Holy Cross College

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

MODULE: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

Introduction:
One of the oldest arts practiced by man is surveying. From the earliest times it has always
been necessary to marks boundaries and divide tracts of land. Through the centuries, the
uses of surveying have expanded such as today it is difficult to undertake any type of
engineering construction that does not involve some type of surveying. Planning and design
are based on the results of surveys and construction is controlled by surveying. Professionals in
the different fields of engineering as well, geologists, architects, foresters, agriculturist and
geographers are concerned with surveying as a means of planning and executing their
respective projects.
Surveys cover a wide range in the scope and complexity, from the staking out of simple
structures or the surveying if small parcels of land to the extensive and difficult surveys
required in the construction of subdivisions, bridges, highways, canals, dams, railroads,
wharves, missile and rocket launching sites, drainage and irrigation systems, or the survey of
relatively large portions of the earth surface. Surveying is also required for the laying out of
industrial equipment, preparing forestry and geological maps, positioning massive complex
machinery, in the construction of ships and airplanes, as well as in the survey and exploration
of extra-terrestrial bodies such as the moon and the planets.
In the training of a technical students, the study of surveying is an important part even though
he may never actually use it later in practice. It is one course which training students to
visualize and think logically, to plan, to work carefully and accurately, and to arrange the
products of these efforts in a neat and orderly manner for record or presentation. A surveying
course will provide the student a worthwhile general experience and also develop desirable
traits and habits because the nature of the subject with its related field measurements is such
that it will develop habits of accuracy, industry, and reliability.
In addition, the student will learn a great deal about the relative importance of
measurements. He is trained to decide on how accurate and precise measurements should
be made, and acquire essential habits of checking numerical attributes are expected to add
the stature and technical competence of a future professional. (Juny Pilapil La Putt,
Elementary Surveying, 3rd Edition, 2013 Reprinted)
Surveying may be defined as the art of making measurements of the relative positions of
natural and man – made features on the earth’s surface, and the presentation of this
information either graphically or numerically. It dates back to antiquity. Heron, a Greek who
lived in Alexandria in about the first century AD , provided the first serious account of
surveying techniques. From this it is clear that the world of Euclid and other geometers was
used in measuring up and setting out. Naturally, much has altered, but nevertheless a few
techniques have shown little change in principle over the centuries.
The commonest method of presentation is by way of a plan, a true – to – scale
representation of an area in the two dimensions that form the horizontal plane. The third
dimension, height, is normal to the horizontal and can be shown on the plan in various ways.
The term ‘levelling’ is encountered here, and refers to operations connected with the
representation of relative difference in altitude between various points on the earth’s surface.
(Arthur Bannister, Stanley Raymond, Raymond Baker, Surveying 7th Edition, 2000)

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COMPILED BY: ENGR. RONQUILLO, JEAN FHEY S., RCE, MSCE
(This is for academic use inside Holy Cross College only.)
 Holy Cross College
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

MODULE: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

LESSON I: INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

I. SURVEYING
I.A DEFINITIONS OF SURVEYING
All surveying operations have the same basic characteristics . Listed below are
definitions made by different authors:
1. “Surveying is the art of determining the positions of points on or near the earth ‘s
surface by means of measurements in the three elements of space; namely, distance,
direction and elevation”- Rayner and Schmidt.
2. “Surveying is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between objects,
of measuring angles between lines, and of establishing points by predetermined
angular and linear measurements.”- Davis, Foote, Anderson and Mikhail.
3. “Surveying is the art of making such measurements of the relative positions of points
on the surface of the earth that, on drawing them to scale, natural and artificial
features may be exhibited in their correct horizontal or vertical relationships.”-Clarke.
4. “Surveying is that branch of applied mathematics which teaches the art of
determining the area of any portion of the earth’s surface, the length and directions of
the boundary lines, the contour of the surface, and of accurately delineating the
whole on paper.”- Webster.
5. “Surveying is the science or art of making such measurements as are necessary to
determine the relative position of points above, on, or beneath the surface of the
earth, or to establish such points.”- Breed, Hosmer, and Bone.
6. “Surveying is the science and art of determining relative positions of points above,
on, or beneath the surface of the earth, or establishing such points.”- Brinker and Wolf.

I.B TWO CLASSIFICATIONS OF SURVEYING

1. Plane Surveying- type of surveying in which the earth is considered to be a flat

surface and where distances and areas involved are of limited extent that the exact
shape of the earth is disregarded. With regard to horizontal distances and directions, a
level line is considered mathematically straight, the direction of the plumb line is
assumed to be the same at all points within the limits of the survey, and all angles are
considered to be plane angles. The method of surveying is employed in various surveys
undertaken in engineering, scientific, commercial, architectural, geographic,
navigational and exploratory work.

2. Geodetic Surveying- a branch of surveying distinguished both by use and by

technique. Frameworks of angular and distance measurements between points are
necessary to control all surveys and when surveying large areas, such as whole
country, these measurements must be taken to the highest possible standard. Modern
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 Holy Cross College
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

MODULE: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

method for this track includes satellite positioning systems, which can obtain the three-
dimensional coordinates of any point in the earth’s surface to a high degree of
accuracy. The study of the size and shape of the earth and its gravity field is known as
geodesy: hence, the name of this type of surveying.

I.C TYPES OF SURVEYS

1. Cadastral Surveys- Cadastral surveying is the

sub-field of cadastre and surveying that
specializes in the establishment and re-
establishment of real property boundaries. It is
an important component of the legal creation
of properties.

2. City surveys-are surveys of the areas in and near a city for the purpose of planning
expansions or improvements, locating property lines, fixing reference monuments,
determining the physical features and configuration of the land and preparing maps.

3. Construction surveys- A Construction

Survey is basically a survey that presents
locations and marks for construction
activities; the process of executing
evaluation and estimation prior to or during
construction activities. It is carried out to
layout engineering and construction works.
Measurements are done for reference points
which determine the location of the
planned structure or improvements, vertical
and horizontal positioning, dimensions, configuration, and to control the elevation of
the new structures.

4. Forestry Surveys-a type of survey executed in

connection with forest management and mensuration,
and the production and conservation of forest lands.

5. Hydrographic survey- Hydrographic survey is the

science of measurement and description of features
which affect maritime navigation, marine construction,
dredging, offshore oil exploration/offshore oil drilling and
related activities.

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COMPILED BY: ENGR. RONQUILLO, JEAN FHEY S., RCE, MSCE
(This is for academic use inside Holy Cross College only.)
 Holy Cross College
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

MODULE: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

6. Industrial Surveys- Industrial surveying is - as the

name suggests - surveys related to industry. It
could involve the oil and gas industry,
mechanics, the process industry, power plants,
etc. The projects may be large or small, and of
varying duration. Anko's services often
complement each other, and are rarely isolated
single services.

7. Mine surveys-are surveys which are

performed to determine the position of all
underground excavations and surface
mine structures, to fix surface boundaries of
mining claims, determine geological
formations, to calculate excavated
volumes, and establish lines and grades for
other related mining work.

8. Photographic surveys- Photographic surveying also

called photograph icing is a method of surveying in which
plans or maps are prepared from photographic taken at
suitable camera stations or photographic is the science of
making measurement from photographs.

9. Route Surveys- Route Survey is defined as

being the required service and product that
adequately locates the planned path of a
linear project or right of way which crosses a
prescribed area of real estate, extending from
at least one known point and turning or
terminating at another known point

10. Topographic surveys- these produce maps and

plans of the natural and man-made features. There
is no clear distinction between a map and plan.
These are made to determine the shape of the
ground and the location and elevation of natural
and artificial features upon it. the feaures shown
include such natural objects as hills, mountains,
rivers, lakes, relief of ground surface, works or man, such as roads, buildings, ports,
towns, municipalities and bridges.

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COMPILED BY: ENGR. RONQUILLO, JEAN FHEY S., RCE, MSCE
(This is for academic use inside Holy Cross College only.)
 Holy Cross College
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

MODULE: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

II. SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS

A measurement is the process of
determining the extent, size or
dimension of particular quantity in
comparison to a given standard. In
surveying, measurements are usually
concentrated on angles, elevations,
times, lines, areas and volumes. Making
measurements and the subsequent
computations utilizing them are basic
and essential task of a surveyor. The
surveyors’ role is primarily to design a
survey. Then plan out and execute he required field operations. In so doing, he
designates the type, extent, and procedures of measurements to be undertaken. The
measurements obtained are then evaluated and adjusted to obtain the desired result.
Any surveying measurement is always subject to the imperfections of the instrument
used and the different errors inherent in the process of obtaining the measurement.
There is no such thing as a perfect measuring instrument nor is there a surveyor whose
senses are sufficiently perfect to measure any quantity exactly. The first thing a student
of surveying must learn about measurement is that no exact or true measurement is
ever possible and the true value of a measure quantity is never known. Measurements
are never exact and they will always be imperfect no matter how carefully made. The
physical measurements acquired are correct only within certain limits because errors
cannot be totally eliminated.

1. Direct Measurement
A direct measurement is a comparison of the measured quantity with a standard
measuring unit or units employed for measuring a quantity of that kind. Some common
examples of direct measurements are applying a wire or tape to a line, determining a
horizontal or vertical angle with a transit or fitting a protector between two intersecting
lines to determine the intersection angle.

2. Indirect Measurement
When it is not possible to apply a measuring instrument directly to a quantity to be
measured are indirect measurement is made. In this type of measurement, the
observed value determined by its relationship to some other known values. For
example, the total length of a line would be indirectly observed distance if it is
determined by a summation of a series of directly measured short segment. In the
stadia and subtense bar method, horizontal and vertical distances are indirectly
obtained since it makes use of optical systems for relating a short-known length to the
angle. It subtends at a distance to be determined.

System of measurements
1. International System of Units/ Metric System of Units (SI)
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 Holy Cross College
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

MODULE: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

2. English System

Units of measurements
The usual surveying type of measurement entail both angular and linear
measurements. When using SI, all linear measurements, as earlier stated, are based
upon the meter. Larger and smaller units are derived from it in decimal steps, and their
names are formed by adding prefixes. In SI, a total set of 18 prefixes are used to form
multiples and submultiples of different units. The following more commonly used
prefixes are added to basic names.
mega=1,000,000 Centi= 0.01
Kilo= 1,000 Milli= 0.001
Hecto= 100 Micro=0.000 001
Deca= 10 Nano= 0.000 000 001
Deci= 0.1

1. Linear, Area and Volume measurements using the prefixes above:

1 kilometer (km) = 1 000 meters
1 meter (m)= 1 000 millimeters
1 millimeter= 1 000 micrometers
1 micrometer= 1 000 millimicrometers
1 millimicrometer= 1 000 million micrometers
1 meter= 10 decimeters
1 decimeter= 10 centimeters
1 centimeter= 10 millimeters

The common units for length are the kilometer, meter, centimeter, and the millimeter.
Length may also refer to other linear dimensions such as width, depth, thickness,
height, or distance. The kilometer is used for long distances and in measuring the sides
of large tracts of land. For the measurements of objects such as buildings, structures,
residential lots, heights of mountain, tides, pipes and cables, the meter is used. The
centimeter and millimeter are not commonly used in surveying. They are suitable for
small dimensions needed in laboratories where very precise but minute measurements
are required.
The unit of the area in SI is the square. For very small areas, square millimeter or square
centimeters is used. Areas of small tracts of land, floor areas of buildings and structures
are measured in square meters. The hectare (ha), although not an SI unit, is commonly
used for the measurement of large tracts of land such as cities, provinces, sugar cane
plantations, rice fields, and forests.
The square kilometer is the appropriate SI unit for this purpose. The following are the
commonly used relationships: 1 hectare = 10 000 sq m or 100 acres, 1 are = 100 sq m, 1
sq km = 1 000 000 sq m or 100 hectares.
The common metric units of volume are the cubic meter, liter, and millimeter. Precise
volumes, and the volumes, actuals physical volumes, and the volumes of solids and
liquids should be expressed depending on magnitude, in cubic meters, cubic
centimeters, cubic millimeters. The cubic meter is used for larger volumes which are
common in engineering constructions and in measuring various quantities in surveying.

2.Angular Measurements. The SI unit for plane angles is the radian. The radian is
defined as an angle subtended by an arc of a circle having a length equal to the
radius of the circle. Obviously, 2π rad = 360 deg, 1 rad = 57 deg 17 min 44.8 sec or
57.2958 deg, and 0.01745 rad = 1 deg. The relationship may also be expressed as
follows: 1 deg = (3.1416/ 180 rad), 1 min = (3.1416/10800 rad) and 1sec=
(3.1416/648000) rad.

Review of Significant Figures

In recording results from values obtained by measurements and in making
computations, it is important to determine which should be retained as significant
figures. By definition, the number of significant figures in any value includes the number
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(This is for academic use inside Holy Cross College only.)
 Holy Cross College
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

MODULE: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

of certain digits plus one digit that is estimated and therefore questionable or
uncertain. For example, if a line is measured with a scale graduated in one meter
increments and recorded as 3.6 meters, the value has two significant figures. The 3
that is certain and 6 which is estimated. Any further estimation made would not be
significant. If the same line is again measured with a scale graduated in tenths of a
meter, and recorded with three significant figures, as 3.65 meters and 3 and 6 are
certain, whereas the 5 is estimated or uncertain.
The number of significant figures is often confused with the number of decimal places.
Decimal places may have to be used to maintain the correct number of significant
figures, but in themselves they do not indicate significant figures, for examples are
1. One significant figure=100, 400, 9, 8000, 0.001, 0.0000005
2. Two significant figures= 24, 0.25, 0.020, 0.000065, 0.0024, 3.6,
3. Three significant figures = 365, 12.3, 3.65, 10.1, 0.000249, 0.0120
4. Four significant figures= 7654, 32.25, 0.8742,15.00, 0.00006712, 364.0,
5. Five significant figures=12345, 0.86740, 100.00, 46.6, 40.000,155.28

Rules of Significant Figures

Rule 1:Zeroes between other significant figures are significant, as, for example in the
following values each of which contains 4 significant figures: 12.03, 35.06 and 4009.
Rule 2: For values less than one, zeroes immediately to the right of the decimal are not
significant. They merely show the position of the decimal such as in the following
values which contain three significant figures: 0.00325, 0.00468 and 0.0230.
Rule 3: Zeroes placed at the end of decimal numbers are significant such as: 169.30,
366.00 and 11.000. these three values all have five significant figures.

Rounding off numbers

Rounding off a value is the process of dropping one or more of the final digits so that
the value contains only the significant figures required for further computation or for
portraying the final results. The following procedures of rounding off values are
generally accepted.
1. Digit is less than 5. When the digit to be dropped is less than 5, the nearest even
number is used for the preceding digit. Thus, 24.244, rounded off to the nearest
hundredth, becomes 24.24, correspondingly, to further round off 24.24 to the nearest
tenths, the value becomes 24.2
2. Digit is equal to 5. When the digit to be dropped is exactly 5, the nearest even
number is used for the preceding digit. Thus, 26.175, rounded off to the nearest
hundredth becomes 26.18. Also 156.285 would be 156.28.
3. Digit is greater than 5. When the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, the number is
written with the preceding digit increased by one. Thus, 226.276, rounded off to the
nearest hundredth becomes 226.28. Correspondingly, 226.28, rounded off to the
nearest tenths would be 226.3

III. ERRORS & MISTAKES

ERRORS
An error is defined as the difference between the true value and the measured value
of a quantity. It is a deviation of an observation or a calculation from the true value
and is often beyond the control of the one performing the operation. Since the true
value of a quantity can never be ascertained, by measurements, the exact value of
an error, likewise can never be determined in any measurement.
Errors are inherent in all measurements and result from sources which cannot be
avoided. They may be caused by the type of equipment used or by the way in which
the equipment is employed. It may also be caused by the imperfections of senses of
the person undertaking the measurement or by natural causes. The effects of errors
cannot be entirely eliminated; they can, however, they minimize by careful work and
by applying corrections.

MISTAKES
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 Holy Cross College
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

MODULE: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

Mistakes are inaccuracy in measurements which occur because some aspects of a

surveying operation are performed by the surveyor with surveyor with carelessness,
inattention, poor judgement, improper execution. Mistakes are also caused by a
misunderstanding of the problem, inexperience or indifference of the surveyor. A large
mistake is referred to as a blunder. Mistakes and blunder are not classified as errors
because they usually are so large in magnitude when compared to errors.
Among students of surveying, mistakes which are frequently committed include:
reading the wrong graduation on the tape, mitting a whole length of tape,
transposition of figures, reading a scale backward, misplacing a decimal point,
incorrect recording of failed notes, adding a row or column of numbers incorrectly,
etc.

For example, a tape man may read a number on the tape as 6 when it should
actually be 9, or he may read a tape distance as 48.6m but records it as 46.8m in the
field notes. Another example of a mistake is in the recording of a series of repeated
measurements of a line. The tape man may record the measurements as follows:
243.85m, 243.88m, 234.80m, 243.86m and 243.785. if a cursory inspection is made of the
recorded values, it will be noted that the third values disagree significantly with the
others. This apparently because of transposition of figures in the process of recording.
If careful attention is given to the execution of any surveying operation, mistakes can
be avoided. The various types of mistakes, however, can only be corrected if this
covered. Their detection can be made by systematic checking of all work, making a
common sense, estimate and analysis, or by making a duplicate measurement.
Undetected mistakes will produce very serious effect on the final result of a survey such
that the surveyor should be exert every possible effort to minimize their occurrence.
When mistakes are discovered, corrections should immediately made. It is advisable to
repeat a measurement when a mistake is detected.

Types of errors
1. Systematic errors. This type of error is one which will always have the same sign and
magnitude as long as field conditions remain constant and unchanged. For changing
field conditions there is a corresponding change in magnitude and error, however,
the sign remains constant. A systematic error will repeat itself in other measurements,
still maintaining the same sign and thus will accumulate. It is for this reason that this
type of error is also called a cumulative error. For instance, in making a measurement
with a 30-m tape which is 5cm too short, the same error is made each time the tape is
used. If a full tape length is used six times, the error accumulated and totals six times
the error (or 30cm) for the total measurement.
Systematic errors conform to mathematical and physical laws. Such errors can be
computed and their effects eliminated by applying corrections, employing proper
techniques in the use of instruments, or by adopting a field procedure which will
automatically eliminate it.
In surveying, systematic errors occur due to instrumental factors, natural causes, and
human limitations of the observer. This type of error will continue to persist and impose
regular effects in the performance of a survey operation.
2. Accidental errors. These errors are purely accidental in character. The occurrence
of such errors is matter of chance as they are likely to be positive or negative and may
tend in part to compensate or average out according to laws of probability. There is
no absolute way of determining or eliminating them since the error for an observation
of quantity is not likely to be the same as for a second observation. Accidental errors
are caused by factors beyond the control of the surveyor and are present in all
surveying measurements. They remain after mistakes and systematic errors have been
eliminated. An example of such an error is the failure of a tape man to exert the
correct amount of pull on the ends of the tape during measurement. Sometimes, he
may exert a pull beyond that which is required and sometimes less than which is
required.

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(This is for academic use inside Holy Cross College only.)
 Holy Cross College
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

MODULE: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

Sources of errors:
1. Instrumental errors. These errors are due to imperfections in the instruments used,
either from faults in their construction or from improper adjustments between the
different parts prior to their use. Surveying instruments just like any other instrument, are
never perfect; proper correction and field methods are applied to bring the
measurements within certain allowable limits of precision. Moreover, with time and
continuous usage, the wear and tear on the instrument will likely be a cause for errors.
Examples of instrumental errors are:
a.) Measuring with a steel tape of incorrect length.
b.) Using a leveling rod with painted graduations not perfectly spaced.
c.) Determining the difference in elevation between two points with an instrument
whose line of sight is not in adjustment.
d.) Sighting on a rod which is warped.
e.) Improper adjustment of the plate bubbles of a transit or level.

2. Natural Errors. These errors are caused by variations in the phenomena of nature
such as changes in magnetic declination, temperature, humidity, wind, refraction,
gravity, and curvature of the earth of the earth. Natural errors are beyond the control
of man. However, in order to keep the resulting errors within allowable limits, necessary
precaution can be taken. Methods can also be adopted to suit prevailing conditions
The surveyor may not be able to totally remove the cause of such errors but he can
minimize their effects by making proper corrections of the results and using good
judgment. Common examples are:
a.) The effect of temperature variation on the length of a steel tape.
b.) Error in the readings of the magnetic needle due to variations in magnetic
declination.
c.) Deflection of the line of sight due to the effect of the earth’s curvature and
atmospheric refraction.
d.) Error in the measurement of a line with a tape being blown sidewise by a strong
wind.
e.) Error in the measurement of a horizontal distance due to slope or uneven ground.

3. Personal Errors. These errors arise principally from limitations of the senses of sight,
touch and hearing of the human observer which are likely to be erroneous or
inaccurate. This type of fallibility differs from one individual to another and may vary
due to certain circumstances existing during a measurement. Some personal errors are
constant, some are compensating, while others may be erratic. Personal errors are
significantly reduced or eliminated as skills are developed in surveying operations
through constant practice and experience. Errors of this type are also eliminated by
employing appropriate checking of procedures in the taking and recording of
measurement. Typical of these errors are:
a.) Error in determining a reading on a rod which is out of plumb during sighting.
b.) Error in the measurement of a vertical angle when the cross hairs of the telescope
are not positioned correctly on the target.
c.) Making an erroneous estimate of the required pull to be applied on a steel tape
during measurement.

4-5 ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Accuracy and precision are two terms which are constantly use din surveying,
however, their correct meanings are often misunderstood. While accuracy may be
synonymous with precision, the two should not be used interchangeably. The surveyor
should always attempt to obtain measurements which are not only accurate but also
precise.
Accuracy indicates how close a given measurement is to the absolute or true value of
the quantity measured. It implies the closeness between related measurements and
their expectations. The difference between the measured value of a quantity and its
actual value represents the total error in the measurement. As the measured value
approaches the actual value, the magnitude of the error becomes smaller and
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(This is for academic use inside Holy Cross College only.)
 Holy Cross College
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

MODULE: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

smaller, and as the magnitude of the total error is decreased, the accuracy of the
measurement increases. Therefore, a measurement is termed less accurate if it
deviated by a significant amount from its expected value, and it is more accurate if
the deviation is relatively small.

The following example illustrates the meaning of accuracy. A line known or accepted
to be 100.00m long is measured twice with a steel tape. The first measured value is
100.003m and the second is 99.995m. The first measurement is said to be more
accurate than the second measurement since the error in the measurement is only
0.003 m as compared to that of the second measurement which is 0.005m.

Precision refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which any physical
measurement is made. It is portrayed by the closeness to one another of a set of
repeated measurements of a quantity. Thus, if a set of observations is closely clustered
together, the observation is said to have been obtained with high precision. Since
precision relates to expertness of manipulation on the part of the observer or to the
capabilities of the instrument used, it requires the use of precise instruments under
ideal conditions employing the best techniques.
A method frequently used to define and distinguish between accuracy and precision
is illustrated in Figure 4-1. The figures given show possible groupings of rifle shots upon
different targets. In Figure 4-1a, the results shown were very precise because the rifle
shots were clustered closed to each other. However, they were not accurate since the
shots were located some distance from the bull’s eye. It is then apparent that the
measurements may be precise but not necessarily accurate if they are closely
grouped together but about a value that is different from the expectation by a
significant amount.

It is desirable for surveying measurements to be made with high precision.

Unfortunately, however, an increase in precision usually warrants a directly
proportionate increase in the time and effort of the surveyor. It should then be the
responsibility of the surveyor to obtain a degree of precision which could be as high as
can be justified according to the purpose of the survey.

THEORY OF PROBABILITY
Probability is defined as the number of times something will probably occur over the
range of possible occurrences. It is very much involved in games of chance, such as
throwing the dice, tossing a coin, or in various games using cards. Things do happen
randomly or by any chance and these are proven by principles of mathematics
commonly referred to as probability. Different theories of probability are not only
applicable to games of chance, they are also used in scientific and engineering
measurements such as in surveying.
The theory of probability is based upon the following assumptions relative to the
occurrences of errors:
1. Small errors occur more often than large ones and that they are probable.
2. Large errors happen infrequently and are therefore less probable; for normally
distributed errors, unusually large ones may be mistakes rather than accidental errors.
3. Positive and negative errors of the same size happen with equal frequency; that is,
they are equally probable.
4. The mean of an infinite number of observations is the most probable value;
By applying

MOST PROBABLE VALUE

From the theory of probability, a basic assumption is that the most probable value
(MPV) of a group of repeated measurements made under similar conditions is the
arithmetic mean or the average. Most probable values refers to a quantity which,
based on available data, has more chances of being correct than any other.
Since the true values of measured quantities must remain forever unknown, it is
possible to obtain by measurements only approximations of true values. Therefore, if a
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COMPILED BY: ENGR. RONQUILLO, JEAN FHEY S., RCE, MSCE
(This is for academic use inside Holy Cross College only.)
 Holy Cross College
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

MODULE: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

given quantity is measured more than one time, resulting in more than one value, not
all the derived values are correct. There is only one correct value that should be
considered and it is determined by using the following equations.
MPV= X̄ =ΣX/n=(X1 + X2 + X3 +………….+ Xn )/n
Where MPV or X̄ is the most probable value of the quantity measured, ΣX is the sum
of the individual measurements, and n is the total number of observations made.
The above equation is from the principle of least squares, which is based on the
theory of probability.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS:
1. A surveying instructor sent out six groups of students to measure a distance
between two points marked on the ground. The students came up with the
following six different values: 250.25, 250.15, 249.90, 251.04, 250.50 and 251.22
meters. Assuming these values are equally reliable and that variations result from
accidental errors, determine the most probable value of the distance measured.
Solution:
MPV= X̄ =ΣX/n=(X1 + X2 + X3 +………….+ Xn )/n
X̄= (250.25+250.15+249.90+251.04+250.50 and 251.22)/6
X̄=250.51m

2. The angles about a point Q have the following observed values: 130°15’20”,
142°37’30” and 87°07’40”. Determine the most probable value of each angle.
Solution:
a. Determining the correction to be applied:
Sum1 = Ɵ1 + Ɵ2 + Ɵ3 =130°15’20”+ 142°37’30”+ 87°07’40”
Sum1 = 360°00’30”
Disc= 360°-360°00’30”
Disc= -30” (discrepancy in the observation)
Note: The sum of the angles observed about point Q is subtracted from 360° (the
expected correct sum) to determine the discrepancy.
Corr=Disc/n= -30”/3
Corr=-10” (Correction to be subtracted from each observed angle)
b. Determining the most probable value.
Ɵ’1 = Ɵ1 ± Corr= 130°15’20”- 10”= 130°15’10”
Ɵ’2 = Ɵ2 ± Corr= 142°37’30”- 10”= 142°37’20”
Ɵ’3 = Ɵ3 ± Corr= 87°07’40”- 10”= 87°07’30”
c. Solution Check:
Ɵ’1 + Ɵ’2 + Ɵ’3 =360°00’00”
130°15’10”+ 142°37’20”+ 87°07’30”= 360°00’00”
360°00’00”= 360°00’00” (true)
Note: Since the two quantities are equal, the above solution is assumed to
be correct.

3. The observed interior angles of a triangle are A=35°14’37”, B=96°30’09” and

C=48°15’05”. Determine the discrepancy for the given observation and the most
probable value of each angle.
Solution:
a. Determining the correction to be applied.
Sum1 = A + B + C =35°14’37”+ 96°30’09”+ 48°15’05”
Sum1 = 179°59’51”
Sum2 = (n-2)*180°= (3-2)*180°
Sum2 = 180°00’00”
Disc =± (Sum2 - Sum1 )
Disc =± (180°00’00”- 179°59’51”)
Disc =+09”
Corr= Disc/n =+09”/3
11 | P a g e
COMPILED BY: ENGR. RONQUILLO, JEAN FHEY S., RCE, MSCE
(This is for academic use inside Holy Cross College only.)
 Holy Cross College
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

MODULE: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

Corr=+03”
b. Determining the most probable value:
A’=A± Corr=35°14’37”+03”
A’=35°14’40”
B’=B± Corr=96°30’09”+03”
B’=96°30’12”
C’= C’± Corr=48°15’05”+03”
C’=48°15’08”
c. Solution Check
A’+B’+C’= Sum2
35°14’40”+ 96°30’12”+ 48°15’08”= 180°00’00”
180°00’00”= 180°00’00” (true)

IV. RESIDUALS
RESIDUAL
The residual, which is sometimes referred to as the deviation, is defined as the
difference between any measured value of a quantity and its most probable
value or
V=X- X̄ (eqn 1)
Where v is the residual in any measurement, X is a measurement made of a
particular quantity, and X̄ is the most provable value of quantity measured.
Residuals and errors are theoretically identical. The only difference is that residuals
can be calculated whereas errors cannot because there is no way of knowing true
values. For a particular set of measurements, it is important to compare the
residuals with the average value for those residuals. When very large residuals are
detected they are usually discarded and the required calculations are continued
only with the remaining ones.

PROBABLE ERROR
The probable error is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from the
most probable value, defines a range within which there is a 50 percent chance
that the true value of the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits thus
set.
If errors are arranged in order of magnitude, it will be possible to determine the
probable error. This is the error that would be found in the middle place of the
arrangement, such that one half of the errors are greater that it and the other half
are less than it.
The value of the probable error is calculated with the use of the following formulae
which are derived from the method of least squares.

∑
PEs= ±0.6745 …………………………. Eqn (2)
∑
PEm=±0.6745 ( )
…………………………. Eqn (3)
Where:
PEs= probable error of any single measurement
PEm=probable error of the mean
∑𝑣 = summation of the squares of the residuals
n=number of observations

The determination and use of the probable error in surveying is primarily to give an
indication of the precision of a particular measurement. It is often an approximate
value and is not mathematically exact since only a few repeated measurements
are usually made and the conditions of measurement are not rigidly controlled. For
example, if 235.50m represents the mean or most probable value of several

12 | P a g e
COMPILED BY: ENGR. RONQUILLO, JEAN FHEY S., RCE, MSCE
(This is for academic use inside Holy Cross College only.)
 Holy Cross College
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

MODULE: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

measurements and 0.10m represents the probable error of the mean value, the
chances are even that the true value lies between 235.50m and 235.60m , as it is
also probable that the true value lies outside of these limiting values. Note that the
lower and upper limits are determined by correspondingly subtracting and adding
0.10m to 135.50m. To express the probable limits of precision for this particular case,
the quantity should be written as

235.50 ± 0.10m

The sign or direction of the probable error is not known and therefore no correction
can be made. It does not specify the magnitude of the actual error, nor does it
indicate the error most likely to occur. The probable error is not a subjective guess.
It is a logical estimate based upon the methods and equipment used, upon the
experience of the observers and upon the field conditions existing during the
measurement.

RELATIVE (ERROR) PRECISION

The total amount of error in a given measurement should relate to the magnitude
of the measured quantity in order to indicate the accuracy of a measurement. In
surveying measurements, ratio of the error to the measured quantity is used to
define the degree of refinement obtained.
Relative error, sometimes called relative precision, is expressed by a fraction
having the magnitude of the error in the numerator and the magnitude of a
measured quantity in the denominator. It is necessary to express both quantities in
the same units, and the numerator is reduced to unity or 1 in order to provide an
easy comparison with other measurements. For example, if for a particular
measurement the probable error of the mean is 0.10m and the most probable
value of the measurement is 235.50m, the relative precision (RP) would be
expressed as 0.10/235.50 or 1/2355 also written as 1:2355.

WEIGHTED OBSERVATION
It is not always possible obtain measurements of equal reliability under similar
conditions. Many surveying measurements are made under different
circumstances and conditions and therefore have different degrees of reliability.
The problem often encountered is how to combine these measurements and
determine the most probable values. For such situation it is necessary to estimate
the degree of reliability(or weight) for each of the measurements before they are
combined and the most probable values are determined.

INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ERRORS
In some instances it is required to determine how the final result is affected when a
computation involves quantities that are subject to accidental errors. Two
commonly applied principles of the theory of errors involve the summation of errors
and the product of errors. These principles are given to provide the student a
better understanding of the propagation of errors.
1. Summation of errors. If several measured quantities are added, each of which is
affected by accidental errors, the probable error of the sum is given by the square

PEs=± 𝑃𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 + ⋯ ⋯ 𝑃𝐸 ……………………. Eqn (4)

Where:
PEs= probable error of the sum
PE1 , PE2 , etc =probable error of each measurement
n-number of values added

13 | P a g e
COMPILED BY: ENGR. RONQUILLO, JEAN FHEY S., RCE, MSCE
(This is for academic use inside Holy Cross College only.)
 Holy Cross College
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

MODULE: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

2. Product of errors. For a measured quantity which is determined as the product of

two other independently measured quantities such as Q1 and Q2 ( with their
corresponding probable errors), the probable error of the product is given by the
following equation

PEp=± (𝑄 ∗ 𝑃𝐸 ) + (𝑄 ∗ 𝑃𝐸 ) ……………………………eqn (5)

Where:
PEp= probable error of the product
Q1 and Q2= measured quantities
PE1 and PE2= probable error corresponding to each quantity measured

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
I. Probable Error. The following values were determined in a series of tape
measurements of a line: 1000.58,1000.40,1000.38,1000.48,1000.40 and 1000.46
meters. Determine the following:
a. Most probable value of the measured length.
b. Probable error of a single measurement and probable error of the mean
c. Final expression for the most probable length.
d. Relative precision of the measurement.

Solution:
a. n=6 (number of observations)
∑𝜒 = 𝜒 + 𝜒 + 𝜒 + 𝜒 + 𝜒 + 𝜒
∑𝜒 = 1000.58 + 1000.40 + 1000.38 + 1000.48 + 1000.40 + 1000.46
∑𝜒 = 6002.70 𝑚
𝑋 = ∑𝜒/𝑛
𝑋 = 6002.70/6
𝑋 = 1000.45
b. v1 = (𝜒 − 𝑋 )= 1000.58-1000.45=+0.13
v2 = (𝜒 − 𝑋 )= 1000.40-1000.45=-0.05
v3 = (𝜒 − 𝑋 )= 1000.38-1000.45=-0.07
v4 = (𝜒 − 𝑋 )= 1000.48-1000.45=+0.03
v5 = (𝜒 − 𝑋 )= 1000.40-1000.45=-0.05
v6 = (𝜒 − 𝑋 )= 1000.46-1000.45= +0.01
∑𝑣 = 0.00
v1 2 = (+0.13)2 = 0.0169
v2 2 = (-0.05)2 = 0.0025
v3 2 = (-0.07)2 =0.0049
v4 2 = (+0.03)2 =0.0009
v5 2 = (-0.05)2 =0.0025
v6 2 = (+0.01)2 =0.0001
∑𝑣 = v1 2 + v2 2 + v3 2 + v4 2 + v5 2 + v6 2
= 0.0169+0.0025+0.0049+0.0009+0.0025+0.0001
=0.0278
Tabulated Solution
Measured Length (X)m Residual (v=X-𝑋) Square of Residual (𝑣 )
1000.58 +0.13 0.0169
1000.40 -0.05 0.0025
1000.38 -0.07 0.0049
1000.48 +0.03 0.0009
1000.40 -0.05 0.0025
1000.46 +0.01 0.0001
∑𝑋 = 6002.70 ∑𝑣 = 0 ∑𝑣 = 0.0278

∑ .
PEs=±0.6745 =±0.6745 ( )

14 | P a g e
COMPILED BY: ENGR. RONQUILLO, JEAN FHEY S., RCE, MSCE
(This is for academic use inside Holy Cross College only.)
 Holy Cross College
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

MODULE: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

=± 0.05 𝑚

∑ .
PEm=±0.6745
( )
=±0.6745 ( )
=± 0.02 𝑚

c. Therefore the length of the measured line may be expressed as 1000.45±0.02𝑚. This
means that there is a 50 percent chance that the true distance measured
probably falls between 1000.43m and 1000.47m and that its most probable value is
1000.45m. There is also, however, a 50 percent chance that the true distance lies
outside this range.
d. RPs=PEs/mpv =0.05/1000.45
=1/20000
RPm=PEm/mpv = 0.02/1000.45
=1/50000
2. Weighted Measurements. Four measurements of a distance were recorded as
284.18, 284.19, 284.22 and 284.20 meters and given weights of 1,3,2 and 4
respectively. Determine the weighted mean:
Measured Length (X) Assigned Weight (W) P=X(W)
284.18 1 284.18
284.19 3 852.57
284.22 2 568.44
284.20 4 1136.80
Sums ΣW=10 ΣP=2841.99

Weighted Mean= ΣP/ ΣW= 2841.99/10=284.2m

3. Weighted Measurements. It is desired to determine the most probable value of

an angle which has been measured at different times by different observers with
equal care. The values observed were as follows: 74°39’45” ( in two
measurements), 74°39’27” (in four measurements) and 74°39’35” ( in six
measurements).

Measured Values No. of Observations Product of the two

quantities
74°39’45” 2 149°19’30”
74°39’27” 4 298°37’48”
74°39’35” 6 447°57’30”
Sums 12 895°54’48”

Weighted Mean= 895°54’48”/12=74°39’34”

4. Weighted Measurements. Lines of levels to establish the elevation of a point are

run over four different routes. The observed elevations of the point with probable
errors are given below. Determine the most probable value of the elevation of the
point.

Line Observed Probable (E)2 W=1/(E)2 Relative P=Elev

Elevation Error (E) Weight (RW)
(Elev) (RW)
1 219.832 ±0.006 0.000036 27778 16.00 3517.312
2 219.930 ±0.012 0.000144 6944 4.00 879.720
3 219.701 ±0.018 0.000324 3086 1.78 391.068
4 220.021 ±0.024 0.000576 1736 1.00 220.021
Sums 22.78 5008.121

15 | P a g e
COMPILED BY: ENGR. RONQUILLO, JEAN FHEY S., RCE, MSCE
(This is for academic use inside Holy Cross College only.)
 Holy Cross College
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

MODULE: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

Note: A relative weight equal to 1.00 is assigned to line 4 since it has the smallest
weight (W) and the relative weights of lines 1,2 and 3 are computed as follows:
RW1 =W1/W4= 27778/1736=16.00
RW2 =W2/W4=6944/1736=4.00
RW3 =W3/W4=3086/1736=1.78

Weighted Mean = Σ(P)/ Σ(RW)=5008.121/22.78=219.847m

5. Weighted Measurements. The length of a line was measured repeatedly on three

different occasions and the probable error of each mean value was computed with
the following results:

1st set of measurements= 1201.50± 0.02m

2nd set of measurements=1201.45± 0.04m
3rd set of measurements=1201.62± 0.05m

Determine the weighted mean of the three sets of measurements.

Measurement Measured Probable (E)2 W=1/(E)2 Relative P=X(RW)
Value (X) Error (E) Weight
(RW)
a 1201.50 ±0.02 0.0004 2500 6.25 7509.38
b 1201.45 ±0.04 0.0016 625 1.56 1874.26
c 1201.62 ±0.05 0.0025 400 1.00 1202.62
Sums

Note: A relative weight equal to 1.00 is assigned to measurement c since it has a the
smallest weigh (W), and the relative weights of a and bare computed as follows:
RWa=Wa/Wc=2500/400=6.25
RWb=Wb/Wc=625/400=1.25
Weighted Mean= Σ(P)/ (RW)= 10585.26/8.81=1201.51m

6. Summation of Errors. The three sides of a triangular shaped tract of land is given by
the following measurements and corresponding probable errors. a=162.54±0.03m,
b=234.26±0.05m and c=195.70±0.04m. Determine the probable error of the sum
and the most probable value of the perimeter.

PER=a+b+c= 162.54+234.26+195.70=592.50m

PEs=± 𝑃𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 = ± (0.03) + (0.05) + (0.04) =±0.07m

Note: Therefore, the perimeter would be expressed as 592.50±0.07m. This mans

that the true length of the perimeter probably falls between 592.43m and 592.57m.

7. Product of Errors. The two sides of rectangular lot were measured with certain
estimated probable errors as follows: W=253.36±0.06m and L=624.15±0.08m.
Determine the area of the lot and the probable error in the resulting calculation.

Area=LxW=624.15 (253.36)
=158134.64 sq m
PEp= ± (𝐿 × 𝑃𝐸 ) + (𝑊 × 𝑃𝐸 ) =± (624.15𝑥0.06) + (253.36𝑥0.08) =±42.48sq m

Note: Therefore, the area of the lot would be expressed as 158134.64 ± 42.58 sq m .
This means that the true area of the lot probably falls between 158092.06 sq m and
158177.22 sq m.

16 | P a g e
COMPILED BY: ENGR. RONQUILLO, JEAN FHEY S., RCE, MSCE
(This is for academic use inside Holy Cross College only.)