CHAPTER 1.

High Energy And Heavy

Ions Collisions

1. What Is High Energy Physics ?

High Energy Physics (HEP) is the study of the most fundamental building blocks of
nature and how these elementary particles interact to make the universe look and
behave the way it does. HEP is also known as “Particle Physics”,because many
elementry particles do not occur under normal circumstances in nature,but can be
created and detected during energetic collisions of other particles,as is done in particle
accelerators.
Everything in the universe, from stars and planets, to us is made from the same basic
building blocks - particles of matter. The underlying theoretical construct in particle
physics is called the Standard Model. Now the question is what is Standard Model so
let us discuss about it .

2. Standard Model :-
The Standard Model is a set of mathematical formulae and measurements describing particles and
their interactions. It is similar to the way the Periodic Table of elements describes atom,categorizes
them based on their characteristics, but instead the Standard Model categorizies the elementary
particles-fermions and bosons.
The Standard Model categorizes fundamental particles into related groups,as seen in table below.
2.1 Fermions.
Fermion is a particle that follows fermi-Dirac statistics. These particles obey the Pauli
exclusion principle. As a consequence of the Pauli exclusion principle, only one fermion
can occupy a particular quantum state at any given time. If multiple fermions have the
same spatial probability distribution, then at least one property of each fermion, such as
its spin, must be different. Fermions are usually associated with matter, whereas
bosons are generally force carrier particles Fermions include all six Quarks and six
leptons as well as all composite particles made of an odd number of these, such as all
baryons and nucleons. The six quarks are paired in three generations – the “up quark”
and the “down quark” form the first generation, followed by the “charm quark” and
“strange quark”, then the “top quark” and “bottom (or beauty) quark”. Quarks also come
in three different “colours” and only mix in such ways as to form colourless objects. The
six leptons are similarly arranged in three generations – the “electron” and the “electron
neutrino”, the “muon” and the “muon neutrino”, and the “tau” and the “tau neutrino”. The
electron, the muon and the tau all have an electric charge and a sizeable mass,
whereas the neutrinos are electrically neutral and have very little mass nuclei of odd
mass number (e.g., tritium, helium-3, uranium-233). They have half-integer spin
quantum number.

2.2 Boson
Boson is a type of particle that obeys the rules of Bose-Einstein statistics.
These bosons also have a quantum spin with contains an integer value, such
as 0, 1, -1, -2, 2, etc. Bosons are further divides into two group-
I. Gauge Boson II.Scaler Boson
Gauge bosons are defined as force carriers that mediate the strong, weak,
and electromagnetic fundamental interactions.There are four types of Gauge
Boson Gluon,Photon, w- boson, z-boson.
Scaler Boson has 0 spin while Gauge Boson have spin 1.
Scaler Boson has only one particle Higgs Boson.
Summary of Standard Model is given below.
3.Heavy Ions Collisions.
Before coming to heavy ion collision let us discuss about heavy ion and some
kinematics variables with some hydrodynamics terminology.
Heavy ion, in nuclear physics, any particle with one or more units of electric
charge and a mass exceeding that of the helium-4 nucleus (alpha particle).
3.2 Lorentz Transformation.
Lorentz transformations, set of equations in relativity physics that relate the
space and time coordinates of two systems moving at a constant velocity
relative to each other. Required to describe high-speed phenomena
approaching the speed of light, Lorentz transformations formally express the
relativity concepts that space and time are not absolute; that length, time, and
mass depend on the relative motion of the observer; and that the speed of
light in a vacuum is constant and independent of the motion of the observer or
the source.
The most common form of the transformation, parametrized by the real
constant v, representing a velocity confined to the x-direction, is expressed as

where (t, x, y, z) and (t′, x′, y′, z′) are the coordinates of an event in two frames,
where the primed frame is seen from the unprimed frame as moving with

speed valong the x-axis, c is the speed of light, and is lorentz

factor.

Expressing the speed as , an equivalent form of the transformation is