ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Physics SS 3 Week 1

Topic: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES,

Content

 TYPES OF RADIATION IN ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM,

 DESCRIPTION     AND USES

We can distinguish between two general classes of waves: mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves.

Mechanical waves are waves that require material medium for their propagation.

Examples of mechanical waves are water waves, sound waves, and waves on a rope. Water waves are due to
vibrations of particles of water. Sound waves are due to vibrations of air particles. Water and air are the
material media of propagation.

Electromagnetic waves are those that do not have a material medium for their propagation. They arise from
the vibrations electric (E) and magnetic (M) fields. The combination of the electric and magnetic field waves is
called an Electromagnetic (E-M) wave.

The magnetic and electric fields of an electromagnetic wave are perpendicular to each other and to the
direction of the wave, examples of E-M waves are light wave, X-rays and gamma rays.

Another difference between mechanical and electromagnetic waves is in their velocities. Electromagnetic
waves travel at the speed of light but mechanical waves travel at a speed less than that of light.

A mechanical wave may be transverse or longitudinal, but an electromagnetic wave is always transverse.

Wavelength and Frequency

Just like an ocean wave, an electromagnetic wave has peaks and troughs. The wavelength is the distance
between two identical points of the wave from cycle to cycle, for instance, the distance between one peak, or
crest, and the next. EMR can also be defined in terms of its frequency, which is the number of crests that pass
by in a given time interval. All forms of EMR travel at the same speed: the speed of light. Therefore, the
frequency depends entirely on the wavelength: the shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency.
Types of Radiation

Electromagnetic waves were first predicted theoretically by the British Physicist, James Clerk Maxwell. He
also proposed that light itself was electromagnetic radiation. The experimental evidence for the existence of E-
M wave was provided by the German Physicist, Heinrich Hertz.

The term electromagnetic wave describes the way electromagnetic radiation (EMR) moves through space.
Different forms of EMR are distinguished by their wavelengths, which vary from many yards (meters) to a
distance smaller than the diameter of an atomic nucleus. The full range, in increasing order of wavelength,
goes from gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet rays, visible light, infrared rays, microwaves and radio
waves and is known as the electromagnetic spectrum. Electromagnetic waves have many applications, both in
science and in everyday life. The different rays that constitute the spectrum all have the same basic property
that they travel with the speed of light. In vacuum this speed is 3 x 10 8 ms-1 and is represented by the letter c.
They also all exhibit the properties of reflection, refraction and interference diffraction.

They however differ in their wavelength (and frequency). Recall that wavelength (λ) and frequency (f) are
connected by the relation

λ = v/f  or v = fv

Here v = c, the velocity of light. Hence we can write

λ = c/v or c = f

The waves also differ in the way they interact with the matter. This way, which depends on their frequency,
influences how we can detect each type of wave. Hence the waves in the various parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum differ in the means of production and detection.

Uses of Electromagnetic Waves

Cosmic Rays – Hazard

Gamma Rays – Killing Cancer Cells

X-Rays – Medical Uses (X-Raying People)

Ultra Violet – Sterilizing and sun tanning

Visible Light – Violet light has a higher frequency and lower wavelength than red light. (Light we see,
photography is a use).

Infra-Red Light – Night Vision, short distance communication and heating

Microwaves – Cooking, communication

Radio Waves – Include short wave radio, medium wave and long wave radio waves.

Radio: Yes, this is the same kind of energy that radio stations emit into the air for your boom box to capture
and turn into your favorite Mozart, Madonna, or Justin Timberlake tunes. But radio waves are also emitted by
other things … such as stars and gases in space. You may not be able to dance to what these objects emit, but
you can use it to learn what they are made of.

Microwaves: They will cook your popcorn in just a few minutes! Microwaves in space are used by
astronomers to learn about the structure of nearby galaxies, and our own Milky Way!

Infrared: Our skin emits infrared light, which is why we can be seen in the dark by someone using night vision
goggles. In space, IR light maps the dust between stars.

Visible: Yes, this is the part that our eyes see. Visible radiation is emitted by everything from fireflies to light
bulbs to stars … also by fast-moving particles hitting other particles.

Ultraviolet: We know that the Sun is a source of ultraviolet (or UV) radiation, because it is the UV rays that
cause our skin to burn! Stars and other “hot” objects in space emit UV radiation.

X-rays: Your doctor uses them to look at your bones and your dentist to look at your teeth. Hot gases in the
Universe also emit X-rays.

Gamma-rays: Radioactive materials (some natural and others made by man in things like nuclear power plants)
can emit gamma-rays. Big particle accelerators that scientists use to help them understand what matter is made
of can sometimes generate gamma-rays. But the biggest gamma-ray generator of all is the Universe! It makes
gamma radiation in all kinds of ways.

The following puts waves in order of increasing wavelength and decreasing frequency.

Questions

1. The electromagnetic waves with the highest frequencies are called

A. Gamma rays B. X-rays C. Ultraviolet rays D. Infrared rays

2. In a vacuum all electromagnetic waves have the same what?

A. wavelengths B. Frequency C. Propagation Speed D. Characteristics

3. A certain radio station is assigned a frequency of 2000KHz. Estimate the wavelength of its radio wave.

A. 210m B. 150 m C. 201 m D. 170 m

4. Which of the following is not an electromagnetic radiation?

A. X-ray B. Radio waves C. Infrared radiations D. Sound waves.

5. In which of the following groups are the radiations arranged in the increasing order of their wavelength?

A. Radio waves, gamma rays, X-rays

B. X-rays, gamma rays, radio waves

C. Gamma rays, radio waves, X-rays

D. Gamma rays, X-rays, radio waves

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Week 2

Topic: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

INTRODUCTION

The term electromagnetic induction refers to the generation of an electric current by passing a metal wire
through a magnetic field. The discovery of electromagnetic induction in 1831 was preceded a decade earlier by
a related discovery by Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted (1777–1851). Oersted showed that an electric
current produces a magnetic field. That is, if you place a simple magnetic compass near any of the electrical
wires in your home that are carrying a current, you can detect a magnetic field around the wires. If an electric
current can produce a magnetic field, physicists reasoned, perhaps the reverse effect could be observed as well.
So they set out to generate an electric current from a magnetic field.

That effect was first observed in 1831 by English physicist Michael Faraday (1791–1867) and shortly
thereafter by American physicist Joseph Henry (1797–1878). The principle on which the Faraday-Henry
discovery is based is shown in the figure on page 762. A long piece of metal wire is wound around a metal bar.
The two ends of the wire are connected to a galvanometer, an instrument used to measure electric current. The
bar is then placed between the poles of a magnet.

Electric current: A flow of electrons.

Electrical generator: A device for converting mechanical (kinetic) energy into electrical energy.

Galvanometer: An instrument used to measure the flow of electric current.

Potential difference: Also called voltage; the amount of electric energy stored in a mass of electric charges
compared to the energy stored in some other mass of charges.

Transformer: A device that transfers electric energy from one circuit to another circuit with different
characteristics.

As long as the bar remains at rest, nothing happens. No current is generated. But moving the bar in one
direction or another produces a current that can be read on the galvanometer. When the bar is moved
downward, current flows in one direction through the metal wire. When the bar is moved upward, current
flows in the opposite direction through the wire. The amount of current that flows is proportional to the speed
with which the wire moves through the magnetic field. When the wire moves faster, a larger current is
produced. When it moves more slowly, a smaller current is produced.

Actually, it is not necessary to move the wire in order to produce the electric current. One could just as well
hold the wire still and move the magnetic poles. All that is necessary is the creation of some relative motion of
the wire and the magnetic field. When that happens, an electric current is generated.

Applications

Many electrical devices operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction. Perhaps the most important of
these is an electrical generator. An electrical generator is a device for converting kinetic energy (the energy of
an object due to its motion) into electrical energy. In a generator, a wire coil is placed between the poles of a
magnet and caused to spin at a high rate of speed. One way to make the coil spin is to attach it to a turbine
powered by water, as in a dam. Steam from a boiler can also be used to make the coil spin.

As the coil spins between the poles of the magnet, an electric current is generated. That current then can be
sent out along transmission lines to homes, office buildings, factories, and other consumers of electric power.

Induced Current

This involves generating a voltage by changing the magnetic field that passes through a coil of wire.

First, connect a coil of wire to a galvanometer, which is just a very sensitive device we can use to measure
current in the coil. There is no battery or power supply, so no current should flow. Now bring a magnet close
to the coil. You should notice two things:

If the magnet is held stationary near, or even inside, the coil, no current will flow through the coil.

If the magnet is moved, the galvanometer needle will deflect, showing that current is flowing through the coil.
When the magnet is moved one way (say, into the coil), the needle deflects one way; when the magnet is
moved the other way (say, out of the coil), the needle deflects the other way. Not only can a moving magnet
cause a current to flow in the coil, the direction of the current depends on how the magnet is moved.

How can this be explained? It seems like a constant magnetic field does nothing to the coil, while a changing
field causes a current to flow.

To confirm this, the magnet can be replaced with a second coil, and a current can be set up in this coil by
connecting it to a battery. The second coil acts just like a bar magnet. When this coil is placed next to the first
one, which is still connected to the galvanometer, nothing happens when a steady current passes through the
second coil. When the current in the second coil is switched on or off, or changed in any way, however, the
galvanometer responds, indicating that a current is flowing in the first coil.

You also notice one more thing. If you squeeze the first coil, changing its area, while it’s sitting near a
stationary magnet, the galvanometer needle moves, indicating that current is flowing through the coil.

What you can conclude from all these observations is that a changing magnetic field will produce a voltage in
a coil, causing a current to flow. To be completely accurate, if the magnetic flux through a coil is changed, a
voltage will be produced. This voltage is known as the induced e.m.f.
The magnetic flux is a measure of the number of magnetic field lines passing through an area. If a loop of wire
with an area A is in a magnetic field B, the magnetic flux is given by:

ɸ = BA cosɸ, where ɸ is the angle between the magnetic field B and vector A, which is perpendicular to the
plane of the loop.

If the flux changes, an emf will be induced. There are therefore three ways an e.m.f. can be induced in a loop:

Change the magnetic field

Change the area of the loop

Change the angle between the field and the loop

Factors affecting the magnitude of the induced E.M.F.:

When a magnet is pushed into a coil as shown, the galvanometer deflects in one direction momentarily.

When the magnet is not moving, the galvanometer shows no reading.

When the magnet is withdrawn from the coil, the galvanometer deflects in the opposite direction momentarily.

The magnitude of the deflection depends on the magnetic field density B, the speed of motion v of the
magnet, and the number of turns N in the coil.

Faraday’s law of induction

An e.m.f. can be induced in a coil if the magnetic flux through the coil is changed. It also makes a difference
how fast the change is; a quick change induces more e.m.f. than a gradual change. This is summarized in
Faraday’s law of induction. The induced e.m.f. in a coil of N loops produced by a change in flux in a certain
time interval is given by:
Faraday’s law of Induction: ɛ = -N∆ɸ/∆t

Recalling that the flux through a loop of area A is given by

ɸ = BA cosɸ,

Faraday’s law can be written:

ɛ = -N∆ (BA cosɸ)/∆t

The negative sign in Faraday’s law comes from the fact that the e.m.f. induced in the coil acts to oppose any
change in the magnetic flux. This is summarized in Lenz’s law.

Lenz’s law: The induced emf generates a current that sets up a magnetic field which acts to oppose the change
in magnetic flux.

Another way of stating Lenz’s law is to say that coils and loops like to maintain the status quo (i.e., they don’t
like change). If a coil has zero magnetic flux, when a magnet is brought close then, while the flux is changing,
the coil will set up its own magnetic field that points opposite to the field from the magnet. On the other hand,
a coil with a particular flux from an external magnetic field will set up its own magnetic field in an attempt to
maintain the flux at a constant level if the external field (and therefore flux) is changed.

An example

Consider a flat square coil with N = 5 loops. The coil is 20 cm on each side, and has a magnetic field of 0.3 T
passing through it. The plane of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field: the field points out of the page.

(a) If nothing is changed, what is the induced e.m.f.?

There is only an induced e.m.f. when the magnetic flux changes, and while the change is taking place. If
nothing changes, the induced e.m.f. is zero.

(b) The magnetic field is increased uniformly from 0.3 T to 0.8 T in 1.0 seconds. While the change is taking
place, what is the induced e.m.f. in the coil?

Probably the most straight-forward way to approach this is to calculate the initial and final magnetic flux
through the coil.

Initial magnetic flux: ɸ0 = B0A = 0.3 (0.2)2 = 0.012Tm2

Final magnetic flux: ɸf = BfA = 0.8 (0.2)2 = 0.032Tm2

The induced e.m.f. is then:

ɛ = -N∆ɸ/∆t = -N (ɸf – ɸ0)/∆t = -5 (0.032 – 0.012)/1.0 = -0.1v

(c) While the magnetic field is changing, the e.m.f. induced in the coil causes a current to flow. Does the
current flow clockwise or counter-clockwise around the coil?

To answer this, apply Lenz’s law, as well as the right-hand rule. While the magnetic field is being changed, the
magnetic flux is being increased out of the page. According to Lenz’s law, the emf induced in the loop by this
changing flux produces a current that sets up a field opposing the change. The field set up by the current in the
coil, then, points into the page, opposite to the direction of the increase in flux. To produce a field into the
page, the current must flow clockwise around the loop. This can be found from the right hand rule.

One way to apply the rule is this. Point the thumb on your right hand in the direction of the required field, into
the page in this case. If you curl your fingers, they curl in the direction the current flows around the loop –
clockwise.

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule

The rule states that, if our right hand is held so that the thumb, the forefinger and the middle finger are
perpendicular to one another, the thumb will represent the direction of motion in the conductor, the fore finger
will represent the direction of the magnetic field, while the middle or second finger will represent the direction
of the induced current. The difference between Fleming’s right hand and left hand rule is that the right hand
rule is used for induced current or e.m.f. while the left hand refers to the force in the conductor.

Induction Coil

Induction Coil, a device for converting low-voltage direct current (DC) into high-voltage alternating current
(AC). The coils are used chiefly in the electrical systems of automobiles and to operate X-ray tubes.

A typical induction coil has a core of soft iron, a primary coil, and a secondary coil. The primary coil consists
of a few turns of fairly heavy wire around the core; the secondary consists of many turns of fine wire around
the primary. The primary coil forms part of a circuit called the primary circuit that includes a direct current
source and a circuit breaker, or interrupter.

When the primary circuit is closed, direct current flows through the primary coil, producing a magnetic field.
As the magnetic field builds up, it induces an electric current in the secondary coil. At the same time, the iron
core becomes magnetized. The magnetized core draws the interrupter away from a metal contact, breaking the
primary circuit. The direct current in the primary coil ceases and the coil’s magnetic field collapses, again
inducing an electric current in the secondary coil, only in the opposite direction. Simultaneously, the core loses
its magnetism and releases the interrupter, which is pulled back against the contact by a spring. The cycle
continues to repeat rapidly, supplying an alternating current at the terminals of the secondary coil. The voltage
in the secondary coil is higher than in the primary coil because of the greater number of turns in the secondary
coil.

A capacitor, or condenser, is often used with an induction coil. The capacitor prevents sparking between the
interrupter and contact by briefly storing the electric charge that would otherwise jump the gap between them.

Principle

AC Dynamo is based on the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. That is, when the relative orientation
between the coil and the magnetic field changes, the flux linked with the coil changes and this induces a
current in the coil.

As the armature coil rotates, the angle Q changes continuously. Therefore, the flux linked with the coil
changes.

Now, ɸ = N(B.A)

= NBA cos q

= NBA cos wt

where q is the flux linked with the coil, N is the number of turns in the coil, A is the area enclosed by each
three of the coil and B is the strength of the magnetic field.

E = -dɸ/dt = – d(NBA cos wt)/dt   (from Faraday’s law of EMF)

= – NBA (-sin wt )w

E = + NBA w sin wt

e = eo sinwt. This is the EMF Supplied by the A.C. generator

i = ɛ/R = ɛ0/R sin ωt = i0 sin ωt

 
Armature

ABCD is the armature coil consisting of a large number of turns of the insulated copper wire wound over a
laminated soft iron core I. The coil can be rotated about the central axis.

Magnets

N and S are the pole pieces of a strong electromagnet in which the armature coil is rotated.

Slip rings

R1 and R2 are two hollow metallic rings to which both ends of the armature coil are connected. These rings
rotate with the rotation of the coil.

Brushes

Brushes B1 and B2 are two flexible metal plates or carbon rods. These brushes are used to pass current from the
coil to the external load resistance.

Working

To start with, suppose the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the plane of the paper in which the magnetic
field is applied, with AB at the front and CD at the back, the flux linked with the coil is maximum in this
position. As the coil rotates clockwise, AB moves inwards and CD moves outwards. According to Fleming’s
right hand rule, the current induced in AB is from A to B, and in CD, from C to D. In the external circuit,
current flows from B2 to B1. After half of the rotation of the coil, AB is at the back and CD is at the front.
Therefore, AB starts moving outwards and CD inwards. The current induced in AB is from B to A, and in CD,
from D to C. The current flows from B 1 to B2 through the external circuit. We therefore see that the induced
current in the external circuit changes direction after every half rotation of the coil, and hence is alternating in
nature.
Alternator is an electric generator which changes the position or direction of flow of voltage and current. The
current that changes is called the alternating current.

Transformers and Power transmission Distribution

Transformers also operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction. Transformers are devices that convert
electric current from one potential difference (voltage) to another potential difference. For example, the current
that comes from a power plant is typically high voltage current, much higher than is needed or than can be
used in household appliances. A step-down transformer uses electromagnetic induction to convert the high
voltage current in power lines to the lower voltage current needed for household appliances.

We have already seen that a change in flux induces an emf in a coil, given by Faraday’s Law:

ɛ = – N dɸ/dt

We have also seen that a voltage in a coil induces a magnetic flux inside the coil. If we were to connect two
coils with the same core, the flux, and the rate of change of flux, would be exactly the same inside both coils.
We would have created a kind of flux circuit known as a transformer. The ratio between the voltage at the
primary coil Vp and the voltage at the secondary coil Vs would have to be (since φ is constant):

VP/Vs = -Np dɸ/dt / -Ns dɸ/dt = Np/Ns,

where Np and Ns are the numbers of coils in the primary and secondary coils respectively.

In other words, we can change the voltage of some electricity by varying the number of coils in each coil. In
order for this to work, the current used must be an alternating current (AC). This means that the current and
voltage are constantly changing sinusoidally, and so there is a sinusoidal change in flux. This means that an
e.m.f. is induced in the secondary coil. If the flux did not change (i.e. we were using direct current), then no
e.m.f. would be induced, and the transformer would be useless except as a magnet (since it would still have a
flux circuit in it).

Ideal Transformers
An ideal transformer is one in which all the electrical energy put into one coil comes out of the other coil. An
ideal transformer does not exist, but, since it makes the maths easy, we like to pretend that it does. In this case,
the power in must equal the power out:

P = Pp = Ps = Ip Vp = Is Vs,

where Ip and Is are the currents in the primary and secondary coils, respectively. So:

Vp = P/Ip and Vs = P/Is

By substitution into the transformer equation for voltage:

Ns/Np = Vs/Vp = P/Is /P/Ip = /1/Is /1/Ip = Ip/Is

Ns/Np = Vs/Vp = Ip/Is

So, in an ideal transformer, the ratio between the voltages is equal to the ratio between the numbers of coils,
but the ratio between the currents is equal to the reciprocal of the ratio between the numbers of coils.

Mutual Inductance is the flow of induced current or voltage in a coil due to an alternating or varying current
in a neighbouring coil.

Eddy Currents

In reality, the electrical energy is not all conserved, a lot of it is converted into heat by eddy currents. In a
transformer, the magnetic flux created by the primary coil induces a current in the core. This occurs in order to
oppose the change that produced the magnetic flux (Lenz’s Law). The currents flowing in the core are called
eddy currents.

These currents produce heat, using up energy and so causing inefficiency. One way of minimizing the effects
of eddy currents is to make the core out of iron laminate. This is layers of iron separated by thin layers of an
insulator such as varnish. The amplitude of the eddy currents produced is reduced as currents cannot flow
through the layers of insulator.

Hysteresis Loss is wasted energy due to reversing the magnetization of core. The core is made to go through a
cycle of magnetization during each alternating cycle of the primary current. Hysteresis loss is reduced by the
use of special alloys in the core of the primary coil, or by the use of soft iron cores.

I2 R (or Heat) Loss because the primary and secondary coils have resistance, some energy is lost in the form
of heat (I2  R) in the coils. This heat loss can be reduced by using thick wires, or low resistance coils.

Leakage of Magnetic Flux

Some energy is lost due to leakage of magnetic flux. This arises because not all the lines of induction due to
current in the primary coil pass entirely through the iron core. This loss is reduced by special forms of coil
winding, or by efficient core design.

It is because of the above losses that the efficiency of practical transformer is less than 100%.
The efficiency of a transformer is defined by

Efficiency = Output Power/Input Power x 100% = Power in the secondary coils/Power in the primary coils x
100%

Example

1. Find the turns ration in a transformer which delivers a voltage of 120 volts in the secondary coil from a
primary voltage of 60 volts.

Solutions

Turns ratio = Ns/Np

Es/Ep = Ns/Np

120/60 = Ns/Np = 2

Turns ratio = 2

2. A magnetic field of flux density 20 T passes down through a coil of wire, making an angle of 60° to the
plane of the coil as shown. The coil has 500 turns and an area of 25 cm 2. Determine:

(i) the magnetic flux through the coil

φ = B A sin ɸ
= 20 (sin 60°) 25 x 10-4
= 0.0433 Wb

(ii) the flux linkage through the coil

Φ=Nφ
= 500 x 0.0433 = 21.65 Wb

Questions:
1. An ideal transformer transforms a 50A current into a 1A current. It has 40 coils on the primary coil. How
many coils are in the secondary coil?

A. 5.1 KV B. 6.2 KV C. 7.3 KV 4. 8.4 KV

2. A step-down transformer has 300 coils on one coil, and 50 coils on the other. If 30 kV AC is put in, what
voltage comes out?
A. 6 KV B. 5 KV C. 4 KV D. 3.5 KV

3. A magnetic field of flux density 20 T passes down through a coil of wire, making an angle of 60° to the
plane of the coil as shown. The coil has 500 turns and an area of 25 cm 2.

Determine the magnetic flux through the coil

A. 0.786 Wb B. 0.0433 Wb C. 1.434 Wb D. 0.434 Wb

4. Which of these statements is not correct?

A. The magnetic flux is a measure of the number of magnetic field lines passing through an area.

1. When a magnet is pushed into a coil as shown, the galvanometer deflects in one direction
momentarily.

C. In a transformer, the magnetic flux created by the primary coil induces a current in the core.

D. because the primary and secondary coils have resistance, some energy is lost in the form of heat (I2  R) in the
coils. This heat loss can be reduced by using flexible wires.

5. What year did the English physicist Michael Faraday observed the electromagnetic induction effect?

A 1830   B. 1831   C. 1832   D. 1833

ELECTRIC FIELD
Physics, SS 3 Week 3

Topic: ELECTRIC FIELD

Coulombs Law

The electric force between two point charges is directly proportional to the magnitude of each
charge (q1, q2), inversely proportional to square of the separation between their centers (r),
directed along the separation vector connecting their centers.

This relationship is known as Coulomb’s Law. Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806) France. As
an equation it is usually written in one of two forms …

F = ke q1q2/r2 or F = 1/4πeo. q1q2/r2

Electrostatic constant ke = 8.99 x 109 Nm/C2,

Vacuum Permittivity eo = 8.85 x 10-12C2/Nm2

When two charges have the same sign their product is positive, which means the force vector is
directed with the separation vector and the action is repulsive.

When two charges have the opposite sign their product is negative, which means the force vector
is directed against the separation vector and the action is attractive.

The electrical force, like all forces, is typically expressed using the unit Newton. Being a force,
the strength of the electrical interaction is a vector quantity that has both magnitude and
direction. The direction of the electrical force is dependent upon whether the charged objects are
charged with like charge or opposite charge and upon their spatial orientation. By knowing the
type of charge on the two objects, the direction of the force on either one of them can be
determined with a little reasoning. In the diagram below, objects A and B have like charge causing
them to repel each other. Thus, the force on object A is directed leftward (away from B) and the
force on object B is directed rightward (away from A). On the other hand, objects C and D have
opposite charge causing them to attract each other. Thus, the force on object C is directed
rightward (toward object D) and the force on object D is directed leftward (toward object C).
When it comes to the electrical force vector, perhaps the best way to determine the direction of
it is to apply the fundamental rules of charge interaction (opposites attract and likes repel) using
a little reasoning.

Example

Suppose that two point charges, each with a charge of +1.00 Coulomb are separated by a distance
of 1.00 meter. Determine the magnitude of the electrical force of repulsion between them.

Q1 = 1.00 C, Q2 = 1.00 C, d = 1.00 m, Felect =?

F = 1/4πeo. q1q2/r2

   = (9.0 x 109 Nm2/C2) x (1.00 C) x (1.00 C) / (1.00 m)2

   = 9.0 x 109 N

Electric Field Intensity

Electric field strength is a vector quantity; it has both magnitude and direction. The magnitude of
the electric field strength is defined in terms of how it is measured. Let’s suppose that an electric
charge can be denoted by the symbol Q. This electric charge creates an electric field; since Q is
the source of the electric field, we will refer to it as the source charge. The strength of the
source charge’s electric field could be measured by any other charge placed somewhere in its
surroundings. The charge that is used to measure the electric field strength is referred to as a
testcharge since it is used to test the field strength. The test charge has a quantity of charge
denoted by the symbol q. When placed within the electric field, the test charge will experience
an electric force – either attractive or repulsive. As is usually the case, this force will be denoted
by the symbol F. The magnitude of the electric field is simply defined as the force per charge on
the test charge.

Note that in the figure below d indicates the distance between the source charge and the test
charge, which could also be denoted by ‘r’.

Electric Field Strength = Force/Charge

If the electric field strength is denoted by the symbol E, then the equation can be rewritten in
symbolic form as

E = F/q, F = qE, Electric Force = Electric Charge x Electric Field

We can obtain the equation for the Field Intensity E due to a point charge q at a distance r from
that charge making use of these two equations E = F/q and F = qE we assume the point charge is
situated vacuum

F = 1/4πeo. Qq/r2

E = F/q = 1/4πeo Qq/r2q = Q/4πeo r2

Hence we can write

E= Q/4πeo r2

This is the field intensity due to a charge Q at a distance r from the charge.

Electric Potential

In a gravitational field, forces of attraction acts between masses. Therefore in order to separate
two masses, work must be done against the field.

Similarly, in electrostatic field where forces of attraction or repulsion act between charges, work
must be done against this field in order to move charges against the field.

The gravitational potential at any point in a gravitational field is the work done per unit in
bringing mass to that point from an arbitrarily chosen zero level of the earth. Similarly in an
electrostatic or electric field the electric potential at a point is described as the work done per
unit positive charge in bringing charge to that point from an arbitrarily chosen zero of potential. If
work is done against the field, the potential is positive. If work is done by the field, the potential
is negative. Points of positive potentials are said to be at a higher potential than those of negative
potential. Thus in an electric cell, the positive terminal is at a higher potential than the negative
terminal. The arbitrarily chosen zero of potential is taken at infinity, but in practical terms, the
earth is taken to be at zero potential. Thus whenever a conducting body is connected to the
earth it is said to be ‘grounded’ or ‘earthed’ or to have a zero potential.

Electric Potential (V) at a point is defined as the work done in bringing unit positive charge from
infinity to that point against the electrical forces of the field.

Potential difference (VAB) between two points A and B is the work done in taking unit positive
charge from one point to the other in the electric field.

Both the potential and the potential difference are scalar quantities having the dimension of
work/charge. The unit is the volt.

1 volt = 1 Joule/Coulomb

The potential difference between two points is one volt if the work done in taking one Coulomb of
positive charge from one point to the other is one joule.

W = qV

(Joules) = (Coulomb x Volts) or V = W/q

Electric intensity is related to the electric potential difference between two points through the
equation.

E = v/d, where d is the distance between two points in an electric field

Hence we have, V =Ed,volt = NC-1m

The unit of E = v/d can also be in volt per meter but we have E = q/4πeod2 or q/4πe0d2

Putting this in V =Ed, we have

v = q/4πeod2 x d or v = q/4πeod

Where v is the potential at a point due to a charge q at a distance d from the charge.

Two parallel plates are charged to a voltage of 40V. If they are separated by a distance of 10.0
cm, calculate the electric intensity between them.

Solution

E = V/d

   = 40 (volt)/0.1 m

   = 400 Vm-1
Capacitors and Capacitance

Capacitors

A capacitor is an electronic device for storing charge. Capacitors can be found in almost all but
the most simple electronic circuits. There are many different types of capacitor but they all work
in essentially the same way. A simplified view of a capacitor is a pair of metal plates separated by
a gap in which there is an insulating material known as the dielectric. This simplified capacitor is
also chosen as the electronic circuit symbol for a capacitor is a pair of parallel plates as shown
below

The symbol above is for an unpolarised capacitor

On the picture are different capacitors look.

Arrangement of Capacitors – Series and Parallel

Series

Consider the series network of capacitors shown in the figure above where the positive plate is
connected to the negative plate of the next. What is the equivalent capacitance of the network?
Look at the plates in the middle, these plates are physically disconnected from the circuit so the
total charge on them must remain constant. It follows that when a voltage is applied across both
of the capacitors, the charge +Q on the positive plate of capacitor C1 must be balanced by the
charge –Q on the negative plate of capacitor C2. The net result is that both capacitors possess the
same charge Q. The potential drops V1 and V2 across the two capacitors are in general, different.
However, the sum of these drops equals the total potential drop V applied across the input and
output wires. V=V1 + V2. The equivalent capacitance of the pair is again CT=Q/V. Thus,
1/CT = V/Q = (V1 + V2)/Q = V1/Q + V2/Q giving

By connecting capacitors in series you store less charge so does ever make sense to connect
capacitors in series? It is sometimes done because capacitors have maximum working voltages, and
with two 900 volt maximum capacitors in series, you can increase the working voltage to 1800
volts.

Parallel

For a parallel circuit such as in Figure above, the voltages are the same across each component.
However the total charge is divided between the two capacitors since it must distribute itself such
that the voltage across the two is the same. Also, since the capacitors may have different
capacitances C1 and C2 the charges Q1 and Q2 must also be different. The equivalent
capacitance CT of the pair of capacitors is simply the ratio Q/V where Q=Q1+Q2 is the total stored
charge. It follows that CT = Q/V = (Q1+Q2)/V = Q1/V + Q2/V giving

1/Ct = 1/C1 + 1/C2

CT = C1 + C2

The overall capacitance increases by adding together capacitors in parallel so we create larger
capacitances than is possible using a single capacitor.
Capacitor – Energy Stored

The energy stored in a capacitor can be expressed as

W = 1/2 CV2

Where W = energy stored (Joules), C = capacitance (Farad), V = potential difference (Voltage)

Questions

1. Two balloons are charged with an identical quantity and type of charge: -6.25 nC. They are
held apart at a separation distance of 61.7 cm. Determine the magnitude of the electrical force of
repulsion between them.

A. 8.0 x 10-6 N B. 9.23 x 10-7 N C. 7.54 x 10-8 N D. 54 x 10-5 N

2. Two balloons with charges of +3.37 µC and -8.21 µC attract each other with a force of 0.0626
Newton. Determine the separation distance between the two balloons.

A. +1.99 m B -1.99 m C. 7.34 m D. 2.65 m

3. The energy stored in a 10 μF capacitor charged to 230 V can be calculated as

A. 1.46 J B. 0.26 J C. 8 J D. 3.45 J

4. Electric field strength has

A. Only direction B Only Magnitude C. Magnitude and direction D. None of the options

5. By connecting capacitors in series you store

A. More charges B. No Charge C. Average charges D. Less charge

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Week 4

Topic: CURRENT ELECTRICITY

CURRENT ELECTRICITY

A continuous flow of charges is produced from primary and secondary cell.

a. Primary Cells

Primary cells are those from which current is produced as a result of non-reversible chemical changes taken
place between the various components of the cell.

A simple cell is an example of a primary cell. When all the zinc of such a cell is used up through the chemical
action with sulphuric acid, by which the current is produced, the cell cannot be restored or recharged to its
original condition by passing a charging current through the cell in the reverse order. In order to cause primary
cell to produce current once again, they must be resupplied with fresh active materials (zinc, copper, sulphuric
acid).

The disadvantage of primary cell is that the chemicals in them are gradually used up when the cells are in use.

Secondary cells (or Accumulator)

The secondary class of cells are called secondary cells of accumulators.

These are cells whose chemical actions can be reversed by driving a current through them in a direction
opposite to the current they supply. Such cells can therefore be recharged and used for a long time.

The main advantage of accumulators is that they have very low internal resistance (unlike primary cells). They
can therefore provide large current in their terminal potential difference.

They are used in motor cars to provide energy for the spark igniting the petrol in the engine, and also in
telephone exchanges to provide current in telephone cables when required.

Examples of Primary Cells

There are three types of primary cells; the simple cell, Daniel cell and Leclanche cell.

The Daniel Cell

It consists of (i) a copper vessel filled with a saturated copper sulphate solution (ii) a porous pot containing
dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4) which is the electrolyte for this cell. (iii) an amalgamated zinc rod immersed in
the acid. The zinc rod acts the negative terminal of the cells while the copper vessel acts as the positive
terminal. The copper sulphate solution acts as the depolarizer for the Daniel cell.

The initial e.m.f produced by the Daniel cell is about 1.1 volts and cell provides only a small current for some
time. The Daniel cell is no longer in use.

Leclanche Cell

a. The wet Type

The internal structures of this cell consist of (i) the carbon contained in a porous pot. This carbon rod acts as
the positive terminal of the cell. (ii) A porous pot containing a mixture of manganese dioxide and powered
carbon, parked around the carbon rod. (iii) A glass of porcelain jar filled with a solution of ammonium
chloride. (iv) A zinc rod immersed in the in the ammonium chloride solution.
      Leclanche Cell

In this cell the zinc rod is the negative terminal, the carbon rod is the positive terminal, the ammonium chloride
is the electrolyte and the manganese dioxide is the depolarizing agent depolarization however takes place more
slowly than the rate at which hydrogen is liberated by the action of zinc and ammonium chloride solution.

Therefore when the cell is in continuous use, some depolarization takes place and the e.m.f. of the cell drops.
Another defect of the wet leclanche cell is that it is cumbersome to carry about without spilling the liquid.

The leclanche cell is used only where intermittent current is required e.g. in electric bells. The advantage of the
cell is that its e.m.f. is relatively high, about 1.5 volts and its chemicals are cheap.

b. Leclanche Cell (the dry type)

1. The electrolyte is ammonium chloride in the form of a paste or jelly and it is mixed with starch and flour.

2. The positive terminal is a carbon rod.

3. The negative terminal is the zinc container.

4. The depolarizer of manganese dioxide mixed with powdered carbon is contained ina muslin bag round the
carbon rod.

5. A cardboard disc is used at the bottom to prevent the carbon pole from touching the negative container to
prevent the short circuiting of the cell.

The e.m.f. of a dry leclanche cell is about 1.5 volts and the chemical reaction taking place within this cell is the
same as that of the wet type. The dry cell like the wet leclanche cell cannot maintain current for a long time
because it polarizes if continuously owing to the hydrogen liberated at the carbon rod. Hydrogen is produced at
a faster rate than can be depolarized by the manganese dioxide.

Dry cells are used in torches, bicycle lamps, electric bells and transistor radios.
Secondary Cells

There are two types

a. The lead acid accumulator and

b. The alkaline or Nickel – lron (NIFE) accumulator

The simple form of the cells consists of (i) a positive pole of lead peroxide (chocolate or dark brown in cooler)
(ii) a negative pole of lead plate (grey in colour) and an electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid.

In modern commercial accumulators, both the positive and negative plates are made of grids of lead antimony
alloy, the holes and grooves of which are filled with either the lead or the lead peroxide. The positive plate
containing the lead peroxide and the negative plates containing lead are assembled alternatively in groups and
are separated by insulators. All the positives are connected together to form one positive terminal of the
accumulator, and the negative plates are also connected together to form the negative terminal. The whole
frame work is enclosed in a plastic container filled with sulphuric acid.

When fully charged the e.m.f. of the cell is about 2.2 volts and the relative density of the dilute sulphuric acid
is about1.25 the cell is considered completely discharged when the relative density of the acid falls to 1.15.

Using or Discharging the Accumulator

The accumulator is used to supply current to an external resistance e.g. an electric bulb. After some time of
such use, the current will cease to flow and will be indicated by both the ammeter and the bulb. The
accumulator is said to be discharged. A little red sulphate is formed at both of the plate and the relative density
of the acid and the e.m.f. of the cell decrease below the original levels.

2. Nickel Iron (NIFE) Accumulator

The poles of this accumulator are positive nickel plates and negative iron plate. The electrolyte is a solution
potassium hydroxide. The e.m.f. when fully charged is about 1.5 volts and falls to 1.3 volts after some time.
The NOFE accumulator has a longer life span than the lead accumulator.

Charging or Recharging an Accumulator

To charge the accumulator we pass direct current (d.c.) through it in the opposite direction to that which it
supplies. The positive terminal of the d.c. is connected to the positive terminal of the accumulator and the
negative terminal of the d.c. is connected to the negative terminal of the accumulator.

The rheostat R in the charging circuit is essential as the sulphuric acid has a very low resistance such a 0.02
ohm. The ammeter A is also included in the circuit to ensure that only the charging current recommended by
the manufacturer is used.

Charging the accumulator is considered complete when the relative density of the acid attains the
recommended value of 1.25 and the e.m.f. of the accumulator is about 2.2 volts.

Questions
1. Primary cells are those from which current is produced as a result of
…………………………………………………

taken place between the various components of the cell.

A. reversible chemical changes B. non-reversible chemical changes C. reversible chemical reactions D. non-
reversible chemical reaction.

2. Which of these does not belong to the class of primary cells?

A. the simple cell B. Daniel cell C. Leclanche cell D. The lead acid accumulator

3. In Nickel Iron (NIFE) Accumulator the e.m.f. when fully charged is about ………………. and falls to
…………….. volts after some time.

A. 4.3 to 3.6 volts B. 1.5 to 1.3 volts C. 2.5 to 2.2 volts D. 1.1 to 0.9 volts

4. The initial e.m.f produced by the Daniel cell is about

A. 1.1 volts B. 2.1 volt C. 3.1 volt D. 4.1 volts

5. Charging the accumulator is considered complete when the relative density of the acid attains the
recommended value of ……………….

ELECTROLYSIS
Physics, SS 3 Week 5

Topic: ELECTROLYSIS

Conduction Through liquids

Electrolysis is the process by which the movement of an electric current through a solution librates electrons.
Chemicals in a container are decomposed in order to generate current.

Michael Faraday studied this process extensively and laid the foundation for the theory of electrolysis. Some
liquids are good conductors while others are poor conductors of electricity. Good conductors are known as
electrolytes, poor conductors are non-electrolytes.

Liquids such as solutions of acids, bases and salts are generally good conductors. Liquids such as benzene and
paraffin or kerosene are poor conductors. Organic compounds are generally poor conductors. While pure water
is also a poor conductor, water containing some dissolved salts conducts moderately.
A Voltameter is device for measuring the quantity of electricity passing through a conductor by the amount of
electrolytic decomposition it produces, or for measuring the strength of a current by the amount of such
decomposition in a given time.

1. The Electrolytes is the liquid or molten substance which conducts a current and is decomposed by it. i.e. it
contains mobile ions and undergoes decomposition and is called electrolyte, e.g. acids, bases, common salts,
etc.

2. Non-electrolyte this is a substance which, either in molten state or in solution, does not allow the flow of an
electric current.

Thus, it is a substance that does not conduct current or undergo decomposition, e.g. organic solvents such as
benzene, paraffin, sugar, salt, etc.

3. Electrodes are materials in the form of a rod or plate through which current enters or leaves the electrolyte.
There are two electrodes: (a) the positive electrode through which current enters the electrolyte is called the
anode. (b) The negative electrode through which liquid leaves the electrolyte is called the Cathode.

4. Anode is a positive (+ve) electrode at which the electron enters and current leaves the electrolyte.

5. Cathode is a negative (-ve) electrode at which the electron enters and current leaves the electrolyte

6. Voltameter: The whole apparatus consisting of the vessel, electrolyte and electrodes is called the
voltameter.

7. Ions: They are charged particles which exists in electrolytes and take part in electrolysis

These are the immediate products of decomposition of an electrolyte. The ions which go to the anode are
called anions, those ions which go to the cathode are called cations

Current Electricity

Current electricity consists of fast moving negatively charged electrons. Currents travels in material which
allow the flow of electrons called conductors. Current is produced in a simple circuit consisting of a battery
(which is source), a bulb (which is the lighting) and a tap key (which is used in controlling the simple system).

The current in the battery due to the force applied on it. The force is not visible but it is performed by some
chemicals in the battery. The electrical pressure is called the voltage.

Dynamics of charged particles (ions) in electrolytes

The Ionic theory

In an electrolyte there are positively and negatively charged particles called ions. The molecules that constitute
the electrolyte are split in solution into these ions through the process known as electrolytic dissolution. The
dissolution of an electrolyte occurs irrespective of whether or not an electric field is applied to the electrolyte.
Ions in an electrolyte execute random movements until a battery is connected to the electrodes of a voltmeter.
As soon as a p.d. is set up across the electrodes the positive ions drift to the cathode, which is at a negative
potential while the negative ions drift to the anode which is at a positive potential.
This directional movement of ions is the electric current flowing through the electrolyte. Such movement
ceases as soon as the battery is disconnected, and the ions move randomly once again.

Thus electrolytic solutions are able to conduct electricity because the electrolytes in solution can dissociate into
ions Non electrolytes in solution do not easily dissociate into ions.

Examples of Electrolysis

Pure water is a poor electrolyte. Because of that, a few drops of sulfuric acid will help to increase its
conductivity by adding more mobile electrons

As such the ions present in the electrolyte now are

From Sulfuric Acid: H+ and SO42-

From Water: H+ and OH–

Inert electrodes like Carbon or Platinum electrodes are used so that the acid solutions do not corrode the
electrodes easily.

At the Cathode:

H+ migrate to the cathode and accepts an electron to become a Hydrogen atom. After that, the Hydrogen atoms
form a covalent bond with other hydrogen atoms to become Hydrogen gas molecules

2H+ + e– –> H2

Observation:
Effervescence of colourless, odourless gas at the cathode

At the Anode:

SO42- and OH– migrate to the anode, where OH– is preferentially discharged due to it having a lower position in
the Electrochemical series as compared to SO42-

4OH– –> 2H2O + O2 + 4e–

Therefore Overall Equation:

2H2O(l) –> 2H2 (g)+ O2(g)

Michael Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis

First Law: It shows that the mass (m) of substance deposited at the cathode during electrolysis is directly
proportional to the quantity of electricity (total charge q) passed by the electrolyte.

i.e.  M = ZQ, where Q = It, M = ZIt  , Z = M/It, where Z is the constant of proportionality and is known as
electrochemical equivalent (E.C.E.) of the substance.
Thus, electrochemical equivalent (ECE) may be defined as “the mass of the ion deposited by passing a
current of one Ampere for one second (i.e., by passing Coulomb of electricity)”. It’s unit is gram per coulomb.

Coulomb is the unit of electrical charge.

96500Coulombs electrons = 1 mole electrons.

1 Coulomb = 6.023×1023/96500 = 6.85 × 1018 electrons, or 1 electronic charge 1.6 × 10–19 Coulomb.

Second law: It states that, “When the same quantity of electricity is passed through different electrolytes, the
masses of different ions liberated at the electrodes are directly proportional to their chemical equivalents
(Equivalent weights).” i.e.,

M1/W2 = E1/E2 or Z1It/Z2It or Z1/Z2 = E1/E2 (∴ W = ZIt)

Thus the electrochemical equivalent (Z) of an element is directly proportional to its equivalent weight (E), i.e.,
E ∝ Z or E = FZ or E = 96500 × Z

where, F = Faraday constant = 96500 C mol–1

So, 1 Faraday = 1F =Electrical charge carried out by one mole of electrons.

1F = Charge on an electron × Avogadro’s number.

1F = e– × N = (1.602 × 10–19c) × (6.023 × 1023 mol–1)

Number of Faraday = number of electrons passed/6.023 × 1023

(3) Faraday’s law for gaseous electrolytic product For the gases, we use V = It Ve/96500

where, V = Volume of gas evolved at S.T.P. at an electrode

Ve = Equivalent volume = Volume of gas evolved at an electrode at S.T.P. by 1 Faraday charge

(4) Quantitative aspects of electrolysis: We know that, one Faraday (1F) of electricity is equal to the charge
carried by one mole (6.023 × 1023) of electrons. So, in any reaction, if one mole of electrons is involved, then
that reaction would consume or produce 1F of electricity. Since 1F is equal to 96,500 Coulombs, hence 96,500
Coulombs of electricity would cause a reaction involving one mole of electrons.

If in any reaction, n moles of electrons are involved, then the total electricity (Q) involved in the reaction is
given by, Q = nF = n × 96500 C

Thus, the amount of electricity involved in any reaction is related to,

(i) The number of moles of electrons involved in the reaction,

(ii) The amount of any substance involved in the reaction.

Therefore, 1 Faraday or 96,500 C or 1 mole of electrons will reduce,

(a) 1 mole of monovalent cation,(b) 1/2mole of divalent cation,

(c) 1/3 mole of trivalent cation, (d) 1/n mole of n valent cations.

Uses of Electrolysis

1. Extraction or isolation of metals: Electrolysis is a process used in extracting metals. Such elements are
usually very reactive, e.g. sodium, potassium, chlorine, oxygen, aluminium, etc. Such elements are found at the
top reactivity series. They react too readily and cannot be prepared by the electrolysis in an aqueous solution of
one of the salts. They are prepared by the electrolysis of their fused salts.

2. Purification of Metals: many do not in free or uncombined state. They exist in a state of combination with
other elements. To extract such metals from their ores, they have to be purified. The overall result of the
experiment is that the metal is transformed from its impure to its pure state.

3. Electroplating of Metals: Electroplating is the process of coating a substance with the layer of another
substance. It is done through electrolysis. Object to be plated is fairly cleaned to make sure that the anode
deposits sticks firmly. If it is not a conductor, it is first coated with graphite, so that what is to be coated on it
sticks firmly. The anode is the pure metal to be deposited, while the cathode is made the electrolytic cell. The
electrolyte is a solution of soluble salt and the pure metal used as the anode.

Examples

1. Calculate the time in minute, required to plate a substance a 300cm2, a layer of copper 0.6mm thick, if a
constant current of 2A is maintained. Assuming the density of copper is 8.8g/cm 3 and one coulomb liberates
0.00033g copper.

Solution

Given that Area = 300cm2, thickness = 0.6mm = 0.06cm

Mass = 0.00033g, density = 8.8g/cm3

Density = mass/volume, mass = density x volume

Mass = 8.8 x 300 x 0.06 = 158.4g

Using M = Zit

T = m/ZI = 158.4/2 x 0.00033 = 24000secs = 4000mins

Questions

1. Find the mass of copper deposited on the cathode of a copper voltameter if a current of 0.53A is placed
through it for 30 minutes (e.c.e. of copper = 3.3 x 10-4 gC-1)

A. 0.465 g B. 0.425 g C. 0.325 g D. 0.315 g

2. Calculate the time in minutes required to electroplate an article of area 300 cm2 with a layer of copper 0.06
cm thick if a constant current of 2 A is maintained. Assumed that the density of copper is 8.8 gcm -3 and that
one coulomb liberates 0.00033 g of copper.

A. 400 minutes B. 4000 minutes C. 4500 minutes D. 5000 minutes

3. A copper and a silver voltameter are connected in series, and at the end of a period of time, 5.0 g of copper
was deposited, calculate the mass of silver deposited at the same time. Chemical equivalent of copper = 31.5.
Chemical equivalent of silver = 108.

A. 47 g B. 17.14 g C. 20.17 g D. 23 g

4. The electrochemical equivalent of a metal is 0.126 x 10-6 kgC-1. The mass of the metal that a current of 5 A
will deposit from a suitable bath in 1 hour is

A. 0.0378 x 10-3 kg B. 0.227 x 10-3 kg C. 0.378 x 10-3 kg D. 0.595 x 10-3 kg

5. Ions are ……………………………. particles which exists in electrolytes and take part in electrolysis

A. Non charged B. Charged C. Neutral D. Positive

MAGNETIC FIELD
Physics SS 3 Week 7

Topic: MAGNETIC FIELD
INTRODUCTION

Magnetic field has a region around a magnet in which the influence of the magnet can be felt or
detected.
The area around a magnet in which it can attract or repel objects or in which a magnetic force
can be detected is called the magnetic field of the magnet.

Patterns of Magnetic Field

Magnetic field patterns can conveniently be observed using iron fillings. The magnet is placed on
paper and the iron fillings are sprinkled lightly on the paper around the magnet. The paper is now
tapped gently and the iron fillings will be seen to turn and settle in definite directions. The
pattern of the magnetic field and for other magnetic arrangements are as depicted below
Magnetic field is a mathematical description of the magnetic influence of electric currents and
magnetic materials. The magnetic field at any given point is specified by both a direction and a
magnitude (or strength); as such it is a vector field. The term is used for two distinct but closely
related fields denoted by the symbols B and H. B refers to magnetic flux density, and H to
magnetic field strength. Magnetic flux density is most commonly defined in terms of the Lorentz
force it exerts on moving electric charges
Alternative names for B
Magnetic flux density, Magnetic induction, Magnetic field
Alternative names for H
Magnetic field intensity, Magnetic field strength, Magnetic field, Magnetizing field
The magnetic field can be defined in several equivalent ways based on the effects it has on its
environment.
Often the magnetic field is defined by the force it exerts on a moving charged particle. It is known
from experiments in electrostatics that a particle of charge q in an electric field E experiences a
force F = qE. However, in other situations, such as when a charged particle moves in the vicinity
of a current-carrying wire, the force also depends on the velocity of that particle. Fortunately,
the velocity dependent portion can be separated out such that the force on the particle satisfies
the Lorentz force law;
F = q(E + v x B).
Here v is the particle’s velocity and × denotes the cross product.
The vector B is termed the magnetic field, and it is defined as the vector field necessary to make
the Lorentz force law correctly describe the motion of a charged particle. This definition allows
the determination of B in the following way.
The command, “Measure the direction and magnitude of the vector B at such and such a place,”
calls for the following operations: Take a particle of known charge q. Measure the force on q at
rest, to determine E. Then measure the force on the particle when its velocity is v; repeat with v
in some other direction. Now find a B that makes [the Lorentz force law] fit all these results—that
is the magnetic field at the place in question.
SI units, B is measured in teslas (symbol: T) and correspondingly ΦB (magnetic flux) is measured in
webers (symbol: Wb) so that a flux density of 1 Wb/m2 is 1 tesla. The SI unit of tesla is equivalent
to (newton•second)/(coulomb•metre). In Gaussian-cgs units, B is measured in gauss (symbol: G).
(The conversion is 1 T = 10,000 G.) The H-field is measured in amperes per metre (A/m) in SI
units.

Temporary and Permanent Magnets

Series of experiments carried out have shown that iron, when brought close to a magnetic
material, the magnetic property is lost easily.
When iron nails are clung to a magnet, they form a single file in their arrangement, but when the
magnet bearing heavy iron nail to form an arrangement is removed, every other nail looses their
property, thereby falling off. The conclusion is that iron easily magnetizes and also demagnetizes,
where strong magnetism is required for a short time. Examples of temporary magnet are soft iron
and electromagnet.

Temporary magnets are employed in the following devices: electric bells, induction coil,
telephone ear-piece, magnetic relay, etc.
Steel is not easily magnetized to a magnetic material, because it takes time for the magnetic
molecules in steel to be arranged. Steel is not easily demagnetized because it retains its magnetic
properties even after the removal of magnets. Steel keeps its magnetism much longer than iron
because of these differences in their magnetic properties. Therefore steel is used and most
preferred for making permanent magnets. Examples of permanent magnets are steel alloy, etc.
Permanent magnets are employed in the following devices: electric motors, D.C Dynamo, radio
loud speaker, aerials of transistor, etc.

Differences between electromagnet and ordinary magnet

Electromagnets                                                                              Ordinary Magnets

1 They are very strong in terms of uses.                                 They are not strong in terms of uses.
2 They are made from cast iron.                                              They are made from steel.
3 They are temporary magnets.                                               They are permanent magnets.

Magnetization

Magnetization is the process by which magnetic material is attracted to a single magnet. An

example is an experiment using a bar of horse-shoe magnet and many nails. The first nail clings to
the magnet followed by second, third, fourth, etc until the magnet force could no longer retain.

Methods of making magnets

1. Single touch method:

This is done by continuous stroking of a steel bar by a permanent magnet. The magnet is raised
each time it reaches the end of the steel bar. A stage is reached when the last touch of the
stroking process produces or results in a pole opposite.
2. Method of divided touch (Double stroke):
Using the divided method, each half of the steel is stroked continuously in opposite directions by
the opposite poles N ad S of the two bar magnets. Divided touch stroking starts in the middle. The
same principle is followed in single touch method.
3. Hammering in the earth’s field:
A magnet is made through the influence of the earth’s field (magnetic). The bar is first placed in a
north- south direction and inclined at angle 700, to the horizontal axis. The upper part of the
magnet is hammered repeatedly. It is found that the lower part has a weak North pole.
4. Electrical method:
This involves using electrical method which is the best way of making magnet. A solenoid of a long
coil of insulated copper wire is connected to a battery at both terminals or end points. A steel bar
is placed inside the solenoid, current is switched on for few seconds and switched off. A test after
the experiment will show that the steel bar is found to be a magnet with North and South poles.
NB: This position of the poles depends on the direction of the current. When the current is
clockwise in the coil, the bar has a South Pole at its end and vice-versa.

Demagnetization
This simply means the removal or loss of magnetism from a magnetic material i.e. destroying
magnetism. Demagnetism, on the other hand is a process by which the property or substance is
removed, causing a breakdown in the magnetic circuit. This can be done through the following
methods:
1. Heating method: When a magnet is heated until it is red hot and placed in .a East-West
direction, the magnetic property is lost and would no more behave like a magnet again.
2. Hammering method: The magnet is repeatedly hammered while pointing in an E-W direction,
that is, about 900 to the earth’s magnetic field of direction. Hammering randomly disorganizes
the arrangement of its magnetic property.
3. Electric method: The best way to demagnetize a magnet is by electrical method. A magnet is
connected to an AC source and current through a steel bar placed inside a solenoid coil pointing in
the direction of E-W, after some seconds, the magnets are taken away from the solenoid and are
placed a distance away from the solenoid.

Earth’s Magnetic Field

The earth magnetism: The reason for the earth’s magnetism is not understood, though it is
generally agreed that the earth contains the electrical charges. Field also shows the same
similarity to the production of North and South poles by a magnet inside the earth, slightly
inclined to the geographical axis. The behaviour is like the south-seeking pole pointing towards
the North pole.
If a magnet placed in a uniform sphere of non-magnetic material is mounted on an axis joining the
point on the N and S poles of the earth, the line of force will run as follows. Below are very key
information as regards the magnetic field of the earth.
As per the most established theory it is due to the rotation of the earth where by the various
charged ions present in the molten state in the core of the earth rotate and constitute a current.
(1) The magnetic field of earth is similar to one which would be obtained if a huge magnet is
assumed to be buried deep inside the earth at its centre.
(2) The axis of rotation of earth is called geographic axis and the points where it cuts the surface
of earth are called geographical poles (Ng, Sg). The circle on the earth’s surface perpendicular to
the geographic axis is called equator.
(3) A vertical plane passing through the geographical axis is called geographical meridian.
(4) The axis of the huge magnet assumed to be lying inside the earth is called magnetic axis of the
earth. The points where the magnetic axis cuts the surface of earth are called magnetic poles.
The circle on the earth’s surface perpendicular to the magnetic axis is called magnetic equator.
(5) Magnetic axis and Geographic axis don’t coincide but they make an angle of 17.5° with each
other.
(6) Magnetic equator divides the earth into two hemispheres. The hemisphere containing south
polarity of earth’s magnetism is called northern hemisphere while the other, the southern
hemisphere.
(7) The magnetic field of earth is not constant and changes irregularly from place to place on the
surface of the earth and even at a given place in varies with time too.
(8) Direction of earth’s magnetic field is from S (geographical south) to N (Geographical north).

Elements of Earth’s Magnetic Field

The magnitude and direction of the magnetic field of the earth at a place are completely given by
certain quantities known as magnetic elements.
(1) Magnetic Declination: It is the angle between geographic and the magnetic meridian planes.
Declination at a place is expressed at or depending upon whether the north pole of the compass
needle lies to the east or to the west of the geographical axis.
(2) Angle of inclination or Dip (ø): It is the angle between the direction of intensity of total
magnetic field of earth and a horizontal line in the magnetic meridian.
(3) Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field (BH): Earth’s magnetic field is horizontal only
at the magnetic equator. At any other place, the total intensity can be resolved into horizontal
component (BH) and vertical component (BV).

Magnet
What we typically refer to as a magnet, ie. a material that spontaneously produces a magnetic
field, is in fact a ferromagnet. The name comes from the region where ferromagnetic stones were
found in ancient Greek times, but magnets were also known in the same time period in India and
China.
A compass is a freely suspended ferromagnet that can be used for navigation, or, as we will use it
in this lecture, to determine the direction of a magnetic field.

Poles

We are familiar with the idea that magnet has poles, and that like poles repel and unlike poles
attract.

What is a Pole?

Poles always come in pairs, magnetic monopoles would be highly theoretically interesting, but
have not been observed in experiment. A magnetic monopole would be the magnetic equivalent of
charge and would act as a source or sink of magnetic field.
We can think of a magnet as having a particular magnetization direction, and we can then
understand why if we break a magnet we end up with the creation of another pair of poles. In the
context of the bar magnet we can consider the poles to describe the ends of a magnetic material.
Magnetic Field Lines

As with electric fields it can be useful to draw lines which reflect the magnetic field at a point.
Field lines point from North to South.
The lack of magnetic monopoles means that magnetic field lines do not begin or end anywhere. So
in the case of a bar magnet we can see that the field lines that we can measure outside the
magnet continue within it to close the loop.

Earth’s magnetic field

The fact that a compass works demonstrates that the Earth has a magnetic field. The magnetic
field of the earth is also important in shielding the earth from cosmic radiation. We should note
that the magnetic North Pole is actually a magnetic south pole, and the magnetic South Pole is
actually a magnetic north pole.
The Earth’s magnetic poles move around, and in fact can flip their direction completely. This
might suggest to us that the magnetic field, unlike in our bar magnet, is due to some kind of
dynamic process. In fact the Earth’s magnetic field is due to electric currents in the outer liquid
core. So we should discuss how an electric current gives rise to a magnetic field.

Magnetic field due to a current carrying wire

If we put current through a wire we can measure that it produces a magnetic field. The direction
of the field can be determined by a right hand rule. The experiment we will perform today was
first performed by Hans Christian Oersted who first noticed the effect on a compass due to a
current during a lecture in 1820.
Magnetic field due to a current carrying loop

If we make the wire in to a loop we can again apply the right hand rule to determine the direction
of the magnetic field. We can compare the field distribution to the one we measured for the bar
magnet.

Force on a current carrying wire

Having seen that a current carrying wire produces a magnetic field, we can now see whether a
magnetic field exerts a force on a current carrying wire. In doing so we will be able to produce a
definition of the magnetic field.
The direction of the force can be determined in a Jumping wire experiment. Further experiment
would reveal that the force on a wire is always perpendicular to both the current and the field, so
we can see that we can use a right hand rule to determine the direction of the force.
I make my parallel fingers the field lines, my thumb the current and the force is the direction of
the palm of my hand (the direction I would push).

Magnitude of magnetic field

If we consider wire of which length lies within a magnetic field we find that the force depends on
as well as the current. We can write an equation that contains this information as well as the right
hand rule for the direction that we identified earlier. We can give the length of the wire a
direction and make it a vector. The current is then defined to be positive when it flows in the
direction of the length vector. The force is then or in the diagram below

We can also chop the length up in to infinitesimal pieces which produce infinitesimal forces to
accommodate a wire that changes its direction with respect to a magnetic field, or a non-uniform
magnetic field.
Questions
1. Which is not true about electromagnets?
A. They are very strong in terms of uses. B. They are made from cast iron. C. They are temporary
magnets. D. They are made from steel.
2. Demagnetization can be done through the following methods, except
A. Heating B. Hammering C. Wetting D. Electric
3. Often the magnetic field is defined by the force it exerts on a moving charged particle. It is
known from experiments in electrostatics that a particle of charge q in an electric field E
experiences a force. The force is mathematically denoted thus:
A. F = qE B. F = q/E C. F = q + E D. F = q(-E)
4. A compass is used to determine the
A. direction of a magnetic field B. Magnetic field strength C. Magnetic flux density D. Magnetizing
field
5. Magnetization is the process by which magnetic material is attracted to
A. Quadruple magnets B. Triple magnets C. Double magnets D. a single magnet

ELECTRIC MEASUREMENT
Physics SS 3 Week 6

Topic: ELECTRIC MEASUREMENT

RESISTIVITY

Resistivity: The resistance of a wire or material conductor maintained at a constant temperature is related to its
length (l) and its cross-sectional area (A) by the expression

R = ρ l/A

Where ρ is a constant of proportionality known as the resistivity of the material

Then we could deduce ρ = RA/l

Thus ρ = R when l = 1 and A = 1 Hence we define resistivity as follows:

Resistivity is the resistance of unit length of material of unit cross-sectional area.

Where R is measured in ohms, A in m, l in m, the unit of ρ is in ohm-meter (Ωm).

We recall our definition of resistance as the ability of a material to oppose the flow of current through it. The
greater the resistivity of a wire, the poorer it is as an electrical conductor. Because of this, the term
conductivity is used to specify the current-carrying ability of a material. The greater the conductivity the more
easily current flows through the material. Thus materials of high conductivity also have low resistivity.
Conductivity, σ =l/ρ

Electrical conductivity is a measure of the extent to which a material will allow current to flow easily through
it when a p.d. is applied at a specific temperature. It is the reciprocal of resistivity.

Example The resistance of a wire of length 100 cm and diameter 0.3 mm is found to be 3.0 ohms. Calculate (i)
the resistivity, (ii) the conductivity of the material of the wire.

Solution

(i) Resistivity
ρ = RA/l

R= 3 Ω, l = 100 cm = 1.0 m, r = (0.3/2 x 10-3) m

Area = πr2 = π(0.3/2 x 10-3)2 m2

         = π(1.5 x 10-4)2 m2

ρ = 3 x 22//7 x (1.5 x 10-4)2/1 Ωm

= 21.21 x 10-8 Ωm

= 2.12 x 10-7 Ωm

(ii) Conductivity, σ = 1/ρ

                           = 1/2.12 x10=7 (Ωm)-1

                           = 4.7 x 106 (Ωm)-1

Conversion of Galvanometer to Ammeter

An ammeter is used for measuring electric currents. A galvanometer is used for detecting and measuring very
small currents.

We can convert the galvanometer into an ammeter by connecting a suitable resistor in parallel with the
galvanometer. A resistor used for this purpose is known as shunt. The shunt is a low resistance wire and is
used to divert a large part of current being measured but to allow only a small current to pass through the
galvanometer.

Since Galvanometer is a very sensitive instrument therefore it can’t measure heavy currents. In order to
convert a galvanometer into an Ammeter, a very low resistance known as “shunt” resistance is connected in
parallel to Galvanometer. Value of shunt is so adjusted that most of the current passes through the shunt. In
this way a Galvanometer is converted into Ammeter and can measure heavy currents without fully deflected

An ammeter is always connected in series to a circuit

Then current through shunt:

Is = (I-Ig)

potential difference across the shunt:

Vs= IsRs

Vs = (I – Ig)Rs ——-(ii)

But     Vs =Vg

(I – Ig)Rs = IgRg

Rs = Ig Rg/I – Ig

Voltmeter is an electrical measuring device, which is used to measure potential difference between two points
in a circuit.

Connection of Voltmeter in Circuit

Voltmeter is always connected in parallel to a circuit.

Conversion of Galvanometer to Voltmeter. The Multiplier

Since Galvanometer is a very sensitive instrument, therefore it cannot measure high potential difference. In
order to convert a Galvanometer into voltmeter, a very high resistance known as “series resistance” is
connected in series with the galvanometer.

Value of series resistance

Let resistance of galvanometer = Rg and resistance Rx (high) is connected in series to it. Then      combined
resistance = (Rg + Rx).

If potential between the points to be measured = V and if galvanometer gives full-scale deflection, when
current “Ig” passes through it. Then,

V = Ig (Rg + Rx)

V = IgRg + IgRx
V – IgRg = IgRx

Rx = (V – IgRg)/Ig

Rx = V/Ig – Rg

Measurement of Resistance by Ammeter-Voltmeter Method

This is very popular method for measurement of medium resistances since instruments required for this
method are usually available in laboratory. The two types of connections employed for ammeter voltmeter
method are shown in figures below. In both the methods if readings of ammeter and voltmeter are taken then
we can measure value of resistance by using formula:

Rm = voltmeter reading/ammeter reading = V/I

The measured value of resistance Rm, would be equal to the true value R, if the ammeter resistance is zero and
the voltmeter resistance is infinite, so that the conditions in the circuit are not disturbed. But in actual practice
this is not possible and hence both methods give inaccurate results.

Voltmeter-Ammeter method

In this method ammeter measures the true value of current flowing through resistance but voltmeter does not
measures the true value of the voltage across the resistance. The voltmeter indicates the sum of the voltage
across resistance and ammeter.

Let Ra be the resistance of the ammeter.

Therefore, voltage across the ammeter

Va = IRa

Measured value of the resistance

Rm1 =V/I = Vr + Va/I = Ir + IRa/I = R + Ra

Therefore, true value of resistance, R = Rm1 – Ra

= Rm1(1 – Ra/Rm1)

Hence the measured value of the resistance is higher than the true value. It is also clear from the above
equation that the true power is equal to the measured only if the ammeter resistance is zero.
Relative error, Er = Rm1 – R/R = Ra/R

It is clear from the above equation that the error will be small if the value of the measuring resistance is large
as compare to the internal resistance of the ammeter .therefore circuit should be used when measuring
resistances are high.

Voltmeter-Ammeter method

In this circuit the voltmeter measures the true value of the voltage across the measuring resistance but the
ammeter does not measure the true value of the current flowing through the resistance. The current through the
ammeter is the sum of the current through the voltmeter and resistance.

Let Rv be the resistance of the voltmeter.

Therefore current through the voltmeter, Iv = V/Rv

Measured value of the resistance Rm2 = V/I = V/Ir + Iv = V/V/R +V/Rv = R/1 +R/Rv

True value of resistance;

R = Rm2Rv/Rv – Rm2 = Rm2 (1/1 – Rm2/Rv)

From the above equation it is clear the true value of the resistance will be equal to the measured value only
when the voltmeter resistance is equal to the infinite. However, if the resistance of the voltmeter is very large
as compared to the resistance under measurement:

Rv >> Rm2

And therefore Rm2/Rv is very small

We have R = Rm2 (1 + Rm2/Rv)

Thus, the measured value of the resistance is smaller than the true value.

Relative error, Er = Rm2 – R/R = R2m2/Rv R

The value of Rm2 is approximately equal to Er = -R/Rv

It is clear from the above equation that the relative error will be small if the resistance under measurement is
very small as compared to the resistance of the voltmeter .hence the circuit should be used when the measuring
values of resistances are low.
The Wheatstone Bridge

A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical resistance by balancing two
legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown component. Its operation is similar to the
original potentiometer. It was invented by Samuel Hunter Christie in 1833 and improved and popularized by
Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843. One of the Wheatstone bridge’s initial uses was for the purpose of soils
analysis and comparison

In the figure, is the unknown resistance to be measured; R1, and are resistors of known resistance and the
resistance of is adjustable. If the ratio of the two resistances in the known leg (R2/R1) is equal to the ratio of
the two in the unknown leg (Rx/R3), then the voltage between the two midpoints (B and D) will be zero and no
current will flow through the galvanometer Vg. If the bridge is unbalanced, the direction of the current
indicates whether R2 is too high or too low. R2 is varied until there is no current through the galvanometer,
which then reads zero.

Detecting zero current with a galvanometer can be done to extremely high accuracy. Therefore, if R1, R2 and
R3 are known to high precision, then Rx can be measured to high precision. Very small changes in Rx disrupt
the balance and are readily detected.

At the point of balance, the ratio of

R2/R1 = Rx/R3

= Rx = R2/R1 . R3

Alternatively, if R1, R2 and R3 are known, but R2 is not adjustable, the voltage difference across or current
flow through the meter can be used to calculate the value of Rx, using Kirchhoff’s circuit laws (also known as
Kirchhoff’s rules). This setup is frequently used in strain gauge and resistance thermometer measurements, as
it is usually faster to read a voltage level off a meter than to adjust a resistance to zero the voltage.

Derivation

First, Kirchhoff’s first rule is used to find the currents in junctions B and D:

I3 – Ix + IG = 0

I1 – I2 – IG = 0

Then, Kirchhoff’s second rule is used for finding the voltage in the loops ABD and BCD:

(I3 . R3) – (IG .RG) – (I1 . R1) = 0

(Ix . Rx) – (I2 . R2) + (IG . RG) = 0

When the bridge is balanced, then IG = 0, so the second set of equations can be rewritten as:

I3 . R3 = I1 . R1

Ix . Rx = I2 . R2

Then, the equations are divided and rearranged, giving:

Rx = I2 . R2 . I3 . R3/ I1 . R1. Ix

From the first rule, I3 = Ix and I1 = I2. The desired value of Rx is now known to be given as:

Rx = R3 . R2/R1

If all four resistor values and the supply voltage (VS) are known, and the resistance of the galvanometer is high
enough that IG is negligible, the voltage across the bridge (VG) can be found by working out the voltage from
each potential divider and subtracting one from the other. The equation for this is:

VG = (Rx/R3 + Rx – R2/R1 + R2) Vs

where VG is the voltage of node B relative to node D.

Significance

The Wheatstone bridge illustrates the concept of a difference measurement, which can be extremely accurate.
Variations on the Wheatstone bridge can be used to measure capacitance, inductance, impedance and other
quantities, such as the amount of combustible gases in a sample, with an explosimeter. The Kelvin bridge was
specially adapted from the Wheatstone bridge for measuring very low resistances. In many cases, the
significance of measuring the unknown resistance is related to measuring the impact of some physical
phenomenon (such as force, temperature, pressure, etc.) which thereby allows the use of Wheatstone bridge in
measuring those elements indirectly.

Questions

1. If a wire has a resistance of 1.32Ω, a length of 110 cm and a n area of cross-sectional of 0.00415 cm2, Find
the resistivity of the material of which it is made.

A. 6.45 x 10-7Ωm B. 4.98 x 10-7Ωm C. 3.46 x 10-7Ωm D. 2.39 x 10-7Ωm

2. A galvanometer has as resistance of 5Ω. By using a shunt wire of resistance 0.05Ω, the galvanometer could
be converted to an ammeter, capable of reading 2A. What is the current through the galvanometer?

A. 0.02A B. 0.06A C. 2.09A D. 4.15 A

3. A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown ………………………….. by

balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown component.
A. Potential difference B. electrical resistance C. Voltage D. Current

4. In other to concert a galvanometer into ammeter, the shunt resistance must be connected in
…………………… to the galvanometer.

A. Series B. Parallel C. direct D. Indirect

5. A resistance wire of length 2m and of uniform cross-sectional area 5.0 x 10-7 m2 has a resistance of 2Ω.
Calculate its resistivity.

A. 5.0 x 10-6 m B. 5.6 x 10-7 m2 C. 5.0 x 10-7 m2   D. 4.7 x 10-5 m2

MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR

Physics SS 3 Week 8

Topic: MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR

MAGNETIC FIELDS

A magnetic field is a region of space where a north magnetic monopole experiences a force. The direction of
the field is by definition the direction of the force on the north end of a magnet. Since most texts contain
diagrams of magnetic fields they will not be reproduced here.

CHARGES IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

Use your right hand to determine the direction of force on a moving positively charged particle in a
magnetic field. With the fingers pointing from south to north (the same direction as the field), and the thumb
pointing in the direction of the velocity of the particle, the palm points in the direction of the force on the
particle. In the example below, the force is away from the observer.

The magnitude of the force on the particle, F, is

F = qvBsinø. Notice that F = 0 when any of the following are true:
q= 0 ; v = 0; ø = 00; ø = 1800 . Notice that F is greatest when the particle is moving at right angles to the field.

EXAMPLES
1. An alpha particle (two protons and two neutrons) traveling east at 2.0 x 10 5 m/s enters a magnetic field of
0.20 T pointing straight up. What is the force acting on the alpha particle?

answer:
With the fingers of the right hand pointing straight up, and the thumb pointing east, the palm points south.
F = qvBsinø = (2 x 1.6 x 10-19 C)(2.0 x 105 m/s)(0.20 T)sin900 = 1.28 x 10-14 N [S]

2. An electron traveling to the left moves into a magnetic field directed toward the observer. Trace the path of
the particle, assuming it eventually leaves the field.

answer:

The moment the electron enters the field, it experiences a force perpendicular to its velocity. The electron
follows a circular path until it leaves the field.

FIELD AROUND A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR

When current flows through a conductor a magnetic field forms. The field lines form concentric circles around
the conductor. Hold a straight conductor (wire), in your right hand with your thumb pointing in the direction of
conventional current (positive flow). Your fingers circle the wire in the direction of the magnetic field. The
compasses in the following diagram indicate the direction of the magnetic field near the conductor. Use your
left hand for electron flow.

The following diagram shows a conductor carrying conventional current out of the page (toward the observer),
and the direction of the field near the conductor. With the thumb of the right hand pointing toward the
observer, the fingers of the right hand circle around the conductor in the direction of the magnetic field.
answer:

To the bottom of the page.

SOLENOIDS

Notice the fields formed by either side of a looped conductor reinforce each other inside the loop.
One might imagine carrying a step further using many loops to produce a stronger magnetic field.

In practice, this is achieved by looping a wire many times and attaching it to one power source. This is called a
“solenoid.” An iron core is often used to help gather magnetic field lines into a more intense field. Hundreds or
thousands of loops or “turns” are used, but only a few are diagrammed for clarity.

Notice that by wrapping the fingers of your right hand around the solenoid in the direction of conventional
current flow, the thumb points north. For electron flow use your left hand.

 MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR

 When a conductor carries current through a magnetic field, a magnetic force is produced on the conductor.
(This is known as the motor principle). Use the right to determine the direction of magnetic force on a
current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field. The thumb points in the direction of conventional (positive)
current. The fingers point in the direction of the field (from north to south). The palm points in the direction of
the force on the conductor. In the diagram below, the force on the conductor is into the page (or away from the
observer). For current defined as electron flow, use the left hand.
The magnitude of the force on the conductor, F, is
F = BILsinø where L is the length of the conductor in the field.

 Notice that F = 0 when any of the following are true:

B= 0 ; I = 0; L = 0; ø = 00; ø = 1800 .

Notice that F is greatest when the conductor is at right angles to the field.

Electric Current is the rate of flow of charges. An increase in current through a conductor means more number
of electrons are crossing any cross section of the wire per second.

A moving charge experiences a force in magnetic field because a moving charge creates a magnetic field
around it. The two interacting magnetic fields cause the force..

EXAMPLES

4. A horizontal conductor is carrying 5.0 A of current to the east. A magnetic field of 0.20 T pointing straight
up cuts across 1.5 m of the conductor. What is the force acting on the conductor?

answer:

With the fingers of the right hand pointing straight up, and the thumb pointing east, the palm points south.
F = BILsinø = (0.20 T)(5.0 A)(1.5 m)sin900 = 1.5 N [S].

5. A 50.0 cm horizontal section of conductor with a mass of 8.00 g is in a 0.400 T magnetic field directed to
the west. What is the magnitude and direction of current required to make this section of the conductor seem
weightless?

answer:

The magnetic force must be opposite and equal to the weight of the section of the conductor.
With the fingers of the right hand pointing west, and the palm facing straight up, the thumb points north.
The weight of the conductor is mg = (0.00800 kg)(9.8 N/kg) = 0.0784 N .
The magnetic force on the conductor is
F = BILsinø, so
0.0784 N = (0.400 T)I(0.50 m)sin900
I = 0.392 A [N]

Applications and Uses of Electromagnet

Electric Bell

When the switch is on, the circuit is completed and current flows. The electromagnet becomes magnetized and
hence attracts the soft-iron armature and at the same time pull the hammer to strike the gong.

As soon as the hammer moves towards the gong, the circuit is broken. The current stops flowing and the
electromagnet loses its magnetism. This causes the spring to pull back the armature and reconnect the circuit
again.
When the circuit is connected, the electromagnet regain its magnetism and pull the armature and hence the
hammer to strike the gong again. This cycle repeats and the bell rings continuously.

Electromagnetic Relay
 

A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of another electrical circuit.
A relay has at least two circuits. One circuit can be used to control another circuit. The 1st circuit (input
circuit) supplies current to the electromagnet. The electromagnet is magnetized and attracts one end of the iron
armature.

The armature is then closes the contacts (2nd switch) and allows current flows in the second circuit. When the
1st switch is open again, the current to the electromagnet is cut, the electromagnet loses its magnetism and the
2nd switch is opened. Thus, current stops to flow in the 2nd circuit.

Telephone Earpiece

An electromagnet is used in the earpiece of a telephone. The figure shows the simple structure of a telephone
earpiece.

When you speak to a friend through the telephone, your sound will be converted into electric current by the
mouthpiece of the telephone. The current produced is a varying current and the frequency of the current will be
the same as the frequency of your sound. The current will be sent to the earpiece of the telephone of your
friend.

When the current passes through the solenoid, the iron core is magnetised. The strength of the magnetic field
changes according to the varying current. When the current is high, the magnetic field will become stronger
and when the current is low, the magnetic field become weaker.

The soft-iron diaphragm is pulled by the electromagnet and vibrates at the frequency of the varying current.
The air around the diaphragm is stretched and compressed and produces sound wave. The frequency of the
sound produced in the telephone earpiece will be the same as your sound.

Circuit Breaker
The figure shows the structure of a circuit breaker. A circuit breaker is an automatic switch that cut off current
in a circuit when the current become too large.

When the current in a circuit increases, the strength of the electromagnet will increase in accordance; this will
pull the soft iron armature towards the electromagnet.

As a result, the spring pulls apart the contact and disconnects the circuit immediately, and the current stop to
flow.

We can reconnect the circuit by using the reset button. The reset button can be pushed to bring the contact back
to its original position to reconnect the circuit.

Questions

1. Find the magnetic flux density in the center of a 4.0 cm long air-core solenoid made with 4900 turns of wire
and carrying a 2.5A current.

A. 0.385 T B. 0.78 T C. 0.298 T D. 3.850 T

2. Calculate the force on the wire, when it makes an angle of 30 0in the direction of a straight wire of 40cm long
and carrying a current of 4A is placed in a uniform magnetic field of strength 3 x 10-2 weber/m2.

A. 3.4 x 10-2N B. 2.4 x 10-2N C. 4.5 x 10-2N D. 5 x 10-2N

3. When the current in a magnetic field increases, the strength of the magnetic field

A. Decreases B. Increases C. Stabilizes D. Extincts

4. Electromagnet is applicable in all, except

A. Telephone earpiece B. Electric bells C. Electromagnetic relays D. Ammeter

5. In the Flemings left hand rule, the fore-finger points in the

A. Direction of the magnetic field B. Direction of the conventional current C. direction of the force on the
conductor D. None of the above is correct.

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
Week 9

Topic: ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD

Electromagnetic field

Electromagnetic field is a field representing the joint interaction of electric and magnetic field.

Electromagnetic field exerts force on charged particles. The force on a charged q moving with a velocity v
(less than the velocity of light) is given by

F = q(E + v x B)

The field can be viewed as the combination of an electric field and a magnetic field. The electric field is
produced by stationary charges, and the magnetic field by moving charges (currents); these two are often
described as the sources of the field. The way in which charges and currents interact with the electromagnetic
field is described by Maxwell’s equations and the Lorentz force law.

Electromagnetic field; a property of space caused by the motion of an electric charge. A stationary charge
will produce only an electric field in the surrounding space. If the charge is moving, a magnetic field is also
produced. An electric field can be produced also by a changing magnetic field. The mutual interaction of
electric and magnetic fields produces an electromagnetic field, which is considered as having its own existence
in space apart from the charges or currents (a stream of moving charges) with which it may be related. Under
certain circumstances, this electromagnetic field can be described as a wave transporting electromagnetic
energy.

Fleming’s left hand rule

If an electric current flows through a magnetic field, the field exerts a force on the current.

This can happen when there is a magnet close to a wire carrying a current. It can also happen when there is a
magnet close to a beam of electrons. The force causes the wire or the beam to move.

The direction of this force depends on the directions of the field and the current. The way to find this direction
is called Fleming’s left hand rule. Stretch out the thumb and first two fingers of your left hand. Hold them out
so that they are all perpendicular to one another. Your thumb points in the direction of the force, your first
finger points in the direction of the field, and your middle finger points in the direction of the current.
To find the direction of the force, point your first finger in the direction of the field and your middle finger in
the direction of the current. Then your thumb will tell you the direction of the force. (When you do this, your
thumb and two fingers MUST stay perpendicular to one another.)

It is well know that a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force, and that if a
conducting loop of wire moves relative to a magnetic field, a current is generated. Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
enables us to calculate the direction of the force in the first case and the direction of the field in the second
case. This is illustrated below.

In this diagram the two fingers are horizontal at right angles and the thumb is vertical and at right angles to
both. In fact, first finger, second finger and thumb are all at right angles to each other.

Application of Electromagnetic Field

Direct Current Motors (DC Motors)

The purpose of a direct current motor is to transform electrical energy into mechanical energy. When a current
is supplied to a coil with parallel plane to the magnetic field, the coil turns only when the current passes
through it. A permanent magnet with North and South poles place either side with a rectangular coil placed in
between the two permanent magnets with different poles placed side by side to other , i.e. N-S. Split rings are
connected and are insulated from one another to the end of the coil, which are soldered to two brass segment
communicators. Two carbon brushes are used to press lightly on the two segments. Battery is connected to the
current in order to give current to the coil.

A downward force acts on the coil at the North pole and upward force acts on the coil at the South pole.

Moving Coil Galvanometer

This galvanometer is one of the most sensitive and accurate methods for detecting or measuring extremely
small currents or potential difference

Galvanometer, is an electromechanical instrument used to indicate the presence, direction, or strength of a

small electric current. The typical galvanometer is a sensitive laboratory instrument used to detect and compare
currents, but the primary purpose of galvanometer is the detection of electric current not the measurement of
current.

The galvanometer makes use of the fact that an electric current flowing through a wire sets up a magnetic field
around the wire. In the galvanometer, the wire is wound into a coil. When current flows through the coil, one
end of the coil becomes a north magnetic pole, the other a south magnetic pole. When a permanent magnet is
placed near the coil, the two fields—the one from the coil and the one from the magnet—interact. The like
poles will repulse each other and the unlike poles will attract. The amount of attraction and repulsion increases
as the strength of the current increases.

In the moving-magnet galvanometer, the permanent magnet is a needle (much like a compass needle) mounted
on a pivot and surrounded by the coil. In the moving-coil galvanometer—the most common type—the coil is
mounted on pivots or suspended by thin metal strips. The coil lies between the poles of a permanent magnet in
such a way that it rotates when current flows through it. The direction of the rotation depends on the direction
of the current through the coil, and the amount of rotation depends on the strength of the current. A
galvanometer is often used to indicate when the current in a circuit has been reduced to zero, as in the
operation of the Wheatstone bridge, a device for measuring electrical resistances precisely.

A moving-coil mechanism similar to that used in a galvanometer is used in some ammeters. Like the
galvanometer, these instruments measure the strength of a current but they can handle a stronger current;
unlike the galvanometer, they cannot indicate the current’s direction. A moving-coil mechanism is also used in
some voltmeters (which measure the voltage in a circuit) and ohmmeters (which measure the resistance in a
circuit). In some instruments, a selector switch connects the moving-coil mechanism to different internal
circuits so that a single mechanism can be used in making all three types of measurements.

The principle upon which the operation of the galvanometer is based was discovered in 1820 by Hans
Christian Oersted when he observed that a magnetic needle could be deflected by an electric current. The first
galvanometer was made by Johann Schweigger in 1820. In 1882, Jacques Arsene D’Arsonval introduced the
moving-coil galvanometer. Edward Weston made important improvements to the device a few years later.

Advantages of moving coil galvanometer

1. It has a linear scale

2. Extreme magnetic field has no effect on it.

3. It can be used to measure current, voltage or resistance.

Sensitivity of a moving coil galvanometer

The deflecting couple on the coil is equal to the force on the vertical side multiplied by the width of the coil.

The force on a vertical side will be proportional to its length, hence the deflecting couple will be proportional
to length x width which is equal to the area of the coil.

Thus, the sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the scale deflection by microampere. For high sensitivity
the galvanometer must have:

(i) a coil of large area

(ii) a large number of turns in the coil

(iii) a special alloy permanent magnet which gives high magnetic flux
(iv) weak hair springs to give a small control couple.

1. A galvanometer as an electromechanical device is majorly used to detect …………………………………

amount of electric current.

A. Large   B. Small C. Extra large D. infinite

2. In Fleming’s left hand rule, the middle finger indicates the direction

A. Field B. Force B. Voltage D. Current

3. The purpose of a direct current motor is to transform ………………………… energy into

……………………………… energy

A. Mechanical, Electrical B. Electrical, Heat C. Mechanical, Heat D. Electrical, mechanical

4. The first galvanometer was made by Johann Schweigger in

A. 1821 B. 1824 C. 1820 D. 1902

5. The positioning of the fore-finger in the Fleming’s left hand rule is to determine the direction of the

A. Current   B. Motion C. Force   D. Field

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Physics SS 3 week 10

Topic: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

INDUCED CURRENT

Definition: Electromagnetic induction (or sometimes just induction) is a process where a conductor placed in a

changing magnetic field (or a conductor moving through a stationary magnetic field) causes the production of
a voltage across the conductor. This process of electromagnetic induction, in turn, causes an electrical current –
it is said to induce the current.

Michael Faraday is given credit for the discovery of electromagnetic induction in 1831, though some others
had noted similar behavior in the years prior to this. The formal name for the physics equation that defines the
behavior of an induced electromagnetic field from the magnetic flux (change in a magnetic field) is Faraday’s
law of electromagnetic induction.
If a coil of wire is placed in a changing magnetic field, a current will be induced in the wire.   This current
flows because something is producing an electric field that forces the charges around the wire.   (It cannot be
the magnetic force since the charges are not initially moving).  This “something” is called an electromotive
force, or emf, even though it is not a force.  Instead, emf is like the voltage provided by a battery.  A changing
magnetic field through a coil of wire therefore must induce an emf in the coil which in turn causes current to
flow.

The law describing induced emf is named after the British scientist Michael Faraday, but Faraday’s Law
should really be called Henry’s Law.  Joseph Henry, an American from the Albany area, discovered that
changing magnetic fields induced current before Faraday did.  Unfortunately, he lived in the age before
instantaneous electronic communication between Europe and America.  Faraday got published and got famous
before Henry could report his findings.  Interestingly enough, Henry had to explain the results to Faraday when
the two met a few years later.

Briefly stated, Faraday’s law says that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field.  If charges are free
to move, the electric field will cause an emf and a current.  For example, if a loop of wire is placed in a
magnetic field so that the field passes through the loop, a change in the magnetic field will induce a current in
the loop of wire.  A current is also induced if the area of the loop changes, or if the area enclosing magnetic
field changes.  So it is the change in magnetic flux, defined as

ɸB = ∫ B.dA = BA cos q

that determines the induced current.  A is the area vector; its magnitude is the area of the loop, and its direction
is perpendicular to the area of the loop, and  is the angle between A and the magnetic field B.  The last
equality (removing the integral) is valid only if the field is uniform over the entire loop.

Faraday’s Law says that the emf induced (and therefore the current induced) in the loop is proportional to the
rate of change in magnetic flux:

e = iR = – ∆ɸB /∆t

 is the emf, which is the work done moving charges around the loop, divided by the charge.  It is similar in
concept to voltage, except that no charge separation is necessary.  The magnetic flux B equals the magnetic
field B times the area A of the loop with magnetic field through it if (a) the magnetic field is perpendicular to
the plane of the loop, and (b) the magnetic field is uniform throughout the loop.  For our purposes, we will
assume these two conditions are met; in practical applications, however, magnetic field will vary through a
loop, and the field will not always be perpendicular to the loop.

Since all applications of Faraday’s Law to magnetic storage involve a coil of wire of fixed area, we will also
assume that (c) the area does not change in time.  We then have a simpler expression for the current induced in
the coil:

iR = -A dB/dt

The induced current depends on both the area of the coil and the change in magnetic field.   In a coil of wires,
each loop contributes an area A to the right-hand side of the equation, so the induced emf will be proportional
to the number of loops in a coil.  But doubling the number of loops doubles the length of wire used and so
doubles the resistance, so the induced current will not increase when loops are added.

Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s Law

The magnitude of the induced e.m.f is determined from Faraday’s Law.Faraday’s Law states that the
magnitude of the induced e.m.f is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux through a coil or
alternatively the rate of the magnetic flux being cut.

When a magnet is moved into and out of a coil, the induced current that flows through the coil can be
determined from Lenz’s Law. Lenz’s Law states that the induced current always flows in the direction that
opposes the change in magnetic flux.

Lenz’s Law

Lenz’s Law obeys the principle of conservation of energy. Work is done to move the magnet against the
repulsive force. This work done is converted to electric energy which manifests as an induced current.

For a conductor in a closed circuit moving perpendicular to a magnetic field and hence cutting its magnetic
flux, the direction of the induced current is determined from Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule.

Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule is used to determine the direction of the induced current that flows from the wire
when there is relative motion with respect to the magnetic field.

Induction Coil

An induction coil consists of two coils of insulated copper wire wound around a common iron core. One coil,
called the primary winding, is made from relatively few (tens or hundreds) turns of coarse wire. The other coil,
the secondary winding, typically consists of many (thousands) turns of fine wire.

An electric current is passed through the primary, creating a magnetic field. Because of the common core, most
of the primary’s magnetic field couples with the secondary winding. The primary behaves as an  inductor,
storing energy in the associated magnetic field. When the primary current is suddenly interrupted, the magnetic
field rapidly collapses. This causes a high voltage pulse to be developed across the secondary terminals
through electromagnetic induction. Because of the large number of turns in the secondary coil, the secondary
voltage pulse is typically many thousands of volts. This voltage is often sufficient to cause an electric spark, to
jump across an air gap separating the secondary’s output terminals. For this reason, induction coils were called
spark coils.

AC Generator

The turning of a coil in a magnetic field produces motional emfs in both sides of the coil which add. Since the
component of the velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field changes sinusoidally with the rotation, the
generated voltage is sinusoidal or AC. This process can be described in terms of Faraday’s law when you see
that the rotation of the coil continually changes the magnetic flux through the coil and therefore generates a
voltage.
DC generator consists of 4 basic parts:

Magnet, coil, carbon brush & commutator

Basic working principle:

When the coil is rotated, side ab move upward, side cd moves downward.

Both sides cut the magnetic field

Induced current is produced, which then flows in the coil to external circuit

Commutator ensure the current flows in one direction.

Transformers

A transformer is an apparatus for changing a given electrical current into another current of different voltage.
There are two kinds of transformers: step down and step up.  Step up transformers increase the voltage where
step down transformers decrease the voltage.

Structure of simple transformer is given below;

Voltage is applied to primary coil and, we take transformed voltage from secondary coil. There are two types
of transformer, step up and step down. We use step down transformers in electrical devices like radio, and step
up transformers in welding machine.

Step Up Transformer

This type of transformer used for increase the incident voltage. Number of turns in secondary coil is larger than
the number of turns in primary coil.
 Transformer Equations

 Vp is the potential, Ip is the current, Np is the turn on the primary coil and Vs is the potential, Is is the current,
Ns is the turn on the secondary coil. We use following equations to find potential, current or number of turns
of any coil;

Np/Ns=Vp/Vs=Is/Ip

Mutual Inductance is the flow of induced current or voltage in a coil due to an alternating or varying current in
a neighbouring.

Eddy Currents

Such currents produced by the varying flux cutting the iron core, reduce efficiency because they consume
power form the primary. Energy is lost in the form of heat in the iron core due to eddy current. Such core can
be reduced by laminating the core. Laminations of core reduce eddy currents by breaking up their path of flow.

Power Transmission

Power generated at power stations are distributed over large distances to consumers through metal cables.
Power is given by P = IV, and can thus be transmitted either at low current and at high voltage or at high
current and low voltage.

Because the metal cables through which the power is transmitted have a certain amount of electrical resistance,
transmitting power at high current will lead to loss of energy in the form of heat in the cables (H α I 2R). To
avoid this, power is therefore transmitted at high voltage and low current. This is known as high tension
transmission.

Low currents lead to low energy loss in form of I 2R. Also since lower currents require thinner cables, cost of
cable materials is considerably reduced if power is transmitted with low currents and high voltage.

Step down transformers are used to reduce the high transmitted voltages to lower voltages required in homes
and factories.

Question

1. Which of the following statements about a generator is not correct?

A. It can produce direct current

B. It can produce alternating current

C. It requires an external supply of current to the coil.

D. It may require the use of a commutator

2. A transformer has 500 turns in the primary coil and 300 turns in the secondary coil. If the primary coil is
connected to a 220 V mains, what voltage will be obtained from the secondary coil?

A. 123 volts B. 132 volts C. 150 volts D. 230 volts

3. DC generator consists of 4 basic parts namely, except

A. Magnet B. Coil C. Carbon brush D. Alternator E. Commutator

4. A transformer with 5500 turns in its primary is used between a 240 V a.c. supply and a 120 V kettle.
Calculate the number of turns in the secondary.

A. 11,000 B. 275 C. 460 D. 232

5. Which of these is correct about the step-up transformer?

A. Primary turns is greater than the secondary B. Secondary turns is greater than the primary turns C.
Secondary turns is equal to the primary turns D. All of the above.

GRAVITATIONAL FIELD AND LAW

Week 2

Topic: GRAVITATIONAL FIELD AND LAW, GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL, ESCAPE

VELOCITY , POTENTIAL ENERGY IN GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

Concept of Gravitational Field

There are two types of forces – contact forces and force fields. Contact forces are most common in everyday
life. For example, you push or pull on wheelbarrow, a tennis racket exerts a force on a tennis ball when they
make contact, your foot exerts a force on a football when you kick it. Force fields, e.g. gravitational forces, act
even when the two bodies are not in contact. The earth, for example exerts a force on a falling mango fruit. It
also exerts a force on a on the moon which is about 385,000km away. The sun itself exerts a force on the earth
even though the earth is about 1.5 x 108 km distant from the sun.

In order to explain the observation of forces acting at a distance, it has been postulated that a gravitational field
surrounds everybody that has mass, and this field fills up all of space. A second body at a particular location
near the first body experiences a force because of the gravitational field that exists there. The gravitational
field of the first body acts directly on the second body.

Gravitational field is a region or space around a mass in which the gravitational force of the mass can be felt.
Gravitational Forces between two masses

Gravitation is the force of attraction is the force of attraction exerted by a body on all other bodies in the
universe. Hence a gravitational force exists between a body and all other bodies around it. Gravitational forces
act between all masses and hold together planets. stars and galaxies, each mass has a gravitational field around
it.

It was Sir Isaac Newton who first proposed the relationship between the gravitational force F, between two
masses, m1 m2 and the distance, r, between these masses. He proposed his famous Law of Universal
gravitation which we can state as follows:

Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is proportional to the product of
their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. This force acts along
the line joining the centre of the two particles.

F µ m1 m2/r2

The magnitude of this force can be written as

F = Gm1m2/r2

Where m1 and m2 are the masses of the two particles, r is the distance between them and G is a universal
constant of gravitation or simply gravitational constant.

Gravitational constant, G, has the same numerical value for all objects (G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2).

Newton’s law of gravitation refers to the force between two particles or bodies. Actually such a gravitational
force is a pair of forces, an action-reaction pair. Although the masses of the particles may be different, forces
of equal magnitude act on each other, and the action line of both forces lies along the line joining the bodies.
Mass m1 attracts m2 with a force given by the equation F = Gm1m2/r2. By Newton’s third law of motion, action
and reaction are equal and opposite. Therefore, m2 also attracts m1 by an equal but opposite force.

Gravitational attraction keeps the moon in its orbit around the earth and the earth in its orbit around the sun.
Gravitational forces are always those of attraction.

Example

Two 5.0 kg spherical balls are placed so that their centres are 50.0 cm apart. What is the magnitude of the
gravitational force between the two balls? (G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2)

Solution

F = Gm1m2/r2

= 6.67 x 10-11 x 5.0 x 5.0/0.52

= 6.67 x 25 x 10-11/0.52

= 6.67 x 10-9 N
Because of the universal law of gravitation, there is a gravitational force of attraction between the sun and the
planets, between earth and the moon, and also between other planets.

Relation between the Gravitational Constant ‘G’ and the acceleration of gravity at the earth surface ‘g’

The earth is supposed to be a sphere of radius, re, with its mass me concentrated at the earth’s centre. The
distance of any object on the earth’s surface to the centre of the earth is re the earth’s radius. The gravitational
force of attraction of the earth on any mass, m, on the earth’s surface is given by

F =Gmem/re2

This is the force of gravity on the mass due to the earth, that is, the weight of the object, mg, where ‘g’ is the
acceleration due to gravity.

Thus, F =Gmem/re2 = mg

The force per unit mass, F/m, is given by

F/m = Gems/re2 = g

Hence g = Gme/re2

This means that the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ can be considered as the force per unit mass on the earth’s
surface. According to this equation g = Gme/re2, the acceleration of gravity, ‘g’ at the surface of the earth, is
determined by me (the earth’s mass), and re (the earth’s radius), hence from equation g = Gme/re2 we should ‘g’
to be slightly greater at the top of the mountain   than at the sea level. This is what actually obtains in practice.

If ‘g’ and ‘G’ are actually known we can use equation g = Gme/re2 to calculate the earth’s mass, me.

Me = gre2/G.

The radius of the moon is one-fourth, and its mass is one eighty-first that of the earth. If the acceleration due to
gravity on the surface of the earth is 9.8 ms-2, what is its value on the moon’s surface.

The relation between g and G is given by

g = Gme/re2

For the earth, ge = Gme/re2                                    (i)

For the moon, gm = Gmm/rm2                                            (ii)

Since G is the universal constant of gravitation it is constant for both equations.

rm = re/4                                                                     (iii)

mm = me/81                                                              (iv)

From equation (i)

G = gere2/me                                                              (v)

Putting (v) in (ii) we have

gm = gere2/me . mm/rm2

 
= 9.8 x (re/ rm)2 x mm/me                                 (vi)

From (iii) re/rm = 4

From (iv) mm/me = 1/81

Putting these in equation (vi) we have: gm = 9.8 x (4)2 x 1/81

= 9.8 x 16 x 1/81 = 1.9 ms-2

Gravitational Potential

The work done in raising a mass, m from the ground surface to a height, h above the ground is given by

W = mgh

The work has been done against the gravitational pull of the earth. This work appears as the gravitational
potential energy (PE) of the body.

This potential energy is dependent of the height, h, or the relative position of the body from the ground or zero
level where the PE is considered to be zero.

In general points in any gravitational field possess gravitational potential. If free to move, a body will tend to
move from a point ay higher gravitational potential to points of lower gravitational potential

Gravitational Potential (G) at a point is defined as the work done in taking unit mass from infinity to that point.
Unit is jkg-1.

This gravitational potential is given by

V = -Gm/r

Where m is the mass producing the gravitational field and r is the distance of the point to the mass. The
gravitational potential decreases as r increases and become zero where r is infinitely large, the negative sign in
the equation above indicates that the potential at infinity (zero) is higher that the potential close to the mass.

Escape Velocity

There are many man-made satellites that circle around the earth at the present time. One common feature of
these bodies is that they are held in an approximately circular path by the earth’s gravitational pull. It is this
force that provides the needed earth’s centripetal force required to keep the satellites in their orbits. The
velocity (vs) of the satellite as it orbits round the earth is given by

Mvs2/re = F = Gmme/re2 (centripetal force) = (Gravitational force)

Hence vs = ÖGme/re

This is the velocity with which the satellite moves round the earth. Notice that the mass of the satellite does not
enter into this vs = ÖGme/re. All satellites in orbit with radius re must have the same speed. For a satellite to
escape from the earth and never return, it must be launched with a velocity greater than that required to make it
orbit.

We define the escape velocity (ve) as the minimum velocity required for an object (e.g. satellite or rocket) to
just escape or leave the gravitational influence or field of an astronomical body (e.g. the earth) permanently.

We can obtain the formula for the Escape velocity using the Newton’s law of universal gravitation which is an
inverse square law:

F = Gmem/r2

Let m be the mass of the satellite, and me, the mass of the earth.

The work done in carrying a mass m from a point at a distance r from the centre of the earth, to a distance so
great that the gravitational field is negligibly weak is given by

W=Fxr

But from equation 2.2, F = Gmem/r2

Hence, W = Gmem/r2.r = Gmem/r

This work must equal the kinetic energy of the body of mass m at this point, having a velocity v e. This kinetic
energy is given by:

KE = ½ mve2

½ mve2 = Gmem/r

ve2 = 2Gme/r

ve = Ö2Gme/r

If we launch the mass m from the earth’s surface, where r = R, we then have that v e = Ö2Gme/R

But from equation me = gre2/G, me = gr2/G

Hence ve = Ö2G/R.gR2/G

ve = Ö2gR

Where R is the earth’s radius

Questions

1. Determine the mass of the earth if the radius of the earth is approximately 6.38 x 10 6 m, G = 6.67 x 10-
11 
Nm2kg-2 and g = 9.80 ms-2.

A. 5 x 1024 kg B. 5.98 x 1025 C. 5.98 x 1024 D. 5.6 x 1025

2. Determine the force of attraction between the sun (ms = 1.99 x 1030 kg) and the earth (me = 5.98 x 1024 kg).
Assume the sun is 1.50 x 108 km from the earth.

A. 3.53 x 1018 B. 3.53 x 1022 N C. 3.05 x 1032 D. 3.3 x 1022

3. Which of the following is correct for Escape Velocity?

A. ve = Ö2Gr B. ve = Ö2Gr C. ve = Ö2gr D. ve = Ö2gR

4. The numerical value for gravitational constant G is

A. 6.42 x 10-11 Nm2 kg2 B. 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2 kg2 C. 7.8 x 10-11 Nm2 kg2 D. 6.67 x 10-15 Nm2 kg2

5. The expression F= Gm1m2/r2 indicates

A. The gravitational force of attraction B. The gravitational force of repulsion C. Gravitational force of
constant acceleration D. Force of repulsion