Braking Systems

Braking systems
 Overview of railway braking system
 Types of braking system
 Braking system structure performance and interaction
 Braking energy
 Wheel / rail interaction adhesion (friction)
 Wheel Slip, Side and Spin
 The slip curve and WSP
 1 – Braking Energy
Kinetic Energy
Imagine a train travelling at speed along the track:
• the train has (a lot of) energy by virtue of the fact it is a heavy mass
travelling at speed
• the formula used to determine the amount of energy it has is:
KE = ½ × m × v2 where:
• KE = Kinetic Energy (Joules)
• m = mass (kg)
• v = velocity (m/s)
• notice how important velocity is – if the speed doubles, the KE increases
by a factor of ??
• the braking system must absorb (or store) this energy safely & reliably
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TVXR KVzXIOQ
 Conservation of Energy
• The law of conservation of energy, first formulated in the
nineteenth century, is a fundamental law of physics.
• The total amount of energy in an isolated system
• remains constant.
• Energy can change its location within the system, & it
can change form within the system, for instance chemical
energy can become kinetic energy. But that energy can
be neither created nor destroyed.
 2 – Basic Braking System Requirements
The braking system needs to be able to repeatedly absorb
the full KE of the train safely & reliably, plus it also needs
to be:
• continuous – available throughout each & every vehicle
within the train
• automatic – apply automatically in the event of a problem
with the braking system (leak / train break)
• inexhaustible – there must be sufficient braking energy
stored on each & every vehicle within the train to ensure the
vehicle can be stopped safely
• graduable – provide progressive variation of the brake
force during brake application & release
 Two More Key Formulae
Imagine pushing a wagon to get it rolling:
• the amount of force applied will relate to how quickly it accelerates
according to:
F = m x a where:
• F = Force (Netwons)
• m = mass (kg)
• a = acceleration (m/s2)
• Coming back to energy, the amount of energy provided to get the
wagon moving is: E = F x d where:
• E = energy (Joules)
• F = force (Newtons)
• d = distance moved while force applied (m)
Example Braking Distance Calcs
Imagine you have a 100,000 kg train travelling along flat,
straight & level track at 50 m/s:
• what is the amount of Kinetic Energy (KE) you need to dissipate to
bring the train to a stop (ignore friction, aerodynamic & other
losses)?
• imagine that the braking system is capable of braking at 12%g in an
emergency (i.e. 12% of 9.81m/s2) – how long does the train take to
stop (in seconds)?
• what sort of force is required to stop the train at12%g?
3 – Wheel / Rail Adhesion (Friction)
 Rolling Resistance
Imagine you are riding a mountain bike:
•if its tyres are well inflated, it is easy to pedal & it will roll for ages
when you stop pedalling = low rolling resistance
•if its tyres are quite flat, it will be far more difficult to pedal & it
will quickly come to a stop once you stop pedalling = high rolling
resistance
•Since trains have steel wheels running on steel rails = very
low rolling resistance, much lower than that of rubber tyres
on tarmac.
This is NOT friction, this is NOT adhesion !!!
 Friction
Again, imagine you are riding a mountain bike:
• if you apply the brakes when it’s dry & the road surface is
good, you will quickly come to a stop = high friction
• if you apply the brakes when it’s muddy or icy, the wheels
will lock up & you will slide (& probably fall off) = low
friction
The level of friction on the railways can vary
considerably, depending on a range of factors which
will be discussed in the next section.
 The Coefficient of Friction
The amount of friction between two surface is measured by the Coefficient
of Friction – imagine a locked wheel sliding on a rail:

F=µ×R

F = force [N]
µ = coefficient of friction
R = reaction [N]
R

F
 Adhesion
The strict definition of adhesion is “a force of attraction in
the area of contact between unlike bodies” (think of glue /
adhesive or going back to the mountain bike analogy, tyres
on sticky tarmac on a very hot day).
But for the railways, it is taken to mean “the frictional
resistance of rails to the tendency of driving wheels to slip”.
So as far as the wheel / rail interface is concerned, the
railways use the term “adhesion” to mean the same as
“friction”.
 Adhesion on the Railway
The level of adhesion (i.e. friction) between a steel wheel &
rail varies tremendously depending on the surface condition:
• in warm, dry conditions high levels of friction can occur where µ
can be as high as 0.4
• but a little bit of moisture, perhaps with a touch of rust can reduce µ
to around 0.1
• While there is no such thing as “black ice” on the railways (ice
instantly dissolves due to the intense pressure in the contact patch),
contaminants such as leaf film can result in a value for µ as low as
0.01
 Measurement of UK Adhesion
• British Rail Research
developed a special train to
measure the coefficient of
friction – the Tribometer
Train
• The brake pressure on an
instrumented wheel was
increased until it began to
slip
• There was a known vertical load on the
axle (R) & the braking force being
developed by that one axle (F) was
measured, thereby giving a value for
friction (µ)
 UK Distribution of Adhesion
• Average µ on the UK mainline
network is usually taken as 0.23
• Heavy rain tends to clean
contaminant off (i.e. a bit lower)
• Light rain only moistens
contaminants, resulting in much
lower adhesion
• Autumn leaves are worst
• Speed is also a factor – the higher the speed, the
lower the effective value of adhesion
4 – Wheel Slip, Slide & Spin
 When Demand Exceeds Supply
Where traction or braking demand is greater than the available adhesion, you
end up with wheel slip:
• wheel spin in traction
• wheel slide in braking

Wheel spin can damage the rails due to wear and / or the intense build up of
heat in one spot on the rail head.
Wheel slide can damage wheels if they lock up, or come close to locking up –
this can be by wearing a flat into the surface, or due to the effects of heat
build up in the contact patch.
 Proportion of Powered Axles
• Usually only a proportion of
axles are powered on mainline
trains – the more powered axles
you have, the faster you can
accelerate without slip
• HST has two power cars
• Modern trams & metros need to
accelerate more quickly, so tend to have
very high proportion of powered axles
(some have all powered axles)
• Freight trains only have a small proportion
of powered axles, so loco has to make the
very best use of available adhesion
 Proportion of Braked Axles
• Wagons originally didn’t
have their own service
brakes – hence the use of
brake vans (shown)
• Today all wheelsets on
vehicles are usually
braked, including freight
• But regenerative or rheostatic braking
is becoming increasingly common –
not all axles will have motors, so you
can’t necessarily take this for granted
• Most locomotives still rely on the
wagons or coaches to supply part of
their braking effort
5 – The Slip Curve
 Slip Curve
(Peak of
µ adhesion)

(Locked wheel)
0% Slip 100%
 Key Points
The previous graph illustrates the following:
• 0% slip = wheels rotating at train speed (i.e. no slipping)
• 100% = wheels completely locked
• the peak of adhesion is usually between at 2% slip to 5% slip (it is not an
exact science)
• adhesion then falls away as slip increases – i.e. once the wheels start to
slip they will almost certainly continue to do so unless power or braking
effort is reduced
• the general shape of the curve applies to both traction & braking
Tribometer Train Slip Curves
 Key Points
The previous graph illustrates the following:
• This is a series of slip curves recorded along a 6000m
length of UK track
• note that the peak of adhesion varies considerably
• the tail of each curve is flat – the brakes were released at
70% slip to avoid damaging the wheels
 Wheel Slide Protection (WSP)
• The anti-lock braking system used on trains is called Wheel Slide
Protection (WSP):

vehicle speed to driver

signal to dump valves
WSP
axle speeds

• tachometers (red circles) measure rotational speed of each axle

• signal sent to WSP electronics which calculate whether wheels are
slipping excessively or not
• if so, brake pressure released on wheelsets by activating dump valves
to temporarily reduce brake pressure (small black squares)
 Wheel Slide Protection (WSP)
Simple control philosophies include:
• if one axle starts to rotate significantly slower than the others, it is
slipping
• if an axle decelerates too quickly, then it is slipping
This is basically the system used on early BR WSP systems,
but they do not cope well with the lowest (i.e. worst) adhesion
conditions in the UK.
Modern systems are far more sophisticated & far more
effective ...
Braking Systems for Railways An
Overview
 Braking Systems for Railways
• Introduction
• Primary Functions / Terminology
• Brief History of Braking / Standardisation
• Generic Brake System Architecture and Interfaces
• Brake Equipment Examples
• Adhesion Management
• Brake Performance / Force and Power
• Friction Brake Equipment Selection
• Conclusion
 Primary Functions/Terminology
The primary functions of the brake are:
• To stop the train from all speeds with all loads and in all
conditions; the power brake
• To regulate train speed with all loads and in all conditions,
• e.g. maintain constant downhill speed; also the power brake
• To maintain a static train condition; the parking brake and
• holding brake
These functions must be available at all times
 Primary Functions/Terminology
The brake system must be:
• Continuous – i.e. be available throughout each and every vehicle
within the train;
• Automatic – i.e. automatically apply in the event that the
continuous element of the brake system has been interrupted;
• Inexhaustible – i.e. there must be sufficient braking energy stored
on each and every vehicle within the train to ensure that vehicle
can be safely stopped;
• Graduable – i.e. facilitate progressive variation of the brake force
during both brake application and release
Primary Functions/Terminology
Terminology used:
•Driver Interface – means for demanding the brake
•Brake Force Mechanism - applies braking force
•Braking Energy - generates the brake force
•Brake Control - modulates the brake force
•Vehicle communication - brake demand, system status
•Train communication - brake demand, system status
Brief History of Braking
 Brief History of Braking
Rudimentary brakes - A coal wagon with a very
simple form of tread brake (or block brake) is
introduced circa. 1764
 Brief History of Braking
“You shall…....fit a continuous
and automatic brake”

Mandated by the Regulation of

Railways Act (1889)
Interesting to note that such systems were previously
considered too expensive - unfortunately the catalyst for this
new legislation was the death of 89 passengers in a runaway
incident in Armagh in 1889
Brief History of Braking
 Brake System Types
• Example brake system types:
• Straight / Direct air brake
• Vacuum brake
• Single-pipe automatic air brake
• Two-pipe automatic air brake
• Electro-pneumatic (EP) and electro-hydraulic (EH) brakes
• Two-pipe automatic air brake with EP assist
• Electro-dynamic (ED and hydro-dynamic (HD) brakes
• Electro-magnetic (EM) / Eddy-current (EC) track brakes
• For this exercise, we shall focus upon a Generic Brake System
Architecture with some pneumatic analogies
 Standardisation
• Historical (UK):
• British Rail (BR) standards and codes
• Railway Industry Association (RIA) standards and codes
• British Standards (BS)
• Current (UK):
• Railway Group Standards (RGS)
• Some EN standards, BS and ISO standards
• Evolving (European):
• TSI HS
• TSI CRS TSIs are currently undergoing some
integration / rationalisation
• TSI LOC
• NNTR for EU member states whilst more EN’s are developed
 Standardisation
•Some examples – critical system requirements:
• There shall be sufficient devices and redundancy incorporated into the braking control
and energy storage systems, to reduce the effect that a failure of one part of the system
has on the braking of the minimum train formation. This is particularly important where
a stored energy system is used to produce the brake force.
• There shall be no single point failure which can result in a lower than demanded brake
force being achieved on more than one vehicle in the train simultaneously.
• The method of control shall have a separate arrangement for demanding an emergency
brake application from that for demanding a full service application. The system for the
emergency application shall be as direct as possible, to eliminate as far as practicable any
possible failure of this arrangement.
 Standardisation
• The stopping distance given by the emergency braking shall be equal to or
less than that produced by the full service braking.
• Except on existing vehicles not so fitted and trains that also operate through
the Channel Tunnel, there shall be a system of interlocks between the
traction control system and the brake control system that prevents traction
power being applied:
• until sufficient energy for the automatic brake system has been proved
to be available to provide at least an emergency brake application;
• until, on new vehicles, sufficient energy for the automatic brake system
has been proved to be available to provide an enhanced emergency
brake application if this facility is fitted.
• There are many requirements and it is not proposed to cover them
all here today!
 Brake System Architecture
Driver Monitoring Dynamic Vehicle Mass / Safety
Interface Systems Brake Load Weigh Systems

System of Continuity
Vehicle / Train Communication Braking

Energy Distribution

ASD WSP Brake Braking Energy Braking Energy

Control

Bogie
Level
Brake Brake Force Brake Force Brake Force
Force Mechanism Mechanism Mechanism
Mechanism
Brake System Architecture

System of Continuity
Vehicle / Train Communication
Braking Energy Distribution

Braking Energy

Storage Treatment Conversion

Brake Equipment Examples
Brake Equipment Examples

Brake Module on Underframe

Brake Equipment Examples
--- Control

Valve x 4---

Speed Sensor x 4 ----

 Brake Equipment Examples

Modern Tread Brake Unit

Brake Equipment Examples

Wheel Mounted Disc Brakes

Brake Equipment Examples

Axle Mounted Disc Brakes

Brake Equipment Examples

Track Brakes (High-Speed Electro-Magnetic Type)

 Brake Equipment Examples
Compressors:
• Piston Compressor
• Screw Compressor
• Vane Compressor
 Brake Equipment Examples
Air Treatment:
• Cooling
• Oil separation
• Water separation
• Solid particle
separation
Brake Equipment Examples

Storage Reservoir on Underframe

Brake Equipment Examples

Sand ejection onto

the rail head

Sanding Equipment on Underframe

 Brake Performance
Principal performance characteristics:
• Power Brake - speed v stopping distance on level track and
specified severity of track gradient
• Parking Brake - Hold the train in a specified load
condition on a specified track gradient in a manner that
will allow the driver to vacate the train
• Holding Brake - Hold the train in a specified load
condition on a specified gradient in a manner that will
allow the driver to take traction and move away smoothly
in either direction
 Brake Performance

Braking Distance

Stopping Distance

Signaling Distance

Gradient expressed as 1 in N, e.g. 1 in 200, etc.

 Brake Performance
Consider variation to performance attributable to:
• Train mass
• Train speed
• Frequency and severity of brake applications
• Friction material characteristics
• Equipment settings
• Equipment failure
• Maintenance
• Environment, e.g. ambient temperature, humidity,
contamination, adhesion, etc.
 Brake Performance
Regime for a tread or disc brake:
• Establish the nominal power brake and parking / holding brake
performance requirements for the train
• Divide the train into logical vehicle ‘modules’
• Calculate the power brake and parking / holding brake forces to
be developed by each vehicle module
• Calculate the energy and power to be dissipated by the brake
equipment for each module for a single service brake stop and
single emergency stop
 Brake Performance
• Select the tread or disc brake equipment to be used on each
vehicle based on the brake forces to be developed and the routes
and duties to be worked – consider the space envelope available
on the vehicle bogies and the mass distribution about the bogie
• Consider the characteristics of the control system and confirm
consistency with the brake equipment selected
• Reiterate the power and parking / holding brake performance
calculations using actual system settings and variables sufficient
to ensure that the stopping and parking / holding brake
performance requirements are still met
 Brake Performance
• In practice, this is a very complicated
process that involves many iterations –
cost benefit analysis also plays a part
along with maintainability and use of
common and proven components and
there are often political and commercial
dimensions
 Brake Performance
Parameters for our example brake calculation:
•Train is a 4-car EMU – all vehicles motored
•Maximum speed = 75 mile/h
•Performance shall comply with RGS GM/RT2044
•Vehicle masses
•Vehicle 1 = 42000 kg TARE – 56000 kg MAX LOAD
•Vehicle 2 = ????? kg TARE – ????? kg MAX LOAD
•Vehicle 3 = ????? kg TARE – ????? kg MAX LOAD
•Vehicle 4 = ????? kg TARE – ????? kg MAX LOAD
•Steepest gradient is 1 in 40 on specified routes
 Brake Performance
• RGS GM/RT2044 Clause 5.1.3 - Trains required to
operate over routes signalled in accordance with
GK/RT0034 Appendix 3 (Y3), shall have braking
performance such that the stopping distances do not
exceed those defined by curve A3 of Figure 3. Appendix
C details recommended minimum braking distances (B3).
• Y3 = 778m from a speed of 75 mile/h (GK/RT0034) A3 =
648m from a speed of 75 mile/h (GM/RT2044) B3 =
399m from a speed of 75 mile/h (GM/RT2044)
 Brake Performance
•RGS GM/RT2044 Clause 5.4.1 - To assist drivers in cases
of misjudgement or other emergencies, the brake force used to
achieve the full service braking retardation shall be increased
for the emergency brake application, to give enhanced
emergency braking by:
•a) a maximum of 30% provided that the stopping distances
that result are not less than those recommended in Appendix
C, or
•b) a minimum enhancement of 15% shall be applied even if
the stopping distances that result are less than those
recommended in Appendix C
 Brake Performance
Extract GM/RT2044 - Fig.3
140
120
Initial Speed (mile/h)

100
80
60 Signal Distance (Y)
40
Max. Stopping Distance (A3)
20
Min. Stopping Distance (B3)
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Stopping Distance (metres)
 Brake Performance
For the purpose of the first iteration:
• The stopping distance target (ss) for full service braking from a
speed (V) of 75 mile/h (120.7km/h or 33.53 m/s) will be set at
580m – this gives a margin of about 9% on the maximum
permitted stopping distance (648m) – this is usually sufficient
to account for most variables that have a bearing on the normal
stopping performance
• We shall assume that all vehicles have the same tare mass (mt)
and maximum loaded mass (mml) of 42000kg and 56000kg
respectively
 Brake Performance
Using the stopping distance target:
• Calc. the distance travelled during brake response (sr)
• Calc. the braking distance (sb)
• Calc the effective mass of the vehicle (me)
• Calc. the instantaneous deceleration (ai)
• Calc. the deceleration force required (Fd)
• Calc. the vehicle resistance (Fr)
• Calc. the brake force required (Fb)
• Calc. the braking power (Pb)
• Calc. the emergency stopping distance / braking power
 Brake Performance

Direction of Travel

Kinetic Energy Brake Force

Deceleration
Inertia of Rotating Parts Vehicle Resistance
(Retardation)
Gradient Assistance Gradient Resistance

Mean deceleration (m/s2) Instantaneous deceleration (m/s2) Distance during brake response (m)
am = V2 / 2si s b where, a = V2 / 2s where,
sr = 0.5Vt where,

V = speed (m/s) V = speed (m/s) V = speed (m/s)

ss = stopping distance (m) sb = braking distance (m) t = time, brake force 0 to 95% (s)
 Brake Performance
• Calc. the distance travelled during brake response (sr)
sr = 0.5 V t
sr = 0.5 x 33.53 x 2.5 ** sr = 41.91m
** Most EP systems have a brake application time of
between 2.0 and 3.0 seconds – this is a compromise between
achieving a fast response and avoiding a ‘jerk rate’ (rate of
change of deceleration) that would be too severe for the
passengers
 Brake Performance
• Calc. the braking distance (sb)
sb = ss - sr
sb = 580 – 41.91
sb = 538.1m
• Calc. the effective mass of the vehicle (me)
me = mml + (mt x 0.08) **
me = 56000 + (42000 x 0.08)
me = 59360kg
** Empirical > 0.08 motored / 0.04 non-motored vehicles
 Brake Performance
• Calc. the instantaneous deceleration (ai)
ai = V2 / 2sb
ai = 33.532 / (2 x 538.1)
ai = 1.045m/s2
• Calc. the deceleration force required (Fd)
Fd = me ai
Fd = 59360 x 1.045 Fd = 62031N
 Brake Performance
• Calc. the vehicle resistance (Fr)

The vehicle resistance can be calculated using an expression developed by

the train performance engineer or it can be estimated using tables originating
from BR and/or other railway industry sources
The train resistance comprises three main components:
rm = Mechanical and Track Resistance (N/tonne)
rw = Air Resistance (N/vehicle)
ro = Head and Tail Resistance (N/train)
 Brake Performance
Resistances
Speed (km/h) m (N/tonne) w (N/vehicle) o (N/train)
0 66
5 11.09 38.31 590
10 11.64 54.81 606.93
20 12.8 90.79 620.37
30 14.03 131.55 696.66
40 15.34 178.05 835.79
50 16.72 231.26 1037.75
60 18.17 292.14 1302.56
70 19.7 361.64 1630.2
80 21.3 440.73 2020.68
90 22.97 530.37 2473.99
100 24.72 631.52 2990.15
110 26.54 745.14 3569.15
120 28.43 872.19 4210.97
130 30.4 1013.63 4915.64
140 32.44 1170.42 5683.16
150 34.55 1343.53 6513.5
160 36.74 1533.9 7406.69
 Brake Performance
For the mean resistance during a stop – use values for a speed of two thirds the actual
brake entry speed or adapt the train performance engineer’s formula if that approach is
being used

rm = 21.3 x 56000 / 1000 = 1193N per vehicle rw = 441N per vehicle

ro = 2020.68 / 4 = 505N per vehicle **
Fr = rm + rw + ro
Fr = 1193 + 441 + 505 Fr = 2139N

** Assumed evenly distributed over all four vehicles

 Brake Performance

• Calc. the brake force required (Fb)

Fb = Fd - Fr
Fb = 62031 – 2139 Fb = 59892N
• Calc. the braking power (Pb)
Pb = Fb V
Pb = 59892 x 33.53
Pb = 2008179W
Parking Brake
 Brake Performance
• RGS GM/RT2044 Clause 11.1 - Each multiple unit shall be fitted with a
parking brake that is capable of holding the multiple unit stationary on a
gradient of 1 in 30 in the tare condition.
• Taking the vehicle resistance as a safety factor the minimum brake force to
be developed by the parking brake (Fpb)
Fpb = mt g / Gradient ** Fpb = (42000 x 9.81) / 30 Fpb = 13734N

** When gradient expressed as 1 in N

 Friction Brake Selection
• Decide upon the use of a tread or disc brake (or
• combinations) that:
• Will produce the required full service brake force (Fb)
• Will produce the required emergency brake force (Fb)
• Will produce the required parking brake force (Fpb)
• Will produce the required holding brake force (Fhb)
• Has a capacity suited to the frequency and severity of braking
(the braking duty)
• Consider if the forces and duties for the tread or disc brake could
be reduced owing to the presence of other forms of brake, e.g.
electro-dynamic (ED) brake, etc. – more about that later
 Friction Brake Selection
• A good measure of braking capacity/duty is ‘the mean power
during braking per area of friction interface’. This is often called
the ‘power rating’ or ‘specific power’ and it is measured in
kW/m2
• Clearly this value will vary according to the routes and braking
duties – select the most onerous
• The driver does not always demand the maximum brake level
every time the brake is applied to stop the train, nor is the brake
always applied from maximum speed - The brake will also be
applied as a means for controlling speed down gradients; ‘drag
braking’, etc.
 Friction Brake Selection
• Equipment suppliers establish the rating/capacity for their
products using a combination of design calculation and analysis
and practical testing
• Validation includes modelling specified routes and braking duties
using full-scale and small-scale dynamometer testing facilities
• All routes and duties are considered - the most arduous are
simulated, the aim being to show that the brake design is
compatible with the cumulative effect of all successive brake
applications - A few rationalised duties are also modelled
• This helps to ensure that the brake is not ‘under’ or ‘over’
designed for the job
 Friction Brake Selection
• The modelling approach usually adopted:
• Maximum permitted speed throughout
• Maximum vehicle load
• Bi-directional operation
• Maximum tractive performance (acceleration/speed)
• Full service brake application at all station stops
• Minimum station dwell time
• Emergency brake application at the worst point (e.g.
where the temperature would already be at its highest)
 Friction Brake Selection
• Rationalised duties that have been considered are:
• Inner Suburban – station spacing at 2.5km
• Outer suburban – station spacing at 7.5km
• Intercity – station spacing at 24km
• These duties would typically be modelled on the basis of level
track with maximum vehicle load, maximum tractive
performance, 20 second station dwell time at stations, full service
brake application at all station stops with a single emergency
brake application at the worst point
 Friction Brake Selection
• Another common rationalised duty; Three successive full service
brake applications followed by one emergency from the
maximum speed on level track and with the maximum load – no
dwell between cycles and maximum tractive performance
• Mathematical modelling using computers has progressed to such
an extent that this approach is now used as a matter of routine –
this dramatically reduces the amount of manual calculating and
full-scale dynamometer testing required to validate the brake
design – temperature predictions are now accurate to within
around +/-10%
 Friction Brake Selection

• Disc brakes can develop higher brake forces and they

have higher capacities than tread brakes - they can
also operate at higher speeds
• We will now consider a disc brake but tread brake
selection is similar
 Friction Brake Selection
• Some factors that affect the brake selection process:
• Dynamic and static friction properties
• Temperature limit for the wheel / disc structure
• Temperature limit for brake block / brake pads
• Block/Pad load and pressure limits and conformability
• Practical wear properties for wheel/block/disc/pad
• Avoidance of materials hazardous to health
• Shock and vibration environment
• Ambient conditions; temperature, humidity, etc.
• Effects on the wheel rail interface; adhesion, etc.
• Mass, first cost and LCC, etc.
 Friction Brake Selection
• Select a brake disc and pad combination from the range of
standard sizes and proven designs/materials consistent with the
power brake, parking brake and holding brake forces and power
rating required – select on the basis that all wheelsets are braked
but with a minimum number of disc brake units per axle
• Most disc brake installations are based on organic composition
brake pad materials and grey cast iron discs – brake calipers are
used instead of rigging along with relatively compact
cylinder/actuators
• More demanding applications use ‘high-temperature’ organic
brake pads or sintered non-ferrous metal pads and cast or forged
steel brake discs
 Friction Brake Selection
• Using the dynamic and static friction characteristics for the brake
pad and disc combination selected, calculate the size of cylinder /
actuator required whilst establishing / experimenting with different
brake caliper lever ratios, etc.
• Allow for mechanical inefficiencies and forces required to
overcome any return springs incorporated in the brake
cylinder/actuator
• Most disc brake installations utilise a spring applied parking brake
– ensure the pressure used to release this brake is consistent with
the control system air supply (usually limited to 6.0 bar)
 Friction Brake Selection
• Usually the BCP must not exceed 3.8 bar for single and two- pipe
based controls and 6.0 bar for EP control (otherwise complications
may be encountered with the control system air capacities and/or
brake application and release timings)
• The brake caliper/actuator arrangement must accommodate all
wheelset movements
• The automatic slack adjuster arrangement must have sufficient
capacity to account for brake pad wear and brake disc wear, etc.
 Friction Brake Selection
• The parking brakes are usually arranged so that the
parking brake force does not reduce by more than 50%
in the event of a single point failure
• Parking brakes are usually arranged so that the adhesion
required between the wheel and rail does not exceed 0.1
• Freedom of cooling air circulation around the disc brake
can often be an issue and brake disc aerodynamic drag
can be an issue at speeds above 200km/h – ‘low drag’
disc options are available
 Friction Brake Selection
• Brake discs are available in many diameter and thickness
combinations – most common sizes suit wheels up to about
930mm diameter
• Axle mounted discs are usually either 610mm or 640mm outside
diameter by 110mm or 120mm thick
• Brake disc fixing security to the wheel or axle is often a problem
in service (disc cracking and/or fastener failure)
• The most common standardised brake pads are UIC 350cm2,
400cm2 or 500cm2 and they generally have a mean dynamic and
static coefficient of friction of between 0.30 to 0.35 – there are
some exceptions though
 Friction Brake Selection
• Steel discs have been successfully deployed in
combination with relatively recently developed (non-UIC)
brake pad shapes and methods of construction, e.g.
‘ISOBAR sintered pads’ on the ICE derivative built for
Spanish Railways – the discs in this application must
support full service and emergency braking from 380
km/h
• The following short movie shows this disc brake being
evaluated on a full scale dynamometer at Knorr-Bremse
Friction Brake Selection
 Friction Brake Selection
• When disc brakes were introduced in the 1980’s, they were
designed so that they could fulfil an EMU braking duty in their
own right, typically achieving a brake disc life of around 2-years
or so
• EMU builds throughout the last 18 years or so have evolved with
ED brakes as ‘standard’, principally rheostatic but some examples
of regenerative operation exist - this has increased the brake disc
life to typically 4-years or thereabouts (consistent with bogie
overhaul)
• More recent EMU builds place greater dependence in the
availability of the regenerative electro-dynamic (ED) brake and
as a consequence, the friction brake and rheostatic ED brake
capabilities have effectively been reduced
 Friction Brake Selection

Dynamic Brake

System of Continuity
Vehicle / Train Communication

Braking Energy Distribution

Brake Brake
WSP
Control Control

•DBD - Dynamic Brake Demand (kN)” • WSP Active

•DBA - Dynamic Brake Achieved (kN)”
•DB Fade - Dynamic Brake About to Fade

Brake Control – Propulsion System Signals

 Friction Brake Selection

1/2 Load 1/2 Load

I/P3 O/P4 O/P3 I/P3

1 2 2 1
1 2 2 1
DMOS(A) MOS(A) PTOS DMOS(B)
0111 0011
0001 1001

O/P1 I/P1 I/P4 O/P1

Back-Off Back-Off

Brake Control (BCU-BCU) Signals

S3 (Full Service) DBD
DMOSB + (0.5 x PTOS)
TARE (≈ 55kN)

S2 DBD
DMOSB + (0.5 x PTOS)
TARE
S1 DBD
DMOSB + (0.5 x PTOS)
TARE
S3 (Full Service)
TBD / DMOS(B) BCP
TARE

S2
TBD / DMOS(B) BCP
TARE
S1
TBD / DMOS(B) BCP
TARE
 Friction Brake Selection
200 DB Force
180 Total Force
160 FB Force
140
Brake Force

120
100
80
(kN)

60
40
20
0
0 50 100 150
Speed (km/h)
 Friction Brake Selection
• Brake disc life predictions on a more recent EMU build
suggest significant brake disc friction face cracking would
occur after about 6-7 days when operated without any
assistance from the ED brake – the disc would rapidly
deteriorate thereafter
Discuss this –
• Clearly this recent EMU example represents a huge change!
• Should the rheostatic brake still be incorporated?
• Could the friction brake be dispensed with altogether – if
so, what other system changes would be necessary?
Friction Brake Selection
Conclusio
n

Accidents still happen!

Paris 1895 < > Slough
1995
 Conclusion
Gare de Lyon, Paris
27 July 1988

An out of control commuter train collides with a stationary train inside

the station
1.Commuter train approaching station
2.Insufficient brake force available
3.56 killed / 13 seriously injured
Research this incident and consider – was this an operational error or a brake
system defect?
 Conclusion
Lichfield, Staffordshire 07 August
2005

An unmanned 120-ton locomotive

travelled for 10 miles before it was
deliberately derailed by the actions of
a signalman
1.Locomotive starts moving
2.Smashes through two crossings
3.Locomotive derailed
Research this incident and consider – was this an operational error or a
brake system defect?
 Conclusion

Hintergasse – Braz (Austria)

 Conclusion

Research this incident and consider – was this an operational error

or a brake system defect?
 Conclusion
Tebay, WCML - Cumbria 15 February 2004

Material Trailer Incident

It does not have to be a full-sized locomotive

or multiple unit
The same rules apply! 1.Material trailer runs away
2.Travels to nearby work site
3.4 killed / 3 seriously injured

Research this incident and consider – was this an operational error or a brake system
defect?
 Conclusion
Haslemere - Witley
10 September 2011

Another Material Trailer Incident

Similar incident to that encountered at Tebay 2004 Thankfully nobody injured
or killed on this occasion

Research this incident and consider – was this an operational error or a brake
system defect?
Fin