Religion and the Search for Ultimate Meaning experience.

Men and women by their nature are

religious, and efforts to eliminate religion, as many
Learning Objectives social and political movements have done since the
eighteenth century, come up short. They ultimately fail
At the end of this lesson, the students are expected to: as badly as attempts to replace the family with party
or friendship with ideology" (Super 2006, p. 2).
 discuss the significant role of religion in Religion has a pervasive effect and influence on the
society; development of humanity, society, culture, and the
 distinguish religion from other social individual. However, many scholars in the early 20th
institutions; century predicted the demise of religion as a social
 define and explain the meaning of religion; phenomenon because of the advancement in science
 explain the various religious groups; and the unprecedented advancement in technology. As
 connect contemporary religious movements people rely more and more on scientific reason and
with globalization; and method to explain natural events and so-called
 conduct participant observation (e.g., attend, miracles, supernatural occurrences, and mysteries,
describe, and reflect on a religious ritual of a many critics of religion such as Sigmund Freud, the
different group). founder of psychoanalysis, and Karl Marx, the father
of scientific socialism, believed that religion will
Essential Questions for Consideration gradually disappear. This view is called secularization
(from the Latin word saeculum, which means
 What is religion? "worldly"). Surprisingly, in the 21st century, religion
 What are the functions of religion in the society seems to have grown stronger, with no sign of
and in the individual? • Why does religion abetting. Headlines in both local and international
persist and continue to grow in spite of the scenes contain news about religious issues. Hence, one
rapid growth of science and technological scholar on religious studies boldly concludes, "The fact
advancement? is that atheism and rationalism no longer constitute (if
 Does religion promote unity or does it they ever really did) the major challenge to Christian
exacerbate social division? theology today. That challenge comes not from the
 Why do people search for new religious death of God but from the "rebirth of the gods" (and
expressions other than their traditional the goddesses!)" (Cox 2000, p. 9).
religious institutions?
A contemporary scholar defines religion as "a system
Pre-Lesson Assessment Activities of beliefs, rituals, and practices, usually
institutionalized in one manner or another, which
What is your current religion? Have you ever tried connects this world with the beyond. It provides the
converting to another religion? Why or why not? bridge that allows humans to approach the divine, the
universal life force that both encompasses and
Answer the following: transcends the world" (Super and Turley 2006, p. 2).
This substantive definition of religion limits religion
If I really love my partner, I will marry by converting to the belief in supernatural or divine force. Edward
to my partner's religion: Tylor, the founder of British social anthropology,
presented the earliest substantive definition of religion
as "a belief in spiritual beings." Tylor's (1903) theory
  yes no
is that human beings develop religious beliefs in order
Muslim     to explain dreams, visions, unconsciousness, and
Atheist     death. The problem with the substantive definition of
religion, as noted already by Emile Durkheim in his
Satanist    
Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1992), is that
Iglesia ni Cristo     Buddhism, unlike Islam, Hinduism, and Christianity,
tends to be a religion without God or belief in any
Explain your answer for each category. supernatural being.

Building Vocabularies People to Remember Some social scientists prefer a functional definition
of religion that does not necessarily refer to the belief
Church Peter L. Berger in a supernatural being (god or force). In the
Cults Jaime Bulatao functional definition, religion is anything that provides
Denomination Pope Francis an individual with the ultimate meaning that organizes
Functional Definition of Sigmund Freud his/her entire life and worldview. A classic statement of
Religion Felix Manalo this definition is given by the American scholar of
Fundamentalism Karl Marx religion, Milton Yinger, who defines religion as "a
Pentecostalism Sun Myong Moon system of beliefs and practices by means of which a
Religion Mike Velarde group of people struggles with the ultimate problems
Sects of human life" (Yinger 1970, p. 7). In this definition,
Split-Level Christianity religion may also include humanism, individualism,
Syncretism nationalism, and even socialism. Peter L. Berger
(1973), a pioneer in sociology of religion in the United
The Nature of Religion and Its Meaning States, singles out the problem of legitimation as a
primary function of religion:
The English word religion is from the Latin verb
religare, which means "to tie" or "to bind fast." Religion legitimates social institutions by
Religion is a powerful institution that connects human bestowing upon them an ultimately valid
beings, both as individuals and collectively, to a ontological status, that is, by locating them
transcendent reality. A scholar studying the within a sacred and cosmic frame of reference.
importance of religion in world history and in the The historical constructions of human activity
evolution of humanity observes, "The evidence proves are viewed from a vantage point that, in its
that since the remote past religion has been a part of own self-definition, transcends both history
our mental and emotional make-up. Even non- and man (p. 43).
believers usually agree that the term homo religiosus
[religious man] aptly describes the human)
In this view, religion provides the ultimate basis for powerful institution as attested by the recent
social order. The separation between the sacred and controversy regarding the reproductive health bill.
the profane or the unholy, for instance, is a reflection
of the order of the cosmos. Religious myths designate The El Shaddai, a Philippines-based Catholic
and consecrate certain spaces as sacred. Hence, holy Charismatic religious group, was founded by Mariano
places are considered as places for worship and for "Mike" Zuniega Velarde (born August 20, 1939), better
connecting with the divine such as churches and burial known as Bro. Mike Velarde. El Shaddai has grown
grounds. rapidly in the last decade and, as of 2005, had a
reported 8 million members worldwide.
Berger further adds that religion provides an all-
encompassing explanation for the negative experiences Sect
in this world. For Berger (1973), religion "maintains
the socially defined reality by legitimating marginal The sect also perceives itself as a unique owner of the
situations [i.e., sufferings, pains, and miseries] in truth. However, it constitutes a minority in a given
terms of an all-encompassing sacred reality. This society. Recruitment takes place through conscious
permits the individual who goes through these individual choke. A good example is the resurgence of
situations to continue to exist in the world of his [sic] "born again" Christianity that recruits members by
society—not 'as if nothing had happened,' which is asking them to accept Jesus Christ in their lives. Once
psychologically difficult in the more extreme marginal an individual has joined, the sect requires a high level
situations, but in the 'knowledge' that even these of commitment and activity. Members are expected to
events or experiences have a place within a universe support the teachings of the sect and to comply with
that makes sense" (p. 52). its lifestyle, which may be strict and ascetic. Life as a
sect member constitutes a major contrast to the lives
Whether one adopts a substantive or functional of people in society. Therefore, the sect and the larger
definition of religion will depend on what one wants to society may harbor mutual suspicions toward each
study under the rubrics of religion. A functional other. Sects tend to depict society as a place full of
definition of religion will be very helpful if one wants to dangers and moral and religious decay. Sects often are
study quasi-religious groups that do not have beliefs in breakaway groups from the mainstream churches.
supernatural beings but display similar religious-like
doctrines and rituals such as patriotism, excessive An example of sect in the Philippines is the Iglesia ni
attachment to a superstar or celebrity, or even the Cristo (INC, or Church of Christ) that has 2,251,941
belief in the power of science to explain everything. members in 2014. The INC was established in 1914 by
However, if one simply wants to study the traditional Felix Manalo, who served as the first executive
religions such as Christianity and Islam, then the minister. As a sect, the Iglesia ni Cristo believes itself
substantive definition will do the trick. to be the one true universal church. It preaches that
all other Christian churches, including the Roman
Types of Religious Organizations Catholic Church, are apostates.

Religion is necessarily social. Beliefs and rituals are The 7,000-seater INC Central Temple in Quezon
usually shared by people belonging to a definite City, Philippines. - Wikimedia Commons
religious community. While an individual may opt not
to belong to or affiliate with an established religion or On July 2, 2014, the Philippine government declared
religious tradition, that person is still religious and the year 2014 through Proclamation No. 815 as
belongs to an individualistic or spiritualistic "Iglesia ni Cristo Centennial Year." The proclamation
interpretation of religion. In the age of global was issued to "enhance public awareness” on the
capitalism, more and more people tend to retreat into contributions of INC to national development.
their own private world and create their own
individualized religion. But they do not create it from Denomination
scratch. They also borrow and pick from various
religious traditions in the market of religion. Even the In contrast to the church and sect, the denomination is
practicing New Age believers who have their own oriented toward cooperation, at least as it relates to
distinctive personal beliefs are influenced by non- other similar denominations. People join through
Western religious traditions such as Buddhism, individual and voluntary choice, although the most
Hinduism, and other beliefs. These people are called important form of recruitment in established
un-churched believers. Those who belong to organized denominations takes place through childbirth. The
religious groups may belong to any of the following demands for activity and compliance are moderate,
(Furseth 2006, pp. 137ff): and there is a relatively harmonious mutual
relationship between the denomination and the larger
Church society. The liberal branches of Protestant groups
belong to this category.
The church is a religious organization that claims to
possess the truth about salvation exclusively. A classic In the Philippines, the religious groups affiliated with
example is the Roman Catholic Church. The church the National Council of Churches in the Philippines
includes everybody or virtually everybody in a society. (NCCP) are usually tolerant of other forms of religious
Membership is by childbirth: new generations are born organizations. The NCCP, founded in 1963, is
into the church and are formally inducted through composed of ten mainline Protestant and non-Catholic
baptism. The church adapts to some extent to the fact denominations, and ten service-oriented organizations
that it must embrace everyone. Unlike the sect, the in the Philippines. It is a member of the World Council
church tends to be oriented toward compromises with of Churches and the Christian Conference of Asia.
the prevailing culture and the political sphere. Hence, These groups usually maintain dialogues and
the church is relatively moderate in its demands on its cooperative programs with other religious groups
members. (http:// nccphilippines.org/about-us/, retrieved August
7, 2014).
In the Philippines, the National Statistics Office
estimates the Roman Catholics at about 74,211,896 in Cult
2014 (http://web0.psa.gov.phisites/default/files/2014%2OPIF.pdf,
retrieved September 10, 2014). Being the largest The concept of another form of religious organization,
religious organization in the country, it is a very the cult, was introduced in 1932 by sociologist Howard
Becker. After reviewing the literature on cults, Gerry
Lanuza (1999) provides a comprehensive definition of portrayed by mass media and some social scientists.
a cult: "a non-traditional form of religion, the doctrine New Age groups are considered part of these new
of which is taken from diverse sources, either from religious movements. In the 1960s, people who
non-traditional sources or local narratives or an believed in UFOs and other forms of esoteric beliefs
amalgamation of both, whose members constitute were considered as members of cults or occults. More
either a loosely knit group or an exclusive group, which vicious cults include The Peoples Temple at Jonestown
emphasizes the belief in the divine element within the Guyana led by Reverend Jim Jones. In November
individual, and whose teachings are derived from 1978, over 900 followers lost their lives mostly
either a real or legendary figure, the purpose of which through suicide committed at the behest of the
is to aid the individual in the full realization of his or leadership (Hall 1987). Another notorious cult is the
her spiritual powers and/or union with the Divine" (p. Branch Davidians, at Waco, Texas. On April 29, 1993
494). The label cult is often attached to a religious after over 50 days of standoff, the United States
group that society considers as deviant or non- Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco Ind Firearms (USBATF)
traditional. Hence, the term cult is often used in a invaded the compound of the Branch Davidian
negative way. community. David ;oresh, the cult leader, ordered his
members to defend the fortress. After fierce fighting,
Cults are often considered as deviant groups within 74 of its members were left dead. (Barrett 2006, p.
society. In the 1960s, when a series of unusual 79; Clarke 2006).
religious groups emerged to challenge the dominant
religious institutions, the members were considered as New emerging religions also include modern day
cultists. They were considered as "brainwashed" by witchcraft such as Wicca. Wicca nerged in Britain
their religious organizations. "Brainwashing" means during the 1940s and combined Christian tradition,
that cult members were forced to believe in the paganism, and Eastern .uals and symbols. Wicca was
doctrine of the group by force. Cults include the heavily influenced by the theories of the anthropologist
Moonies of the Unification Church, the Hare Krishna of and Iklorist Margaret Murray. She argued that
the International Society for Krishna Consciousness witchcraft was the survival of remnants of a pre-
(ISKCON), the Church of Scientology, and the People Iristian, pagan religion, which worshipped a horned
of Jonestown (with its 911 deaths in the jungles of god.
British Guyana in 1978), Heavens Gate, Scientology,
Dianetics, and others (see Demerath III, 2003, p. 22). Handfasting ceremony
at Avebury in Saltane,
Sun Myung Moon (February 25, 1920-September 3, England in 2005.
2012) was a Korean religious leader, businessperson, Handfasting is a term
political activist, and media mogul. A self-proclaimed for a wedding
messiah, he was the founder of the Unification Church ceremony in
and of its widely noted "Blessing"or mass wedding neopaganism,
ceremony. (Chryssides 1991, p. 20). especially in Wicca.

Something to Think About!

Religious Syncretism
Read the following excerpt and then discuss: Why do
The proliferation of new religious movements may be
you think people join cults like the Solar Temple? What
explained partly by globalization. With the rapid and
should be society's attitude towards such religious
accelerated movement of people, culture, and
groups? Do you think our society should tolerate
information across national borders, religious ideas
religious groups that encourage suicide among its
also rapidly transfer from one place to another. And
members?
when foreign religious beliefs reach a different soil,
they tend to mix and blend with the local and
The Solar Temple
indigenous religious beliefs and folk practices. Hence,
globalization promotes syncretism or the mixing of
In October 1994, fifty-three members of the Solar
different religious and cultural beliefs and practices.
Temple in Switzerland and in Quebec were murdered
Syncretism promotes the growth of popular religion
or committed suicide. On October 4, a fire in Morin
or folk religion that is different from the original
Heights, Canada, destroyed the villa of Joseph Di
parent religion or mainstream orthodoxy. The
Mambro, the group's primary leader. Police found five
mainstream religion often distances itself from folk
charred bodies in the ruins. Three had been stabbed to
religion while tolerating its practices and beliefs. A
death before the fire. At one o'clock on the morning of
perfect example of this is the various colorful fiestas in
October 5, a fire started in Fermi des Rochettes, near
the Philippines. While the images of the Sto. Nino,
Cheiry, in the Canton of Fribourg, one of the centers of
Black Nazarene, and other cult of the saints are hardly
the Solar Temple in Switzerland. Police found twenty-
found in the Bible of the Roman Catholic Church,
three bodies in a room that I had been converted into
nevertheless, Filipinos have creatively blended these
a temple. Some had been shot; many others were
images and rituals with local cultural practices. The
found with their heads inside plastic bags. Two hours
Sinulog festival in Cebu, for instance, is a re-
later, three chalets inhabited by members of the Solar
enactment of Queen Juana's baptism. Folk religious
Temple caught fire almost simultaneously at Les
practices include the development and veneration of
Granges sur Salvan, in the Valais Canton. Police found
other Sto. Nino images; pana'ad or "vows"; paghalad
twenty-five bodies, along with the remains of the
or "offerings"; pagpahid or "wiping of the image with a
devices that had initiated the fires and the pistol used
handkerchief"; pagsinulug or "traditional sinulug ritual
to shoot the people near Cheiry...
dance"; the fluvial procession; and the folkloric
narratives, legends, and myths. Related civic activities
(Source: Lewis, James R. 2005. Culls: A reference handbook, 4-5. 2nd ed.
include Sto. Nino parades and activities, the civic
New York: ABC-CLIO, Inc.)
Sinulog parade, and other kalingawan sa pista or
"fiesta entertainment activities" (Sala-Boza 2008).
New Religious Movements (NRMs) and
Indigenous Religious Groups
Part of folk religion is the split-level Christianity or the
The term "new religious movements" came into use
co-existence of two contradictory belief systems within
among social scientists in the 1960s. It was an
the individual believer. Fr. Jaime Bulatao provided a
alternative label for cults that have been negatively
socio-cultural analysis of this phenomenon.
Split-level Christianity may be described as the religion argue that before the birth of the "male god,"
coexistence within the same person of two or there was matriarchy. Under matriarchy or the rule
more thought-and-behavior systems which are and dominance of women in political and social life,
inconsistent with each other. The image is of two religion was also dominated by women. Hence, many
apartments at different levels, each of which contains feminist scholars argue for recovering the "goddess
a family, one rarely talking to the other. So it is with religion." The movement emerged in the United
the split-leveled person; at one level he professes States in the late 1960s, resulting from the
allegiance to ideas, attitudes and ways of behaving combination of neo-pagan ideas and practices with the
which are mainly borrowed from the Christian West, at spiritually-inclined portion of the women's liberation
another level he holds convictions which are more movement. Feminist writers such as Mary Daly and
properly his "own" ways of living and believing which Carol Christ pointed out the discriminatory biases of
were handed down from his ancestors, which do not male-identified religions, specifically Judeo-
always find their way into an explicit philosophical Christianity, for women. They advocated a woman-
system, but nevertheless now and then flow into identified spirituality that emphasizes the principle of
action. www.inefilipinemind.romizoosiomplioevei-christianity-by- the hidden Sacred Feminine or "the Goddess!'
friaime.html, retrieved August 21, 2014).
Goddess feminism arose out of goddess religion in the
Bulatao traced this to the response of the natives United States in the late 1960s and was inspired by
toward Spanish evangelization. The Filipinos allowed the countercultural ferment of the period. Those who
themselves to be baptized as Christians, but they embraced this religion regard the earth as the sacred
retained their pagan beliefs. So one can observe that body of the Goddess. The Goddess is also a metaphor
Filipinos easily turn their rosaries into amulets. Many for the strength, autonomy, beauty, and inherent
devotees of the Sto. Nino and the Black Nazarene of divinity of women. Gaia, the earth Goddess, is
Quiapo struggle to fall in line during the feast day to considered as an empowering symbol for women
touch the statues. They believed that by touching raised in patriarchal religions where divinity is equated
these statues their wish will be granted. The same with the male God (Rountree 2006).
cultural analysis applies to Senaculo and penitecia or
self-flagellation during Holy Week. Today, many feminists within mainstream religious
organizations are lobbying for equal rights within their
Today, this practice is called syncretism. Syncretism respective religious organizations. Among Catholic
is sometimes used to designate the fusion of pagan feminists, they advocate for the ordination of women
religions. For example, after the Romans had as priests. Among Protestant groups, however, women
conquered the Greeks, the victors, as is known, have already gained a strong presence as many
succumbed to the culture of the vanquished, and the women have already been ordained as ministers. The
ancient Roman religion became completely Hellenized first woman to become a bishop in the Anglican
or transformed by Greek culture. Later, the Romans Communion was Barbara Harris, who was ordained on
gradually received all the religions of the peoples February 11, 1989. The majority of Anglican provinces
whom they subdued, so that Rome became the now permit the ordination of women as bishops who
"temple of the whole world" (see New Catholic serve in various countries.
Encyclopedia, http://www. newadvent.org/cathen/14383c.htm,
retrieved August 21, 2014). Something to Think About!

In the Philippines, cults refer to those indigenous Do you agree that women should be ordained as
religious groups that combine Christian doctrine with priests? Why or why not?
local and indigenous beliefs and practices. Local cults
are often organized for political purposes like the
vigilante groups in the 1980s: Sagrado Corazon, etc.
These were organized to combat communism in the
countryside. Members were often promised immortality
from bullets and other dangers through amulets and
prayers.

The Ilaga (Visayan: rat) is a local Christian extremist

militia composed of Visayan groups (Hiligaynon and
Cebuano) that combined local magical tradition with
Catholic beliefs. The Philippine Constabulary trained it
as a militia force during the 1970s in Southern Religion in the Age of Globalization
Mindanao against the Muslim rebellion. Norberto
Manero, Jr. was released from prison in 2008. He Secularization Thesis Reconsidered
murdered Fr. Tullio Favali, a missionary with the
Pontifical Institute for Foreign Missions, on 11 April Peter L. Berger (1999) briefly summarized the thesis of
1985 in Tulunan. Fr. Favali was suspected as a secularism: "Modernization necessarily leads to 'a
"communist" by the Ilaga. (http:// www.g ma decline of religion,' both in society and in the minds of
netvvork.com/news/ story/78008/news/backgrounder- individuals" (p. 2). Modernization drastically replaces
on-norberto-manero-jr, retrieved November 26, 2015). tradition with science-based knowledge. And as science
dominates the entire cognitive fabric of society, it
Collin Lamont (1902-1995) was a socialist philosopher pushes the split between religion and other
and advocate of secular humanism. institutions. Religion is reduced to just one of the many
sources of ultimate meaning. Religion declines because
Religion and Women the previously accepted religious symbols, doctrines,
and institutions lose their prestige and significance,
Traditionally, women have been equated with religion culminating in a society without religion. Hence,
and with the role of transmitting religious beliefs and religious belief system weakens its hold on society. To
practices to the children (Argyle 1958, 2006, p.51). have a "secular mind" means that one believes that
Men are considered as the leaders of the religious this world is all there is to reality. There is no heaven,
organization. In short, religious leadership and power no afterlife of any kind, and no Messiah (Ledewitz
have always been dominated by men, while women 2009, p. 1). This definition is well-expressed in the
tend to become its major transmitters. However, it statement of Richard Dawkins, a contemporary
must be born in mind that some feminist scholars of biologist who wrote several books criticizing religion
This brings me to the aspect of humanism that In the case of the Philippines, one scholar observed
resonates most harmoniously for me. We are on our that "[r]eligion and the religious influence are so
own in the universe. Humanity can expect no help pervasive in Asia that secularization often means not a
from outside, so our help, such as it is, must come rejection of religion, but a rejection of decadent clergy
from our own resources. As individuals we should who have become exploitative, rigidly formalist, and
make the most of the short time we have, for it is a standing in the way of genuine spiritual development"
privilege to be here. We should seize the opportunity (Mendoza 1984-1986, p. 56). Originally, however,
presented by our good fortune and fill our brief minds, secularization in the Philippines meant merely
before we die, with understanding of why, and where, "nationalizing" the Catholic Church by replacing the
we exist. (Source: Free Inquiry 18, no. 1 (Winter 1997):18.) friars with native secular priests. This was a reaction to
the Spanish friars who were perceived as obstacles to
Or, in the statement of Edward Wilson, a pioneer in the education, progress, and freedom. Today, Philippine
study of sociobiology, who himself grew up as a society is also undergoing secularization. According to
believer: the latest Social Weather Station survey conducted on
I was raised a Southern Baptist in a religious February 15-17, 2013, only 9.2% of Filipino Catholics,
environment that favored a literal or about one in every 11, said they strongly or else
interpretation of the Bible. But it happened somewhat agreed with the statement: "Sometimes I
that I also became fascinated by natural think I might leave the Catholic Church." However,
history at an early age, and, as a biology SWS also noted that weekly church attendance among
concentrator at the University of Alabama, Catholic adults in the Philippines has been declining
discovered evolution...I realized that from 64% in July 1991 to only 37% in February 2013.
something was terribly wrong with this In the same survey, however, majority still claim to
dissonance. The God depicted in the Holy belong to the Roman Catholic Church. The survey said
Scripture is variously benevolent, didactic, about 81 Percent of Filipino adults identified
loving, angry, and vengeful, but never tricky. themselves as belonging to the Catholic faith,
compared to only 6 Percent who are Protestants, 6
As time passed, I learned that scientific materialism percent who are Muslims, 3 percent who are Iglesia ni
explains vastly more of the tangible world, physical Cristo, 3 percent who belong to other Christian
and biological, in precise and useful detail, than the religions and 0.1 percent who belong to other religions
Iron-Age theology and mysticism bequeathed us by (https://news.abs-cbn.com/focus/04/08/13/ph-catholics-going-
the modern great religions ever dreamed. It offers an mass-weekly-drops-37-sws retrieved August 21, 2014).
epic view of the origin and meaning of humanity far
greater, and I believe more noble, than conceived by
all the prophets of old combined. Its discoveries
suggest that, like it or not, we are alone. We must
measure and judge ourselves, and we will decide our
own destiny. (Source: Free Inquiry 18, no. 1 (Winter 1997)18.)

With secularization, religious beliefs cannot compete

with the intellectual credibility of both natural and
social science. Religious beliefs are made relative to
one's private belief. It is sufficient to claim a religious
belief as 'true for me' for it to be recognized as in
some way valid. Yet scientific statements are
considered "truths? The notion that the laws of gravity
are a matter of private opinion, and therefore might be
believed or not, rather than scientifically accepted
public truth, is dismissed as nonsense in secular
society(p.8). (http://www.ihumanism. org/2005/01/the-10-points-of-
humanism-a-definition.html, retrieved November 26, 2015).

Something to Think About!

Do you think Humanism is a religion? Read the

following definition of humanism according to a famous
American humanist philosopher. Then discuss whether However, with the coming of globalization, there is a
the creed of humanism qualifies as a religion. Why do resurgence of religious movements, or new religious
you think I humanism is a threat to traditional movements as discussed earlier, This resurgence
religions? seems to challenge the thesis of secularization.
While statistics would show the rapid decline of church
I think that these ten points embody Humanism in its attendance and declining religious membership in
most acceptable modern form. This philosophy can be mainstream religion, it does not necessarily support
more explicitly characterized as scientific Humanism, secularization or the idea that once people begin to live
secular Humanism, naturalistic Humanism, or in a scientific and rational society, they will gradually
democratic Humanism, shed off their religious beliefs just like in the case of
depending on the emphasis that one wishes to give. Wilson and Dawkins above.
Whatever it be called, Humanism is the viewpoint that
people have but one life to lead and should make the The rapid communication among people across time
most of it in terms of creative work and happiness; and space promotes the spread of religious ideas
that human happiness is its own justification and across geographical boarders. As Peter Beyer (2006)
requires no sanction or support from supernatural points out,
sources; that in any case the supernatural, usually
conceived of in the form of heavenly gods or immortal People, considered now as loci of communication, carry
heavens, does not exist; and that human beings, using their communicative orientations and habits, their
their own intelligence and cooperating liberally with particularity, with them, but to a different social
one another, can build an enduring citadel of peace context. Migration is thereby a way of universalizing
and beauty upon this earth. various particulars, but also of particularizing
(Source: Lamon, Corliss. 1992. The philosophy of humanism, 15-16. 8th ed. universals as migrants generate adaptations of what
Revised. New York: The I Humanist Press.) they carry with them, transfer these adaptations back
to the place of origin and elsewhere, and thus perhaps what is threatened today are the traditional,
Contribute to the transformation or at least mainstream religions in the West like Christianity. And
pluralization of the original form (P. 59). they are declining because of secular humanism.
Many Christians in advanced industrial countries find
The funeral of Pope John Paul II held on April 8. 2005. their Christian faith undermined by the humanist and
six days after his death on April 2, for example, was secular ideology of the modern world. The modern
televised across several nations simultaneously. period saw the scientists and scholars questioning the
Countries with different religions (Muslims, Buddhist, authenticity of "divine inspiration" of the Bible.
Hindu) paid hornage to the Polish pontiff. In the Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory questions the
MiddleEast, the funeral was broadcast on Arab authenticity of Biblical explanation for the origin of
television networks. Many Arabic stations aired live human beings and other species. Albert
coverage from the Vatican. In Moscow, some 1.000 Einstein's"big bang theory" provides an alternative
people packed into the city's Catholic cathedral to explanation for the creation of the universe. This
watch the funeral Mass televised live. In Myanmar, scientific development led some conservative
UCA News reported that Catholics prayed in their Christians to strongly oppose modernization and
perpetual adoration chapels for Pope John Paul secularization. For the Catholic Church, secularization
(http://catholicvoiceornahacom/ world-gathers-churches-around.tvs- means giving up the doctrine of the Church for the
view.funeral. retrieved August 21. 2014). sake of conforming to the world. Pope Benedict XVI in
a conversation with Peter Seewald argued,
This global religious event highlighted the ecumenical
character of the mission of the head of the Roman When, for example, in the name of non-discrimination,
Catholic Church. Meanwhile, the violence perpetrated people try to force the Catholic Church to change her
by the Islamic State of Iraq and al-Shams (or Syria) position on homosexuality or the ordination of women,
(1S1S)—also known as the Islamic State of Iraq in the then that means that she is no longer allowed to live
Levant (ISIL)—now known as IS, led by Abu Bakr, al- out her own identity and that, instead, an abstract,
Baghdadi, drew condemnations from many Muslim negative religion is being made into a tyrannical
Communities around the world. The most explicit standard that everyone must follow. That is then
condemnation came from lyad Ameen Madani, the seemingly freedom—for the sole reason that it is
Secretary General for the Organization of Islamic liberation from the previous situation (http://www.Ist.
Cooperation, the group representing 57 countries and edu/academics/landas-archives/373-dictatorship•of-
1.4 billion Muslims. relativism, retrieved August 21, 2014).

The tremendous growth of Pentecostal revival in Latin The Pope lamented the demand of some secular critics
America, the growth of Islamic sects, and the of religion that the Church change her doctrines to
proliferation of new pagan' religions in the West attest adapt to the flow of the modern world. This attitude
to the enduring character of religion. In short, that could be found in almost all forms of religion,
globalization tends to refute the secularization thesis. might lead to fundamentalist posture. The wish to
For as globalization further shrinks the world, religion restore religion to what is considered its rightful place
turns out to be a force of globalization itself. Ironically, at the heart of society is, in fact, the most notable
even if some religious movements oppose common denominator of today's religious
globalization, such moves merely strengthen the fundamentalist movements. According to Frey (2007),
declining role of religion in the global scale. a scholar on religious fundamentalism,

A group or female The first characteristic feature of

Muslim terrorists fundamentalism, which underlies all the others,
recently called on ISIS is what the Chicago researchers term
to return to Horns. Syria reactivity. A defensive or protective attitude
in force and assist them toward religious belief is necessary, in their
in slaughtering the opinion, or a group or movement to qualify as
resistance and in fundamentalism. The specific threat perceived
establishing Islamic by the group may come from general trends in
khilafah. the surrounding culture, from other religions or
ethnic groups within the nation, from the state,
or from more liberal members within the larger
Pentecostalism: The term Pentecostal is derived from religious tradition (p. 9).
Pentecost, the Greek name for the Jewish Feast of
Weeks. For Christians, this event commemorates the Of course, the perceived threats may not necessarily
descent of the Holy Spirit upon the followers of Jesus lead to fundamentalist posture. It is only when
Christ, as described in the second chapter of the Book defensive opposition to the larger society produces
of Acts. Today, Pentecostalism is very much alive in hostility and violence toward other religious groups
Latin America and Africa where social inequality and that fundamentalism arises. Victor Seidler (2007, p.
poverty are also widespread (May Ling, 2007, p. 30). 27) laments the hostilities among religious groups due
to fundamentalist attitude: "Religious traditions have
Hence, Harvey Cox (2000), a scholar on religion, sometimes proved helpful to peacemaking especially
states, where they have been able to acknowledge the violent
histories they carry. But they have also shaped their
My own work on this topic has led me to the own fundamentalisms that too often denigrate 'the
tentative conclusion that what we are other' as an enemy that has to be defeated."
witnessing is neither secularization nor its
opposite (resacralization). Rather, it is a Conflicts between Hindu and Muslim fundamentalists
fascinating transformation of religion, a are a major ingredient in the on-going religious
creative series of self-adaptations by religions violence in India. In some cases, fundamentalist
to the new conditions created by the modernity groups within an established religion separate
some of them helped to spawn (p. 9). themselves from the mainstream church. This attitude
is called dualism. Religious fundamentalists tend to see
The Rise of Religious Fundamentalism the world in black and white. They cannot tolerate
compromise with the "evils" of the world. Those who
Secularization thesis or the prediction that religion will cannot completely separate themselves from the
decline steadily, may still be saved by arguing that world, items of dress serve as markers instead.
According to Rebecca Frey (2007), in Israel, the ideas such as atheism and the removal of religious
knitted skullcap, or kippah (yarmulke), was identified inspired moral values from the public life. They feel
with members of Gush Emunim; some Israeli that if science and humanism replace religion, then it
journalists even spoke of a "knitted skullcap culture" of will lead to moral relativism that would permit all
"self-assured religious youth who are not apologetic forms of immoral behaviors and practices.
about their piety" (p. 22). In sects of Islam hijab Consequently, this will lead to the decay of the moral
becomes a marker for adherence to Islamic faith. foundations of society. For Islamic fundamentalists,
the spread of Western values would mean the
The Gush Emunim (Bloc (of the] faithful) was an marginalization of Islam and the triumph of Western
Israeli messianic, right-wing activist movement values such as individualism, consumerism, and
committed to establishing Jewish settlements in the hedonism.
West Bank, the Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights.
While not formally established as an organization until This combination of religion and modern education has
1974 in the wake of the Yom Kippur War, Gush proved dangerous to the religious establishment and
Emunim sprang out of the conquests of the Six-Day the government that relies on it for legitimacy,
War in 1967, encouraging Jewish settlement of the because in the world of mass literacy, mass marketing
land based on the belief that, according to the Torah, and mass (not to mention international)
God gave it to the Jewish people. While Gush Emunim communication, the exclusive interpretive authority of
no longer exists officially, vestiges of its influence local, state-based ulama [Muslim community] has been
remain in Israeli society. permanently broken. Authority is now more a
characteristic of products themselves (sermons,
Gush Emunim (translatedas"SlocoftheFaithful") was an lessons, advice, books, magazines, cassette tapes,
extra-parliamentary national-religious movement computer software) than productive processes
advocating Israeli sovereignty in the Golan Heights, (apprenticeship, certification, jurisprudential skill).
Gaza Strip, Judea and Samaria by a massive civilian Who the producer is—when that can be determined—is
presence in these territories. For this purpose, the less important than the marketability of what he has to
movement not only promoted settlement, but acted to say. (Starrett, 1998, p. 91).
promote education, social projects, immigrant
absorption, and propaganda. Gush Emunim called for
coexistence with the Arab population and negated the
principle of transfer as advocated by Meir Kahane. Its Summary
ideological inspiration was derived from the teachings
of Rabbi Zvi Yehuda Kook, according to which the Religion as a social institution has a very powerful
purpose of the Jewish people is to gain physical and impact on society and the world. Basically, religion
spiritual salvation through living in and developing provides the ultimate meaning to human being's quest
Eretz Yisrael (the Land of Israel); the sanctity of Eretz for life meaning, the search for origin of the world, and
Yisrael obligates seizing it after it was freed from the justification for death and suffering. Today,
foreign rulers, and therefore it must be settled even religions, instead of dying because of scientific and
against governmental policy technological advancement, are very much alive as
(https://www.knesset.gov.iI/ shown in the cases of neo-pagan religions, Islamic
lexicon/eng/gush_em_eng.htm, retrieved November resurgence, Pentecostalism, charismatic groups, and
23, 2015). born again Christianity. The revival of religion is
facilitated by the growing interconnection of different
Among Christians, those who strongly oppose secular geographical regions through globalization.
values such as women empowerment, homosexuality, Globalization is allowing religions to travel faster from
cultural hedonism, and scientific encroachment on one area to another. Indeed, religion contributes in the
Christian beliefs, the reaction is often fundamentalist in globalization process since its creation.
nature. In the United States, these Christians are
called "New Christian Right." Fundamental to these Things to Do!
groups is the belief in the inerrancy of the Bible or any
other sacred text upon which they base their doctrine. Group yourselves with five members in each group.
They oppose evolutionary theory unless it can be With the help and permission of your teacher, visit a
reconciled with the Bible; they lobby against abortion chapel, a mosque, or p church near your school.
and euthanasia; they condemn same-sex marriages; Request permission from the local priest or pastor that
and they champion the traditional roles of women and you be allowed to observe their religious services.
families. Christian fundamentalism must be understood Show respect and observe proper behavior when you
as a reaction against the triumph of science, to the attend a religious service. Record your observations
detriment of spiritual moral values. Christian after the services. Compare the religious services in
fundamentalism is said to have originated from the your church with the religious services you attended.
famous Scopes Trial, formally known as The State of
Tennessee v. John Thomas Scopes and commonly Summative Assessment
referred to as the Scopes Monkey Trial, in 1925. John
Scopes, a high school biology teacher, was tried for  Do you have friends and classmates who have
violating Tennessee's Butler Act, which prohibited the a different religion from your own?
teaching of human evolution in any state-funded  Does religion influence your choice of friends?
school. He was found guilty and fined $100 (equivalent  Does religion affect the way you interact with
to $1,345 in 2014). Later, the verdict was reversed on your classmates?
a technicality. Fundamentalist Christians believe that
the account of the Book of Genesis in the Old
Testament provides a scientific account of the origin of
the world and human beings.

Fundamentalism, of course, is found not only among

Christians, but also in other religions such as Islam
and Hinduism. What is common to these
fundamentalist groups is the fear that the church or
their faith is threatened by the advancement of science
and humanistic values of society promoted by the
Western world. Hence, they become hostile to secular
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