1 Electrical System Components

1.1 Electrical Wiring

• A process of connecting various accessories for distribution of electrical energy from
supplier’s meter board to home appliances such as lamps, fans and other domestic
appliances is known as Electrical Wiring.
Switches
• Switch is used to make or break the electric circuit. It should so operate that it must make
the circuit firm.
• At the instant of breaking the switch, it should break the current so that there is no
formation of arc between switch blades and contact terminals.
• Formation of arc damage the switch contacts. Such an arc is avoided usually by means of
providing a spring. To Movable blade so as to have a quick action.
Types of Switches
a) Surface switches or Tumbler switch
The surface switches are those which are mounted on the mounting block directly
fixed over the surface of the wall, i.e., such types of switches project out of the
surface of the wall.
Single-way or One-way Switch – This switch is provided with a single pole to
control one light point at a time.
Two-way Switch – These are used for wiring circuits which are to be controlled
from two points independently such as stair case wiring.
b) Flush switch
The flush switches are fixed in flush with the wall and do not project out. Such
types of switches are used where high quality performance and appearance are
desired. Sometimes these switches are called Piano type switches.
c) Pull switch or Ceiling switch
The pull switches are fixed on the ceiling and all the alive parts are out off reach of
the operator. The switch has a strong mechanical action and is usually operated
with a single pull on the cord for the on and off position. These switched are used
in bath rooms where water heaters are used, bed rooms and restaurants.
d) Grid switch
The grid switches are similar to tumbler switches, except that they are lighter and
are portable type, so that they are quite useful for the portable machines such as
hand-drill, portable grinder etc. They are manufactured either in single-way or
two-way pattern.
e) Rotary switch
The rotary switches are much different from that of ordinary tumbler switch. It
consists of an insulated handle to which are fixed the blades. These blades move
in steps by the movement of the handle and make contact with the terminals to
which are connected the wires in the electric circuits.
f) Push button switch
These switches are used for bell circuit, refrigerator lighting circuit etc.
g) Iron-clad water-tight switch
Such switches are of cast iron and have very robust construction. cork gasket is
fitted between the case and the cover which makes it water-tight. These are used
for outdoor lamp control.

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h) Knife switch
The knife switch consists of blades hinged at one end and are arranged to go into
forked terminals or jaws at the other end. These are available as single throw
switches or double throw switches.
Socket Outlets
• The socket outlets have all insulated base with moulded or socket base having 3 terminal
sleeves. The two thin terminal sleeves are meant for making connection to the cable, with
the third terminal sleeve, thicker in cross-section, is used for an earth connection.
• The cover is again moulded and has corresponding 3 holes. These are made for 5 amp
and 15-amp loads.
Plugs
• For taking power from socket outlets, 3-pin plugs are used. The thicker pin is used for an
earth connection to the portable appliances. They are also made for 5 amps and 15amps
load.
Terminal Blocks
• Terminal blocks used for termination and connection to the other circuits. A single-way
terminal block is used for differentiating the live line from the neutral when the domestic
connection is given and is called as Connector.
Main Switch
• The main switches are used to control the whole supply for a house or office. These are
of following types:
a) ICDP- use for single phase supply control (15 A, 30A, 60A, 100A, 250 V)
b) ICTP- use for three phase-three wire and three phase four wire supply control
(15A, 30A, 60A, 100A, 150A, 200A, and 500V)
Protective Devices
• When a failure occurs on any part of the electrical power system, it must be quickly
detected and disconnected from the system. There are two reasons for it. Firstly, if the
fault not cleared quickly, it may cause unnecessary interruption of the service to the
customer. Secondly, rapid disconnection of faulty apparatus limits the amount of damage
to it and prevent the effects of fault from spreading into the system.
• The detection of fault and disconnection of faulty part can be achieved by using fuses or
relays in connection with circuit breakers. A fuse can perform both the function but for
low voltage circuit only. For high voltage circuits, relays and circuit breakers are
employed to serve the desire function for automatic protective gear.

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1.2 What is fuse? Define its characteristic.

• Fuse is the simplest device, which break the circuit under abnormal condition.
• It is only a current interrupting device under fault condition.
• It is not able to make or brake the circuit under normal condition.
• A fuse consists of a metal strip of mounted between a pair of electrical terminals, and
enclosed by a non-conducting and non-combustible housing.
• The fuse is arranged in series to carry all the current passing through the protected
circuit.
• The fuse element is made of zinc, copper, silver, aluminium, or alloys.
• The fuse element may be surrounded by air or by materials to quench the arc. Silica sand
or non-conducting liquids may be used.
• It is used for overload short circuit protection in medium voltage (up to 33 kv) and low
voltage (up to 400v) installation.
• Fuse characteristics are drawn between current and time scale. The curve shows that
fault current and operating time is inversely proportional to each other.
• The time considered is précising time and current is prospective current.
• The fuse characteristics become asymptotic and there is a minimum current below which
the fuse does not operate. This is called minimum fusing current.
FUSE Characteristics

Fuse Characteristics

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They should have a following desirable characteristic:-

• Low melting point

• High conductivity
• Free from deterioration from oxidation
• Low cost

1.3 Write short note on HRC fuse.

HRC Fuse

• When the load capacity is very high the level of fault current will also increase. So faulty
clearing device will be under heavy stress.
• HRC fuse is preferred for heavy duty and rapid operation.
• It consists of heat resisting ceramic cylindrical body having low co-efficient of thermal
expansion.
• The fuse element is made up of silver or silver alloy to improve fuse life.
• It is filled with incombustible powder which absorbs the arc produced at the time of
blowing.
• The rating is much more accurate. It is widely used because of silent operation and non-
deteriorating characteristics.
• It is maintenance free and easy to install.
Advantages: -

• Speed of operation is very high.

• Maintenance cost is practically is zero.
• They deteriorate with age.
• They provide reliable operation.
• They cheaper than other protecting devices.
Disadvantages: -

• Heat produced by arc may affect the associate switches.

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• They have to be replaced after each operation.

1.4 Compare Fuse with MCB.

Fuse MCB
o Melts the wire when fault occurs o Cut-off circuit when the fault occurs
o Fuse wire available may not be o MCB available is of standard rating
standard rating
o Operated at 50 to 100 % over load o Operated at 5 to 15 % over load
capacity capacity
o Hand tools are required to re-wire the o No hand tool required to reset
fuse when blown off
o Cheapest among all safety device o Initial cost is very high
o Fuse board (mounting arrangement) o MCB board (mounting arrangement)
is not compact is compact

1.5 Compare MCB with ELCB.

MCB ELCB
o MCB is an electromechanical device o The ELCB is used to protect the circuit
which protects an electrical circuit from the electrical leakage.
from an over current and in short
circuit condition.
o MCB has slower operation time than o ELCB has rapid operation compare to
ELCB. MCB.
o The operating principle of MCB is o The operating principle of ELCB is
simple. complicated.
o MCB does not give human protection. o ELCB gives human protection.
o MCB is cheaper than ELCB. o ELCB is costlier than MCB.
o Rated current is not more than 100 o The range of rated current us up to
Ampere. 1000 Ampere.
o This circuit breaker connects the o This circuit breaker connects the
phase and neutral terminal. phase, earth wire and neutral
terminal.

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o Applications: o Applications:
o Domestic and commercial purposes. o Mostly in Domestic purposes.

1.6 Write short notes on MCB.

ELCB Construction

• MCB have the features of good HRC fuse and a good switch.
• These are used for switching purpose under normal condition and circuit break under
overloading and short circuit condition.
• It is normally operated at 1.25 times its rated current.
• It is manufactured with quick reset hand operated facility.
• It is basically operated on two type of working principles:
❖ Thermal operation:
• It is achieved by bimetallic strip which deflects when heated by any over current flowing
through it.
❖ Magnetic operation:
• When short circuit occurs, the rising current energizes the solenoid further operating
plunger to strike the trip lever immediately releasing of latch mechanism.

Construction of MCB

• The casing of MCB is made of moulded thermoplastic polyester. This material is fire
retardant and non-hygroscopic. They are installed directly on Rail in distribution boards,
control panels simply by fixing.
• The contacts are made of Silver- Copper alloy which ensure longer life of contacts. These
have low resistance resulting in low watt loss. The contacts are designed to have zero
Bounce during closing operation.
• Operating Mechanism of MCB has quick make, quick break, and trip-free mechanism.

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Application: -

• MCB are used extensively in low voltage domestic, commercial and industrial.

1.7 List various device used in Electrical Circuit. Write the brief note on
ELCB.
Followings Protective Device used in Electrical Circuit: -

(1) Fuse
(2) Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
(3) Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)
(4) Relay

ELCB: -

• Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB). An Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) is a
device used to directly detect currents leaking to earth from an installation and cut the
power and mainly used in TT earthing systems.
• For the protection of human body from the electric shock protective device like fuse or
MCB are used.
• But generally, this device is incapable of measuring small current flowing in human body,
so requirement is to have a device which can sense small current and cut-off the supply
instantly.
• The device used for this purpose is known as Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB).
There are two types of ELCBs:

• 1. Voltage Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (Voltage-ELCB)

• 2. Current Earth Leakage Current Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (Current-ELCB).
Circuit Diagram: -

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Working of ELCB

• It is current operated device designed to operate when a leakage current exceeds the
predefined value.
• It consists of a operating coil and a trip mechanism which operated the circuit when
required.
• The coil is supplied through 1-Ф supply so current in phase & neutral wire will be same.
• This current will produce flux linkages same in magnitude but of opposite direction. This
will result zero net flux in tripping coil of relay.
• When fault or leakage current exceeds the limit higher current will flow in phase
conductor than neutral current.
• Resultant flux now is out of balance in tripping coil of relay. Difference of flux will induce
emf in the coil which opens the contact of ELCB and isolate the circuit from the supply.
1.8 Protective Relays
• Protective relay is a device that detect the fault and initiate the operation of the circuit
breaker to isolate the faulty element from the rest of the system.
• The relay circuit can be divided in three parts:
a) First is primary winding of the CT which is connected in series with the line to be
protected.
b) Second part is secondary of CT and the relay operating coil.
c) Third is the tripping circuit which may be either ac or dc. It consists of a source of
supply, the trip coil of the CB and the relay stationary contacts.

• Under normal load conditions, the e.m.f of the secondary winding of C.T. is small and the
current flowing in the relay operating coil is insufficient to close the relay contacts. This
keeps the trip coil of the circuit breaker unenergized. Consequently, the contacts of the
circuit breaker remain closed and it carries the normal load current. When a fault occurs,
a large current flow through the primary of C.T. This increases the secondary e.m.f and
hence the current through the relay operating coil. The relay contacts are closed and the
trip coil of the circuit breaker is energized to open the contacts of the circuit breaker.

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1.9 Motor Protection Circuit Breaker (MPCB)

• A Motor Protection Circuit Breaker is a simple electromechanical device that protects
an individual electric motor against overload, fluctuations in input current or
unscheduled interruptions to the main circuit. This includes line faults and phase loss or
imbalance in three phase motors.
• A Motor Protection Circuit Breaker saves on space and costs, providing fuse less
protection that switches motors off instantly to prevent damage. It will also safely
disconnect the current in the event of a short circuit.

Functions of MPCB
• Protection against electrical faults such as short circuits, line-to-ground faults etc.
• Motor overload protection
• Protection against phase unbalances and phase loss
• Thermal delay to prevent the motor from being turned back on immediately after an
overload, giving the motor time to cool down.
• Motor Circuit Switching
• Fault Signalling
• Automatic Reconnection
The main parts of a MPCB
• Thermal over current release
• Electromagnetic over current release
• Main contact system
• Auxiliary switch position
• Switch latch
• Arcing chamber
• Plunger armature
• Differential trip slide
Working
• Thermal protection is used to guard the electric motor against overload.
• Magnetic protection is used when there is a short circuit, line fault, or other high current
electric fault.
• The MPCB is capable of detecting these conditions by measuring the differences among
phase voltages, and disconnects the motor immediately when they occur.

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1.10 Isolator
• It is essentially a knife switch and is designed to open a circuit under no load. Its main
purpose is to isolate one portion of the circuit from the other and is not intended to be
opened while current is flowing in the line.
• Such switches are generally used on both sides of circuit breakers in order that repairs
and replacement of circuit breakers can be made without any danger.
• They should never be opened until the circuit breaker in the same circuit has been opened
and should always be closed before the circuit breaker is closed.
• Types of Electrical Isolators
• There are different types of isolators available depending upon system requirement
such as
a) Double Break Isolator
b) Single Break Isolator
c) Pantograph type Isolator
• Depending upon the position in the power system, the isolators can be categorized as
a) Bus side isolator – the isolator is directly connected with main bus
b) Line side isolator – the isolator is situated at line side of any feeder
c) Transfer bus side isolator – the isolator is directly connected with transfer bus.
• Operation of Electrical Isolators
Opening Operation of Electrical Isolator
• In the beginning, open the major circuit breaker.
• Then divide the load from a system with isolator opening.
• Close the earth switch. Earth switch can become with an interlock system with isolator.
That’s means when isolator is open only that time earth switch can be closed.
Closing Operation of Electrical Isolator
• Detach the earth switch.
• Shut the isolator.
• Shut the circuit breaker.
1.11 Contactors
• A contactor is an electrical device which is used for switching an electrical circuit on or
off. It is considered to be a special type of relay. However, the basic difference between
the relay and contactor is that the contactor is used in applications with higher current
carrying capacity, whereas the relay is used for lower current applications.

• Contactors can be field mounted easily and are compact in size. Generally, these electrical
devices feature multiple contacts.
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• These contacts are in most cases normally open and provide operating power to the load
when the contactor coil is energized. Contactors are most commonly used for controlling
electric motors.
The following three are crucial components of the contactor:
• 1. Coil or Electromagnet: This is the most crucial component of a contactor. The driving
force that is required to close the contacts is provided by the coil or electromagnet of the
contactor. The coil or electromagnet and contacts are protected by an enclosure.
• 2. Enclosure: Just like the enclosures used in any other application, contactors also
feature an enclosure, which provides insulation and protection from personnel touching
the contacts. The protective enclosure is made from different materials, such as
polycarbonate, polyester, Nylon 6, Bakelite, thermosetting plastics, and others.
• 3. Contacts: This is yet another important component of this electrical device. The
current carrying task of the contactor is done by the contacts. There are different types
of contacts in a contactor namely, contact springs, auxiliary contacts, and power contacts.
Each type of contact has an individual role to play.
Operating Principle of a Contactor
• The current passing through the contactor excites the electromagnet. The excited
electromagnet produces a magnetic field, causing the contactor core to move the
armature. A normally closed (NC) contact completes the circuit between the fixed
contacts and the moving contacts. This permits the current to pass through these contacts
to the load. When current is removed, the coil is de-energized and opens the circuit. The
contacts of the contactors are known for their rapid open and close action.
1.12 Explain types of wire
• There are different types of wire are listed below:
• Triplex wire: Triplex wires are usually used in single-phase service drop conductors,
between the power pole and weather heads. They are composed of two insulated
aluminum wires wrapped with a third bare wire which is used as a common neutral.
• Non-metallic sheathed wires: Non-metallic sheath wire is used in most homes and has
2-3 conductors, each with plastic insulation, and a bare ground wire. The individual wires
are covered with another layer of non-metallic sheathing. Since it’s relatively cheaper and
available in ratings for 15, 20 and 25 amps, this type is preferred for in-house wiring.

Triplex wire Non-metallic Single strand wire

sheathed wire
Types of wire
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• Single Strand Wire: Single strand wire also uses THHN (Thermoplastic High Heat-
resistant Nylon-coated) wire, though there are other variants. Each wire is separate and
multiple wires can be drawn together through a pipe easily. Single strand wires are the
most popular choice for layouts that use pipes to contain wires.
1.13 Explain types of Cable
• Under ground cable are classified as follow:
• (1) According to voltage level:
(i) Low voltage (L.T.) cable: It consist of one circular core of tinned standed copper
(or aluminium) insulated by layers of impregnated paper.These cable are used up
to 1 kV.
(ii) High voltage (H.T.)cable: It consist of either circular shaped or oval or sector
shaped 3 core stranded copper or aluminium.These cable are used up to 11 kV.
(iii) Super tension (S.T.)cable: The insulation on each core is covered with
aluminium foil or own lead sheath or metallized paper.These cable are used up to
33 kV.
(iv) Extra high tension (E.H.T.) cable: oil filled cable and gas pressure cable
are types of E.H.T. cable. Oil filled cable is consist of oil channel at the center of
core by stranding the conductors wire around the hollow cylindrical steel spiral
tape.Gas pressure cable is laid in a gas tight steel pipe which is filled with dry
nitrogen at 12 to 15 atmosphere pressure produces radial compression and closes
the voids.These cable are used up to 66 kV.
(v) Extra super voltage cable: These cable are used up to 132 kV and above.
• (2) According to insulating material :
• Insulation is provided on conducting material to block the path of leakage current from
the conductor,thus minimizing the risk shock and fire. Normally cables are classified
according to the insulation used over the conductor. The various classification of cable
commonaly used for domestic wiring are as follow:
(i) Vulcanized rubber sheathed (V.I.R.) insulated cables : These consists of a
copper conductor covered with a insulation layer of Vulcanized Indian Rubber
(VIR). A cotton tape covering is provided over this insulation layer to protect the
wire from moisture and to provide mechanical strength to the wire. The thickness
of the Vulcanized Indian Rubber depends on the voltage.
(ii) Cab Tyre sheathed (T.R.S.) cables: These C.T.S or T.R.S wires consists of
vulcanized rubber insulated conductor. This insulation layer is covered by a layer
made of tough rubber (or) tough rubber sheathed covering is provided over this
insulation layer. This covering will be very hard and protects the wire from
moisture and provides mechanical strength to the wire. These wires are available
in single core, twin core, triple core etc. As these wires have tough rubber covering
no additional protection or strength is required.
(iii) Weather –proof cables: These wires consists of conductor provided with an
insulation layer made up of hard rubber. Over this cotton sheathed and cotton tape
covering is provided especially to protect the wire from moisture. These wires are
used where the moisture is present.
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(iv) Polyvinyl chloride (P.V.C.) insulated cables: These wires consists of a

conductor over which an insulation layer made up of Polyvinyl Chloride is
provided. These wires cannot resist much heat and they have relatively low
melting points, so they aren’t used in hot places and also these wires are not used
with heating appliances. PVC wires are available in almost all colors.
(v) Lead sheathed cables: These wires consists of vulcanized Indian rubber
insulated conductor over which a Lead sheath is provided which gives mechanical
strength to the wire and it also protects the wire from moisture. These wires are
generally used where there is chances of moisture like in snowy places. As Lead is
a good conductor of electricity the Lead covering may give electric shock to us so
to prevent this the Lead covering is provided with earth wire. These wires are
available in single core, twin core, triple core etc size.
• (3) According to number of conductor :
(i) Single core : Single core cable means,it consists of one conductor only.
(ii) Multi core : Multi core cable has more than one core.
(a) 2 core cable : In 2 core cable,one conductor act as a phase and another act as
a nuetral.Both conductor have a equal cross sectional area.
(b) 3 core cable :In 3 core cable, all the conductors have a equal cross sectional
area.Three strand carry R,Y abd B phases respectevily.
(c) 3 ½ core cable : In 3 ½ core cable, 3 conductors have a equal cross sectional
area.Three strand carry R,Y abd B phases respectevily. Fourth core having
cross sectional are half than that the other. Fourth core are used as a neutral.
(d) 4 core cable : In 4 core cable, all the conductors have a equal cross sectional
area.All strand carry R,Y ,B phases and neutral respectevily.
1.14 Underground Cable construction with neat sketch diagram
• Construction of cable as shown in figure. Different parts of cable are given below.
• Conductor: Conductors used for cables are generally made up of tinned copper or
aluminium. To provides the sufficient flexibility conductors are used in stranded form.
Cable may consist of one, two, three of four conductors depending upon the service
required.
• Paper insulation: The type and thickness of insulation depends upon the voltage level.
Insulating materials should provide the following properties: High insulation resistance,
High mechanical strength, Non-porous, Chemically inert, High die-electric strength, Non-
inflammable etc.
• Following are the different materials used for cable insulation: Rubber, Vulcanized India
Rubber, Impregnated paper, PVC etc.

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Armouring
Lead sheath
Conductor

Paper
insulation Bedding Serving

Construction of cable

• Lead Sheath: As the cable is placed under ground, soil may present moisture, gases and
some other liquids. Therefore, to protect the cable metallic sheath made up of lead or
aluminium is provided over the insulation.
• Bedding: To protect the metallic sheath from corrosion and some mechanical injury,
bedding is provided. It is made up of some fibrous material such as jute.
• Armoring: Armoring is used to protect the cable from mechanical injury while handling.
It consists of one or two layers of galvanized steel wire or steel tape.
• Serving: Serving is provided to protect the armoring from atmospheric conditions. It is
made up of some fibrous material like jute.

1.15 Safety precautions for electrical appliances

• It is extremely important to take safety precautions when working with electricity. Safety
must not be compromised and some ground rules must be followed.
• The basic guidelines regarding safe handling of electricity are as given below:
➢ Avoid water at all times when working with electricity. Never touch or try to repair
any electrical equipment with wet hands, as it increases the possibility of shock.
➢ Never use any equipment with frayed cords, damaged insulation or broken plugs.
➢ Never work on any receptacle at your home with mains supply ON. Always turn it
OFF before working.
➢ Always use insulated tools while working.
➢ Always use standard pins to tap the supply of power from any plug.
➢ Always use the standard lSI marked materials and equipments even though they
cost a little more.
➢ Avoid electrical hazards by not letting the energized parts and unguarded electric
equipment exposed because they are a shock risk especially for children in the
house.
➢ Never use an aluminum or steel ladder to work on any appliance at height. Instead
use a bamboo, wooden or fiberglass ladder.
➢ Know the wire code of your country.
➢ Always check all your GFCIs (Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters) once a month.
These devices are commonly used nowadays to avoid electric shock hazards.

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➢ Plug points of high-power appliances like refrigerators, wet grinders, washing

machine, water heaters etc must have a proper earthing and power should be
drawn only through the three pin plugs.
➢ Always use a circuit breaker (MCB) with the appropriate current rating, in each
electrical circuit.
➢ Take care while removing a capacitor from a circuit. A capacitor stores energy and
if not removed properly then it may cause an electric shock.
Electric Shock
• Electrical shock happens when current passes through the body. Electricity travels
through closed circuits, and people, sometimes tragically, can become part of the circuit.
• When a person receives a shock, electricity flows between parts of the body or through
the body to a ground.
• This can happen if someone touches both wires of an energized circuit, touches one wire
of the circuit while standing unprotected or touches a metal part that has become
energized.
• Electrocution refers to the injury or lethal dose of electrical energy.
• Electricity can also cause forceful muscle contraction or falls.
• The severity of injury depends on the amount of current flowing through the body, the
current's path through the body, the length of time the body remains in the circuit and
the current's frequency.
Factors determining the severity of electric shock
➢ The type of current (AC/DC)
➢ The amount of current
➢ Duration of contact
➢ Surface area of contact or Electrical field strength
➢ The pathway the electricity takes through the body
➢ Overall health of person
What happens when you get an electric shock?
• An electric shock can have no injury at all
• Burns (which are the most common)
• Cardiac arrest due to the electrical effect on the heart
• Muscle, nerve, and tissue destruction from a current passing through the body
• Death (electrocution)
Causes of Electrical Accidents
• Unsafe equipment and/or installation.
• Unsafe workplaces caused by environmental factors.
• Unsafe work practices.
Prevention to be taken to prevent electric shock
• Avoid water at all times when working with electricity. Never touch or try repairing any
electrical equipment or circuits with wet hands. It increases the conductivity of electric
current.

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• Never use equipment with frayed cords, damaged insulation or broken plugs.
• Always use insulated tools while working.
• Always use appropriate insulated rubber gloves and goggles while working on any
branch circuit or any other electrical circuit.
• Never try repairing energized equipment. Check all the wires, the outer metallic covering
of the service panel and any other hanging wires with an electrical tester before
proceeding with your work.
• Never use an aluminium or steel ladder if you are working on any receptacle at height in
your home. An electrical surge will ground you and the whole electric current will pass
through your body. Use a wooden or a fibreglass ladder instead.
• Always use a circuit breaker or fuse with the appropriate current rating.
• Working outside with underground cabling can be dangerous. The damp soil around the
cable is a good conductor of electricity and ground faults are quite common in the case of
underground cabling. Using a spade to dig at the cable can damage the wiring easily so it
is better to dig at the cable by hand while wearing insulated gloves.
• Replace immediately broken switches and plugs etc.
• Check that all metallic parts of electrical equipments are effectively earthed.
• Always turn off the mains when perform electric work at your home.
• Never place bare wire of leads in plugs. Fit a plug top.
Fire/Explosion
• Electrical fires may be caused by excessive resistance that generates heat from any of the
following:
➢ Too much current running through wiring where overcurrent protection fails or
does not exist.
➢ Faulty electrical outlets resulting in poor contact or arcing.
➢ Poor wiring connections and old wiring that is damaged and cannot support the
load.
• An explosion can occur when electricity ignites a flammable gas or combustible dust
mixture in the air. Ignition from a short circuit or static charge is possible.
What you can do to stay safe
• Avoid activities that require training
➢ Working with exposed conductors carrying 50 volts or more.
➢ Making repairs or alterations to any electrical equipment.
➢ Opening up the case, or removing barrier guards, of any equipment that utilizes
electricity.
➢ Using any tools or a meter to measure for the presence of electricity.
➢ Resetting a tripped circuit breaker, or replace a blown fuse.
• Grounding
Prof. B. D. Kanani, E.E. Department Industrial Electrical System (3170920) 16
 1 Electrical System Components

➢ To prevent electrical hazards, always make sure equipment is properly grounded.

Electrical grounding provides an alternate path for electricity to follow, rather than
going through a person. Equipment with a grounding prong must be plugged into an
extension cord with a ground; the grounding plug should not be removed from the
equipment.
• Wet locations
➢ When using electricity in a wet or damp location, including outdoor locations, a
Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI) must be used. The GFCI ensures that any
electrical shock is brief. Although painful, it wouldn’t be fatal because the GFCI creates
a ground fault or leak in the current.
• Lockout/Tagout
➢ When servicing and maintenance tasks involve electricity and electrical equipment,
you must prevent the unexpected startup of equipment.

*****************

Prof. B. D. Kanani, E.E. Department Industrial Electrical System (3170920) 17

 2 Residential and Commercial Electrical Systems

2.1 Electrical Wiring.

• A process of connecting various accessories for distribution of electrical energy from
supplier’s meter board to home appliances such as lamps, fans and other domestic
appliances is known as Electrical Wiring.
• The wiring system selected will depend to a large extent on the types of service required.
Factors affecting the selection of wiring:

• Durability
• Safety
• Appearance
• Cost
• Accessibility
• Maintenance cost

2.2 Types of internal wiring

• There are basically four types of internal wiring system.
1) Cleat wiring
2) Casing and capping wiring
3) Batten wiring
4) Conduit wiring
Cleat wiring
• In this system of wiring, cables are supported and gripped between porcelain cleats and
6 mm above the wall or roof.
• The main part is base, which is grooved to accommodate the cables, the other part is the
cap which is put over the base.
• Cleats are placed above the wall or roof at an interval of 30 to 60 cm.
• The cables recommended for this type of wiring are VIR or PVC cables and any other
approved insulated cables.
Advantages
• It is the cheapest system.
• Installation and dismantling are easy.
• Less skilled persons are required.
• Inspection is easy.
• Alterations and additions are easy.
Disadvantages
• It is purely temporary wiring system.
• Appearance is not good.
• Cables are exposed to atmosphere and there is a possibility of mechanical injury.
• This system should not be used in damp places otherwise insulation gets damaged.
Prof. B. D. Kanani, E.E. Department Industrial Electrical System (3170920) 1
 2 Residential and Commercial Electrical Systems

Casing and Capping wiring

• It consists of rectangular blocks made from seasoned and knots free wood (preferably
teak-wood).
• The casing has usually two (or three) ‘U’ shaped grooves, into which the VIR or PVC cables
are laid in such a way that the opposite polarity cables are laid in different grooves.
• The casing is covered by means of a rectangular strip of the same width as that of casing
known as capping and is screwed to it.
• This system of wiring is suitable for low voltage installations.
Advantages

• It provides good insulation as conductors are apart.

• It provides good mechanical strength.
• Easy to inspect by opening the capping.
Disadvantages

• It is costly system now – a – days because it needs seasoned, knot free wood.
• There is every risk of fire.
• The labour cost is more because it requires skilled carpenters.
• This system cannot be used in damp places.
CTS or TRS or PVC Sheath Wiring
• CTS cables are available in single-core, twin-core or three-core with a circular or oval in
shape.
• CTS cables are sufficiently chemical proof, water proof, steam proof.
• The cables are run or carried on well-seasoned, perfectly straight and well varnished (on
all four sides) teak wood batten of thickness 10 mm. at least.
• The width of the batten depends upon the number and size of cables to be carried by it.
Battens are fixed to the walls or ceilings by means of gutties or wooden plugs.
• The cables are held on the wooden batten by means of tinned brass link clips spaced at
an interval of 10 cm.
• This system is suitable for low voltage installations.
Advantages

• Its appearance is good, if carried properly.

• Its life is sufficiently long.
• It can withstand the action of most chemicals such as acids and alkalies.
• Its installation is easy and quick compared to casing-capping.
• It is cheap compared to casing – capping, metal conduit and lead sheathed wiring.
Disadvantages

• This system of wiring is not recommended in situations exposed to sun and rain, unless
preventive steps are taken.

Prof. B. D. Kanani, E.E. Department Industrial Electrical System (3170920) 2

 2 Residential and Commercial Electrical Systems

• It cannot be used in damp places.

• Good work man ship is required to make a sound job.
• Only suitable below then 250V.
Metal Sheathed Wiring
• In lead sheathed or metal sheathed wiring the cables used are insulated wires, TRS or
PVC, with metal outer covering of about 1 mm thick.
• The metal covering is known as sheathing and is made of lead – aluminium alloy
containing about 95% of lead. The metal sheathed cables are run on wooden batten and
are fixed to it by link – clips. The whole metal sheathing efficiently earthed as per IS:732-
1983.
Advantages

• It provides protection against mechanical injury.

• It can be used in damp situations.
• It can be used in situations exposed to-sun, and rain provided no joint is exposed.
• It has longer life.
Disadvantages

• It is costly system of wiring.

• It is not suitable where chemical (acids and alkalies) corrosion may occur.
• In case of insulation damage, the metal sheath become alive and gives shock.
Conduit Wiring System
• Conduit wiring system consists of either VIR or PVC cables taken through tubes or pipes
and terminated at the outlets or switches / sockets.
• The tube or pipe is known as “conduit”. Conduit wiring may run over the surface of the
walls and ceiling or may be concealed under masonry work.
• Types of Conduits
1) Rigid steel / metal conduit.
2) Rigid PVC / non-metallic conduit.
3) Flexible steel conduit.
4) Flexible PVC / non-metallic conduit.
Surface Conduit Wiring
• All steel conduits should be coated or finished with galvanized or enamelled surface.
Conduit accessories must be of threaded type. No steel conduit less than 12.7 mm. in
diameter should be used.
• The conduit should be laid over the wooden gutties, and should be fixed to the wall by
means of saddles at an interval of not more than 1.2 m.
Concealed Conduit Wiring
• The conduits (metal or PVC) are embedded along walls or ceiling in plaster at the time of
building construction. The conduits are fixed by means of saddles not more than 60 cm.

Prof. B. D. Kanani, E.E. Department Industrial Electrical System (3170920) 3

 2 Residential and Commercial Electrical Systems

apart. The VIR or PVC cables are drawn into the concealed by means of GI wire of size 18
SWG.
• PVC conduits are increasingly being used in place of steel conduits. PVC conduits are less
expensive and the labour time saved may be as much as 25% to 50% compared to the
time taken when installing steel conduits. PVC conduits are resistant to acids alkalies, oil
and moisture.
Advantages
• Metal conduits provides protection against fire
• Metal conduits provides protection against fire due to short circuit etc.
• The whole system is water proof.
• Its life is long.
• Replacement of defective wiring is easy.
• It is shock proof if earthing is done properly.
• PVC conduit wiring (particularly concealed) is cheap.
• PVC conduit wiring requires less time.
• Concealed conduit wiring appearance is very good.
Disadvantages
• PVC conduit does not provide protection against fire.
• Metal conduit wiring is very costly.
• Metal conduit wiring requires more time.
• Metal conduit wiring needs skilled labour.
• Very hard to find the defects in the wiring.
• Very complicated to manage additional connection in the future.
2.3 General rules for wiring.
• he following general rules should be kept in mind while executive the electrical wiring
work:
1) The current rating of the cable / conductor should be slightly greater (at least
1.5 times) than the load current.
2) Every live wire / line should be protected by a fuse of suitable rating as per
load requirements.
3) Every sub-circuit should be connected with the fuse distribution board.
4) All metal coverings used for the protection of earth must be connected to earth.
5) No switch or fuse is used in earth or neutral conductor.
6) Every apparatus should be provided with a separate switch.
7) No additional load should be connected to the existing installation until it has
been satisfied that the installation can safely carry the additional load.
8) All the switches and starters should be accessible to the operator.
9) A caution notice (danger plate) should be fixed on very equipment.
10) In any building light wiring and power wiring should be kept separately.

Prof. B. D. Kanani, E.E. Department Industrial Electrical System (3170920) 4

 2 Residential and Commercial Electrical Systems

11) When the installation has been completed it should be tested before giving the
supply and the leakage in the wiring should not exceed 1/5000 of the
maximum current of the load.
12) In 3-phase, 4 – wire installation the load should be distributed almost equally
on all the phases.
13) In case of 3-phse, 4-wire system, at the main board, indication should be done
in Red, Yellow and Blue. Neutral should be indicated in black.
Electrical Energy Distribution System
• As per the recommendations of ISI the maximum number of points of lights, fans and
socket outlets cannot be exceed beyond 10 and the maximum load that can be connected
in such a circuit is 800 watts. Hence in case of more load or more points to be connected
to the supply system, then it is to be done by having more than one circuit through:
a) Distribution board system
b) Tree system
c) Joint box system
d) Loop-in system
2.4 General requirements of electrical installations
Followings are the general requirements of the electrical installations:
Layout wiring
• Power and heating sub circuits should be kept separate and distinct from lighting and fan
sub-circuits in conformity with IS:732-1983.
• All types of wiring weather concealed or unconcealed, should be capable of easy
inspection.
• The unconcealed wiring when run along the walls should be as near the ceiling as
possible. In all types of wiring due consideration should be given for neatness and good
appearance.
• In 3-phase installations, care should be exercised to ensure balancing of loads on the
three-phase circuit.
• Conductors
• All conductors should be of copper or aluminium. The conductor for final sub-circuit
wiring should have a nominal cross-sectional area not less than 1 sq. mm if copper is used
and 1.50 sq. mm if aluminium is used.
• The cross-sectional of conductor for power wiring should not be less than 1.50 sq. mm
for copper and 2.50 sq. mm for aluminium.
Rating of lamp, fan and socket outlet point
• For purpose of estimating the current to be carried by any conductor, ratings as indicated
as followings: 20 watts for FTLs, 12 watts for LED lamps, 55 watts for Ceiling fans, 100
watts for ordinary socket outlet points, 1000 watt for power socket outlet points unless
actual value specified.
Joint box and looping in system
Prof. B. D. Kanani, E.E. Department Industrial Electrical System (3170920) 5
 2 Residential and Commercial Electrical Systems

• Where looping-in system of wiring is specified, wiring should be done without any
junction or connection boxes.
• When joint-box system is specified, all joints are made by means of approved mechanical
connections in suitable and approved joint boxes looping-in system is generally
preferred.
Reception and distribution of main supply
• At the entry level there should be a circuit breaker or linked switch on live conductor.
• No break in the neutral wire in the form of switch or fuse throughout the installation.
• All main switches should be either metal clad enclosed or of any insulated enclosed
pattern and should be fixed at close proximity to the point of entry of supply.
IS:732-1983 stipulates that:
• Open type switchboards shall be placed only in dry situations and in ventilated rooms
and they shall not be placed in the vicinity of storage batteries or exposed to chemical
fumes.
• In a damp situation or where inflammable or explosive dust, vapour or gas is likely to be
present, the switch board shall be totally enclosed or made flame proof as may be
necessitated by the particular circumstances.
• Switch boards shall not be erected above gas stoves or sinks, or within 2.5 m of any
washing unit in the washing rooms of laundries, or in bathrooms, or toilets, or kitchens.
• Metal clade switchgear should preferably be mounted on any one of the following type of
boards:
1) Hinged type metal boards
2) Fixed type metal boards
3) Teak wood boards
Arrangement of apparatus on switchboards
• Equipment should be so mounted on the switch board that there is no possibility of an
inadvertent contact with live parts whenever a person is performing operations like
changing fuses, manipulating switches etc.
• No apparatus should project beyond any edge of the board. No fuse body should be
mounted within 2.5 cm of any edge of the board and no hole, other than the holes by
means of which the panel is fixed, should be drilled closer than 1.3 cm from any edge of
the board.
• No live parts, unless they are effectively screwed by substantial barriers of non-
hygroscopic, non-inflammable insulating materials, should be so spaced as to cause an
arc to be struck between live parts and earth.
• Single phase supply
• Three phases, four wire supply
• Sub distribution board
• Sub circuits
• Diversity
• Diversity factor for sub circuit

Prof. B. D. Kanani, E.E. Department Industrial Electrical System (3170920) 6

 2 Residential and Commercial Electrical Systems

2.5 Single Line diagram

• The consumer’s main switch fuse is connected after the meter and feed a distribution fuse
board. It is important to note that fuses should be connected only in live wire and never
in the neutral wire. Similarly, all switches installed on live wire only and never on the
neutral wire.
• Simple diagram of Single-Phase Installation

Figure 1 Simple diagram of Single-Phase Installation

• Single Phase Installation with a number of sub-distribution boards having a

common main switch fuse

Figure 2 Single phase installation with a number of sub-distribution boards having a

common main switch fuse
Prof. B. D. Kanani, E.E. Department Industrial Electrical System (3170920) 7
 2 Residential and Commercial Electrical Systems

• Single Phase Installation with a number of sub-distribution boards each connected

to the mains through a separate fuse

Figure 3 Single phase installation with a number of sub-distribution boards each

connected to the mains through a separate fuse
2.6 Service Connection
• The line bringing electric power from supplier’s low voltage distribution up to the energy
meter installed at the consumer’s premises is called the service connection.
• The electric supply authority supplies power to the consumers through a low voltage
three phase four wire distribution system called the secondary distribution system.
• Large consumers supplied at higher voltages through three-wire high voltage
distribution system called the primary distribution system (6.6, 11, 33 kV).
• Service connection may be by mean of underground cables or by mean of overhead
conductors or cables.
• The
Underground Service Connection

Figure 4 Diagram of underground service connection

Prof. B. D. Kanani, E.E. Department Industrial Electrical System (3170920) 8
 2 Residential and Commercial Electrical Systems

Overhead Service Connection

• This system is used when the consumer’s premises are more than 45 meter away from
the supplier’s distribution pole.
1) PVC or weather proof cable service line
2) Bare conductor service line

Figure 5 Diagram of PVC or Weather proof cable service life

Figure 6 Diagram of Bare conductor service life

• Service mains

Figure 7 Block Diagram of the meter distribution board

• Sub circuits
Prof. B. D. Kanani, E.E. Department Industrial Electrical System (3170920) 9
 2 Residential and Commercial Electrical Systems

Figure 8 Sub circuit diagram

• After the main switch the supply is taken to the various load points.
• In the given circuit same circuit contains light, fan and power circuit which has various
drawbacks.
• Dividing the wiring into a number of smaller circuits is called subcircuit.
• Sub circuit divided into two parts:
1) Light and fan sub-circuit
2) Power sub-circuit
• Sub circuits also consider followings:
1) Location of outlets
2) Location of control switches
3) Location of main board and distribution board
• Guidelines for installation of fittings considers below fittings:
1) Switches, socket outlets and light points
2) Fans
3) Fuses and switches
4) Earthing installation
• Estimating and costing of electrical installation considers following points:
1) Quantity and specification of material
2) Price list
3) Labor charges
4) Overhead charges
5) Contingencies
6) Profit
Electrical Installations for Residential building: Estimating and Costing of
Material
• Choice of particular type of wiring depending upon a particular use, financial
implication and personal preferences.
• Installation work should be as per Indian Electricity Rules 1956.
• The planning and designing of electrical wiring should be done before civil work start.
• Layout of electrical wiring prepare in advance and handed over the civil engineer to
make necessary provisions in the building for electric work.

Prof. B. D. Kanani, E.E. Department Industrial Electrical System (3170920) 10

 2 Residential and Commercial Electrical Systems

Electrical Installations for Commercial building

• Supply authority supplies power to the consumer through low voltage i.e. 415V/240V
three phase four wire distribution.
• Large consumers are supplied at higher voltage: 6.6, 11, 33 kV three wire high voltage
feeder.

*****************

Prof. B. D. Kanani, E.E. Department Industrial Electrical System (3170920) 11

 Illumination

ILLUMINATION
Definition – Laws of illumination – Polar curves – Calculation of MHCP and MSCP. Lamps:
Incandescent lamp, Sodium Vapour lamp, Fluorescent lamp. Requirement of good lighting scheme –
Types, Design and Calculation of illumination. Street lighting and Factory lighting – Numerical Problems

Introduction:
Light is the prime factor in the human life as well as activities of human beings ultimately
depend upon the light. Where there is no natural light, use of artificial light is made. Artificial lighting
produced electrically, on account of its cleanness, ease of control, reliability, steady output, as well as
its low it is playing an increasingly important part in modern everyday life. The science of illumination
engineering is, therefore, becoming of major importance.

Nature of light:
Light is a form of radiant energy. Various forms of incandescent bodies are the sources of light
and the light emitted by such bodies depend upon the temperature of bodies. Heat energy is radiated
into the medium by a body which is hotter than the medium surrounding it. The heat of the body, as
seen, can be classified as red hot or white-hot.

A hot body about 500-800°C becomes a red hot and about 2,500-3,000°C the body becomes
white hot. While the body is red-hot, the wavelength of the radiated energy will be sufficiently large and
the energy available in the form of heat. Further, the temperature increases, the body changes from
red-hot to white-hot state, the wavelength of the radiated energy becomes smaller and enters into the
range of the wavelength of light. The wavelength of the light waves varying from 0.0004 to 0.00075
mm, i.e. 4,000-7,500 Å (1 Angstrom unit = 10-10 mm).

Relative Sensitivity:

The reacting power of the human eye to the light waves of different wavelengths varies from person to
person, and also varies with age. The average relative sensitivity is shown in Fig

The s ensitivity of eye to yellow-green radiation is taken as unity or 100% and the sensitivity to
other wavelengths is expressed as a fraction or percentage of it. The relative sensitivity at awave length
is written k and is known as relative luminosity factor.

1
 Illumination

Colour: The sensation of colour is due to the difference in the wave lengths of the light radiations.
Visible light can have wave lengths of the light between4,000A and 7,500A as shown in the figure1.1.

Fig 1.1 wave lengths of the light

Wavelength of the colour light

Illumination:
Illumination differs from light every much, though generally these terms are used more or less
synonymously. Strictly speaking light is the cause and illumination is the result of that light on surfaces
on which it falls. Thus the illumination makes the surface look more or less bright with certain colour
and it is this brightness and colour which the eye sees and interrupts as something useful or pleasant or
otherwise. Light may be produced by passing electric current through filaments as in the incandescent
lamps, through arcs between carbon or metal rods, or through suitable gases as in neon and other gas
tubes. In some forms of lamps the light is due to fluorescence excited by radiation arising from the
passage electric current through mercury vapour. Some bodies reflect light in some measure, and when
illuminated from an original source they become secondary source of light. The good example is the
moon, which illuminates earth by means of the reflected light originating in the sun.

Terms used in Illumin at ion:

1. Plane Angle: The ang le subtended at a point in a plane by two converging straight lines and its

magnitude is shown by =

It is measured in Radians.
The largest angle subtended at a point is ‘2π 'radians.

Radian: The angle subtended at a point by an arc whose length is equal to the radius.

2
 Illumination

2. Solid angle : A Solid angle is subtended at a point in space by an area and is the angle enclosed in
the volume formed by an infinite number of lines lying on the surface of the volume and meeting at the
point. It is represented by greek letter ω.and is measured in steradian.

Solid Angle ω= steradian

( )

The largest solid angle subtended a t centre of a sphere

= =

3. Light: It is defined as the radiant energy from a hot body which produces the visual sensation upon
the human eye. It is usually denoted by ‘Q’expressed in Lumen-Hours and is analogues to watt-hours.

4. Luminous Flux (F): It is defined as tota l qu antity of light energy emitted per second from a
luminous body. It is represented by the symbol ‘ F’and is measured in Lumens.

5. Luminous Intensity (I): It is the lumino us fl ux per unit solid angle in a given direction.It is
represented by I and is measured in (lumen/ster adia n or) candela (cd).

6. Lumen: Luminous flux emitted by a source of one candle power in a unit solid angle.
Lumen= candle power of source X solid angle
=c.p X ω
It is the unit of luminous flux.
7. Candle Power (C P): The candle power of a source is defined as the number of lumens emitted by
that source in a unit solid angle in a given direction.

C.P= lumen/steradian or candela

8. Illumination (E) : Illumination of a surface is defined as the luminous flux received by the
surface per unit area. It is repr esented by the s ymbol ‘ E’ a n d si measu red in lux (or
lumen/m 2).

.
= = =

Light is the cause and illumination is the effect.

9. Brightness or Luminance (L) : It is defi ned as luminous intensity per unit projected area of a
given surface in a given direction.

= / I= Luminous Intensity (candela)

A= Projected area (m2)

3
 Illumination

10. Mean Horizontal Candle Power (M.H.C.P): It is defined as the mean of candle power in all
directions in the horizontal plane containing the source of light.
11. Mean Spherical Candle Power (M. S.C. P): It is define d as the mean of candle power in all
directions and in all planes from the so urc e of l ight.

. . . =

):
12. Mean Hemi-Spherical Candle Power (M.H.S.C.P It is defined as the mean of candle power in
all directions above or below horizontal plane passing through the source of light.

13. Reduction Factor: Reduction factor of a source of light is the ratio of its mean spherical candle
power to its mean horizontal candle p ower.

. . .
=
. . .

14. Lamp Efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the luminous flux to the power input. It is
expressed in Lumens / Watt.
15. Space Height Ratio: it is the ratio of horizontal distance between lamps and the height of their
mountings.
16. Utilisation Factor or Co-efficient of utilisation (UF): It is the ratio of total lumens reaching the
working plane and the total lumens given out by the lamp.
17. Maintenance Factor (MF): It is the ratio of illumination under normal working conditions to the
illumination under clear and clean conditions.
18. Depreciation Factor (DF): It is the ratio of initial illumination to the maintained illumination on
the working plane. DF > 1 always.
19. Glare: Brightness within the field of vision such a character as to cause annoyance, discomfort,
interference with the vision of eye fatigue. This is found in car head lights.

Relationship between and :

Solid angle =

= ( )

SZ=OZ-OS
h=r – r cos = r (1-cos ) (2)
Substituting h in eq ( 1) we g
e t− )
(
= −
)
4
 Illumination
= (

5
Laws of Illumination: There are two laws of illumination
1. Law of inverse squares
2. lamberts cosine law
Inverse square law :
This law states that ‘the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of distance
between the surface and a point source’.
Proof:
Let, S= a point source of luminous intensity
I= candela, the luminous flux emitting from source
A1 A2, and A3= Three parallel surface area’s in square meters,
d, 2d, and 3d =distances of A 1 A2, and A3 from the point source respectively as shown in Fig

For area A1 solid angle =

Flux on area A1= luminous Intensity X solid angle

=I X = x

= __ (1)

Illumination E1 on surface A 1 =

= X

E1 = lux ___ (2)

Similarly, illumination 'E2' on the surface area A2 is: E 2 = lux

( )

and illumination ‘E3’ o n the surface area A3 is: E 3 = lux

( )

E1 : E2 : E3 :: : :
( ) ( )
Lambert's cosine law: This law states that ‘illumination, E at any point on a surface is directly
proportional to the cosine of the angle between the normal at that point and the line of flux’.
Proof:
While discussing, the Lambert's cosine law, let us assume that the surface is inclined at an angle ‘θ’ to
the lines of flux as shown in Fig
Let PQ = The surface area normal to the source and inclined at ‘θ’ to the vertical axis.
RS = The surface area normal to the vertical axis and inclined at an angle θ to the source ‘O’.
From above fig

From fig (b)

Substituting ‘d' from the above equation in Equation

POLAR CURVES:
They are the plot drawn between the Candle Power and Angular Position. The light intensity is not same
in all directions in most of the lamps because of their unsymmetrical shape. The luminous intensity in
all directions can be represented by polar curves. They help to find the distribution of candle power, i.e.
light in different directions.
Horizontal polar curves: it is the curve drawn showing the
distribution of candle power on a horizontal plane about a vertical
axis passing through the source of light. The dip at 90º is due to
coiled coil filament occupying an arc subtending an angle less than
360º.

Vertical polar curves: it is the plot drawn showing the relation

between the candle power and the angle of illumination on a vertical plane
passing through the lamp. The dip at 180º is due to the position of lamp
holder.

Polar curves are used to determine:

-MHCP and MSCP.

-Actual illumination of a surface with the help of these curves.

-MHCP can be determined from horizontal polar curves by taking mean

of candle powers in horizontal direction. This can be done drawing a planar

graph between angular direction and the candle powers and deriving the
mean form that graph.

-MSCP can be derived from vertical polar curves by Rousseau’s

construction diagram.

Rousseau’s construction:

When vertical plane is in the form of two lobes, symmetrical about the vertical axis YOY`.

Construction steps:

-Draw circle with convenient radius with O as center.

-Draw CD // YOY` and equal to vertical diameter

of the circle.

-Draw any line OFA meeting the polar curve in

F and circle at A. let the projection be G.

-At G erect an ordinate GH = OF

-By similar construction draw other ordinates.

-The curve CSTGDBHL obtained by joining these ordinates is known as Rousseau’s curve. The mean
ordinate of the curve gives the MSCP.

-Mean ordinate of the curve =

-The area can be determined by using a graph or by Simpson rule.

ARTIFICIAL SOURCES OF LIGHT:

There are several alternative schemes that act as substitute for sunlight. But light be electricity is
pollution free and easy control method. Illumination by electricity is mainly classified into three types
they are:

1. By temperature incandescence.( incandescent lamps)

2. By producing an arc between electrodes.(arc lamps)

3. By discharge of electrons.( fluorescent lamps and vapour lamps).

INCANDESCENT LAMPS:

Electric current is passed through a filament of thin wire placed in vacuum or an inert gas. The current
generates sufficient heat to raise the temperature of the filament to luminosity. Their output depends
on the temperature of the filaments so they are termed as “Temperature Radiators”. The fine wire is
known as filament placed inside it.

Construction:

It consists of a evacuated glass globe structure. The evacuation is to:

- To prevent oxidation and

- Convectional currents of filament.

- To prevent decrease of temperature by radiation. Coiled

coil is employed to avoid convectional currents. The coiled-
coil filament is the heart of the lamp, where the light is
created. It is supported at two intermediate points by fine
molybdenum wires, slightly springy. The electrical current is
carried to the filament by a pair of nickel plated steel lead-in
wires. a very special alloy which forms a gas-tight seal
between the glass and wire is welded to a copper plated
steel wire which makes the electrical connection to the cap.
In one or both of these outer leads there is a fuse wire
section. The lead wires are held in a glass assembly called
the stem, through which a smaller glass tube, the exhaust
tube is also sealed. This is kept open at the top of the stem
which allows the air to be pumped out of the bulb after
sealing. The cap is affixed to the bulb with special heat-curing cement, and the copper lead wires pass
through eyelets in the end of the cap where they are fluxed and soldered to the bra ss contact plates.
The terminals are insulated from each other by a special black glass called vitrite, which offers high
electrical resistance even at elevated temperatures. a mixture of Argon and Nitrogen in the ratio of 85% Argon
-15% Nitrogen are employed.

Properties of filament made of ideal material:

-High melting point.

-High resistivity.

-Low temperature coefficient.

-Low vapour pressure.

-Ductility

-Sufficient mechanical strength to withstand vibrations during use.

Materials used for making filaments:

Property Carbon Tantalum Tungsten
Resistivity (ρ) 10 - 70 µ Ω - m 0.056 µ Ω - m 0.124 µ Ω - m
Temperature coefficient (α) -0.0002 to -0.0008 0.0036 0.0045
Melting point 3500ºC 2996 ºC 3400 ºC
Density 1.7- 3.5 kg/m3 16.6 kg/m3 19.3 kg/m3
(maintained at
1800 ºC to avoid blacking)
Efficiency (η) 4.5 lumen/watt 2 lumen/watt 18 lumen/watt at
2000 ºC in vacuum bulb.

Filament made of tungsten is most preferred instead of carbon filament due to the accumulation of ash
on the walls of the bulb as life goes on leading to reduction of life of bulb.

Aging effect:

Decrease in light output of lamp with time is called aging effect. The cause for aging effect is
evaporation of filament that results in blackening of bulb and also reduces the diameter of the filament
which increases the resistance. The aged filament draws less current and operates at lower temperature
that decreases the light output and efficiency.

The total depreciation of light output is roughly 15% over the life range.

Filament manufacturing:

Pure tungsten powder is pressed in steel mould for small bars. The mechanical strength of the
bars is improved by heating electrically near to the melting point. Bars are then hammered at red heat
and drawn into filaments. To increase the efficiency of the bulb it is filled with inert gas Argon and
small percentage of Nitrogen. To decrease the convectional currents due to gas molecules in the bulb,
the filament is wound into a close spiral and suspended horizontally in the form f a circular arc.

- Efficiency is 30 lumen/watt for a gas filled coiled coil at working temperature of 2500ºC.
 The diameter of tungsten filament depends upon voltage and wattage.

- Size is as small as 10 microns (1/6 th of human hair).

- Diameter depends upon current rating.

- In vacuum:
Heat produced = heat lost by radiat ion .
4
= =
2
=
2
2 =
2
2

Heat lost/ sec α surface area x emissivit y

4
α( )

α
Clear gas filled incandescent lamps: They facilitate light control. It is used where lighting units are
to be distributed accurately. They are used in flood lights, projectors, car head lights.

Disadvantage is they produce hard shadows and glare from the filament.

Inside frosted gas filled lamps: their luminous output is 2% less than clear glass lamps of same
rating. They produce soft shadows and practically eliminate glare from filaments. Used in industrial open
fittings located in line of sight at low mounting heights. These are used in diffuse fittings of opal glass
type in order to avoid the presence of filament striations on the surface of glass ware.

Inside silica coated lamps has high diffusion of light output due to fine coating of silica. They are
less glaring and produce soft shadows. The brightness of reflection from shiny surfaces is minimized.
Halogen filled incandescent lamps: as the life of incandescent lamp falls with time due to
- Slow evaporation of filament

- Black deposit formed on the inside of bulb.

When the bulb is filled with halogen vapour is filled along with filling gas it restores a part of
evaporated filament due to chemical reaction i.e. by “Regenerative Cycle Process”.

Advantages: - life time is about 2000 hrs

- Very high operating temperature.

- increased luminous efficiency from 22 to 33 lumen/watt

- Reduced blacking effect.

- No depreciation of lumens.
DISCHARGE LAMPS:
An electric current is passed through a gas or vapour which renders its luminous. The light is
produced by the process of gaseous conduction. The commonly used elements are Neon, Mercury,
Sodium vapours. The color depends on the nature of gas or vapour.
Neon: Orange Red Light.
Mercury: Bluish.
Sodium: Orange Yellow.
Discharge lamps are categorized into two types they are:
i) Vapour discharge lamps. ii) Fluorescent lamps.
SODIUM VAPOUR LAMP:
This type of the lamp has low luminosity, so length of lamp is large. To get required length it is
made in form of U tube. Two oxide coated electrodes are sealed with the ends. The tube contains
Neon and Sodium gas. The U tube is enclosed in a double walled vacuum flask to keep the
temperature within the working range. It employs high leakage reactance transformer to provide
sufficient voltages to increase the temperature of the oxide coated electrodes that emits the electrons
to liberate light. Due to this transformer the regulation will be poor and the power factor will be low
about 0.3. Capacitor at the input terminals is provided to improve power factor to 0.8.

Working:

Before stating the Sodium in the solid form is deposited on

the walls of the tube. When the supply is fed by closing the switch,
the bulb operates as low pressure Neon lamp with pink color. The
lamp gets warm and the Sodium is vaporized and radiates yellow
light. After 10-15 minutes it illuminates full light.

For a 40 W lamp, 380 V is required to start the discharge.

For 100W lamp 450V is required. These voltage levels are obtained
from the high reluctance transformer or auto transformer.

The no-load voltage is high, which decreases gradually when

the lamp starts glowing on account of production of electron
current between the electrodes, which results in poor regulation of
transformer.

Specifications:

- Efficiency of lamp is about 40-50%.

- Available in 45W, 60W, 85W, 140W ratings.

- Average life is 3000 hrs.

- It is not affected by voltage variations.

- At the end of life output is reduced by 15% due to aging.

Causes for failure of lamp:

- Burn out or breaking of filament.

- Cathode stops to emit electrons.

- Sodium particles may concentrate on one side of the tube.

 - The blackening of lamp due to sodium vapour action on the glass.

Applications:

These lamps are employed where color discrimination is not required.

- Highway lighting.

- Outdoor lighting.
FLUORESCENT LAMPS:

It is a low pressure mercury vapor lamp. It consists of a glass tube 25 mm in diameter and 0.6
m, 1.2 m and 1.5 m in length. The tube contains argon gas at low pressure about 2.5 mm of mercury.
At the two ends, two electrodes coated with some electron emissive material are placed.

Fluorescent lighting has a great advantage over other light sources in many applications. The
tubes can be obtained in a variety of length, with illumination in a variety of colours. It is possible to
achieve quite high lighting intensities without excessive temperature rise and owing to the nature of
light sources, the danger of glare is minimized. The efficiency of the fluorescent tube is about 40
lumens per watt, about three times the efficiency of an equivalent tungsten filament lamp. The
fluorescent tube consists of a glass tube 25m.m in diameter and 0.38m-1.52m in length. The inside
surface of the tube is coated with the thin layer of fluorescent material in the form of a powder

A starting switch is provided in the circuit, which puts the electrodes directly across the supply
mains at the time of starting, so that electrodes may get heated and emit sufficient electrons. A
stabilizing choke is connected in series with it, which acts ballast in running condition and provides a
voltage impulse for starting. A capacitor is connected across the circuit to improve the power factor at
the supply side. The filament is connected to a starter switch which is small with bimetal strip
connecting the two electrodes.

Working:
When the starter is cold the electrodes are open.When supply is given the current traces the
closed path through the mains - choke – electrode 1 - starter – electrode 2 - mains. At this time the
bimetallic strip of the starter operates depending on the type of starter used . when the electrodes

G.Purushotham,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE @ SVCE, TPT 12

are raised to a certain temperature and liberate electrons that bombard on the phosphor coating on
the walls of the tube to emit light. Thus the electrons close the path between the electrodes reducing
the voltage across the starter which cools down gradually, where the choke provides the necessary
voltage transient across the electrodes. The radio interference effect may be reduced to minimum by
connecting a small capacitor (0.05ÅF) across starter.
Advantages of Fluorescent Tube:
1. Voltage fluctuation has very small effect on light output.
2. The luminous efficiency is more as length of rod is more.
3. It gives light close to natural light.
4. Heat radiations are negligible.
5. High efficiency.
6. The life of the lamp is three times of the ordinary filament lamp.
7. Less chances of glare.
Although the fluorescent lamp has the above advantages, it sufferers form the following
disadvantages
1. The initial cost is high because of choke and starter.
2. The starting time as well as the light output of the lamp will increases because of low ambient
temperature.
3. Because of the presence of choke, these lamps suffer from magnetic humming and may cause
disturbance.
4. The stroboscopic effect of this lamp is objectionable.

Stroboscopic effect:
We all know that because of ‘the alternating nature of supply, it crosses zero two times in a
cycle’. For 50-Hz frequency supply of the alternating current, a discharge lamp will be extinguished
twice in a cycle and 100 times per second (for 50-Hz supply). A human eye cannot identify this
extinguish phenomenon, because of the persistence of vision. If this light falls upon a moving object,
the object appearing like slow moving or fast moving or moving in reverse direction, sometimes
stationary. This effect is due to the extinguishing nature of the light of the lamp. This effect is called as
‘stroboscopic effect’.

This effect can be avoided by employing any of the

two techniques listed below.

1.If we have three-phase supply, then the

fluorescent lamps that are adjacent should be fed
from different phases. Then, no two lamps will not
be in same phase at zero instant of AC supply, so
light is present at any instant.
Fig. Lead-lag circuit
2.If the available supply is single phase, then twin tube circuitry as shown in above Fig. we can
eliminate stroboscopic effect.

In this lead-lag arrangement, one of the lamps is operating at 0.5 lagging, the other, provided with
capacitor, is operating at 0.5 leading.

In general, the life of a fluorescent lamp is about 7,500 hr. Based on the operating conditions,
the lamp's actual life can be varied from 5,000 to 10,000 hr. It is recommended to replace a lamp after
4,000-5,000 of its working hours.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF LIGHT CONTROL:

When light falls on a surface, depending up on the nature of the surface of the light, some portion
of light energy is reflected, some portion is transmitted through the medium of the surface and the rest
is absorbed. The ratio of reflected light energy to the incident light energy is known as reflection factor.

There are two basic types of reflections:

(i) Mirror or specular reflections

(ii) Diffuse reflection

In case of specular reflection a beam of light is reflected but in the path of the reflected

beam, the eye is placed in the path of the existence of the light. Moreover, if the eye is placed in

the path of the reflected beam, he sees, not the illuminated surface, but the light source.

Surfaces causing specular reflection or silvered mirrors, highl y

polished metals etc. with diffused reflection the reflected light is

scattered in all directions, and the viewer sees the illuminated

surface, not the light source. Surface causing diffused reflection

are paper, frosted glass, chalk, dry-earth, plaster etc.

If a surface that is uniformly illuminated by a beam of light

appears to be equally when viewed from all possible angles, the

reflection is said to be perfectly diffused. Perfect mirror surfaces and

perfect diffusing materials are ideals that do not exist in nature.

The reflection from do not exists in nature. The reflection from any

actual surface is partly specular and partly diffused the

promotional varying widely. A surface that is almost free from

mirror deflection is called “Mat Surface”.

TYPES OF LIGHTING SCHEMES:

The distribution of light emitted by lamps is usually controlled to some extent by means of

reflectors and translucent diffusing screens or even lenses. The interior lighting schemes can be
classified as

(i) Direct lighting

(ii) Semi- Direct lighting

(iii) Semi- in direct lighting

(iv) Indirect lighting

(v) General lighting

Direct lighting schemes:
Direct lighting scheme is most
widely used for interior lighting
scheme. In this scheme, by using
deep reflectors, it is possible to make 90% of light falls just below the lamp. This scheme is more
efficient but it suffers from hard shadows and glare. Hence, while designing such schemes, all the
possibilities that will cause glare on the eye have to be eliminated. It is mainly used for industrial and
general outdoor lighting.
Semi direct lighting schemes:
In semi direct lighting scheme, about 60-90% of lamps luminous flux is made to fall downward
directly by using some reflectors and the rest of the light is used to illuminate the walls and
ceiling. This type of light scheme is employed in rooms with high ceiling. Glare can be avoided
by employing diffusing globes. This scheme will improve not only the brightness but also the
efficiency.

Indirect lighting schemes :

In this lighting scheme more than 90% of total flux is thrown upwards to the ceiling for diffuse
reflection by using inverted or bowl reflectors. In such a system the ceiling acts as the light source,
and the glare is reduced to minimum. The resulting illumination is softer diffused, the shadows are less
prominent and the appearance of the room is much improved over that which results from direct
lighting. It is used for decoration purposes in cinemas, theatres and hotels etc, and in workshops
where large machines and the other obstructions would cause trouble shadows if direct lighting is
employed.
Semi-Indirect Lighting:
In this lighting scheme 60 to 90%of total light flux is thrown upwards to the ceiling for diffuse
reflection and the rest reaches the working plane directly except for some absorption by the bowl.
This lighting scheme is with soft shadows and glare free. It is mainly used for indoor light decoration
purposes.
General lighting scheme:
This scheme of lighting use diffusing glasses to produce the equal illumination in all directions.
Mounting height of the source should be much above eye level to avoid glare. Lamp fittings of various
lighting schemes are shown in above Fig.
DESIGN OF LIGHTING SCHEMES:
The lighting scheme should be such that it may,
1. Provide adequate illumination,
2. Provide light distribution all over the working plane as uniform as possible,
3. Provide light of suitable colour and
4. Avoid glare and hard shadows as far as possible.
The following factors are required to be considered while designing the lighting schemes.
1. Illumination Level:
It is the task of illumination to give objects a distributed brightness. Body colours have property
of reflection light in different degrees. It is this differential brightness which gives essential perception
of details. For each type of work there is a range of brightness most favorable to output i.e which
causes minimum fatigue and gives maximum output in terms of quality and quantity.
2. Uniformity of Illumination: The human eye adjusts itself automatically to the brightness within
the field of vision. If there is a lack of uniformity, pupil or iris of the eye has to adjust more frequently
and thus fatigue is caused to the eye and productivity is reduced. Local lighting without using
matching general lighting creates psychological feelings of loneliness, gloom and unfriendliness.
3. Color of the Light: The appearance of the body color entirely depends up on the color of the
incident light. In general composition of the light should be such that the color appears natural. Day
light fluorescent tubes now a day make it possible to illuminate economically even large spaces with
artificial day light giving good color rending and at sufficiently high level. For certain applications such
as street lighting, color of light does not matter much if different components have not be
distinguished from each other by their colors, highly efficiency discharge lamps, which cause color
distortion, can be used.
4. Shadows: In lighting installations, formation of long and hard shadows causes to give eyes and
therefore is considered to be a short-coming. Perhaps to popular opinion a certain amount of shadows
is desirable in artificial lighting as it helps to give shape to the solid objects and makes them easily
recognized. Objects illuminated by shadow less light appear flat and uninteresting, contours are lost
and it is difficult for the eye to form a correct judgment of the shape of an object.
5. Glare: It may be direct (or) reflected. Direct glare from a source of light is the more common, and
is more often a hindrance to vision. A glance at the sun proves that an extremely bright light source
causes acute eye discomfort.
6. Mounting Height: In the case of direct lighting in the rooms of large floor area, the luminaries
should be mounted as close to the ceiling as possible. In the case of indirect lighting it would of course
be desirable to suspend luminaries far enough down from the ceiling in order to give reasonably
uniform on the ceiling.
7. Spacing of Luminaries: Correct spacing is one of great importance to provide uniform
illumination over the whole area and thus do away with comparatively dark areas which are so often
when the fittings are badly spaced.
8. Color of Surrounding Walls: The illumination in any room depends upon the light reflected from
the walls and ceilings. White walls and ceilings reflect more light as compared to colored ones.
FACTORY LIGHTING:

Adequate lighting of factories is of vital importance, as it provides improved amenities for the
employees, increased production and has a definite economic value in reducing accidents with their
consequent loss of time and compensation payments.

General Requirements and Types of Illumination: A factory lighting installation in common with
other in order equipments should provide an adequate illumination on the working plane and give a
good distribution of light, employ simple and easily cleaned fittings and avoid glare. It is essential not
only to avoid glare from the lamp itself but also reflected glare from any polished surface, which may
be within the line of vision.
General Lighting: The usual scheme in factories workshops is to mount a no. of lamps at a sufficient
height so that uniform distribution of light over the working plane is obtained. Since light colored
walls and ceiling add to the effectiveness of an installation, therefore it is necessary to get white
washing (or) painting done.
Local Lighting: On some points fairly intense illumination is required. For this purpose local
lighting can be provided means of adjustable fittings attached to the machine or bench in question
or mounted on portable floor standards. Such lamps should be mounted in deep reflectors. So that
glare is avoided. Low voltage lamps of not more than 50 volts are recommended for use as
portable hand lamps because such lamps have thicker filament, more robust is also avoided in
these few volt lamps. Local lighting should never be employed alone, good general lighting is
essential so that the dark places between the local lighting units are avoided dark places between
the local lighting units cause fatigue to the eyes on account of its continually to adjust itself to new
conditions.
Emergency Lighting:
Some lights, such as for
(i) internal pilot lighting required for safe and speedy evacuation of personnel after main
lighting circuit is off
(ii) external pilot lighting, provided with careful shades leading to shelters required for
evacuation of personnel
(iii) for control posts, first aid centres etc.
(iv) dials and gauges in important plants required to be watched regularly are required
during an air raid when all the factory lights are off as a matter of air raid precaution.
Industrial lighting fittings: Reflectors for industrial purpose must be sinple in design and easily
cleaned. The requirements of most of the installations can be met by one of the following types of
fittings.
Standard Reflectors: These reflectors are made to accommodate lamps of ratings from 40 to 1,500
watts and designed so that they give adequate and uniform illumination when they are mounted at a
spacing equal to about 1.5 times their mounting height above the working plane.
Angle Reflectors: Angle reflectors are used to provide illumination in a vertical plane when
concentrating type reflectors are used. These can be mounted on suitable stanchions or the walls.
Maintenance: In order to maintain the fittings in a condition of reasonable efficiency it is necessary to
clean the light fittings periodically. The frequency of cleaning depends on the conditions in the
particular factory under consideration and varies from once or twice a week for very dirty surroundings
to every four or six weeks under the best conditions.
Types of Lamps : The discharge lamps have been used in where colour rendring is not important, The
fluorescent lamps are widely employed on account of its natural day light colour, its even illumination
and absence of glare and in some cases, the fact that it gives rise to considerably less than filament
lamps of the same light output.
STREET LIGHTING:
The main objectives of street lighting are
(i) To make the traffic and obstructions on the road clearly visible in order to promote safety and
convenience.
(ii) To make the street more attractive.
(iii) To increase the community value of the street.
The principle employed for street lighting is different from that of interior lighting. There are no
walls and ceiling which reflect or diffuse light, hence only direct lighting scheme can be employed and
hard shadows and high contrast cannot be avoided.
Two general principles are employed in the design of street lighting installations, namely
(i) diffusion principle (ii) specular reflection principle
Two general principles are usually employed in the design of street lighting installations ,namely
Diffusion and specular reflection principle.
Diffusion principle: In this case the lamps fitted with suitable reflectors are used. The reflectors are
so designed that they may direct the light downwards and spread as uniformly as possible over the
road surface. in order to avoid glare the reflectors are made to have a cut-off between 300 to 45 0 so
that the filament is not visible except from underneath it. The diffusion nature of the road surface causes
the reflection of a certain proportion of the incident light in the direction of the observer. The illumination
at any point on the road surface is calculated by applying point to point or inverse -square law method.
Over certain properties of the road the surface is illuminated from two lamps and the resultant
illumination is the sum of the illuminations due to each lamp.
Specular Reflection principle:
The specular reflection principle enables a motorist to see an object about 30 m ahead. In this case, the
reflectors are curved upwards, so that the light is thrown on the road at a very large angle of incidence.
This can be explained with the help of below Fig. An object resides over the road at ‘P’ in between the
lamps S1, S2, and S3 and the observer at ‘Q’.
Thus, the object will appear immediately against the bright road surface due to the lamps at a longer
distance. This method of lighting is only suitable for
straight sections along the road. In this method, it is
observed that the objects on the roadway can be
seen by a smaller expenditure of power than by the
diffusion method of lighting.
Illumination Level For Street Lighting And
Mounting Height Of Lamps:
The illumination required depends up on the class of
street lighting installations. In class A installations
i.e. in important shopping centers and road junctions, illumination level of 30 lumens/m 2 is required
where as a in poorly lighted suburban streets, illumination level of 4 lumens/m2 is sufficient. An
average well lighted street will require illumination level between 8 to 15 lumens/m2 . Excellent
illumination is considered when the distance apart is not more than the roads and as far as possible
lamps near large trees should be avoided.
Types of Lamps for Street Lighting: Mercury vapour and sodium discharge lamps have been
found to have certain particular advantage for street lighting purpose: lower power consumption for
a given amount of light,the overall cost of an installation with discharge lamps less than that employing
filament lamps. The color and mono- chromatic nature of the light produced by discharge lamps do not
matter much in street lighting installations.
METHODS OF LIGHTING CALCULATIONS

There are so many methods have been employed for lighting calculation, some of those m ethods are
as follows.
1. Watts-per-square-meter method.
2. Lumen or light flux method
3. Point-to-point method

Watts-per-square-meter method:
This method is very handy for rough calculations.It consists in making an allowance of watt per
square meter of area to be illuminated according to the illumination desired on the assumption of an
average figure of overall efficiency of the system.
Lumen or light flux method:
This method is applicable to those cases where the sources of light are such as to produce an
approximate uniform illumination over the working plane.
Total lumens required = No.of lamps X wattage of each lamp X efficiency of each lamp (in terms of
lumen/watt) X coefficient of utilization X maintenance factor
Point-to-point method:
This method is applicable where the illumination at a point due to one or more sources of light is
required,the candle power of the sources in the particular direction under consideration being known.
This method is not much used (because of its complicated applications);it is employed only in some
special problems, such as flood lighting,yard ligh ting etc.

Where N=No.of lamp fitting needed,

E=Required Illumination (lux)
A= working area ( square meter)
O= Luminous flux produced per lamp (lumens)
UF= Utilisation factor or co-efficient of utilization
MF=Maintaince factor

Example 1: A room 20 × 10 m is illuminated by 60 W incandescent lamps of lumen output of

1,600 lumens. The average illumination required at the workplace is 300 lux. Calculate the
number of lamps required to be fitted in the room. Assume utilization and depreciation factors as
0.5 and 1, respectively.

Solution:

The area of the room (A) = 20 × 10 m = 200 m2.

Total illumination required (E) = 300 lux. T

he wattage of each lamp = 60 W

The luminous output of the lamp (ij) = 1,600 lumens

UF = 0.5, DF = 1.

∴ Maintenance factor,

∴ The number of lamps required:

Example 2 : A drawing, with an area of 18 × 12 m, is to be illuminated with an average illumination of

about 150 lux. The lamps are to be fitted at 6 m height. Find out the number and
size of incandescent lamps required for an efficiency of 20 lumens/W. UF = 0.6, MF = 0.75.
Solution:

Given data:

η= 120 lumens/W
E= 150 lux A= 18 × 12 = 216 m2 UF = 0.6 MF= o.75
Let, if 24 lamps are arranged to illuminate the desired area. For space to height ratio unity, i.e., 6
lamps are taken along the length with a space of 18/6 = 3m, and 4 lamps are along the width giving a
space of 12/4 = 3 m.

The arrangement of 24 lamps in a hall of 18 × 12 m is shown in Fig

Example: Four lamps 15 m apart are arranged to illuminate a corridor. Each lamp is suspended at a
height of 8 m above the floor level. Each lamp gives 450 CP in all directions below the horizontal; find
the illumination at the second and the third lamp.
Solution:
Given data:
Luminous intensity = 450 CP
Mounting height = 8 m.

Distance between the adjacent lamps = 15 m

The illumination at ‘P’ = the illumination due to L1 + the illumination due to L2
+ the illumination due to L3 + the illumination due to L4.

The Illumination at ‘P’ due to L1 , E1=

But = 8 + (22.5) = 23.88

ℎ 8
= = = 0.34
23. 8 8
450
∴ 1= = 0.34 = 0.26
23. 88

The Illumination at ‘P’ due to L2 , E2=

But = 8 + (7. 5) = 10.96

ℎ 8
= = = 0.73
10. 96
450
∴ 2= = 0.73 = 2.73
10. 96
Similarly, the illumination at ‘P’ due to the lamp L3 ‘E3’ = the illumination at ‘P’ due to the lamp ‘L2’,
‘E2’, and the illumination at ‘P’ due to the lamp L4, ‘E4’ = illumination at ‘P’ due to the lamp ‘L1’, ‘E1.'
∴ The total illumination at ‘P = E1+ E2 + E3+ E4
= 2E1+ 2E 2
= 2(E1+ E 2 )
= 2 (0.26 + 2.73) = 5.98 lux.
 4 Industrial Electrical Systems

4.1 Industrial HT (High Tension) Electrical Distribution Connection

• ‘Tension’ is a French word for Voltage. A low-tension line is a low voltage line and a high-
tension line is a high voltage line.
• In India LT supply is of 415 Volts for three-phase connection and 230 Volts for single-
phase connection. High tension or HT supply is applicable for bulk power purchasers who
need 11 kilo-Volts or above.
• Most small consumers of electricity like individual houses, shops, small offices and
smaller manufacturing units get their electricity on LT connection.
• HT is applicable for bulk purchasers of electricity like industries (big manufacturing
units), big offices, Universities, hostels and even residential colonies (if the apartment
complexes purchase together in bulk).
• The tariff structures of most state distribution companies are different for LT and HT.
• Increasing HT lines can assist to reduce both voltage drops and line losses. Let us have a
look at these two points in detail.
• Voltage drops in LT cables can be high because lines are long and have small conductor
sizes. HT power distribution systems usually have the voltage drop for the distribution of
power to be less than 1% compared to that in low voltage systems. This makes sure there
is a good voltage profile for the average consumer.
• In a low voltage power distribution system, the supply at a low voltage can lead to high
line losses. However, the line loss in a high-tension system for the distribution of a similar
amount of power is less than 1% of the entire LV system. Therefore, with a high-tension
power distribution system, the overall energy losses are significantly reduced.
4.2 Industrial Substation
• The term “substation” is used loosely throughout industrial facilities. The term is actually
defined in Part I of Art. 100 of the 2014 Edition of the National Electrical Code (NEC).
• Many industrial users apply the term to any installation where there are transformers,
switchgear, motor control centers, or a combination thereof, regardless of voltage level.
But as noted in Part I of Art. 100, it clearly designates that it applies to equipment
operating at over 600V.
• ‘Substation’ is integral part of a power system and form important links between the
generating station, transmission systems, distribution systems and the load points.
• The industrial substation is a type of Distribution substation.
• The distribution substations receive power at 11kV, 6.6kV and step down to a Volt
suitable for LV distribution processes, normally at 415 volts.
Industrial Substation Parts and Equipments:

• Incoming lines
• HT Poles
• HT CT and PT
• HT Energy Meter
Prof. B. D. Kanani, E.E. Department Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 1
 4 Industrial Electrical Systems

• DO Poles
• Insulator and insulator strings
• Circuit breaker
• Earthing switches
• Isolators
• DO Fuses
• Surge arrestors
• Neutral grounding equipments
• Power cables
• Transformers
4.3 Transformer Selection
• The Oil filled transformers must be used for all outdoor substation. Some indoor
substations (e.g., most industrial applications) should use oil filled transformers unless
contractor or the consumer specifies otherwise.
• The transformer should be such as to supply the whole of the load by one transformer.
However, where the maximum demand exceeds 1000kVA, then provision for two
transformers and associated switchgear must be allowed.
• Transformers must be separated from walls, ventilation equipment and other
obstructions by a minimum of 900 mm. Transformers must not be directly placed under
ventilation duct openings. With the exception of fire damper trip wires (if required), no
item of equipment, installation or obstruction is to be placed over a designated
transformer space.
• High voltage switchgear should be positioned so that its operating side faces away from
any associated transformer and must be readily accessible from equipment doors or
equipment hatchways. Switchgear positioned so that the Switching operator is standing
on solid ground and not on trench covers when operating equipment.
• For any transformer, the consumer normally takes supply directly from the LV bushings.
The connections are made using flexible braids and a free-standing guard / Low-voltage
cable stand, which is supplied and installed by the owner.
• The transformer capacity must be selected based on the total connected load, usage
pattern of the load, and future expansion.
4.4 Industrial Loads
• The Industrial load consists of load demand by various industries. It includes all electrical
loads used in industries along with the employed machinery. Industrial loads may be
connected during the whole day.
• Oil filled transformers must be used for all outdoor substation. Some indoor substations
(e.g., most industrial applications) should use oil filled transformers unless contractor or
the consumer specifies otherwise.
• The transformer
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Classification of Electrical Loads

1) Based on Nature of Load

a. Linear Load
b. Non-linear Load
2) Based on nos. of phases
a. Single phase Load
b. Three phase Load
3) Based on Importance
a. Vital electrical loads
b. Essential electrical loads
c. Non-essential electrical loads
• Electrical loads may also be classified in many different manners, such as according to
their functions.
o Continuous load
o Intermittent load
o Variable or fluctuating load
4.5 Single Line Diagram (SLD)
• In the field, personnel often refer to single-line diagrams as “electrical drawings”. Even
though there are several types of diagrams or drawings in the electrical system. Each type
of electrical diagram has a unique function. The types of electrical diagrams include:
o Ladder diagram
o Wiring diagram
o One-line diagram
Ladder Diagram
• Usually drawn like a ladder so it is called a ladder diagram. Ladder diagram is a diagram
that shows the function of an electric circuit using electrical symbols. The ladder diagram
does not show the actual location of the components. The ladder diagram allows one to
understand and solve problems in a circuit quickly. Ladder diagrams can also be referred
to as line diagrams, elementary diagrams, or electrical schematic diagrams.
Wiring Diagram
• Wiring diagrams use electrical symbols like ladder diagrams but they try to show the
actual location of the components. Wiring diagrams are also referred to as connection
diagrams. The wiring diagram helps you to identify cables and components such as those
found on equipment.
One-Line Diagram
• A one-line diagram or single-line diagram is a simplified way of representing a three-
phase power system. Single line diagrams do not show exact electrical-circuit
connections. As the name suggests, a one-line chart uses a single line to represent all three
phases. This is the most basic type of electrical installation blueprint. A single line
diagram shows the rating and capacity of electrical equipment and circuit conductors and
protection devices.

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 4 Industrial Electrical Systems

• A single line diagram, also referred to as a one-line diagram, is usually a single page
document that represents a facilities electrical distribution infrastructure.
Scopes of Single-Line Diagrams
• Single line diagram information typically includes:
o Incoming line (nominal voltage and amount – capacity and value)
o Main circuit breaker, main fuse, cut-outs (CTO), switch, and bus-tie
o Power transformer (rating, twist connection and earthing method)
o Feeder circuit breaker
o Fused switches relays (function, use, and type)
o Current/potential transformers (size, type and ratio)
o Transformer for control system
o All mains and load cables
o All substations, including integral relays and main panels and load properties at each
feeder and at each substation
o Critical equipment voltages and sizes (UPS, batteries, generators, power distribution,
transfer switches, computer room air conditioners)
Benefit of One-Line Diagrams
o Helps identify when to perform troubleshooting and simplifies the troubleshooting
process
o Accurate single line diagram will further ensure the safety of personnel work
o Meets compliance with applicable regulations and standards
o Ensure a safer and more reliable operation of the facility
The Importance of Updating Single Line Diagram
• An electrical single-line diagram is a blueprint of the electrical system. Creating a one-line
diagram is the first step in preparing a critical response plan, enabling electrical
personnel to fully understand the layout and design of the facility’s electrical distribution
system.
• Whether it’s a new or an existing facility, the single line diagram is the road map for all
future testing, service and maintenance activities. An effective single line diagram will
clearly show how the main components of an electrical system are connected. It shows
the correct power distribution path from the incoming power source to each downstream
load – including the rating and size of each electrical appliance, its circuit conductors, and
protection devices.
• Often decision makers feel that they do not need to update electrical installation
diagrams, or do not even consider them important. Many industrial and commercial
facilities operate without accurate single line diagrams. These conditions may be
considered important until they encounter real problems or losses due to not updating
or inaccurate electrical installation diagrams.
4.6 Cable and Switchgear Selection
• Selection Parameters

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 4 Industrial Electrical Systems

• i. Voltage Rating: This is the rated voltage of the system, in which the cable is to be
installed & used. It is also important to know the method of system earthing. The rated
voltage of the cable is generally specified as a dual rating (e.g.) 6.6kV (UE)/11kV (E).
• ‘UE’ means that the cable can be used for the specified voltage in an unearthed or in a
non-effectively earthed system. ‘E’ means that the cable can be used for the specified
voltage in a solidly earthed system. Thus, a cable whose rated voltage is specified as 6.6kV
(UE)/11kV (E) can be used either in a 6.6kV unearthed or in a 6.6kV non-effectively
earthed system or in an 11kV solidly earthed system.
• ii. Type of Conductor: The most generally used conductor in a cable is either Copper or
Aluminium. As is known, for the same voltage rating, type, insulation, cross sectional area
and method of installation, the continuous current rating, the short time current rating
and the per unit length cost of a Copper cable is considerably higher than that of an
Aluminium cable.
• iii. Type of Insulation: Most of today’s cables are insulated either with PVC or with XLPE.
Obviously, for the same conductor material, voltage rating, type, insulation, cross
sectional area and method of installation, the continuous current rating, the short time
current rating and the per unit length cost of an XLPE insulated cable is considerably
higher than that of a PVC insulated cable.
• iv. Type of Cables: Armoured or Unarmoured Unarmoured cables are used in indoor
installations and on above ground installations, such as in cable trays, in pre-built
concrete cable trenches, etc. , Armoured cables are mandatory for any underground cable
installation.
• The armour can be a wire or strip made of Galvanised Iron or Aluminium. In many cases,
this armour is connected to the plant earthing system, preferably at one end only,
generally, the sending end.
• v. Continuous Current Rating: The continuous current rating of cables with Aluminium
/ Copper conductor are available in different cable manufacturer’s catalogues. But, it
should be noted that the continuous current ratings are given in these catalogues for
certain standard conditions of laying. In practice, it is not possible to get or to maintain
these standard conditions. Thus, certain rating factors are applied to arrive at the
practical continuous current rating.
• vi. Rating Factors: The following are the general rating factors to be considered:
o Rating factor for variation in ground temperature or in duct temperature
o Rating factor for variation in ambient temperature
o Rating factor for variation in thermal resistivity of soil
o Group Rating Factor – Vertical Spacing
o Group Rating Factor – Horizontal Spacing
o All these rating factors for various conditions are also available in the cable
manufacturers’ catalogues.
• vii. Voltage Drop: Cables consist of resistance & reactance. And, thus the current flowing
though such an impedance will cause a voltage drop. This drop should not affect the loads
connected by the cable.
• Actual voltage drops in cables are given in V/km/A, in the cable manufacturer’s
catalogues, for various types of cables. It is also given in Indian Standard IS 1255

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 4 Industrial Electrical Systems

(Code of practice for installation and maintenance of power cables up to and including
33 kV rating).
• One should not only calculate the steady-state voltage drop, but also the acceleration
state voltage drop during the starting of large loads.
• And, it must be ensured that the steady state voltage drop at the load terminals is not
more than 10% and the acceleration state voltage drop at the load terminals is not
more than 15%.
• viii) Short Circuit Current Withstand: Any cable’s short time current withstand capacity
can be calculated using the following formula:
S = [(I √t) / K]
Where, I = Short Circuit Current, in Amperes, t = Duration of Short Circuit, in seconds, K =
Adiabatic Constant (= 115 for PVC /Copper, = 143 for XLPE / Copper, = 76 for PVC /
Aluminium and = 92 for XLPE / Aluminium)
4.7 Lightning Protection
• An electric discharge between cloud and earth, between clouds or between the charge
centres of the same cloud is known as lightning.
• Lightning is a huge spark and takes place when clouds are charged to such a high potential
(+ve or -ve) with respect to earth or a neighbouring cloud that the dielectric strength of
neighbouring medium (air) is destroyed.
• Transients or surges on the power system may originate from switching and from other
causes but the most important and dangerous surges are those caused by lightning. The
lightning surges may cause serious damage to the expensive equipment in the power
system (e.g. generators, transformers etc.) either by direct strokes on the equipment or
by strokes on the transmission lines that reach the equipment as travelling waves.
• It is necessary to provide protection against both kinds of surges. The most commonly
used devices for protection against lightning surges are:
o Earthing screen
o Overhead ground wires
o Lightning arresters or surge diverters
• Earthing screen provides protection to power stations and sub-stations against direct
strokes whereas overhead ground wires protect the transmission lines against direct
lightning strokes.
• However, lightning arresters or surge diverters protect the station apparatus against
both direct strokes and the strokes that come into the apparatus as travelling waves. We
shall briefly discuss these methods of protection.
Lightning Arresters
• The earthing screen and ground wires can well protect the electrical system against direct
lightning strokes but they fail to provide protection against travelling waves which may
reach the terminal apparatus. The lightning arresters or surge diverters provide
protection against such surges.
• A lightning arrester or a surge diverter is a protective device which conducts the high
voltage surges on the power system to the ground.
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 4 Industrial Electrical Systems

Fig. 1 Basic form of surge diverter

• It consists of a spark gap in series with a non-linear resistor. One end of the diverter is
connected to the terminal of the equipment to be protected and the other end is
effectively grounded. The length of the gap is so set that normal line voltage is not enough
to cause an arc across the gap but a dangerously high voltage will break down the air
insulation and form an arc. The property of the non-linear resistance is that its resistance
decreases as the voltage (or current) increases and vice-versa.
Surge diverter Action
o Under normal operation, the lightning arrester is off the line i.e., it conducts no
current to earth or the gap is non-conducting.
o On the occurrence of overvoltage, the air insulation across the gap breaks
down and an arc is formed, providing a low resistance path for the surge to the
ground. In this way, the excess charge on the line due to the surge is harmlessly
conducted through the arrester to the ground instead of being sent back over
the line.
o It is worthwhile to mention the function of non-linear resistor in the operation
of arrester. As the gap sparks over due to overvoltage, the arc would be a short-
circuit on the power system and may cause power-follow current in the
arrester. Since the characteristic of the resistor is to offer high resistance to
high voltage (or current), it prevents the effect of a short-circuit. After the
surge is over, the resistor offers high resistance to make the gap non-
conducting.
• Two things must be taken care of in the design of a lightning arrester. Firstly, when the
surge is over, the arc in gap should cease. If the arc does not go out, the current would
continue to flow through the resistor and both resistor and gap may be destroyed.
Secondly, I R drop (where I is the surge current) across the arrester when carrying surge
current should not exceed the breakdown strength of the insulation of the equipment to
be protected.

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 4 Industrial Electrical Systems

Types of Lightning Arresters

• There are several types of lightning arresters in general use. They differ only in
constructional details but operate on the same principle viz. providing low resistance
path for the surges to the ground.
Rod Gap Arrester
• It is a very simple type of diverter and consists of two 1·5 cm rods which are bent at right
angles with a gap in between.
• Under normal operating conditions, the gap remains non-conducting. On the occurrence
of a high voltage surge on the line, the gap sparks over and the surge current is conducted
to earth. In this way, excess charge on the line due to the surge is harmlessly conducted
to earth.
• Limitations
o After the surge is over, the arc in the gap is maintained by the normal supply
voltage, leading to a short-circuit on the system.
o The rods may melt or get damaged due to excessive heat produced by the arc.
o The climatic conditions (e.g. rain, humidity, temperature etc.) affect the
performance of rod gap arrester.
o The polarity of the surge also affects the performance of this arrester.
• Due to the above limitations, the rod gap arrester is only used as a ‘back-up’ protection in
case of main arresters.
Horn Gap Arrester
• It consists of two horn shaped metal rods A and B separated by a small air gap. The horns
are so constructed that distance between them gradually increases towards the top as
shown. The horns are mounted on porcelain insulators.
• One end of horn is connected to the line through a resistance R and choke coil L while the
other end is effectively grounded. The resistance R helps in limiting the follow current to
a small value. The choke coil is so designed that it offers small reactance at normal power
frequency but a very high reactance at transient frequency. Thus, the choke does not
allow the transients to enter the apparatus to be protected. The gap between the horns
is so adjusted that normal supply voltage is not enough to cause an arc across the gap.
• Under normal conditions, the gap is non-conducting i.e. normal supply voltage is
insufficient to initiate the arc between the gap. On the occurrence of an overvoltage,
spark-over takes place across the small gap G. The heated air around the arc and the
magnetic effect of the arc causes the arc to travel up the gap. The excess charge on the line
is thus conducted through the arrester to the ground.
• Limitations
o The bridging of gap by some external agency (e.g. birds) can render the device
useless.
o The setting of horn gap is likely to change due to corrosion or pitting. This
adversely affects the performance of the arrester.

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 4 Industrial Electrical Systems

o The time of operation is comparatively long, say about 3 seconds. In view of

the very short operating time of modern protective gear for feeders, this time
is far long.
• Due to the above limitations, this type of arrester is not reliable and can only be used as a
second line of defence like the rod gap arrester.
Multigap Arrester
• It consists of a series of metallic (generally alloy of zinc) cylinders insulated from one
another and separated by small intervals of air gaps. The first cylinder (i.e. A) in the series
is connected to the line and the other to the ground through a series resistance. The series
resistance limits the power arc. By the inclusion of series resistance, the degree of
protection against travelling waves is reduced. In order to overcome this difficulty, some
of the gaps (B to C) are shunted by a resistance.
• Under normal conditions, the point B is at earth potential and the normal supply voltage
is unable to break down the series gaps. On the occurrence of an overvoltage, the
breakdown of series gaps A to B occurs. The heavy current after breakdown will choose
the straight - through path to earth via the shunted gaps B and C, instead of the alternative
path through the shunt resistance. When the surge is over, the arcs B to C go out and any
power current following the surge is limited by the two resistances (shunt resistance and
series resistance) which are now in series. The current is too small to maintain the arcs
in the gaps A to B and normal conditions are restored. Such arresters can be employed
where system voltage does not exceed 33 kV.
Expulsion type arrester
• This type of arrester is also called ‘protector tube’ and is commonly used on system
operating at voltages upto 33 kV. It essentially consists of a rod gap AA' in series with a
second gap enclosed within the fibre tube. The gap in the fibre tube is formed by two
electrodes. The upper electrode is connected to rod gap and the lower electrode to the
earth. One expulsion arrester is placed under each line conductor.
• On the occurrence of an overvoltage on the line, the series gap AA' is spanned and an arc
is struck between the electrodes in the tube. The heat of the arc vaporises some of the
fibre of tube walls, resulting in the production of a neutral gas*. In an extremely short
time, the gas builds up high pressure and is expelled through the lower electrode which
is hollow. As the gas leaves the tube violently, it carries away ionised air around the arc.
This de-ionising effect is generally so strong that arc goes out at a current zero and will
not be re-established.
4.8 Earthing System
• Following are the different methods of earthing.
• Pipe earthing
• Plate earthing
Pipe Earthing:-

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 4 Industrial Electrical Systems

Fig. Pipe Earthing

• Pipe earthing is the most commonly adopted method and is a best system of earthing
compared to the others system.
• In this method of earthing pipe of sufficient diameter is selected whose size is depend
upon (a) Maximum earth current of that installation (b) Type of Soil
• As per IS-732-1963, The GI pipe shall not be less than 38mm diameter and 2 meter
long for ordinary soil.
• If Cast Iron is used then internal diameter should be 10 mm.
• The depth at which pipe should be buried depends upon condition of soil and
moisture.

• For pipe earthing at pit of 40sq.mm is dug in the soil and the pipe having tapered at
the bottom is placed vertical in the pit.
• The charcoal and salt are filled in that pit alternately in layers about 2 meters from
bottom and for a distance of about 15cm around the pipe. This is done to increase the
dampness and moisture of soil surrounding pipe.
• The pipe placed has 12mm diameter holes drilling in it so that water poured from top
is easily spread in the media surrounding the pipe which helps in maintaining the
resistance of earth.
• At a top a cement concrete work is done to provide protection against mechanical
damage.
• A water pouring arrangement is provided by a funnel with wire mesh at the top.
Plate Earthing:-

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 4 Industrial Electrical Systems

Fig. Plate Earthing

• In case of plate earthing electrodes may made of GI or steel or copper.

• For copper plate thickness is not less than 3.15mm and for GI or steel plate thickness
is not less than 6.30mm.
• The size of plate electrode should be 60×60 cm.
• Plate electrode should be buried such that top edge is a depth of not less than 1.5
meter below the surface of the ground.
• For the plate earthing a pit of a 4 meter dug in to the ground and the earthing plate is
placed vertical in that pit.
• The space around the plate is filled with layers of charcoal and salt for a minimum
thickness of 15 cm.
• For connection of earth wire to the earth electrode a GI pipe of 12.7 mm diameter is
connected to the electrode (earthing plate).
• Earth wire is properly secured to earth electrode with the help of nut, bolt and washer.
• The pit filled with charcoal and salt is also connected with a pipe for carrying water
from concrete work that area.
• This will help in increasing the dampness and moisture surrounding the plate.
• No earth electrode should have a resistance more than 3 ohm measured by an earth
resistance meter. In rocky soil the resistance may be up to 8 ohm. Copper plate
earthing needs to be changed every 12 years due to corrosion attacks.
Neutral Earthing
• Neutral Earthing is the process of connecting a star point of transformer, generator and
motor to ground.
• Protects system against arcing ground.
• Keeps balanced voltage with respect to earth.
• Greater safety to lightning.
• Maintenance and operating cost is low.

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 4 Industrial Electrical Systems

• Reliable in operation.
Types of Neutral Earthing
• All A.C. power system of today is operated with neutral grounded. It is classified as per
voltage level as below.
Solid Earthing
• Neutral point is connected to earth without intentional resistance or reactance.
• It is used below 660 V.
Resistance Earthing
• Neutral point is connected to earth through resistance.
• It is used between 3.3 KV to 11 KV.
Reactance Earthing
• Neutral point is connected to earth through resistance.
• It is good as compared to resistance earthing for same voltage level (i.e. 3.3 KV to 11 KV)
Resonant Earthing
• The value of reactance is selected so as to neutralise the power frequency capacitive
current between line and earth.
• It is used for medium voltage transmission line which connected to generator with
intervening power transformer.
4.9 Power Factor Correction
Power Factor
• It is the measurement of how incoming power is being effectively used in electrical
power system.
• Methods for power factor improvement
By the following methods we can improve the power factor:
• Static Capacitor(Capacitor Bank)
• Synchronous Condenser
• Phase Advancer
Static Capacitor (Capacitor Bank)
• We know that most of the industries and power system loads are inductive that take
lagging current which decrease the system power factor.
• For Power factor improvement purpose, Static capacitors are connected in parallel
with those devices which work on low power factor.
• These static capacitors provides leading current which neutralize (totally or
approximately) the lagging inductive component of load current (i.e. leading
component neutralize or eliminate the lagging component of load current) thus
power factor of the load circuit is improved.
• These capacitors are installed in Vicinity of large inductive load e.g Induction motors
and transformers etc, and improve the load circuit power factor to improve the
system or devises efficiency.
Advantages:
• Capacitor bank offers several advantages over other methods of power factor
improvement.
• Losses are low in static capacitors
• There is no moving part, therefore need low maintenance
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 4 Industrial Electrical Systems

• It can work in normal conditions (i.e. ordinary atmospheric conditions)

• Do not require a foundation for installation
• They are lightweight so it is can be easy to installed
Disadvantages:
• The age of static capacitor bank is less (8 – 10 years)
• With changing load, we have to ON or OFF the capacitor bank, which causes switching
surges on the system.
• If the rated voltage increases, then it causes damage it.
• Once the capacitors spoiled, then repairing is costly

Synchronous Condenser
• When a Synchronous motor operates at No-Load and over-exited then it’s called a
synchronous Condenser.
• Whenever a Synchronous motor is over-exited then it provides leading current and
works like a capacitor.
• When a synchronous condenser is connected across supply voltage (in parallel) then
it draws leading current and partially eliminates the re-active component and this
way, power factor is improved. Generally, synchronous condenser is used to improve
the power factor in large industries.
Advantages:
• Long life (almost 25 years)
• High Reliability
• Step-less adjustment of power factor.
• No generation of harmonics of maintenance
• The faults can be removed easily
• It’s not affected by harmonics.
• Require Low maintenance (only periodic bearing greasing is necessary)
Disadvantages:
• It is expensive (maintenance cost is also high) and therefore mostly used by large
power users.
• An auxiliary device has to be used for this operation because synchronous motor has
no self-starting torque.
• It produces noise

Phase Advancer
• Phase advancer is a simple AC exciter which is connected on the main shaft of the
motor and operates with the motor’s rotor circuit for power factor improvement.
• Phase advancer is used to improve the power factor of induction motor in industries.
• As the stator windings of induction motor takes lagging current 90° out of phase with
Voltage, therefore the power factor of induction motor is low.
• If the exciting ampere-turns are excited by external AC source, then there would be
no effect of exciting current on stator windings.
• Therefore the power factor of induction motor will be improved. This process is done
by Phase advancer.
Advantages:

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 4 Industrial Electrical Systems

• Lagging kVAR (Reactive component of Power or reactive power) drawn by the motor
is sufficiently reduced because the exciting ampere turns are supplied at slip
frequency (fs).
• The phase advancer can be easily used where the use of synchronous motors is
Unacceptable.
Disadvantage:
• Using Phase advancer is not economical for motors below 200 H.P. (about 150kW)

*****************

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 5. IES Automation

5.1 Automation
• The word ‘Automation’ is derived from Greek words “Auto” (self) and “Matos” (moving).
Automation therefore is the mechanism for systems that “move by itself”.
• However, apart from this original sense of the word, automated systems also achieve
significantly superior performance than what is possible with manual systems, in terms
of power, precision and speed of operation.
• Definition: Automation is a set of technologies that results in operation of machines and
systems without significant human intervention and achieves performance superior to
manual operation.
• A Definition from Encyclopedia Britannica: “The application of machines to tasks once
performed by human beings or, increasingly, to tasks that would otherwise be impossible.
Although the term mechanization is often used to refer to the simple replacement of
human labor by machines, automation generally implies the integration of machines into
a self-governing system.
5.2 Control
• It is perhaps correct to expect that the learner for this course has already been exposed
to a course on Control Systems, which is typically introduced in the final or pre-final year
of an undergraduate course in Engineering in India. The word control is therefore
expected to be familiar and defined as under.
• Definition: Control is a set of technologies that achieves desired patterns of variations
of operational parameters and sequences for machines and systems by providing the
input signals necessary.
• It is important at this stage to understand some of the differences in the senses that these
two terms are generally interpreted in technical contexts and specifically in this course.
These are given below.
a) Automation Systems may include Control Systems but the reverse is not true.
Control Systems may be parts of Automation Systems.
b) The main function of control systems is to ensure that outputs follow the set
points.
• However, Automation Systems may have much more functionality, such as computing set
points for control systems, monitoring system performance, plant startup or shutdown,
job and equipment scheduling etc.
5.3 Industrial Automation Vs. Industrial IT
• Industrial Automation makes extensive use of Information Technology. Fig. 1 below
shows some of the major IT areas that are used in the context of Industrial Automation.

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 5. IES Automation

Figure 1 Major areas of IT which are used in the context of Industrial Automation

• However, Industrial Automation is distinct from IT in the following senses.

a) Industrial Automation also involves significant amount of hardware technologies,
related to Instrumentation and Sensing, Actuation and Drives, Electronics for
Signal Conditioning, Communication and Display, Embedded as well as Stand-
alone Computing Systems etc.
b) As Industrial Automation systems grow more sophisticated in terms of the
knowledge and algorithms they use, as they encompass larger areas of operation
comprising several units or the whole of a factory, or even several of them, and as
they integrate manufacturing with other areas of business, such as, sales and
customer care, finance and the entire supply chain of the business, the usage of IT
increases dramatically.
• However, the lower-level Automation Systems that only deal with individual or, at best, a
group of machines, make less use of IT and more of hardware, electronics and embedded
computing.
5.4 Role of Automation in Industry
• Manufacturing processes, basically, produce finished product from raw/unfinished
material using energy, manpower and equipment and infrastructure.
• Since an industry is essentially a “systematic economic activity”, the fundamental
objective of any industry is to make profit.
• Roughly speaking,
• Profit = (Price/unit – Cost/unit) x Production Volume (1)
• So profit can be maximized by producing good quality products, which may sell at higher
price, in larger volumes with less production cost and time. Fig 2 shows the major
parameters that affect the cost/unit of a mass-manufactured industrial product.

Prof. B. D. Kanani, EE Department Industrial Electrical Systems (3170920) 2

 5. IES Automation

Figure 2 The Components of per unit Manufacturing Cost

• Automation can achieve all these in the following ways,

• Figure 4 shows how overall production time for a product is affected by various factors.
• Automation affects all of these factors. Firstly, automated machines have significantly
lower production times. For example, in machine tools, manufacturing a variety of parts,
significant setup times are needed for setting the operational configuration and
parameters whenever a new part is loaded into the machine.
• This can lead to significant unproductive for expensive machines when a variety of
products is manufactured. In Computer Numerically Controlled (CNC) Machining Centers
set up time is reduced significantly with the help of Automated Tool Changers, Automatic
Control of Machines from a Part Program loaded in the machine computer. Such a
machine is shown in Figure 3. The consequent increase in actual metal cutting time
results in reduced capital cost and an increased volume of production.

Figure 3 A CNC Machine with an Automated Tool Changer and the Operator Console

Figure 4 The major factors that contribute to Overall Production Time

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 5. IES Automation

• Similarly, systems such as Automated Guided Vehicles, Industrial Robots, Automated

Crane and Conveyor Systems reduce material handling time.
• Automation also reduces cost of production significantly by efficient usage of energy,
manpower and the product quality that can be achieved with automated precision
machines and processes cannot be achieved with manual operations. Moreover, since
operation is automated, the same quality would be achieved for thousands of parts with
little variation.
• Industrial Products go through their life cycles, which consists of various stages.
• At first, a product is conceived based on Market feedbacks, as well as Research and
Development Activities.
• Once conceived the product is designed. Prototype Manufacturing is generally needed to
prove the design.
• Once the design is proved, Production Planning and Installation must be carried out to
ensure that the necessary resources and strategies for mass manufacturing are in place.
• This is followed by the actual manufacture and quality control activities through which
the product is mass-produced.
• This is followed by a number of commercial activities through which the product is
actually sold in the market.
• Automation also reduces the overall product life cycle i.e., the time required to complete
(i) Product conception and design (ii) Process planning and installation (iii) Various
stages of the product life cycle are shown as in Figure 5.

Figure 5 A Typical Industrial Product Life Cycle

5.5 Types of Production Systems

• Major industrial processes can be categorized as follows based on their scale and scope
of production.
Continuous flow process:
• Manufactured product is in continuous quantities i.e., the product is not a discrete object.
Moreover, for such processes, the volume of production is generally very high, while the
product variation is relatively low. Typical examples of such processes include Oil
Refineries, Iron and Steel Plants, Cement and Chemical Plants.
Mass Manufacturing of Discrete Products:
• Products are discrete objects and manufactured in large volumes. Product variation is
very limited. Typical examples are Appliances, Automobiles etc.

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Batch Production:
• In a batch production process, the product is either discrete or continuous. However, the
variation in product types is larger than in continuous-flow processes. The same set of
equipment is used to manufacture all the product types. However, for each batch of a
given product type a distinct set of operating parameters must be established. This set is
often referred to as the “recipe” for the batch. Typical examples here would be
Pharmaceuticals, Casting Foundries, Plastic molding, Printing etc.
Job shop Production:
• Typically designed for manufacturing small quantities of discrete products, which are
custom built, generally according to drawings supplied by customers. Any variation in the
product can be made. Examples include Machine Shops, Prototyping facilities etc.
• The above types of production systems are shown in Figure 6 categorized according to
volumes of production and variability in product types. In general, if the quantity of
product is more there is little variation in the product and more varieties of product is
manufactured if the quantity of product is lesser.

Figure 6 Types of Production Systems

5.6 Types of Automation Systems

• Automation systems can be categorized based on the flexibility and level of integration in
manufacturing process operations. Various automation systems can be classified as
follows.
Fixed Automation

• It is used in high volume production with dedicated equipment, which has a fixed set of
operation and designed to be efficient for this set. Continuous flow and Discrete Mass
Production systems use this automation. e.g., Distillation Process, Conveyors, Paint
Shops, Transfer lines etc.
• A process using mechanized machinery to perform fixed and repetitive operations in
order to produce a high volume of similar parts.

Programmable Automation
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 5. IES Automation

• It is used for a changeable sequence of operation and configuration of the machines using
electronic controls. However, non-trivial programming effort may be needed to
reprogram the machine or sequence of operations.
• Investment on programmable equipment is less, as production process is not changed
frequently. It is typically used in Batch process where job variety is low and product
volume is medium to high, and sometimes in mass production also. e.g. in Steel Rolling
Mills, Paper Mills etc.

Flexible Automation

• It is used in Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) which is invariably computer

controlled. Human operators give high-level commands in the form of codes entered into
computer identifying product and its location in the sequence and the lower-level
changes are done automatically. Each production machine receives settings/instructions
from computer. These automatically loads/unloads required tools and carries out their
processing instructions. After processing, products are automatically transferred to next
machine. It is typically used in job shops and batch processes where product varieties are
high and job volumes are medium to low. Such systems typically use Multi-purpose CNC
machines, Automated Guided Vehicles (AGV) etc.

Integrated Automation

• It denotes complete automation of a manufacturing plant, with all processes functioning

under computer control and under coordination through digital information processing.
It includes technologies such as computer-aided design and manufacturing, computer-
aided process planning, computer numerical control machine tools, flexible machining
systems, automated storage and retrieval systems, automated material handling systems
such as robots and automated cranes and conveyors, computerized scheduling and
production control. It may also integrate a business system through a common database.
In other words, it symbolizes full integration of process and management operations
using information and communication technologies. Typical examples of such
technologies are seen in Advanced Process Automation Systems and Computer
Integrated Manufacturing (CIM).
• Degree of automation necessary for an individual manufacturing facility depends on
manufacturing and assembly specifications, labor conditions and competitive pressure,
labor cost and work requirements. One must remember that the investment on
automation must be justified by the consequent increase in profitability. To exemplify,
the appropriate contexts for Fixed and Flexible Automation are compared and contrasted.
• Fixed automation is appropriate in the following circumstances.
a) Low variability in product type as also in size, shape, part count and material.
b) Predictable and stable demand for 2- to 5-year time period, so that manufacturing
capacity requirement is also stable.
c) High production volume desired per unit time.
d) Significant cost pressures due to competitive market conditions. So automation
systems should be tuned to perform optimally for the particular product.

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 5. IES Automation

• Flexible automation, on the other hand is used in the following situations.

a) Significant variability in product type. Product mix requires a combination of
different parts and products to be manufactured from the same production
system.
b) Product life cycles are short. Frequent upgradation and design modifications alter
production requirements.
c) Production volumes are moderate, and demand is not as predictable.

Advantages of Process Automation

• Increased productivity.
• Reduced likelihood of error.
• Reduced time in task execution.
• Improvements in internal communication.
• Integrated systems.
• Reduced operating costs.

Disadvantages of Process Automation

• Reduced employment.
• Extra cost of automation equipments.
• Maintenance of automation equipments.
• Skilled personnel required to handle automation equipments.

5.7 Study of Basic PLC (Programmable Logic Controllers)

Definition according to NEMA standard ICS3-1978
• A digitally operating electronic apparatus which uses a programming memory for the
internal storage of instructions for implementing specific functions such as logic,
sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic to control through digital or analog modules,
various types of machines or process.
OR
• A device that is pre-programmed to accept relay ladder logic instructions and perform
these instructions to control the equipment operation.
PLC Terminologies
• Sensors: switches, flow, level, pressure, temp. transmitters, etc.
• Output devices/actuators: motors, valves, solenoids, lamps, or audible devices
• CPU - The CPU is a microprocessor that co-ordinates the activities of the PLC system. Its
executes the program, processes I/O signals & communicates with external devices.
• Ladder Diagram - Ladder diagrams are specialized schematics commonly used to
document industrial control logic systems. They are called "ladder" diagrams because
they resemble a ladder, with two vertical rails.
Background of PLC
• Among the factors that create the initial design and development of control systems that
can be controlled are as follows:
i. Requirements of a low cost

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ii. Intelligent system

iii. The Controller that is easy to control
• The first PLC was designed by a team of engineers at the company General Motors
a) Easily programmed
b) There is no need for rewiring if there are changes on the program
c) Smaller, cheaper and higher reliability
d) Simple building construction and the maintenance cost is cheap.
e) Cost competitive
Function of PLC
• PLC can perform various functions, such as follows:
Table 1 Functions of PLC

Type of Control Function

Sequence control 1. Successor Control Relay - conventional
logic
2. Timer/counter
3. Substitute PCB Control card
4. Machine and Process Controller for
Automatic, Semi-auto and manual
Advanced Control 1. Solve Mathematics of Operations
2. Managing Information
3. Analog control
4. Servo Motor Control
5. Stepper motor control
6. Control P.I.D
Supervision control 1. Process Display and Alarm
2. Diagnosis and Display Fault
3. Interface with Computer
4. Interface Printer / ASCII
5. Factory Automation Network
6. Local Area Network System (LAN)
7. Widespread Area Network (WAN)
8. Factory Automation System

Advantages of PLC
The implementation of a short control projects.

• Program can be change easily.

• Accurate calculation of the cost project.
• Requires a short training time.
• Flexible control system design using the software.
• A wide range of control applications.
• Easy maintenance.
• High reliability
• A standard Hardware controller
• Resistance to the problems of the environment moisture, voltage instability and noise

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PLC Hardware
• The programming terminal in the diagram (b) is not part of the PLC, but it is essential to
have a terminal for programming or monitoring a PLC. In the diagram , the arrows
between blocks indicate the information and power flowing directions.

Figure 7 PLC Block Diagram

Central Processing Unit – CPU

• This unit is the most important unit in the building of a PLC, which is the “brain” of a PLC.
In this unit lies a chip of microprocessor - integrated circuit chips which controls the
overall operation of the PLC control system. Microprocessors contain arithmetic unit,
control unit and a number of memory units, known as registrars.
• The main function of the microprocessor is to analyze data coming from field sensors
through input modules, make decisions based on the user’s defined control program and
return signal back through output modules to the field output devices.
• In detail, the CPU of a PLC does the following operation:
a) Updating inputs and outputs. This function allows a OLC to read the status of its input
terminals and energize or deenergize its output terminals.
b) Performing logic and arithmetic operations. A CPU conducts all the mathematic and
logic operations involved in a PLC.
c) Communicating with memory. The PLC programs and data are stored in memory.
When a PLC operating, its CPU may read or change the contents of memory locations.
d) Scanning application programs. An application program, which is called a ladder logic
program, is a set of instructions written by a PLC programmer. The scanning function
allows the PLC to execute the application program as specified by the programmer.
e) Communicating with a programming terminal. The CPU transfers program and data
between itself and the programming terminal.
Memory Unit
• Memory is the component that stores information, programs and data in a PLC. The
process of putting new information into a memory location is called writing. The process
of retrieving information from a memory location is called reading.
RAM
• RAM is the memory type of read / write and easy to program and repaired. All users
program are stored in this memory. Read indicates that the information stored in the
memory can be retrieved or read, while write indicates that the user can program or
write information into the memory. The data in the RAM would normally be lost if the
power source is removed. This problem is solved by backing up the RAM with the battery.
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ROM
• ROM is read-only memory types. Read Only indicates that the information stored in
memory can be read only and cannot be changed. Information in ROM is placed there by
the manufacturer for the internal use and operation of the PLC. The system program is
stored in this memory. This program will not be lost when the power is disconnected.
Special equipment is used to delete the program from this memory.
Display and Indicators Unit

• Display and the indicator unit refers to the internal relay PLC status display. This can be
seen in the Console programming if the user using the mnemonic code and programming
computer screen if the user using software programming methods.
Input And Output Unit /Module

• The Input/Output units are the interfaces between the internal PLC systems and the
external processes/ field devices to be monitored and controlled. Input Unit is the unit
which input devices.
• The main purpose of the I/O interface is to condition the various signals received from or
sent to the external input and output devices. Input modules converts signals from
discrete or analog input devices to logic levels acceptable to PLC’s processor. Output
modules converts signal from the processor to levels capable of driving the connected
discrete or analog output devices.
• Since the PLC is a logic-based device with a typical operating voltage of 5 volts and the
external processes usually demand higher powers and currents, the I/O modules are
optically or otherwise isolated. The typical I/O operating voltages are 5V - 240 V dc.
• Small PLC units would have around 40 I/O connections with larger ones having more
than 128 with either local or remote connections and extensive upgrade capabilities.
Function And Operation of The Following Hardware Units
Housing Unit

• This unit provides protection to the circuits and components - the internal components
of a PLC.
Programming Unit

• Programming units are essential components of the PLC systems. Since they are used only
in the development/testing stage of a PLC program, they are not permanently attached
to the PLC. The program in a ladder diagram or other form can be designed and usually
tested before downloading to the PLC. The Programming unit can be a dedicated device
or a personal computer. It allows the graphical display of the program
Program Loader Unit

• Is used to enter the desired program into the memory of the processor. Program is
entered using relay ladder logic
Secondary Storage Unit

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 5. IES Automation

• This unit is related to the Central Processing Unit where all the programs and information
stored.
VDU

• Information processing unit operations and the system status will be displayed by the
PLC.
Power Supply Unit

• This unit provides power to the Central Processing Unit, Input Unit and Output Unit. PLCs
are powered by standard commercial Ac power lines. However, many PLC components
such as CPU and memory, utilize 5 volts or another level of DC power. The PLC power
supply converts Ac power into Dc power to support those components of the PLC.
Printers

• This unit is used to print the program a system controlled by a PLC control either graphics
or text.

5.8 Introduction to SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition)

Definition according to NEMA standard ICS3-1978
• A digitally operating electronic apparatus which uses a programming memory for the
internal storage of instructions for implementing specific functions such as logic,
sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic to control through digital or analog modules,
various types of machines or process.

******

Prof. B. D. Kanani, EE Department Industrial Electrical Systems (3170920) 11