CONTENT

a. TOPIC 1

Anatomy is the study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts and their
relationships to one another. The word “anatomy” comes from a Greek root that means
“to cut apart.”

 Studying large and easily observable structures is called gross anatomy. There
are many ways to approach gross anatomy.

 Microscopic anatomy, on the other hand, is the study of body structures that are
too small to be seen with the naked eye. The boundaries of microscopic anatomy
are established by the limits of the equipment used.

Physiology is the study of how the body and its parts work or function. The science of
physiology includes even more specialties than does the science of anatomy.

Anatomy and physiology are always related.

 The parts of your body form a well-organized unit, and each of those parts has a
job to do to make the body operate as a whole.
 Structure determines what functions can take place.
 All physiological functions are performed by anatomical structures.

LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION

The human body exhibits many levels of structural complexity.

 Chemical or molecular level
 Cellular level
 Tissue level
 Organ level
 Organ system level
 Organism level

ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW

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 MAINTAINING LIFE

Necessary Life Functions

Like all complex animals, human beings maintain their boundaries, move, respond to
environmental changes, take in and digest nutrients, carry out metabolism, dispose of
wastes, reproduce themselves, and grow. Organ systems do not work in isolation;
instead, they work together to promote the well-being of the entire body.

 Maintaining boundaries
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  Movement
 Responsiveness
 Digestion
 Metabolism
 Excretion
 Reproduction
 Growth

REQUIREMENT OF LIFE: Survival needs

Life is extraordinarily fragile and requires that several factors be available. These factors,
which we will call survival needs, include nutrients (food), oxygen, water, and
appropriate temperature and atmospheric pressure.
 Nutrients, which the body takes in through food, contain the chemicals used for
energy and cell building. All the nutrients in the world are useless unless
oxygen is also available.
 Because the chemical reactions that release energy from foods require oxygen,
human cells can survive for only a few minutes without it.
 Water accounts for 60 to 80 percent of body weight. It is the single most
abundant chemical substance in the body and provides the fluid base for body
secretions and excretions.
 If chemical reactions are to continue at life-sustaining levels, normal body
temperature must be maintained.
 The force exerted on the surface of the body by the weight of air is referred to
as atmospheric pressure. Breathing and the exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the lungs depend on appropriate atmospheric pressure.

Homeostasis is the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment

within the body despite fluctuations in either the external environment or the internal
environment.
 Negative-feedback mechanisms maintain homeostasis.
 Positive-feedback mechanisms make deviations from normal even greater.
Although a few positive-feedback mechanisms normally exist in the body, most
positive-feedback mechanisms are harmful.

THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY

When you begin to study anatomy and physiology, the number of new words may seem
overwhelming. Confusion is inevitable without specialized terminology. To prevent
misunderstanding, anatomists use a set of terms that allow body structures to be located
and identified clearly with just a few words.

Body Positions

The anatomical position refers to a person standing erect with the face directed forward,
the upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward.

Directional terms allow medical personnel and anatomists to explain exactly where one
body structure is in relation to another. A person is supine when lying face upward and
prone when lying face downward. Right and left are used as directional terms in

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anatomical terminology. Up is replaced by superior, down by inferior, front by anterior,
and back by posterior.
 Superior (cranial or cephalad) – Toward the head end or upper part of a
structure or the body; above.
o Example: The forehead is superior to the nose.
 Inferior (caudal) - Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a
structure or the body; below.
o Example: The navel is inferior to the breastbone.
 Ventral (anterior) - Toward or at the front of the body; in front of
o Example: The breastbone is anterior to the spine.
 Dorsal (posterior) – Toward or at the backside of the body; behind
o Example: The heart is posterior to the breastbone.
 Medial - Toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of
o Example: The heart is medial to the arm.
 Lateral - Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of
o Example: The arms are lateral to the chest.
 Intermediate - Between a more medial and a more lateral structure
o Example: The collarbone is intermediate between the breastbone and
the shoulder.
 Proximal - Close to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a
limb to the body trunk
o Example: The elbow is proximal to the wrist (meaning that the elbow
is closer to the shoulder or attachment point of the arm than the wrist
is).
 Distal - Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a
limb to the body trunk
o Example: The knee is distal to the thigh.
 Superficial (external) - Toward or at the body surface
o Example: The skin is superficial to the skeleton.
 Deep (internal) – Away from the body surface, more internal
o Example: The lungs are deep to the rib cage.

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Regional terms are used to designate specific body areas. Health professionals use a
number of terms when referring to different regions or parts of the body.

Anterior body landmarks:

 abdominal  orbital
 acromial  patellar
 antebrachial  pelvic
 antecubital  pubic
 axillary  sternal
 brachial  tarsal
 buccal  thoracic
 carpal  umbilical
 cervical
 coxal
 crural
 deltoid
 digital
 femoral
 fibular
 frontal
 inguinal
 mental
 nasal
 oral
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 Posterior Body Landmarks:
 calcaneal  popliteal
 cephalic  sacral
 femoral  scapular
 gluteal  sural
 lumbar  vertebral
 occipital  plantar
 olecranal

Body Planes and Sections

 Sagittal section - is a cut along the lengthwise, or longitudinal, plane of the body
 Median (midsagittal) section – is a sagittal plane that passes through the midline of the body
 Frontal (coronal) section - runs vertically from right to left
 Transverse (cross) section - is a cut along a horizontal plane

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Body Cavities

Dorsal body cavity:

 Cranial cavity - is the space inside the bony skull.
 Spinal cavity - extends from the cranial cavity nearly to the end of the vertebral column.
Ventral body cavity:
 Thoracic cavity - is surrounded by the rib cage and is separated from the abdominal cavity by the
muscular diaphragm.
 Abdominal cavity - is bounded primarily by the abdominal muscles and contains the stomach, the
intestines, the liver, the spleen, the pancreas, and the kidneys.
 Pelvic cavity - is a small space enclosed by the bones of the pelvis and contains the urinary
bladder, part of the large intestine, and the internal reproductive organs.
Abdominopelvic cavity is divided into four more or less equal regions called quadrants.
 The quadrants are then simply named according to their relative positions - that is, right upper
quadrant (RUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), left upper quadrant (LUQ), and left lower quadrant
(LLQ).
Abdominopelvic cavity can also be divided into nine separate regions.
 Umbilical region - is the centermost region, deep to and surrounding the umbilicus (navel).
 Epigastric region - is located superior to the umbilical region
 Hypogastric (pubic) region - is inferior to the umbilical region
 Right and Left iliac (inguinal) regions - are lateral to the hypogastric region
 Right and Left lumbar regions - lie lateral to the umbilical region
 Right and Left hypochondriac regions - flank the epigastric region and contain the lower ribs