Monet was more concerned with
3. more older
expressing an almost mysticai"'Sense of
4. sound (as omitted)
communion with narure than with
S. low
working spontaneously.
6. short
S. With the Industrial Revolution the
7. more
landscape began to change more and
8. the
more, and artists began to look into its
negative and positive aspects. Exercise ON COMPARATIVES AND
6. Land are involves the artist going out SUPERlATIVES
into nature, usually in a remote area, and 1. A
making his or her mark on it. 2. B
Exercise 5 3. c
1. A 4. D
2. B s. B

3. c 6. A
4. D 7. c
S. A 8. c
6. B 9. B

7. B 10. B
11. B
-8. D
12. c
Exercise ON PREPOSffiONAL
PHRASES
1. B
CHAPTER TWELVE
2. A Exercise 1
1. and
3. c
4. D 2. and

s. A 3. and

6. B 4. but
7. c s. and
8. D 6. and

9. A
10. B
11. c
12. D

CHAPTER ELEVEN
Exercise 1
1. lesser
2. smallest, highest
3. larger
4. richer
s. brilliant
6. gteatest
1 92 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

Exercise 2 Exercise 2
1. Soya is not only used in many food For
processes but also in many industrial 1. Lowers cholesterol and fights heart
processes. disease.
2. Soya has been used in the manufacture 2. Correct
of paints both for industrial and domestic 3. Correct
use. 4. Fights diabetes.
3. Glycerine is not only used in glues but 5. Fights gum disease.
also in the manufacture of explosives. 6. Strengthens immunity against colds.
4. Soya is used in the manufacture of food Against
both for human consumption and animal
1. Wastes money because the body excretes
consumption.
excess vitamin C.
5- American farmers have been encouraged 2. Causes kidney stones in some people.
to grow more soya not only because the
3. Causes diarrhea and stomach cramps in
expon market has expanded but also
some people.
because the demand at home has 4. Correct
increased.
6. The ancient Chinese used the soya bean Exercise 3
for both food and medicine. 1. Vitamin E protects against hean disease,
prevents cancer, and
Exercise 3 fights skin problems. (V)
1. B 2. The mineral fluoride is found naturally in
2. A soils, water, plants, and
3- c animal tissue. (N)
4. D 3. The tomato plant needs a long growing
5. A season and - light, -
rich, well-drained soil.
6. B
(ADJ)
7. A 4. Vitamin E is being employed slowly but
8. B steadily in medicine in an expanding
Exercise ON CO!IijUNCTIONS range of ailments. (ADV)
1. A 5- Studies have shown that vitamin C can
2. c reduce the severity and lengths of colds,
3. D but not the number of colds a person
4. c gets. (N)
5. B 6. If you do not have enough iron, you can
6. B suffer from anemia, which makes you
7. B �. tired, and weak. (ADJ)
8. c Exercise 4
9. D 1. Iron-deficiency anemia has been impli­
10. B cated in emotion, social, and learning
11. D difficulties in infants, adolescents, and
12. D adults.
2. All "B" vitamins are needed for healthy
CHAPTER THIRTEEN appetite, energy production in cells, and
Exercise 1 healthy nervous and skin.
1. fresh vegetables, fruit 3. Some vitamins may cause toxic, -- allergy
2. gums bled, their skin became rough, reactions in some people.
their wounds did not heal, their muscles 4. Symptoms of a mild case of vitamin C
wasted away. deficiency may be weakness, --- irritable,
3. heat, storage, exposure to air loss of weight, and apathy.
4. the elderly, alcoholics, the chronically ill 5. Claims that vitamin C will prevent, relief,
5- speeds would healing, helps prevent gum or cure colds and winter illnesses ar�
disease, helps protect us from pollutants unwarranted according to Hodges.
such as cigarette smoke. 6. Magnesiwn deficiency is characterized by
6. increases life span. loss of appetite, nausea, confusing, loss
of coordination, and tre�
 ANSWER KEY 1 93

Exercise 5 CHAPTER FOURTEEN

1. Some people take vitamin E to relieve · Exercise 1
muscular cramps, to extend life span, 1. It is relatively easy for computers to
and fight skin problems. speak.
2. The Nobel Laureate Dr. Linus Pauling 2. Until recently it was thought computers
persistently claimed that vitamin C is would have to be programmed to the
effective in preventing and alleviating accent and speech habits of the user.
colds and treating cancer. 3. It is claimed that the IBM Tangora system
3. Many food processes such as drying, · can recognize a spoken vocabulary of
flavoring, canning, and tenderizing may 20,000 words.
add salt. 4. Statistical probability is necessary for
4. It is imponant to select foods that are in computers to interpret not only speech
their best state, store them properly, and but visual data as well.
prepare them to ensure the maximum 5. Up to now computers have not been
retention of vitamin C. programmed to react to a range of
5. Avoiding the purchase of foods with salt spoken commands.
content while marketing or eating out is 6. The machine can calculate the probabil·
helpful. ity of one particular word following
6. The major function of vitamin D is to another.
ensure an adequate supply of calcium
and phosphorus in the bones, to prevent Exercise 2
rickets in children, and maintain good 1. Not until
levels of calcium and phosphorus in the 2. Never
blood. 3. Not only
4. Not until
Exercise 6 5. Only
1. Very large intakes of any of the essential 6. Nor
nutrients may result in both undesirable
toxic symptoms and serious side effects. Exercise 3
2. Minerals in the cell influence not only 1. Should you make an error, it can be
the vital processes of oxidation but also corrected easily.
secretion and growth. 2. On a magnetic disc information is stored.
3. Many people feel that both frozen and 3. Had he been more careful, we would not
canned fruits and vegetables are inferior have lost all that data.
to fresh produce. 4. Not only does the computer store
4. Canned food can neither be kept for information, but also distributes it.
unlimited lengths of time nor be kept at 5. No sooner were personal computers
any temperature. invented than typewriters began to be
5. Fruit grown either shelte� from replaced.
sunlight or grown in a season of many 6. Only recently has the impact of the
rainy days will not have much vitamin C. computer been strongly felt.
6. Good peaches should be neither too Exercise 4
hard, nor too soft. 1. D
Exercise ON PARALLEL STRUcnJRE 2. A
1. D 3. B
2. D 4. B
3. c 5. D
4. D 6. B
5. D
6. c
7. A
8. B
9. c
10. D
11. B
12. c
1 94 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

Exercise ON INVERSION Exercise 6

1. c 1. successful
2. c 2. interested
3. A 3. weekly
4. D 4. safely
5. B 5. smokeless
6. c 6. good
7. A
Exercise 7
8. c
1. AD]
9. B
2. N
10. D
3. N
11. A
4. N
12. B
5. AD]
6. N/V
CHAPTER FIFTEEN 7. N
Exercise 1 8. N
1. inventor/scientist 9. ADV
2. printer 10. N
3. politician
Exercise 8
4. dangerous
1. AD}
5. thick, metal
2. v
6. use
3. AD]
Exercise 2 4. ADV
1. F 5. N
2. F 6. v
3. T 7. N
4. T 8. AD]
5. T
Exercise ON WORD FORMS
6. T
1. B
Exercise 3 2. D
1. politician 3. B
2. inventor 4. A
3. science 5. B
4. printer 6. c
5. physicist 7. D
6. chemistry 8. D
9. c
Exercise 4 10. A
1. activate 11. A
2. thicken 12. A
3. sympathize
4. regularize
5. solidify CHAPTER SIXTEEN
6. lighten Exercise 1
1. Unlike
Exercise 5
2. so
1. entertainment
3. After
2. freedom
4. almost
3. discovered
5. but
4. sign
6. and
5. service
6. developed Exercise 2
1. b
2. a
3. d
4. e
5. c
 ANSWER KEY 1 95

Exercise 3 Exercise ON WORD CHOICE AND

1. do, done, made REDUNDANCY
2. made 1. c
3. do 2. c
4. made 3. B
5. made 4. c
6. made 5. 0
Exercise 4 6. B
7. B
1. Unlike
8. B
2. alike
9. c
3. Like
10. A
4. like
11. c
5. unlike
12. A
6. alike

Exercise 5
1. Another
PRACTICE TEST 1
1.' 0
2. other
2. B
3. another
3. A
4. other
4. A
5. other
5. B
6. the other
6. c
Exercise 6 7. 0
1. so 8. A
2. so 9. B
3. too 10. 0
4. so 1 1. B
5. such 12. c
6. too 13. 0
14. A
Exercise 7
15. B
1. Much
16. B
2. much
17. A
3. many
18. 0
4. little, many
19. c
5. Few
20. A
6. little
21. B
Exercise 8 22. 0
1. A number 23. c
2. Because of 24. 0
3. not 25. A
4. After 26. B
5. some 27. A
6. most 28. c
29. 0
Exercise 9 30. B
I, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8
31. c
32. c
33. B
34. c
35. c
36. A
37. c
38. 0
39. A
40. B
1 96 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH

PRACTICE TEST 2 PRACTICE TEST 3

1. B 1. A
2. A 2. c
3. c 3. B
4. B 4. D
5. D 5. A
6. c 6. B
7. A 7. D
8. B 8. A
9. c 9. c
10. D 10. B
11. A 11. A
12. B 12. c
13. A 13. D
14. c 14. A
15. D 15. D
16. D 16. c
17. D 17. c
18. D 18. D
19. c 19. D
20. D 20. A
21. B 21. B
22. B 22. c
23. B 23. B
24. c 24. D
25. D 25. B
26. D 26. D
27. B 27. A
28. c 28. c
29. A 29. D
30. D 30. D
31. c 31. B
32. D 32. c
33. c 33. c
34. B 34. c
35. c 35. B
36. c 36. A
37. c 37. D
38. D 38. D
39. c 39. D
40. B 40. D
 ANSWER KEY 197

PRACTICE TEST 4 PRACTICE TEST 5

1. A 1. B
2. B 2. A
3. D 3. D
4. c 4. B
5. D 5. c
6. B 6. A
7. c 7. c
8. A 8. D
9. c 9. B
10. B 10. D
11. D 11. A
12. A 12. B
13. B 13. c
14. c 14. c
15. D 15. D
16. D 16. A
17. B 17. D
18. A 18. B
19. c 19. c
20. D 20. A
21. D 21. c
22. D 22. A
23. D 23. c
24. D 24. A
25. B 25. c
26. D 26. D
27. A 27. B
28. c 28. B
29. B 29. D
30. D 30. D
31. A 31. B
32. A 32. A
33. D 33. c
34. c 34. D
35. B 35. c
36. B 36. c
37. A 37. D
38. D 38. B
39. A 39. D
40. c 40. D
NOTES
 .
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