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Contents
(Session – 2018-19) • Theory of filtration, Slow sand filter
• Rapid sand, Dual multimedia Roughing
and pressure filters-Operation and design.
Filtration

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Introduction
• It is a solid-liquid separation process in
which the liquid passes through a
porous medium to remove as much
fine suspended solids as possible.
Applications:
• In water treatment plants, a polishing
step to remove small flocs and other
particles that are not removed in
settling

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• During filtration; Water containing

suspended matter is applied to the top
of the filter bed
• As the water filters through the porous
medium, the suspended matter in the
fluid is removed by a variety of
mechanisms.
• These mechanisms are described in MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN
next few slides
FILTRATION

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1. Mechanical Straining 2. Sedimentation

• Simplest action during filtration. • Finer particles are arrested by
• Suspended particles having size sedimentation.
more than that of filter voids are • Continuous voids of filter media acts
arrested and removed, when water as ‘tube settler’ i.e. shallow depth
passes through filter media. sedimentation tank.
• Takes place in few centimeters of • All colloids are removed by this
depth of filter media. action

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3. Biological Action 4. Electrolytic Action

• After few days of working of filter, upper grains of
• Particulate matter is removed by
sand layer becomes coated with a reddish brown
coloured sticky deposit. electrostatic action.
• It consists of organic matter and Fe, Mg, Al and • Charge on filter medium neutralizes charge
silica. on floc particles, thereby permitting the floc
• Further after 2-3 weeks, a film consisting of algae to be removed.
and protozoa etc is developed. • During back washing the electrostatically
• Organic impurities in water are used as food by removed material is removed and thus
this film, thus removing the organic matter from charge on filter material is replaced.
water.

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Classification
1. Slow sand filter
2. Rapid sand filter
- Gravity type
- Pressure type
• Filter differs w r t
TYPES OF FILTER i. Head required for filtration
ii. Rate of filtration
iii. Composition of filter media
iv. Method and frequency of cleaning

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Filters Filter media

• Commonly used filter materials are
Slow sand Rapid sand
i. Sand
ii. Anthracite
iii. Garnet sand or limenite
Gravity type Pressure type
iv. Other locally available material

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Sand • Essentials of filter sand

• Cheapest and widely used
1. Shall be hard
• Sand should be free from clay, silt, loam
2. Shall be free from clay, fine particles,
and SS and organic matter.
grains and dirt
• Effective size: -It is sieve size in mm
3. Ignition loss should not exceed 0.7%
through which 10% of sand by weight
passes. 4. Soluble fraction in HCl shall not exceed
5%.
• Uniformity coefficient (Cu) :- Ratio of
sieve size through which 60% of sand 5. Gs = 2.55 to 2.65
passes to the effective size of sand. 6. Wearing loss shall not exceed 7%
i.e. Cu = D60 /D10 7. Effective size shall be

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i. 0.2 to 0.3 mm for slow sand filters

ii. 0.45 to 0.7 mm for rapid sand filters Anthracite
8. The uniformity coefficient shall be
• Substitute for
i. 3 to 5 for slow sand filter
sand
ii. Not less than 1.3 and not more than 1.7
• Can be used in
for rapid sand filter
conjunction with
sand
• Cost is more as
compared to
sand

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Garnet sand Locally Available Material

• Shredded coconut husk, burnt rice husk,
• Heavier than normal sand (Gs = 4.2) crushed glass and metallic ores can be
• Used in mixed media filters. used as filter media

Crushed glass
Coconut husk
Rice husk

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Gravel
• The layers of sand may be supported
on gravel, which permits the filtered
water to move freely to the under
drains, and allows the wash water to
move uniformly upwards.
• Should be hard, durable, rounded,
free from flat or long pieces and
impurities

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SLOW SAND FILTER:

ESSENTIAL FEATURES

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1. Enclosure tank 2. Filter media: Sand

• SSF is open basin, rectangular shape • Thickness of sand layer - 90 to 110 cm
and built below finished ground level. • Effective size – 0.2 to 0.35 (Common
• Floor has Bed slope of 1:100 to 1:200 value -0.3)
towards central drain • Coefficient of uniformity – 2 to 3
• Surface area (As) of tank varies from 50 (Common value - 2.5)
to 1000 m2.
• Filtration rate – 100 to 200 lit/m2/hr.
• Depth – 2.5 to 4 m

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4. Under drainage system

3. Base material: Gravel
• Thickness of gravel bed - 30 to 75 cm • Base material and filter media are
supported by under drainage
Layer Depth Size in mm system.
topmost 15 cm 3 to 6 • Under drainage system collects filtered
Intermediate 15 cm 6 to 20 water and delivers it to the reservoir
Intermediate 15 cm 20 to 40 • Laterals – earthenware pipes of 7.5 to
10 cm dia.
Bottom 15 cm 40 to 65
• Spacing of laterals- 2 to 3 m c/c

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5. Appurtenances
Devices are required for
i. Measuring head loss through filter
media
ii. Controlling depth of water above
filter media
iii. Maintaining constant rate of filtration
through the filter

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Working of slow sand filter • As this layer (referred to as

• In a slow sand filter impurities in the water “Schmutzdecke”) develops, it becomes
are removed by a combination of processes: living quarters of vast numbers of micro-
sedimentation, straining, adsorption, and organisms which break down organic
chemical and bacteriological action. material retained from the water, converting
• During the first few days, water is purified it into water, carbon dioxide and other
mainly by mechanical and physical-chemical oxides.
processes. The resulting accumulation of • Most impurities, including bacteria and
sediment and organic matter forms a thin viruses, are removed from the raw water as
layer on the sand surface, which remains it passes through the filter skin and the layer
permeable and retains particles even smaller of filter bed sand just below.
than the spaces between the sand grains.

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• The purification mechanisms extend from the

filter skin to approx. 0.3-0.4 m below the
surface of the filter bed, gradually decreasing in
activity at lower levels as the water becomes
purified and contains less organic material.
• When the micro-organisms become well
established, the filter will work efficiently and RAPID SAND FILTER (GRAVITY
produce high quality effluent which is virtually TYPE)
free of disease carrying organisms and
biodegradable organic matter.
ESSENTIAL FEATURES
• They are suitable for treating waters with
low colors, low turbidities and low bacterial
contents.

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Enclosure tank
• Smaller in size, therefore can be placed
under roof.
• Rectangular in shape and constructed of
concrete or masonry.
sand
• Depth – 2.5 to 3.5
• Surface area – 20 to 50 m2.
• L/B ratio – 1.25 to 1.35.
• Designed filtration rate are 3000 to 6000
lit/m2/hr

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Estimation of sand depth

Filter media • The depth of sand bed should be such that
• Should be free from dirt, organic matter flocs should not break through the sand
and other SS. bed.
• It should be hard and resistant. • Depth varies from 60 to 90 cm
• Depth of sand media – 0.6 to 0.9 m • Min depth required is given by Hudson’s
• Effective size – 0.35 to 0.6 mm (Common formula
value 0.45) [ (q . D3 . H) / l ] = Bi x 29323
• Uniformity coefficient – 1.2 to 1.7 Where,
(Common value -1.5)

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• q = Filtration rate in m3/m2/hr [Assumed Base material

filtration rate x Factor of safety (2)] • Depth 45 to 60 cm
(Factor of safety 2 is taken to cater
Layer Depth Size in mm
emergency situation)
• D = sand size in mm topmost 15 cm 3 to 6
• H = terminal head loss in m Intermediate 15 cm 6 to 12
• l = depth of sand bed in m Intermediate 15 cm 12 to 20
• Bi = Break through index
Bottom 15 cm 20 to 50
= 4 x 10-4 to 6 x 10-3

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Estimation of gravel size gradation Under drainage system

• To start with, a size gradation of 2 mm at
top and 50 mm at bottom is assumed. • Objectives of under drainage system
• The required depth (l) in cm of a 1. To collect filtered water uniformly over
component of gravel layer of size d (mm) the area of gravel bed
can be computed by following equation 2. It provides uniform distribution of back
l = 2.54 . K . (log d) wash water without disturbing or
K can be taken as 12 upsetting gravel layer and filter media
d = gravel size in mm

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Appurtenances
1. Wash water troughs
2. Air compressors
3. Rate control device

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L- 26
WORKING AND BACKWASHING
OF RSF

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• Filter run depends on quality of feed

Working water
• All valves are kept closed except valves A
and B. • Filter run may range between less than a
• Valve A is opened to permit water from day to several days
clarifier • Objective of backwash is to remove
• Valve B is opened to carry filtered water to accumulated particles on the surface
clear water sump and within the filter medium
• Head of 2m over sand bed is maintained • Backwash is performed using wash water
or air scouring.
• Designed filtration rate are 3000 to 6000
lit/m2/hr

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Back washing Steps in back washing

• Filter is back washed when head loss 1. Close influent valve A
through it has reached the maximum 2. Close effluent valve B
permissible. 3. Open air valve F, so that air blows at rate
• RSF are washed by sending air and of 1 to 1.5 m3 free air /min/m2 of bed
water upwards through the bed by area for @ 2 to 3 min. this will break up
reverse flow through the collector the scum and loosen the dirt.
system. 4. Close the air valve F and open the wash
water valve E gradually to prevent the
• 2% - 4% filtered water is used for
dislodgement of finer gravel.
backwashing

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5.Open the wastewater valve D to carry wash Loss of head and Negative head
water to drain. Continue backwashing till
wash water appears fairly clear. • When clean bed is put into operation
6.Close the wash water valve E. Close the
the loss of head will be small usually
wastewater valve D. wait for some time till in order of 15 to 30 cm.
all matter in bed settles down. • During filtration impurities get arrested
7.Open valve A slightly, open valve C for in the voids and head loss goes on
carrying filtered water to drains for few increasing.
minutes.
• Loss of head can be measured by
8.Close the valve C and open valve B. Open
valve A completely to resume normal using two piezometric tubes as shown
filtration in figure

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• As thickness or depth of suspended

matter on the sand bed increases, the
head loss increased.
• A stage comes when frictional resistance
exceeds the static head above the sand
bed.
• At this stage, lower part of sand bed and
under drainage system are under partial
vacuum or negative head.
• Because of negative head water is being
sucked rather than being filtered.

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• In RSF head loss may be 2.5 to 3.5 m 1. Cracking and clogging of

• Permissible negative head may be 0.8
to 1.2 m.
filter bed
• Filter run is terminated and filter is then • Surface clogging and cracking are usually
backwashed when these values are caused by rapid accumulation of solids on
reached. the top of filter media.
• Frequency of backwashing is 2-4 days for • Cracks are more at wall junctions.
RSF in normal conditions

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Pressure Filter

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• Pressure filters are of the same • For this reason they are not very well
construction as gravity-type filters but the suited for application in small
filter bed together with the filter bottom is treatment plants in developing
enclosed in a watertight steel pressure
countries.
vessel. The driving force for the filtration
process here is the water pressure applied • Pressure applied is 3 to 7 kg/cm2
on the filter bed. •Dia. For verticals – 2 to 2.5 m
• Pressure filters are commercially available For horizontals – 2.5 to 8 m
as complete units. They are not so easy to
install, operate and maintain, particularly as • Rate of filtration 6000 to 15000
it is not readily possible to inspect the lit/m2/hr
condition of the media.

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• The media in a dual or multi-media filter are

arranged so that the water moves through
Dual and Multimedia filter media with progressively smaller
pores. The largest particles are strained out
by the anthracite.
• Then the sand and garnet trap the rest of
the particulate matter though a combination
of adhesion and straining. Since the
particles in the water are filtered out at
various depths in a dual or multi-media filter,
the filter does not clog as quickly as if all of
the particles were all caught by the top
layer.

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• The media in a dual or multi-media filter Upflow filter

must have varying density as well as
varying pore size so that they will sort back
into the correct layering arrangement after
backwashing.
• Anthracite coal is a very light (low density)
coal which will settle slowly, ending up as
the top layer of the filter.
• Garnet is a very dense sand which will
settle quickly to the bottom of the filter.

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Item Slow sand Rapid

Filter sand
Filter
Rate of 100 to 200 3000 to 6000
filtratio lit/m2/hr lit/m2/hr
n
Loss of head 15 cm initial to 30 cm initial to
100 cm final 3 m final

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SSF Surface area large small

AND RSF
Coagulation Not required required

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Filter media Effective size – Effective size – Period of 1 to 2 months 2 to 3 days (24 hrs
of sand 0.2 to 0.35 and Cu 0.35 to 0.60 and Cu cleaning usually)
= 2 to 3 = 1.2 to 1.7
Depth – 105 cm Depth – 75 cm Penetratio Superficial Deep
Base material Size – 3 to 65 mm Size – 3 to 40 mm n of SS
of Gravel Depth – 30 to 75 Depth – 60 to 90 cm
cm Further Chlorination Chlorination
Under Split tile laterals or Perforated of treatmen
drainag perforated pipe laterals with nozzles t needed
e laterals or strainer system Efficiency Very efficient in Less bacterial
system bacterial removal removal efficiency
Method of Scrapping of top Backwashing with but can not remove but can remove
cleaning layer 15 to 25 mm compressed air colour and turbidity colour and turbidity
and water Economy High initial cost Less initial cost
Amount of 0.2 to 0.6 % of 2 to 4 % of
wash water filtered water filtered water

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Flexibility Not flexible in Quite flexible in

meeting meeting Objective Questions
variations in variations in 1. Cleaning interval for RSF is . (3-4
demand demand months / 6 to 8 months / 1-2 yrs / 24 hrs).
2. For slow sand filters period of cleaning is
. (1 to 2 days /1 to 2 yrs /1 to 2
Skilled Not required Required as it
months/no cleaning is required)
supervisio involves
n backwashing 3. type of filter requires large
area. (Slow sand / rapid sand / Vaccume /
Depreciatio Relatively low Relatively high none of these)
n cost 4. In case of RSF formula is
used for estimation of sand depth.
(Hudson’s / Chezy’s / Manning’s / Hardy’s)

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Theory Questions Q3. Explain theory of filtration. OR Discuss

Q1. Explain slow sand filter with respect to
mechanisms involved in filtration process
i. Enclosure tank
Q4. Write short notes on
ii. Filter media
i. Backwashing of filter
iii. Under drainage system
ii. Head loss and Negative head (Diagram
iv. Appurentenances needed)
Q2. Explain slow sand filter with respect to
iii. Filter troubles
i. Enclosure tank
Q5. Differentiate between Slow sand and
ii. Filter media Rapid sand filter
iii. Gravel Bed (Base material) Q6. Give design parameters for rapid sand
iv. Under drainage system filter.

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