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Use of differential equations for electric circuits

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Use of differential equations for electric
circuits

-Rupesh Gautam
Khwopa College of Engineering
 1 Introduction
Classical method means, solving the electric circuits containing R, L and C by using
differential equations. The general types of differential equation are studied here.

1.1 differential equation

In general the required differential equations for transient analysis are of three types.
They can be listed as:

• Type I: First order homogeneous differential equation

• Type II: First order non homogeneous differential equation

• Type III: Second order differential equation

1.1.1 Type I: First order differential equation

The first order differential equation can be written as shown in equation 1.1.

dV (t)
+ p V (t) = 0 (1.1)
dt

Where, p is any constant & V (t) is output response of voltage dependent on time t
in any circuit
This equation can be simplified as shown below:

dV (t)
= −p dt
V (t)

On integrating,
ln V (t) = −p t + ln K

or, ln V (t) = ln e−pt + ln K

Now, this equation can be finally represented as shown in euqation 1.2

V (t) = Ke−pt (1.2)

Where, K is any constant which can be determined using initial condition

This equation 1.2 is the general solution of first order homogeneous equation of the
form as shown in equation 1.1. Let’s take a simple example of first order system,
which can be shown as in figure 1:

2
 Figure 1: RL series circuit

Figure 1 is the demonstration of first order homogeneous differential equation. Here,

fully energized inductor(L) (having initial current I0 ) is connected to the resistor
(R). The stored energy is to be dissipated to the resistor (In electric circuit theory
we say this condition as discharging condition). As we have the V -I relationship of
dIo
inductor and resistor (VL = L and VR = Io R), Using KVL in the circuit we get
dt
the relation as shown in equation 1.3:

dIo
L + I0 R = 0 (1.3)
dt

Since, equation 1.3 is differential equation of first order homogeneous form so, R L
circuit can be considered as first order circuit. This equation can be further simplified
as:
dIo R
+ I0 = 0
dt L
R
On comparing the latest equation with equation 1.1, we can write p = , so the
L
general solution of equation 1.3 can be shown as in equation 1.4 (because the general
solution of equation 1.1 is shown in equation 1.2).

R
t− (1.4)
I0 = K e L

The equation 1.4 shows the nature of current of the first order R L circuit for dis-
charging case. The current nature shows that, it is decaying exponentially. The
graph of discharging current for R = 10 Ω and L = 10 mH is shown in figure 2.
In figure 2 the value of K was assumed to be 1 considering that the fully energized
inductor have 1 A current before discharging.

3
 Figure 2: Transient response of RL circuit for discharging case

The nature of graph is similar to discharging case of R L series circuit for discharging
case. In figure 2 the maximum value can change below or above 1 A.
(Note: Same as R − L circuit, R − C circuit can also be considered as first order
circuit)

1.1.2 Type II: First order non homogeneous differential equation

The first oreder non-homogeneous differential equation is shown in equation 1.5.

dV (t)
+ P V (t) = Q (1.5)
dt
Where, p is any constant, V (t) is output response of voltage dependent on time t in
any circuit and Q may be any constant or time dependent variable
Now let us multiply equation 1.5 by ep t , i.e.
dV (t)
eP t + eP t P V (t) = eP t Q
dt
d h i
or, V (t) eP t = Q eP t
dt
On integrating,
h i Z
V (t) e P t = Q eP t dt + K

4
Where, K is any constant determined using initial condition
Z
or, V (t) = K e −P t +e−P t Q eP t dt (1.6)

The equation 1.6 shows the general solution of first order non homogeneous equation.
Here, the constant after integration of Q eP t dt is already accounted in K, so
R

addition of extra constant is not needed. Basically we can demonstrate the first
order non-homogeneous equation in electric circuit in two ways.

• R − L/R − C circuit excited by constant source:

Let us consider a series R − L circuit excited by a DC source having voltage
V . The circuit diagram is shown in figure 3.

Figure 3: RL series circuit excited by DC source

Considering no initial energy stored in inductor, using KVL in the circuit we

get the equation as shown just below.
di(t)
V −L − i(t) R = 0
dt
On, rearranging this equation, we get equation 1.7.
di(t) R V
+ i(t) = (1.7)
dt L L
Comparing equation 1.7 with equation 1.5, it can be said that, the R − L
series circuit excited by DC source is first order non-homogeneous differential
R V
equation. By comparison P = & Q = . Since, Q is a constant value (i.e.
L L
Independent on time) it can be classified as first type. The general solution of
equation 1.7 can be written as shown (taking reference from equation 1.6).
R R Z R
− t − t V t
i(t) = K e L + e L e L dt
L

5
 V 
R R R
 
− t − t t  
or, i(t) = K e L + e L  e L   L 
R
L
So, the general solution (i.e. response of current in the circuit) can be written
as shown in equation 1.8.
R
− t V
i(t) = K e L + (1.8)
R

If there is no any energy in inductor, the initial current through it is zero, so

V
value of K = − . So, in that case the response of current through circuit
R
(considering: V = 10 V , R = 10 Ω and L = 10 mH) can be shown as in figure 4

Figure 4: Current response of RL circuit excited by DC source

Figure 4 clearly shows that, the current through inductor rises exponentially.
This shows the transient behaviour of the R L series circuit.

• R − L/R − C circuit excited by time dependent source

To illustrate time dependent source excitation, let us take exponential source
as shown in figure 5. The source is exponentially decaying and expressed as
e−a t .

6
 Figure 5: Series R-L circuit with exponential excitation

Using KVL in figure 5, considering no any energy stored in inductorinitially,

we get the differential equation as shown in equation 1.9.

di(t)
V (t) − L − i(t) R = 0 (1.9)
dt

Re-arranging equation 1.9, we get equation 1.10.

di(t) R 1
+ i(t) = e−a t (1.10)
dt L L
R 1
Comparing equation 1.10 with equation 1.5, we get P = & Q = e−a t so,
L L
the general solution as taken reference form equation 1.6 is shown in equation
just below:
R R Z R
− t − t t 1 −at
i(t) = Ke L + e L eL e dt
L
on integrating:
R ! R R
 
− t 1 1 − t t
or, i(t) = Ke L + e L  e L  e−at
R
L L
−a

Simplified equation i.e. the general solution of current for given R − L series
circuit excited by exponential source is shown in equation 1.11
R
− t
 
1
i(t) = Ke L + e−at (1.11)
R − La

The transient
 response for current of figure 5 wih R = 10 Ω, L = 10 mH, a = 5
1
and K = − is shown in figure 6
R − La

7
 Figure 6: Transient response of RL series circuit with exponential excitation

Figure 5 shows the transient response of R − L series circuit with exponential

excitation.

(Note: The same thing can be studied for R − C circuit and for time dependent
sources, sinusoidal signal can be used to study.)

1.1.3 Type III: Second order differential equation

Second order differential equation can be categories into two categories, namely :
second order homogeneous and non homogeneous.

• Second order homogeneous differential equation

The second order differential equation can be represented as shown in equation
1.12.
d2 V (t) dV (t)
A 2
+B + C V (t) = 0 (1.12)
dt dt
The general solution of this equation 1.12 can be given by the auxiliary equation(A.E)
shown in equation just below:

Am2 + Bm + C = 0

8
 The general solution depends on roots of auxiliary equation.The solution of
A.E is shown in equation 1.13.
√
−B ± B2 − 4 × A × C
m1 m2 = (1.13)
2A

So, different cases are shown here:

Case I: Roots are real and distinct
If roots are real and distinct then the value of m1 , m2 are as shown in equation
1.14.
m1 , m2 = −α, −β (1.14)

Then, the general solution of differential equation 1.12 can be represented as

in equation 1.15.
V (t) = k1 e−α t + k2 e−β t (1.15)

Case II: Roots are real and equal

If roots are real and equal then the value of m1 , m2 can be represented as shown
in equation 1.16.
m1 , m2 = −α, −α (1.16)

Then, the general solution of differential equation 1.12 can be represented as

in equation 1.17.
V (t) = e−α t (k1 + k2 t) (1.17)

Case III: Roots are complex conjugate

If roots are complex conjugate, then the value of m1 , m2 are as shown in equa-
tion 1.18.
m1 , m2 = −α ± j β (1.18)

Then, the general solution of differential equation 1.12 can be represented as

in equation 1.19.
V (t) = e−αt (k1 cos βt + k2 sin βt) (1.19)

• Second order non-homogeneous differential equation

The second order non homogeneous differential equation can be represented as
shown in equation 1.20

d2 V (t) dV (t)
+ A + B V (t) = Q(t) (1.20)
dt2 dt
9
Where Q(t) may be constant or any time dependent quantity
The general solution the this types of differential equation is represented in
equation 1.21
V (t) = VCF (t) + VP I (t) (1.21)

Where, VCF (t) is the complementary function and VP I (t) is the particular inte-
gral of the solution.
Complementary function implies transient behaviour of the circuit whereas par-
ticular integral gives the steady state nature of the circuit. The method of
determining CF and P I are listed below:
Method to determine CF
The complementary function of second order non homogeneous equation de-
pends on auxiliary equation of differential equation. The auxiliary equation of
equation 1.21 is shown in equation 1.22

m2 + A m + B = 0 (1.22)

The complementary function of differential equation 1.21 can be determined in

accordance to roots of A.E. They can be categories as below:
Case I: Roots are real and distinct
If roots are real and distinct then the value of m1 , m2 can be represented as
shown in equation 1.23.
m1 , m2 = −α, −β (1.23)

Then, the complementary function of differential equation 1.20 can be repre-

sented as in equation 1.24.

VCF (t) = k1 e−α t + k2 e−β t (1.24)

Case II: Roots are real and equal

If roots are real and equal then the value of m1 , m2 can be represented as shown
in equation 1.25.
m1 , m2 = −α, −α (1.25)

Then, the complementary function of differential equation 1.20 can be repre-

sented as in equation 1.26.

VCF (t) = e−α t (k1 + k2 t) (1.26)

10
Case III: Roots are complex conjugate
If roots are complex conjugate then the value of m1 , m2 can be represented as
shown in equation 1.27.
m1 , m2 = −α ± j β (1.27)

Then, the complementary function of differential equation 1.20 can be repre-

sented as in equation 1.28.

VCF (t) = e−αt (k1 cos βt + k2 sin βt) (1.28)

Method to determine P I
To determine P I of equation 1.20, the differential equation can be modified as
shown in equation 1.29.
f (D) V (t) = Q(t) (1.29)
d
Where, f (D) = (D2 + A D + C) and D =
dt
Then P I of differential equation 1.20 depends upon the types of excitation.
Some of the most commonly used excitation are listed below:
Case I: Calculation of PI if Q(t) = λ e±at
For exponential excitation λ e±at (Where, λ and a are any real constant), the
P I of differential equation shown in equation 1.20 can be represented as shown
in equation 1.30.

1 ±at 
VP I (t) = λ e  , f (a) ̸= 0 (1.30)
f (D) 
D=a
If f (a) = 0 then in that case,

1
e±at  , f ′ (a) ̸= 0

VP I (t) = t λ ′
f (D) D=a
Similarly, if f ′ (D) = 0 then,

1 ±at , f ′′ (a) ̸= 0
2

VP I (t) = t λ ′′ e 
f (D) 
D=a
And so on...
NOTE: This exponential case can be used to calculate P I of differential equa-
tion if Q(t) = constant(ϕ). This can be done by considering Q(t) = ϕ e0 t ,
considering ′ a′ as zero.
Case II: Calculation of PI if Q(t) = λ g(t) {Where, g(t) = sin at or, cos at}

11
 For sinusoidal excitation λ g(t) (Where,g(t) = sin at or, cos at & λ and a are
any real constant), the P I of differential equation shown in equation 1.20 can
be represented as shown in equation 1.31.

1 
VP I (t) = λ g(t) , f (a) ̸= 0 (1.31)
f (D) D2 = −a2
If f (a) = 0 then in that case,

1
, f ′ (a) ̸= 0

VP I (t) = t λ ′ g(t)
f (D) 2
D = −a 2

Similarly, if f ′ (D) = 0 then, If f (a) = 0 then in that case,


1
, f ′′ (a) =
2

VP I (t) = t λ ′′ g(t) ̸ 0
f (D) 2
D = −a 2

And so on...

1.2 Example of second order circuit

1.2.1 Homogeneous differential equation

Let us consider a series RLC circuit excited by a constant DC source, V as shown

in figure 7.

Figure 7: Series RLC circuit excited by dc source

 Z 
1
Knowing the I − V relationship of resistor, inductor and capacitor i(t) dt ,
C
using KVL in figure 7 assuming no any initial quantity, we get equation 1.32.
Z
di(t) 1
V −L − i(t)R − i(t)dt = 0 (1.32)
dt C

12
Differentiating equation 1.32 with respect to ′ t′ we get equation 1.33,

d2 (t) di(t) i(t)

L 2
+R + =0 (1.33)
dt dt C

This equation 1.33 is the second order homogeneous equation, so its general solution
is given by A.E. It’s A.E is shown in equation 1.34:

1
Lm2 + Rm + =0 (1.34)
C

The general solution of current shown in figure 7 can be determined by roots of A.E.
The roots of A.E are shown below:
p
R2 − 4 L/C
−R ±
m1 m2 =
2L
r
−R R 1
or, m1 m2 = ± ( )2 −
2L 2L LC
The nature of current response depends on the value of R, L&C. To demonstrate
three different types of response of current, we assume three cases.

• Case I: Let R = 20 Ω, L = 10 mH, C = 5 µF & v = 10 V

For this case, the calculated roots are approximately (−1000 ± j4358.9), so the
general solution of equation 1.33 can be represented as shown in equation 1.35.

i(t) = e−1000t [A cos (4358.9 t) + B sin (4358.9 t)] (1.35)

di(0+ ) v
Now, using initial value of current {i(0+ ) = 0 and = }, the transient
dt L
response can be represented as shown in figure 8. This case is known as the
R 1
under damped oscillation (being is less than √ ).
2L LC
√
• Case II: Let R = 40 5 Ω, L = 10 mH ,C = 5 µF & V = 10 V
For this case, the calculated roots are approximately −4.472×103 , −4.472×103 ,
so the general solution of equation 1.33 can be represented as shown in equation
1.36.
i(t) = e−4472t [A + B t] (1.36)
di(0+ ) v
Similarly, using initial value of current {i(0+ ) = 0 and = }, the
dt L
transient response can be represented as shown in figure 9. This case is known
R 1
as the critically damped oscillation (being is equal to √ ).
2L LC

13
 Figure 8: Response of current for under damped oscillation

Figure 9: Response of current for critically damped oscillation

• Case III: Let R = 100 Ω, L = 10 mH, C = 5 µF & V = 10 V

For this case, the calculated roots are approximately (−2.763 × 103 , −7.236 ×
103 ), so the general solution of equation 1.33 can be represented as shown in

14
 equation 1.37.
i(t) = A e−2763t + Be−7236t (1.37)
di(0+ ) v
As in above cases, using initial value of current {i(0+ ) = 0 and = },
dt L
the transient response can be represented as shown in figure 10. This case is
R 1
known as the critically damped oscillation (being is greater than √ ).
2L LC

Figure 10: Response of current for over damped oscillation

1.2.2 Non-Homogeneous differential equation

Let us consider the RLC series circuit excited by exponential source Keat , as shown
in figure 11. Using KVL in the circuit shown in figure 11, we get the equation 1.38.
The equation was determined by considering no any initial energies and charges in
inductor and capacitor respectively.
Z
di(t) 1
Keat − L − i(t)R − i(t)dt = 0 (1.38)
dt C

On differentiating equation 1.38 with respect to t.

d2 i(t) di(t) 1
L 2
+R + i(t) = aKeat
dt dt C
d2 i(t) R di(t) 1 λ
2
+ + i(t) = eat (1.39)
dt L dt LC L

15
 Figure 11: Series RLC circuit excited by exponential source

Where, λ = aK is any real constant

Since, equation 1.39 is second order non homogeneous differential equation so, it has
two parts of solution. The solution can be written as shown in equation 1.40.

i(t) = iCF (t) + iP I (t) (1.40)

Auxiliary equation gives the complementary function of differential equation 1.39.

The auxiliary equation can be written as in equation 1.41.

R 1
m2 + m+ =0 (1.41)
L LC

Solving equation 1.41, we get the equation just below.

q
−L ± (R
R
L
4
)2 − LC
m1 , m2 =
2
s 
2
R R 1
∴ m1 , m2 = − ± − (1.42)
2L 2L LC
Now the complementary function depends on three cases, they are listed below:

• Case I: Let R = 20 Ω, L = 10 mH & C = 5 µF

For this case, the calculated roots are approximately (−1000 ± j4358.9), so
the complementary function of equation 1.39 can be represented as shown in
equation 1.43.

iCF (t) = e−1000t [A cos (4358.9 t) + B sin (4358.9 t)] (1.43)

16
 √
• Case II: Let R = 40 5 Ω, L = 10 mH & C = 5 µF
For this case, the calculated roots are approximately −4.472×103 , −4.472×103 ,
so the complementary function of equation 1.39 can be represented as shown
in equation 1.44.
iCF (t) = e−4472t [A + B t] (1.44)

• Case III: Let R = 100 Ω, L = 10 mH & C = 5 µF

For this case, the calculated roots are approximately (−2.763 × 103 , −7.236 ×
103 ), so the complementary function of equation 1.39 can be represented as
shown in equation 1.45.

iCF (t) = A e−2763t + Be−7236t (1.45)

To obtain particular integral of equation 1.39, the differential equation shown in

equation 1.39 could be re-arranged as shown in equation 1.46

R 1 λ λ
(D2 + D+ )i(t) = eat =⇒ f (D) × i(t) = eat (1.46)
L LC L L

Now, P I of differential equation 1.46 can be written as shown in equation 1.47.


λ 1 at 
iP I (t) = e (1.47)
L f (D) D=a

Now, the general solution of differential equation 1.39 can be shown for three different
cases.

• Case I: Let R = 20 Ω, L = 10 mH, C = 5 µF , k = 750 & a = 0.8

For this case, the general solution of differential equation 1.39 can be shown as
in equation 1.48.

i(t) = e−1000t [A cos (4358.9 t) + B sin (4358.9 t)] + 0.003 e0.8t (1.48)

The graph for this case can be shown as shown in figure 12. To draw the
d K
response the initial values of current are taken as i(0+ ) = 0 and i(0+ ) = .
dt L
The response of current as shown in figure 12 has same nature like under
damped oscillation shown in figure 8, where the oscillation dies out after certain
time.

17
Figure 12: Response of RLC circuit excited by exponential source (Case-I)

√
• Case II: Let R = 40 5 Ω, L = 10 mH, C = 5 µF , k = 750 & a = 0.8
For this case, the general solution of differential equation 1.39 can be shown as
in equation 1.49.

i(t) = e−4472t [A + B t] + 0.003 e0.8t (1.49)

The graph for this case can be shown as shown in figure 13. As in previous
case, to draw the response the initial values of current are taken as i(0+ ) = 0
d K
and i(0+ ) = .
dt L

Figure 13: Response of RLC circuit excited by exponential source (Case-II)

18
 The response of current as shown in figure 13 has same nature like critical
oscillation shown in figure 9.

• Case III: Let R = 100 Ω, L = 10 mH, C = 5 µF , k = 750 & a = 0.8

For this case, the general solution of differential equation 1.39 can be shown as
in equation 1.50.

i(t) = A e−2763t + Be−7236t + 0.003 e0.8t (1.50)

The graph for this case can be shown as shown in figure 14. As above, to
draw the response the initial values of current are taken as i(0+ ) = 0 and
d + K
i(0 ) = .
dt L

Figure 14: Response of RLC circuit excited by exponential source (Case-III)

The response of current as shown in figure 14 has same nature like over damped
oscillation shown in figure 10.

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