Journal of Sports Sciences

ISSN: 0264-0414 (Print) 1466-447X (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjsp20

Estimating fat-free mass in elite youth male soccer

players: cross-validation of different field methods
and development of prediction equation

Diego Munguía-Izquierdo, Luis Suárez-Arrones, Valter Di Salvo, Victor

Paredes-Hernández, Ignacio Ara & Alberto Mendez-Villanueva

To cite this article: Diego Munguía-Izquierdo, Luis Suárez-Arrones, Valter Di Salvo, Victor
Paredes-Hernández, Ignacio Ara & Alberto Mendez-Villanueva (2018): Estimating fat-free mass
in elite youth male soccer players: cross-validation of different field methods and development of
prediction equation, Journal of Sports Sciences, DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2018.1551045

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2018.1551045

Published online: 11 Dec 2018.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 31

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rjsp20
JOURNAL OF SPORTS SCIENCES, 2018
https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2018.1551045

SPORTS MEDICINE AND BIOMECHANICS

Estimating fat-free mass in elite youth male soccer players: cross-validation of

different field methods and development of prediction equation
Diego Munguía-Izquierdo a, Luis Suárez-Arronesa,b, Valter Di Salvob,c, Victor Paredes-Hernándezd,e, Ignacio Ara f

and Alberto Mendez-Villanuevab

a
Physical Performance Sports Research Center, Department of Sports and Computer Science, Section of Physical Education and Sports, Universidad
Pablo de Olavide, Seville, Spain; bFootball Performance & Science Department, ASPIRE Academy, Doha, Qatar; cDepartment of Movement, Human
and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Rome, Italy; dDepartment of Performance, Universidad Camilo José Cela, Madrid, Spain;
e
Performance and science department, Rayo Vallecano Football Club, Madrid, Spain; fGENUD Toledo Research Group, Universidad de Castilla-La
Mancha, Toledo, Spain

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This study determined the most effective field method for quantifying fat-free mass (FFM) in elite youth Accepted 1 March 2018
male soccer players compared to dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) values and to develop prediction
KEYWORDS
equations for FFM based on anthropometric variables. Forty-one male elite-standard youth soccer Lean mass; anthropometry;
players, ages 16.2–18.0 years, undertook FFM assessments including bioelectrical impedance analysis, dual X-ray absorptiometry;
and different skinfold-based prediction equations. DXA provided a criterion measure of FFM. Correlation bioelectrical impedance
coefficients, bias, limits of agreement, and differences were used as validity measures, and regression
analyses to develop soccer-specific prediction equations. Slaughter et al (1988), Durnin and Wormersley
(1974), and Sarria et al (1998) equations showed the lowest biases, and no significant, standardized, and
substantial differences against DXA. The new youth soccer-specific anthropometric equation explained
91% of the DXA-derived FFM variance using three circumferences, eight skinfolds, and one bone
breadth. All field methods compared in this study may not be adequate for estimating FFM in elite
youth male soccer players, except the equations of Slaughter et al (1988), Durnin and Wormersley
(1974), and Sarria et al (1998). We recommend the use of the new soccer-specific equation proposed in
this study as a valid alternative to DXA to quantify FFM among elite youth male players.

Introduction A method for the assessment of FFM that provide very accu-
rate values in highly-trained team sport players is dual-energy
Soccer is an intermittent and high-intensity team sport where
X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) (Bilsborough et al., 2014), however,
the movement patterns of players involve a wide range of
there are financial and logistical costs associated to DXA mea-
locomotor and non-locomotor activities, such as sprints,
surements that might prevent its frequent use in sports settings
jumps, kicks, in combination with accelerations, decelerations,
(Delaney et al., 2016). The most widely used method when no
and direction changes throughout a match. Fat-free mass (FFM)
financial resources are available is the anthropometric measure-
strongly contributes to strength and power performance
ments such as skinfolds, circumferences, and breadths. Several
(Deprez et al., 2015). Therefore, interventions that increase
prediction equations from anthropometric variables have been
FFM and reduce fat mass values might have the ability to
validated (Delaney et al., 2016) and performed specifically for
impact some of the physical qualities associated with soccer on-
other team sport players such as rugby players (Slater, Duthie,
field physical performance (Chaouachi et al., 2012).
Pyne, & Hopkins, 2006) and the general adolescent population
Fat-free mass is highly responsive to age, training history
(Silva, Fields, & Sardinha, 2013). Another alternative method that
(Milsom et al., 2015), training, nutritional interventions and
is growing in soccer because of their quick measure, technical
long-term injury (Milsom, Barreira, Burgess, Iqbal, & Morton,
simplicity and satisfactory reliability (Buckinx et al., 2015) is the
2014) in elite soccer players. Late adolescent soccer players
bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA). However, conflicting find-
showed greater total FFM, cross-sectional area of psoas major
ings regarding validity of BIA FFM in athletes (Delaney et al.,
and hamstring muscles and hip flexion and knee extension
2016; Moon, 2013) warrant additional research in soccer players.
force as compared to age matched non-athletes (Hoshikawa
Field methods such as BIA or anthropometry can be a practical,
et al., 2012, 2010). Fat-free mass of late adolescent soccer
noninvasive, low-cost, fast, and easily accessible alternative to
players is a longitudinal predictor of explosive leg power
more expensive and complex methods such as DXA to predict
(Deprez et al., 2015). Consequently, there is a need to quantify
FFM in elite youth male soccer players. However, although multiple
accurately the FFM levels of elite youth male soccer players to
studies have widely used BIA (Deprez et al., 2015) and different
prescribe training and nutritional interventions with the goal
anthropometric equations (Carling & Orhant, 2010; Massidda et al.,
of promoting FFM gain.

CONTACT Diego Munguía-Izquierdo [email protected] Departamento de Deporte e Informática, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Carretera Utrera Km. 1, s/n,
Sevilla 41013, España
© 2018 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 D. MUNGUÍA-IZQUIERDO ET AL.

2016) in elite youth male soccer players to predict FFM, no data are conducted at the same hour of the day, in the same well-
currently available about the validity of these methods in elite ventilated room with controlled temperature and humidity.
youth male soccer players and there is no specific equation avail-
able for this population. Consequently, the aim of this study was to
Anthropometry
determine the most effective field method for quantifying FFM in
elite youth male soccer players compared to DXA, and to develop Body mass and height were measured without shoes to the
prediction equations for FFM with anthropometric variables. nearest 0.1 kg and 0.1 cm using a stadiometer and scale (Seca,
Seca 711, Hamburg, Germany), respectively, and body mass
index (kg/m2) was calculated. Eight skinfold thicknesses (tri-
Methods ceps, biceps, subscapular, iliac crest, supraspinale, abdominal,
anterior thigh and medial calf), six circumferences (arm flexed,
Participants arm relaxed, waist, hip, thigh, and calf), and two bone biepi-
Forty-one male elite-standard youth soccer players, condylar breadths (humerus and femur) were measured with
16.2–18.0 years old (mean 17.1, SD ± 0.6) who were recruited a skinfold caliper, tape, and caliper (Holtain, Crymych, United
from the development program of a professional Spanish Kingdom), respectively. All anthropometric measures were
soccer club competing in La Liga participated in this study. taken by the same Level II International Society for the
Data were collected during the competitive season from Advancement of Kinanthropometry qualified anthropometrist
January to February. At the time of study, all players per- according to standard methods (Stewart, Marfell-Jones, Olds, &
formed four–five regular training sessions per week (about de Ridder, 2011). Duplicate measurements were obtained from
90–120 min per session) and played one official soccer game each anthropometric variable and the mean of the two first
per week. Written consent was obtained before to start the measures was used for analysis. A third measure was taken if
study from the participants and their parents or legal repre- the technical error of measurement was exceeded (>5% for
sentatives after being fully informed about the experimental skinfold measurements, and >1% for circumferences and bone
procedures, purpose, and potential risks of the study. The breadths), and consequently, the median of the triplicate
study procedures were approved by the Ethics Committee of measurements was used for subsequent analysis.
the institutions involved. Percentage of body fat was then calculated from the equa-
tions most commonly used to predict percentage of body fat
from skinfold thickness in a male adolescent population
(Rodríguez et al., 2005), elite youth male soccer players
Procedure
(Kemper et al., 2015; Lago-Peñas, Casais, Dellal, Rey, &
This was a cross-sectional validation study, where the height Domínguez, 2011; Teixeira et al., 2015) and professional adult
and body mass of the participants were measured using stan- soccer players (Reilly et al., 2009). Twelve equations were used
dardized procedures and then were asked to undergo exam- to estimate percentage of body fat (Brook, 1971; Carter, 1982;
inations of BIA using two different devices to assess body Deurenberg, Pieters, & Hautvast, 1990; Durnin & Rahaman,
mass and FFM. Thereafter, skinfolds measurements were 1967; Durnin & Womersley, 1974; Faulkner, 1968; Lohman,
taken according to standard procedures and, lastly, partici- 1981; Reilly et al., 2009; Sarría et al., 1998; Slaughter et al.,
pants were assessed using DXA, in that sequence. The skinfold 1988; Withers, Craig, Bourdon, & Norton, 1987). Where body
data were applied to a number of existing methods commonly density was calculated from an equation, the Siri equation
reported in the literature for FFM prediction. Fat-free mass (Siri, 1956) adapted for age (Wells et al., 2010) was used to
estimated from skinfold-derived FFM equations and BIA mea- estimate percentage of body fat. Fat-free mass values were
surements were compared against FFM results from DXA to obtained from the measures of estimated body fat and body
determine validity of these practical methods for use in elite mass. Fat mass was subtracted from body mass to obtain FFM
youth male soccer players. A youth soccer-specific prediction (0.1 kg). Additionally, an equation originally developed for
equation was generated from anthropometric measures using rugby union players called lean mass index (Slater et al.,
multiple regression analysis, considering DXA values as 2006) was calculated. In accordance to a previous study
reference. (Delaney et al., 2016), we used the same exponent (mean
Each participant underwent an identical assessment session score) to reflect the homogeneity in the anthropometric char-
during a period of ~30–45 minutes in which all measurements acteristics of the current soccer players sample.
were performed. Several days were needed to assess all parti-
cipants. Each participant undertook the assessment session
Bioelectrical impedance analysis
under standardized conditions such as a rested, overnight
fasted, and hydrated state. Participants were instructed to The BIA measurements were taken using InBody 770 (Biospace,
follow standard protocol of food and fluid consuming Seoul, Korea) and Tanita BC-418 (Tanita Corp., Tokyo, Japan)
a normal evening meal the night before, avoid strenuous devices, which were previously used in elite youth male soccer
exercise, stimulants or depressants for 24 hours prior to test- players to predict body mass and composition (Rebelo et al.,
ing, evacuate bladder and bowel prior to testing session, as 2013; Vänttinen, Blomqvist, Nyman, & Häkkinen, 2011). Before
well as remove all metal objects and wear minimal clothing each measurement, the participants’ palms and soles were
(underwear only) during the assessments. All participants wiped with an electrolyte tissue. Then, the participants stood
verbally agreed to the testing conditions. Each session was on InBody 770 and Tanita BC-418 scales with their soles in
 JOURNAL OF SPORTS SCIENCES 3

contact with the foot electrodes and body mass were mea- standardized differences in FFM and Hopkin’s scale for determin-
sured. Then, sex, age, and height were entered directly into ing the magnitude of the effect size was used where 0–0.2 = trivial,
the instrument prior to the impedance measure. Participants 0.2–0.6 = small, 0.6–1.2 = moderate, 1.2–2.0 = large, >2.0 = very
firmly grasped the hand grips while placing the thumb and large (Hopkins et al., 2009). A practically worthwhile difference was
fingers in the standard location as indicated in the operation assumed when the difference score was at least 0.2 of the
manual. The FFM analysis was initiated while the participants between-subject SD. To establish the most effective practical mea-
remained as motionless as possible. The impedance measure- sure of FFM, differences between methods were analyzed qualita-
ments were performed three times for InBody 770 and tively, using a customized spreadsheet (Hopkins, 2000). The
Tanita BC-418 devices in each participant and the mean of the probability of a true difference between methods was classified
two first measures was used for analysis. If the two first mea- as: almost certainly not, <0.5%; very unlikely, 0.5–5%; unlikely,
sures differed by more than 0.05, a third measure was taken and 5–25%; possibly, 25–75%; likely, 75–95%; very likely, 95–99.5%;
the median of the triplicate measurements was used for sub- and almost certainly, >99.5%. A substantial effect was set at
sequent analysis. >75% (Batterham & Hopkins, 2006; Suarez-Arrones et al., 2016).
Bland-Altman plots were used to provide data an on individual
level identifying the 95% levels of agreement between the criter-
Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry
ion and predicted values (Bland & Altman, 1986).
Total body composition was assessed by dual energy x-ray Stepwise regression analyses were performed to obtain the
absorptiometry (DXA) Hologic Corp., Hologic Series Discovery best model for prediction from which a youth soccer-specific
QDR, Bedford, MA, USA) with software (Physician’s Viewer, prediction equation was derived. Fat-free mass by DXA was
APEX System Software Version 3.1.2, Bedford, MA, USA) follow- used as dependent variable; and predictor variables were
ing the DXA best practice guidelines described previously anthropometry variables significantly correlated with FFM. All
(Nana et al., 2016) to estimate FFM. The participants assumed statistical analyses were carried out using the Microsoft Excel
a stationary, supine position on the scanning table, with hands software (Microsoft, Redmond, WA, USA) and the Statistical
level with the hips and feet slightly apart. A strap around the Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS 2010, IBM SPSS Statistics
ankles above the foot positioning pad was used to minimize 19 Core System User’s Guide; SPSS, Inc., Chicago,IL).
any subject movement during the scan. All DXA scans, which Significance was set at p < 0.05.
were completed with the same device and software, were
performed by at least 1 of the 2 trained DXA technicians,
Results
who positioned the participants, performed the scan, and
executed the analysis. Fat-free mass was obtained by the Physical characteristics of participants are shown in Table 1. The
sum of the lean soft tissue mass and bone mineral content technical errors of measurements were ≤1.76% for skinfold mea-
and was calculated from whole-body scans. The built-in soft- surements, and ≤0.38% for circumferences and bone breadths.
ware provided measures of FFM. Precision errors for regional The coefficients of variation were ≤2.11% for skinfold measure-
analysis of the complete body scan, defined by the coefficient ments, and ≤0.69% for circumferences and bone breadths
of variation for repeated measures estimated in young volun- (Table 2).
teers with repositioning, were <3.3% for the FFM (Calbet, Correlations, bias, limits of agreement and systematic, standar-
Moysi, Dorado, & Rodríguez, 1998). dized, and qualitative differences between DXA FFM and other
practical estimates of FFM for elite youth male soccer players are
shown in Table 3. All skinfold equations and BIA FFM data showed
Statistical analyses
almost perfect positive correlations (r from 0.94 to 0.97; all p < 0.05)
Descriptive statistics were calculated for each variable. Coefficient with DXA. Six sets of equations showed no standardized and
of variation and absolute and relative (percentage) technical error substantial differences against DXA (Deurenberg et al., 1990;
of measurement of each anthropometric variable were calculated Durnin & Rahaman, 1967; Durnin & Womersley, 1974; Faulkner,
with the commonly used formulas (Ulijaszek & Kerr, 1999). 1968; Sarría et al., 1998; Slaughter et al., 1988). However, only three
Normality of distribution of the data was verified by the Shapiro- equations (Durnin & Womersley, 1974; Sarría et al., 1998; Slaughter
Wilk test. Paired t-test, Pearson correlations (± 90% CI), bias, limits et al., 1988) showed the lowest biases, and no significant differ-
of agreement, standardized differences (± 90% CI), and qualitative ences against DXA. The Bland-Altman plots for intermethod agree-
differences were used to compare between criterion (DXA) FFM ment between the three equations (Durnin & Womersley, 1974;
and other practical field methods to estimate FFM (skinfold equa- Sarría et al., 1998; Slaughter et al., 1988) and DXA FFM are shown in
tions and BIA data). Figure 1. The rest of the equations and BIA data showed high
Correlation coefficients were qualitatively ranked by magnitude biases.
as: trivial, r < 0.1; small, 0.1 < r < 0.3; moderate, 0.3 < r < 0.5; large, All circumferences and breadths showed significant large-to-
0.5 < r < 0.7; very large, 0.7 < r < 0.9; almost perfect, 0.9 < r < 1.0; and very large positive correlation with DXA-derived FFM (r from 0.51
perfect r = 1.0 (Hopkins, Marshall, Batterham, & Hanin, 2009), this to 0.80; all p < 0.05) (Table 4). Triceps, subscapular, and abdom-
coefficient was used to compare with other studies that evaluate inal skinfolds, and all sums of skinfolds, except the sum of 5
team sport players using the same approach (Delaney et al., 2016; skinfolds, showed significant moderate positive correlation with
Reilly et al., 2009; Slater et al., 2006). The data were assessed for DXA-derived FFM (r from 0.32 to 0.42; all p < 0.05) (Table 4). All
clinical significance using an approach based on the magnitudes of anthropometric variables significantly correlated were included
change. Cohen’s d statistic determined the effect size of the in the regression analysis. The different models for the stepwise
4 D. MUNGUÍA-IZQUIERDO ET AL.

Table 1. Physical characteristics of the participants (n = 41). Table 2. Coefficient of variation, absolute and relative technical error of measure-
Mean SD ment for anthropometric variables in elite youth male soccer players (n = 41).
Age (y) 17.1 0.6 Coefficient of variation (%) Absolut (mm) Relative (%)
Weight (kg) 67.6 5.8 Skinfolds
Height (cm) 175.0 5.9 Triceps 1.57 0.13 1.56
BMI (kg/m2) 22.1 1.3 Subscapular 1.17 0.14 1.74
%BF by DXA 11.2 2.3 Biceps 1.49 0.05 1.65
FFM by DXA (kg) 59.7 4.5 Iliac rest 1.70 0.19 1.70
Skinfolds (mm) Supraspinale 1.98 0.11 1.57
triceps 8.4 2.3 Abdominal 2.11 0.16 1.65
subscapular 7.9 1.1 Anterior thigh 1.89 0.18 1.76
biceps 3.3 0.4 Medial calf 1.62 0.10 1.47
iliac rest 11.0 3.6 Circumferences
supraspinale 6.8 2.0 Arm relaxed 0.55 0.11 0.38
abdominal 9.6 3.1 Arm flexed 0.34 0.09 0.29
anterior thigh 10.4 2.8 Waist 0.46 0.22 0.30
medial calf 6.9 2.1 Hip 0.36 0.34 0.37
Circumferences (cm) Thigh 0.17 0.13 0.25
arm relaxed 27.8 1.7 Calf 0.30 0.10 0.27
arm flexed 30.4 1.8 Breadths
waist 74.6 3.0 Humerus 0.69 0.02 0.27
hip 92.6 3.7 Femur 0.33 0.03 0.32
thigh 52.9 2.5
calf 36.6 1.4
Breadths (cm)
humerus 7.0 0.3 skinfold equations (Durnin & Womersley, 1974; Sarría et al.,
femur 9.8 0.4 1998; Slaughter et al., 1988) for elite youth male soccer players
BMI = body mass index; %BF = percentage of body fat; were the least biased, highly correlated and accurate with
FFM = fat-free mass; DXA = dual X-ray absorptiometry. DXA-calculated FFM compared to the BIA data and the rest
of anthropometric equations found in the literature; 2) the hip
linear regression analysis are shown in Table 5. The main pre- circumference was the main independent predictor of FFM in
dictor of FFM was the hip circumference. An equation including our sample of elite youth male soccer players and; 3) an
humerus breadth, sum of 8 skinfolds, and hip, waist, flexed arm, equation for elite youth male soccer players explained 91%
and calf circumferences showed an adjusted R2 value of 0.89 of the variance in DXA total FFM using three circumferences,
(p < 0.05). The developed equation computes as follows: FFM eight skinfolds, and one bone breadth.
(kg) = −84.470 + (0.692 x hip circumference) + (0.532 x waist Although all practical methods produced high correlations
circumference) + (−0.090 x sum of 8 skinfolds) + (0.629 x flexed values (r ≥ 0.94), the high biases and differences against DXA
arm circumference) + (1.681 x humerus breadth) + (0.420 x calf in most of methods analyzed suggest these methods should
circumference), where sum of skinfold is expressed in millimeters be used with caution when estimating FFM in elite youth male
and breadth and circumferences in centimeters. soccer players. The lean mass index (Slater et al., 2006) showed
the highest bias and difference against DXA in our soccer
players. This may be explained by the equation originally
being developed and validated for tracking proportional
Discussion changes in FFM of rugby athletes with different age and
This study compared a wide range of field estimations of FFM anthropometric characteristics to the current cohort. Our find-
against DXA technology to determine the most effective field ings suggest that any of these three skinfold equations
method for quantifying FFM amongst elite youth male soccer (Durnin & Womersley, 1974; Sarría et al., 1998; Slaughter
players. The main findings of this study were: 1) that three et al., 1988) can be appropriate for the cross-sectional

Table 3. Cross-sectional validity between criterion (DXA) fat-free mass and other practical estimates of fat-free mass in young soccer players at midseason (n = 41).
Correlation
Estimates of fat-free mass (90% CI) Bias (±LoA) Standardized differences (90% CL) Qualitative assessment
Slaughter et al 0.95 (0.92; 0.98) −0.41 (±2.78) −0.09 (0.08) Very likely trivial 0/99/1
Faulkner et al 0.97 (0.95; 0.98) 0.64* (±2.26) 0.14 (0.07) Likely trivial 6/94/0
Carter 0.97 (0.95; 0.98) 2.63* (±2.42) 0.57 (0.07) Almost certainly 100/0/0
Durnin-Wormersley 0.95 (0.92; 0.97) −0.26 (±2.63) −0.06 (0.08) Almost certainly trivial 0/100/0
Durnin-Rahaman 0.96 (0.93; 0.98) 0.54* (±2.50) 0.12 (0.07) Very likely trivial 3/97/0
Brooks 0.94 (0.90; 0.96) −3.70* (±3.10) −0.80 (0.09) Almost certainly 0/0/100
Withers et al 0.96 (0.93; 0.98) 2.26* (±2.56) 0.49 (0.07) Almost certainly 100/0/0
Lohman 0.96 (0.93; 0.98) 3.91* (±2.97) 0.85 (0.09) Almost certainly 100/0/0
Sarria et al 0.96 (0.93; 0.97) 0.34 (±2.61) 0.07 (0.08) Almost certainly trivial 0/100/0
Deurenberg et al 0.96 (0.94; 0.98) 0.59* (±2.42) 0.13 (0.07) Likely trivial 5/95/5
Reilly et al 0.97 (0.95; 0.98) 0.88* (±2.24) 0.19 (0.07) Possibly 41/59/0
Lean mass index 0.97 (0.95; 0.98) −20.06* (±3.56) −4.35 (0.10) Almost certainly 0/0/100
BIA Inbody 0.95 (0.92; 0.97) −0.82* (±2.88) −0.18 (0.08) Possibly 0/67/33
BIA Tanita 0.95 (0.92; 0.97) −2.62* (±2.81) −0.57 (0.08) Almost certainly 0/0/100
Significant differences between criterion (DXA) fat-free mass and other practical estimates of fat-free mass using paired t test*
CI = confidence interval; LoA = level of agreement; CL = confidence level; BIA = bioelectrical impedance analysis.
 JOURNAL OF SPORTS SCIENCES 5

4,0

Differences of FFM between methods (kg)

3,0

2,0

1,0

0,0

-1,0

-2,0

-3,0

-4,0
50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72

Mean of FFM by DXA and Durnin & Wormersley (1974) equation (kg)

4,0
Differences of FFM between methods (kg)

3,0

2,0

1,0

0,0

-1,0

-2,0

-3,0

-4,0
50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72

Mean of FFM by DXA and Sarria et al (1998) equation (kg)

4,0
Differences of FFM between methods (kg)

3,0

2,0

1,0

0,0

-1,0

-2,0

-3,0

-4,0
50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72

Mean of FFM by DXA and Slaughter et al (1988) equation (kg)

Figure 1. Bland and Altman plots of the differences between methods for (a) Durnin and Womersley (1974), (b) Sarría et al. (1998), and (c) Slaughter et al. (1988)
equations. The means of the differences (solid lines) and limits of agreement (dashed lines) within ±2 SDs are shown.

assessment of FFM in elite youth male soccer players. Therefore, the use of only two skinfolds sites provides an
However, one equation (Slaughter et al., 1988) uses only two advantage in the field-based assessment of FFM in elite
skinfolds sites with similar validity results to the other two youth male soccer players, as it can substantially reduce the
equations (Durnin & Womersley, 1974; Sarría et al., 1998). time needed to assess an entire squad.
6 D. MUNGUÍA-IZQUIERDO ET AL.

Table 4. The relationship between criterion (DXA) whole-body fat-free mass and All circumferences and breadths showed stronger correla-
the different anthropometric variables in elite youth male soccer players tions with DXA-derived FFM than skinfolds. The high correlations
(n = 41).
of the circumferences can be explained because the circumfer-
Correlation P value
ences of elite youth male soccer players are influenced by the
Skinfolds
Triceps 0.42 0.006 high cross-sectional area (Hoshikawa et al., 2012, 2010) and low
Subscapular 0.41 0.008 fat tissue of the main muscle groups (Milsom et al., 2015). The
Biceps 0.07 0.688 high correlations of breadths, primarily femur breadth, and FFM
Iliac rest 0.21 0.182
Supraspinale 0.24 0.135 can be explained by the reported associations between FFM and
Abdominal 0.35 0.027 bone morphology in adolescents (El Hage, Courteix, Benhamou,
Anterior thigh 0.05 0.754 Jacob, & Jaffré, 2009).
Medial calf 0.23 0.156
Σ4 skinfolds (triceps, subscapular, supraspinale, abdominal) 0.39 0.012 To the authors’ knowledge, the new soccer-specific equa-
Σ4 skinfolds (triceps, subscapular, biceps, iliac crest) 0.34 0.031 tion for elite youth male players reported in the present study
Σ4 skinfolds (triceps, abdominal, anterior thigh, medial calf) 0.33 0.035 is the only practical method specifically developed and vali-
Σ5 skinfolds 0.28 0.078
Σ6 skinfolds 0.34 0.028 dated to quantify FFM in this population. This proposed equa-
Σ7 skinfolds 0.34 0.031 tion was able to account for more than 90% of the variance in
Σ8 skinfolds 0.32 0.045 DXA total FFM, in line with other anthropometric equations
Circumferences
Arm relaxed 0.64 0.000 developed for male athletes from several sports (Stewart &
Arm flexed 0.66 0.000 Hannan, 2000) and professional rugby league players (Slater
Waist 0.70 0.000 et al., 2006). These findings suggest that the development of
Hip 0.80 0.000
Thigh 0.69 0.000 sex- and population-specific anthropometric equations can be
Calf 0.61 0.000 an adequate method for the cross-sectional assessment of
Breadths FFM, especially with highly-trained athletes. The hip circum-
Humerus 0.51 0.001
Femur 0.70 0.000 ference as the main independent predictor of FFM in our elite
Σ5 skinfolds = triceps, subscapular, biceps, iliac crest, anterior thigh; Σ6 skin- youth male soccer players might be explained because some
folds = subscapular, triceps, supraspinale, abdominal, anterior thigh, medial of the most important muscle groups related to soccer loco-
calf; Σ7 skinfolds = biceps, subscapular, triceps, supraspinale, abdominal, anterior motor activities (e.g., sprinting, jumping) such as hip extensors
thigh, medial calf; Σ8 skinfolds = biceps, subscapular, triceps, iliac crest, supras-
pinale, abdominal, anterior thigh, medial calf. and flexors are located on this anatomical area. These findings
are consistent with previous studies supporting a greater
cross-sectional area and force of lower limb muscles of youth
Skinfold thickness equations were better predictors of DXA- male soccer players as compared to age matched non-athletes
derived FFM than BIA data in elite youth male soccer players, (Hoshikawa et al., 2010, 2012).
which is consistent with other male athletes from several The present study includes several limitations. Although the
sports (Stewart & Hannan, 2000). Our findings showed that current study gives support to the use of anthropometric equa-
BIA data underestimated FFM compared with DXA. These tions and BIA at a single time point, such cross-sectional design
differences can be explained because our sample was does not address the assessment of within-subject changes in
a specific population with a narrow age group and the BIA FFM. Future longitudinal studies are needed to determine the
equations used to derive specific values for body composition most appropriate measure for tracking changes in FFM over
are based on statistical analyses derived from samples with time. This study was performed in Caucasian elite youth male
a broad range of age and body composition levels. The InBody soccer players, and consequently, it is not possible to assume
770 and primarily Tanita BC-418 may consistently provide that similar results would be observed in soccer players from
lower FFM than DXA in elite youth male soccer players. Our other ethnicities. However, this study sample includes elite youth
estimates of FFM obtained from Tanita BC-418 in elite youth male soccer players of a narrow age group. The new youth
male soccer players reported lower FFM than InBody 770, soccer-specific FFM equation was derived from the current sam-
which indicates that there might have a high systematic ple; therefore, future cross-validation studies in different samples
error in the prediction equation embedded in Tanita BC-418. of elite youth male soccer players are needed to confirm our

Table 5. Stepwise regression analysis predicting fat-free mass from anthropometric variables in elite youth male soccer players (n = 41).
Model R R2 Adjusted R2 SEE R2 change F F change Significant F change
1 0.797 0.636 0.626 2.764 0.636 68.041 68.041 <0.001
2 0.867 0.751 0.738 2.315 0.115 57.303 17.601 <0.001
3 0.915 0.837 0.824 1.900 0.086 63.221 19.441 <0.001
4 0.941 0.886 0.873 1.610 0.049 69.895 15.514 <0.001
5 0.948 0.899 0.884 1.539 0.013 62.099 4.413 0.043
6 0.954 0.910 0.894 1.470 0.011 57.408 4.338 0.045
Model 1: hip circumference
Model 2: hip circumference, waist circumference
Model 3: hip circumference, waist circumference, sum of 8 skinfolds
Model 4: hip circumference, waist circumference, sum of 8 skinfolds, flexed arm circumference
Model 5: hip circumference, waist circumference, sum of 8 skinfolds, flexed arm circumference, humerus breadth
Model 6: hip circumference, waist circumference, sum of 8 skinfolds, flexed arm circumference, humerus breadth, calf circumference
R2 = coefficient of determination; SEE = standard error of the estimate.
 JOURNAL OF SPORTS SCIENCES 7

results. Muscle glycogen levels and water content are considered Acknowledgments
two limiting factors during DXA FFM assessment because both
The authors want to thank all the players and their parents that participated
factors can markedly change in humans and DXA does not in the study for their collaboration. Gratefully acknowledge Research Group
provide a direct measure of water and muscle glycogen content CTS-948 of Universidad Pablo de Olavide for their work and technical
(Lohman & Chen, 2005). We instructed the participants to con- support to this research during the experiments.
sume a normal evening meal the night prior to testing and to
avoid strenuous exercise for 24 hours prior to testing in order to
minimize the influence of muscle glycogen content on the Disclosure statement
determination of FFM, as an acute high-carbohydrate diet has No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
been shown to increase muscle glycogen content in young men
(Rouillier, David-Riel, Brazeau, St-Pierre, & Karelis, 2015). Although
participants were instructed to consume a normal evening meal Funding
the night prior to testing and to be hydrated following a strict
This study was made possible by NPRP grant #6-1526-3-363 from the
protocol, the evening meal prior to use DXA was not standar- Qatar National Research Fund (a member of Qatar Foundation).
dized and hydration status of the study subjects was not deter-
mined before the FFM assessment. Additional research is
warranted to determine the effects of acute changes in muscle ORCID
glycogen content and hydration status for all practical methods. Diego Munguía-Izquierdo http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7817-747X
The use of DXA as reference method is a strength because Ignacio Ara http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2854-6684
it has shown high precision and accuracy of FFM assessments
in highly-trained team sport players (Bilsborough et al., 2014).
Other strengths include the wide variety of methods used to References
calculate FFM (DXA scan, two different equipments of BIA, and Batterham, A. M., & Hopkins, W. G. (2006). Making meaningful inferences
12 skinfold-based prediction equations), and the harmoniza- about magnitudes. International Journal of Sports Physiology and
tion of anthropometric methodology as per the highest stan- Performance, 1(1), 50–57.
dards of International Society for the Advancement of Bilsborough, J. C., Greenway, K., Opar, D., Livingstone, S., Cordy, J., &
Coutts, A. J. (2014). The accuracy and precision of DXA for assessing body
Kinanthropometry guidelines (Stewart et al., 2011). composition in team sport athletes. Journal of Sports Sciences, 414, 1–8.
To summarize, field practitioners might benefit from using Bland, J. M., & Altman, D. G. (1986). Statistical methods for assessing
our proposed and validated equation by which FFM can be agreement between two methods of clinical measurement. Lancet
obtained by means of a skinfold caliper (eight skinfolds), (London, England), 1(8476), 307–310. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.
measuring tape (hip, calf and flexed arm circumferences) and nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2868172
Brook, C. G. (1971). Determination of body composition of children from
caliper (humerus breadth). Importantly, the guidelines given skinfold measurements. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 46(246),
by the International Society for the Advancement of 182–184. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5576028
Kinanthropometry should be strictly followed, in order to Buckinx, F., Reginster, J.-Y., Dardenne, N., Croisiser, J.-L., Kaux, J.-F.,
reduce the technical error of measurement, as demonstrated Beaudart, C., … Bruyère, O. (2015). Concordance between muscle
in the present manuscript. Considering the time required to mass assessed by bioelectrical impedance analysis and by dual energy
X-ray absorptiometry: A cross-sectional study. BMC Musculoskeletal
collect these anthropometric measures (15–20 min), FFM Disorders, 16(1), 60.
determination might be periodized during critical time- Calbet, J. A., Moysi, J. S., Dorado, C., & Rodríguez, L. P. (1998). Bone mineral
points along the season (e.g. pre-season and winter-break) in content and density in professional tennis players. Calcified Tissue
which individualized and specific training programs according International, 62(6), 491–496. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
to the FFM assessment might be more easily introduced gov/pubmed/9576975
Carling, C., & Orhant, E. (2010). Variation in body composition in profes-
within the training plan. sional soccer players: Interseasonal and intraseasonal changes and the
effects of exposure time and player position. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research, 24(5), 1332–1339.
Carter, J. E. L. (1982). 7. Body composition of Montreal olympic athletes (pp.
Conclusions 107–116). Karger Publishers. doi:10.1159/000406783
Chaouachi, A., Manzi, V., Chaalali, A., Wong Del, P., Chamari, K., &
All field methods compared in this study may not be ade- Castagna, C. (2012). Determinants analysis of change-of-direction abil-
quate for the cross-sectional assessment of FFM in elite ity in elite soccer players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
youth male soccer players, except three equations (Durnin 26(10), 2667–2676.
& Womersley, 1974; Sarría et al., 1998; Slaughter et al., Delaney, J. A., Thornton, H. R., Scott, T. J., Ballard, D. A., Duthie, G. M.,
Wood, L. G., & Dascombe, B. J. (2016). Validity of skinfold-based measures
1988). However, one equation (Slaughter et al., 1988) pro-
for tracking changes in body composition in professional rugby league
vides an advantage in the field-based assessment of FFM players. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 11(2),
because it uses only two skinfolds sites with similar validity 261–266.
results than the other two equations (Durnin & Womersley, Deprez, D., Valente-Dos-Santos, J., Coelho-E-Silva, M. J., Lenoir, M.,
1974; Sarría et al., 1998). We recommend the use of the new Philippaerts, R., & Vaeyens, R. (2015). Longitudinal development of
explosive leg power from childhood to adulthood in soccer players.
soccer-specific equation proposed in this study as a simple,
International Journal of Sports Medicine, 36(8), 672–679.
portable, cost-free, and valid alternative to DXA to quantify Deurenberg, P., Pieters, J. J., & Hautvast, J. G. (1990). The assessment of the
FFM accurately, safely, and with a strong predictive power body fat percentage by skinfold thickness measurements in childhood
among elite youth male players. and young adolescence. The British Journal of Nutrition, 63(2), 293–303.
8 D. MUNGUÍA-IZQUIERDO ET AL.

Durnin, J. V., & Rahaman, M. M. (1967). The assessment of the amount of competitive level and field position. International Journal of Sports
fat in the human body from measurements of skinfold thickness. The Medicine, 34(4), 312–317.
British Journal of Nutrition, 21(3), 681–689. Reilly, T., George, K., Marfell-Jones, M., Scott, M., Sutton, L., & Wallace, J. A.
Durnin, J. V., & Womersley, J. (1974). Body fat assessed from total body (2009). How well do skinfold equations predict percent body fat in elite
density and its estimation from skinfold thickness : Measurements on soccer players? International Journal of Sports Medicine, 30(8), 607–613.
481 men and women aged from 16 to 72 years. British Journal of Rodríguez, G., Moreno, L. A., Blay, M. G., Blay, V. A., Fleta, J., & Sarría, A.; AVENA-
Nutrition, 32(1), 77–97. Zaragoza Study Group. (2005). Body fat measurement in adolescents:
El Hage, R. P., Courteix, D., Benhamou, C.-L., Jacob, C., & Jaffré, C. (2009). Comparison of skinfold thickness equations with dual-energy X-ray
Relative importance of lean and fat mass on bone mineral density in absorptiometry. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 59(10), 1158–1166.
a group of adolescent girls and boys. European Journal of Applied Rouillier, M.-A., David-Riel, S., Brazeau, A.-S., St-Pierre, D. H., & Karelis, A. D. (2015).
Physiology, 105(5), 759–764. Effect of an acute high carbohydrate diet on body composition using DXA in
Faulkner, J. (1968). Physiology of swimming and diving. In H. B. Falls (Ed.), young men. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 66(4), 233–236.
Exercise physiology. New York, NY: Academic Press. Sarría, A., García-Llop, L. A., Moreno, L. A., Fleta, J., Morellón, M. P., & Bueno, M.
Hopkins, W. G. (2000). Analysis of validity by linear regression (Excel spread- (1998). Skinfold thickness measurements are better predictors of body fat
sheet). A new view of statistics. Sportsci. org. Internet Society for Sport percentage than body mass index in male Spanish children and
Science. Retrieved from http://www.sportsci.org/resource/stats/ adolescents. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 52(8), 573–576.
Hopkins, W. G., Marshall, S. W., Batterham, A. M., & Hanin, J. (2009). Silva, A. M., Fields, D. A., & Sardinha, L. B. (2013). A PRISMA-driven systematic
Progressive statistics for studies in sports medicine and exercise review of predictive equations for assessing fat and fat-free mass in
science. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 41(1), 3–13. healthy children and adolescents using multicomponent molecular mod-
Hoshikawa, Y., Iida, T., Ii, N., Muramatsu, M., Nakajima, Y., Chumank, K., & els as the reference method. Journal of Obesity, (2013, 148696.
Kanehisa, H. (2012). Cross-sectional area of psoas major muscle and hip Siri, W. E. (1956). The gross composition of the body. Advances in Biological
flexion strength in youth soccer players. European Journal of Applied and Medical Physics. doi:10.1016/B978-1-4832-3110-5.50011-X
Physiology, 112(10), 3487–3494. Slater, G. J., Duthie, G. M., Pyne, D. B., & Hopkins, W. G. (2006). Validation of
Hoshikawa, Y., Muramatsu, M., Iida, T., Uchiyama, A., Nakajima, Y., & Kanehisa, H. a skinfold based index for tracking proportional changes in lean mass.
(2010). Event-related differences in the cross-sectional areas and torque British Journal of Sports Medicine, 40, 208–213.
generation capabilities of quadriceps femoris and hamstrings in male Slaughter, M. H., Lohman, T. G., Boileau, R. A., Horswill, C. A., Stillman, R. J.,
high school athletes. Journal of Physiological Anthropology, 29(1), 13–21. Van Loan, M. D., & Bemben, D. A. (1988). Skinfold equations for estima-
Kemper, G. L. J., Van Der Sluis, A., Brink, M. S., Visscher, C., Frencken, W. G. P., & tion of body fatness in children and youth. Human Biology; an
Elferink-Gemser, M. T. (2015). Anthropometric injury risk factors in International Record of Research, 60(5), 709–723.
elite-standard youth soccer. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 36(13), Stewart, A., Marfell-Jones, M., Olds, T., & de Ridder, H. (2011).
1112–1117. International standards for anthropometric assessment. Lower Hutt:
Lago-Peñas, C., Casais, L., Dellal, A., Rey, E., & Domínguez, E. (2011). ISAK: The International Society for the Advancement of
Anthropometric and physiological characteristics of young soccer players Kinanthropometry.
according to their playing positions: Relevance for competition success. Stewart, A. D., & Hannan, W. J. (2000). Prediction of fat and fat-free mass in
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 25(12), 3358–3367. male athletes using dual X-ray absorptiometry as the reference
Lohman, T. G. (1981). Skinfolds and body density and their relation to method. Journal of Sports Sciences, 18, 263–274.
body fatness: A review. Human Biology, 53(2), 181–225. Retrieved from Suarez-Arrones, L., Núñez, J., Sáez de Villareal, E., Gálvez, J., Suarez-Sanchez,
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7239496 G., & Munguía-Izquierdo, D. (2016). Repeated-high-intensity-running activ-
Lohman, T. G., & Chen, Z. (2005). Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. In ity and internal training load of elite rugby sevens players during interna-
S. B. Heymsfield, T. G. Lohman, & Z. Wang (Eds.), Human body composi- tional matches: A comparison between halves. International Journal of
tion: Methods and findings (pp. 63–77). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Sports Physiology and Performance, 11(4), 495–499.
Massidda, M., Eynon, N., Bachis, V., Corrias, L., Culigioni, C., Cugia, P., … Teixeira, A. S., Valente-dos-Santos, J., Coelho-E-Silva, M. J., Malina, R. M.,
Calò, C. M. (2016). Association between MCT1 A1470T polymorphism Fernandes-da-Silva, J., Cesar Do Nascimento Salvador, P., …
and fat-free mass in well-trained young soccer players. Journal of Guglielmo, L. G. A. (2015). Skeletal maturation and aerobic performance
Strength and Conditioning Research, 30(4), 1171–1176. in young soccer players from professional academies. International
Milsom, J., Barreira, P., Burgess, D. J., Iqbal, Z., & Morton, J. P. (2014). Case Journal of Sports Medicine, 36(13), 1069–1075.
study: Muscle atrophy and hypertrophy in a premier league soccer Ulijaszek, S. J., & Kerr, D. A. (1999). Anthropometric measurement error and
player during rehabilitation from ACL injury. International Journal of the assessment of nutritional status. The British Journal of Nutrition, 82
Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 24(5), 543–552. (3), 165–177. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/
Milsom, J., Naughton, R., O’Boyle, A., Iqbal, Z., Morgans, R., Drust, B., & 10655963
Morton, J. P. (2015). Body composition assessment of english premier Vänttinen, T., Blomqvist, M., Nyman, K., & Häkkinen, K. (2011). Changes in
league soccer players: A comparative DXA analysis of first team, U21 body composition, hormonal status, and physical fitness in 11-, 13-, and
and U18 squads. Journal of Sports Sciences, 414(May), 1–8. 15-year-old Finnish regional youth soccer players during a two-year
Moon, J. R. (2013). Body composition in athletes and sports nutrition: An follow-up. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 25(12),
examination of the bioimpedance analysis technique. European Journal 3342–3351.
of Clinical Nutrition, 67(Suppl 1), S54–9. Wells, J. C. K., Williams, J. E., Chomtho, S., Darch, T., Grijalva-Eternod, C.,
Nana, A., Slater, G. J., Hopkins, W. G., Halson, S. L., Martin, D. T., West, N. P., Kennedy, K., … Fewtrell, M. S. (2010). Pediatric reference data for lean
& Burke, L. M. (2016). Importance of standardized DXA protocol for tissue properties: Density and hydration from age 5 to 20 y. American
assessing physique changes in athletes. International Journal of Sport Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 91(3), 610–618.
Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 26(3), 259–267. Withers, R., Craig, N., Bourdon, P., & Norton, K. (1987). Relative body fat
Rebelo, A., Brito, J., Maia, J., Coelho-e-Silva, M. J., Figueiredo, A. J., and anthropometric predicition of body density of male athletes.
Bangsbo, J., … Seabra, A. (2013). Anthropometric characteristics, phy- European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology,
sical fitness and technical performance of under-19 soccer players by 56(2), 191–200.