ASANTE WISHES YOU WELL.

Department of Organisation & Human Resource

Management; UGBS

Course Name and Code : OHRM 303

Human Behaviour in Organisation.
Course Instructor: Dr. Majoreen Amankwah
Types of structural relationship an individual has at work

Bosses

Non-line Clients and

seniors Customers

The
Individual at
work
colleagues Suppliers and
Advisors

Non-line Subordinates
juniors
What is an Organisation?
• A collection of people who work together to achieve a wide variety of
goals.

• A group of persons organized for some end.

Characteristics?
• Is a social unit
• Similarity of goals
• Specialization
• Formalization
• Centralization
• Substitution of personnel
• The characteristics of structure

OB relates to any type of organisation

Work environments and interactions

Environments:
Economic, cultural, ethical,
political, legal

Work and Work Interactions

Organisations:
Individuals and groups Structures, systems,
communications, climate,
policies, practices
 What is Organisational behavior?
• The study of actions and attitudes of people in
organisations (Gordon, 2002).
• The study of the structure, functioning and performance
of organisations and the behavior of groups and
individuals within them (Buchanan and Huczynski,
2004).
• The multi-disciplinary field that seeks knowledge of
behavior in organizational settings by systematically
studying individual, groups and organizational
processes(Greenberg and Baron, 2008)
• Organizational behavior is a field that helps understand, predict, and
influence attitudes and behaviors in organizations.
 What are the primary goals of OB?
• Understanding attitudes and behaviours in organisations
(why do people think and behave as they do?)

• Tries to predict attitudes and behaviors in organizations.

• Attempts to influence attitudes and behaviors in organizations.

• How can we discourage employees' unethical behaviors?
 What are Attitudes and behaviours?
An emotional evaluation to the job
• Job satisfaction(how do you feel about your job?)
• Organisational commitment (desire to remain)
• Job involvement
• Job engagement

These attitudes influence behaviours of employees.

• Job performance
• Participation
• Timelines / tardiness
• Attendance/absenteeism/presenteeism
• Retention/turnover
• Organisational citizenship behaviours (OCB)
• Ethical behaviours
• Creativity
 Why study organizational behavior?
• helps managers identify problems and correct them
• help people behave differently so their performance and
organizational performance can increase
• Leads to the improvement in interpersonal skills
• Helps transform a workplace from good to great, with a
positive impact on the bottom line
• Helps people attain the competencies needed to become
effective employees, team members/leaders or managers
 Competency
• An interrelated set of abilities, behaviours, attitudes
and knowledge needed by an individual to be effective
in most professional and managerial positions
 Competencies needed for effectiveness
• Adaptability - ability to respond to ongoing and unexpected
changes

• Intercultural – if organization is global, managers need fluency

in multiple language, cross-cultural sensitivity and ability to
adapt

• Communication and interpersonal effectiveness – ability to

convey information so they are received as intended
(verbal/nonverbal, effectively listening, etc)
• Team management – when to use teams and effectively
managing conflicts

• Diversity – ability to value unique individual and group

characteristics (work with people based on their competencies
and not personal attributes)

• Ethics – the ability to incorporate values and principles that

distinguish right from wrong in making decisions and
choosing behaviours
 Contribution fields to OB
• Psychology (measures, explains and sometimes changes the
behavior of humans)
• Sociology (the study of people in relation to their social
environment/culture)
• Social psychology (focuses on the influence people have on one
another)
• Anthropology (the study of societies to learn about human beings
and their activities)
• Political science (intra-organisational conflicts, power and
influence)
Department of Organisation & Human Resource Management;
UGBS

Course Name and Code : OHRM 303

Human Behaviour in Organisation.

Course Instructor: Majoreen Amankwah & Casely Ato Coleman

Course Overview

• This course focuses on personal, interpersonal skills and knowledge and sets
them within context. It presents comprehensive theories and applications
relevant to dealing with others at work.
• Students become up-to-date and prepare for the workplace or the multi-
cultural world of business. It provides students with an in-depth
understanding of interactive behaviour at work that can be applied widely.
• This course uses a practical approach to teaching and learning thereby
encouraging students to put the theory into practice in the real business
world.
Course Objectives & Outcomes

• Course Objectives/Goals:
• By the end of this course, students should be able to,
• Explain why they behave differently from others
• Explain the interactions at work
• Describe the factors that influence interactions at work
• Explain how to manage relationships at work

• Learning Outcomes
By the end of the course, students should be able to.
• Understand and apply concepts on personal, interpersonal skills and knowledge when dealing with others
within work context.
• Prepare for the workplace or the multi-cultural world of business.
• Methodology
• This course uses a practical approach to teaching and learning thereby encouraging students to put the
theory into practice in the real business world. Lectures, videos, case studies, presentations etc
Key Definitions
Human behavior & Organizational behaviour

• Human Behavior can be defined as the actions or reactions of a person in

response to external or internal stimulus situation. Behavior is always the
product of two things, one- the nature of individual or organism that behaves
and second- the nature of situation in which the individual find himself.
• Genes(nature) vrs environment(nurture)
• Behavior is a function of stimulus and response
• Organizational behavior (OB) is the study of human behavior in organizational
settings, how human behavior interacts with the organization, and the
organization itself. Although we can focus on any one of these three areas
independently, we must remember that all three are ultimately connected and
necessary for a comprehensive understanding of organizational behavior.).
Application
• The study of human behavior, attitudes and
performance in organisations.
• The study of actions and attitudes of people in
organisations (Gordon, 2002).
• The study of the structure, functioning and
performance of organisations and the behavior of
groups and individuals within them (Buchanan
and Huczynski, 2004).
• Multidisciplinary – Psychology, Sociology,
Anthropology, Political Science, Engineering,
medicine etc
Theories of Human behavior At Work
a. Psychology of work
b. 1. Nature versus Nurture
c. 2. Mcgregor Theory X(top down approach) & Y(down-top approach), Ouchi’s Theory Z
(Japanese paternalistic approach), Myers- Briggs Personality Type Indicator drawing
from Carl Gustav Jung-introverts/extroverts, thinking versus feeling, reflecting versus
activism/pragmatic etc) BF Skinner & Thorndike-law of effect, stimulus and response
& behavior rewarded tends to be repeated and punished tends to extinct
d. Maslow hierarch of needs – Basic Physiological, well being & safety, relationships
(belongingness), self esteem, actualization
 Approaches
• Need Based (need for safety, • Maslow Hierarchy of needs,
power and security, belongingness Herzberg 2 factor theory
etc) • Mcclelland(N ac, N Aff, N Pow)
• Cognitive (motivation is controlled
by conscious thoughts, beliefs and • Expectancy (value) Theory,
judgments) Equity Theory, Goal setting
• Non Cognitive (interaction Theory, social learning theory,
attribution theory
between behavior and external
events without appealing to • Reinforcement Theory
internal thoughts)
Influences on Employee Behavior
• Motivation –Key element of human behavior.
• Work Motivation(Mitchell) “ psychological processes that cause
the arousal, direction and persistence of voluntary action that
are goal directed”.
• Or – employees assess the consequences of their actions before
making a choice to comply or resist but it is an individual
phenomenon according to individual differences.
Politics At Work
Political Science also interests organizational behaviorists.
David Easton – Politics is about the authoritative allocation of values.
Values can be extended to include resources ie who gets what, when
and how etc
In OB we understand how and why people acquire power, political
behavior, decision making, conflict, the behavior of interest
groups, and coalition formation.
These are also major areas of interest in understanding human
behavior within organizations.
Anthropology Of Work

Anthropology is concerned with the interactions between people and

their environments, especially their cultural environment.
Culture is major influence on the structure of organizations as well as
on the behavior of individual people within organizations.
Organizational Culture

ARTEFACTS
 status symbols
BEHAVIOURS
 power structures

 routines
NON-CORE VALUES
 office environment

 language
 stories
CORE VALUES
 heroes and villains

 systems and processes

 reward and recognition systems
 outward appearances
the ‘unwritten rules’

Adapted from Edgar Schein, 1985

Elements of sub cultures in organisations
• Culture and Subcultures: An Analysis of Organizational Knowledge
Sonja A. Sackmann Administrative Science Quarterly
• Vol. 37, No. 1 (Mar., 1992), pp. 140-161

• Dictionary knowledge – commonly held descriptions, labels, sets of words

used in particular organization – “what”
• Directory – commonly held practices that define “how” things,
event/related processes are managed
• Recipe – judgment based on prescriptions for repair & improvement
strategies. They define the “shoulds” and recommend specific actions
• Axiomatic – refers to reasos and explanations of the ultimate causes
pereived to underlie a particular event. “why”
Sociology of Work
Sociology also has had a major impact on the field of organizational
behavior. Sociologists study social systems such as families, occupational
classes, and organizations. OB is the study of organization structures, and
overlaps with areas of sociology that focus on the organization as a social
system
Max Weber – Classical Theory of Bureaucracy – defined hierarchy, rules,
structure, tasks etc
Tuckman
Storming, Norming, Forming, Performing,Group Think, Group identity,
Them & Us
Lencioni - Dysfunctions of Teams
Sociology of Work-Lencioni - 5 Dysfunctions of Teams

Dysfunction #1: Absence of Trust

This outcome occurs when team members are reluctant to be vulnerable with one another and are unwilling to admit
their mistakes, weaknesses, or need for help. Without a certain comfort level among team members, a foundation of
trust is not possible.
Dysfunction #2: Fear of Conflict
Teams that are lacking trust are incapable of engaging in unfiltered, passionate debate about key issues. It creates
situations where team conflict can easily turn into veiled discussions and back channel comments. In a work setting
where team members do not openly air their opinions, inferior decisions result.
Dysfunction #3: Lack of Commitment
Without conflict, it is difficult for team members to commit to decisions, fostering an environment where ambiguity
prevails. Lack of direction and commitment can make employees, particularly star employees, disgruntled and
disenfranchised.
Dysfunction #4: Avoidance of Accountability
When teams do not commit to a clear plan of action, even the most focused and driven individuals are hesitant to call
their peers on actions and behaviours that may seem counterproductive to the overall good of the team.
Dysfunction #5: Inattention to Results
• Team members naturally tend to put their own needs (e.g., ego, career development, recognition, and so on) ahead
of the collective goals of the team when individuals are not held accountable. If a team has lost sight of the need for
achievement, the business ultimately suffers.
• When the team is working in harmony, these dysfunctions cease to cause problems. Lencioni’s model highlights the
results when the team lack trust, and this should be the area you concentrate on the most.
Other Disciplines & Impact On Human & Organizational Behavior

• Economists study the production, distribution, and consumption of goods

and services.
• Organizational behaviorists share the economist’s interest of topics such as
labor market dynamics, productivity, human resource planning and
forecasting, and cost-benefit analysis.
• Engineering has also influenced the field of organizational behavior.
Industrial engineering in particular has long been concerned with work
measurement, productivity measurement, work flow analysis and design, job
design, and labor relations.
• Medicine has influenced organizational behavior in connection with study of
human behavior at work, specifically in the area of stress. Increasing research
is showing that controlling the causes and consequences of stress in and out
of organizational settings is important for the well-being of the individual as
well as that of the organization.
Key definitions
• What is an Organization?
An organization is defined as a collection of people who work
together to achieve a wide variety of goals.

Organizational behavior is defined as the actions and attitudes of

people in organizations.

The field of organizational behavior (OB) covers the body of

knowledge derived from these actions and attitudes. It can help
managers understand the complexity within organizations, identify
problems, determine corrective actions.
 Understanding An Organization -The Burke-Litwin Model
Transformational Transactional
factors factors
Systems Individual
Organisation
(Practices & Needs
Culture Procedures) & Values

External
Environment
Leadership
Management
Practices
? Work Unit
Climate
Motivation
Organisational
Performance

Mission Roles,
and Structure Responsibilities
Strategy & Skills
 Why study organizational behavior?
• Knowledge from OB can help managers identify
problems and correct them

• Knowledge can help people adapt to their behavior

differently so their performance and organizational
performance can improve

• Helps people attain the competencies needed to

become effective employees, team members/leaders or
managers
 Competency
• An interrelated set of abilities, behaviours, attitudes and knowledge
needed by an individual to be effective in most professional and
managerial positions.
• Competency is key to 4 keys aspects of managing talent within
organizations namely:
• Flow of People – buy, build, bind, bounce, borrow
• Flow of Performance – measuring individual contributions to business
strategy and differentiating high vrs low performers
• Flow of Information – understand and adapt to various types of
information, communication ie form, substance, barriers etc
• Flow of Work – understand, apply and adapt to business processes,
systems, procedures and organizational design
Competencies needed for effectiveness
• Adaptability - ability to respond to ongoing and
unexpected changes

• Intercultural – if organization is global, managers need

fluency in multiple language, cross-cultural sensitivity
and ability to adapt

• Communication and interpersonal effectiveness – ability

to convey information so they are received as intended
(verbal/nonverbal, effectively listening, etc)
• Creativity – bringing workers together in new ways to
perform their jobs and accomplish goals.

• Team management – when to use teams and effectively

managing conflicts

• Diversity – ability to value unique individual and group

characteristics (work with people based on their
competencies and not personal attributes)

• Ethics – the ability to incorporate values and principles

that distinguish right from wrong in making decisions and
choosing behaviours
Types of structural relationship an individual has at work

Bosses

Non-line Clients and

seniors Customers

The
Individual at
work
Co-equal Suppliers and
colleagues Advisors

Non-line Subordinates
juniors
Work environments and interactions

Environments:
Economic, cultural, ethical,
political, legal

Work and Work Interactions

Organisations:
Individuals and groups Structures, systems,
communications, climate,
policies, practices

OHRM 303 Human Behaviour in

Organisation
 Individual differences
perceptions
attitudes
workforce diversity
Dr. Majoreen Amankwah
Variables Influencing
Individual Behavior

ThePPerson
• Skills & abilities E Environment
The
• Personality • Organization
• Perceptions • Work group
• Attitudes • Job
•Values • Personal life
• Ethics

B
Behavior

B = f(P,E)
Valuing individual differences
 We differ on the basis of:
Personality,
 Perception,
Values,
 Attitudes (Langton and Robbins, 2013).
 Essence of individual differences
 Individual differences impact
 Feelings, thought patterns and behaviours
 Personality helps us predict behaviour.
 Personality can help match people to jobs, to some extent at least

 These impact affect aspects of our jobs such as

 Satisfaction levels
 Performance
 Hiring decisions
 Stress levels
 Leadership
 Occupational choice

 For example: Type A personality characteristics are more prone to experience stress
acutely –in contrast to Type Bs.
 Personality
 The stable patterns of behaviour and consistent internal
states that determine how an individual reacts to and
interacts with others (Langton and Robbins, 2013).
 The pattern of relatively enduring ways in which a person
feels, thinks and behaves (Staw, 2004)
Some are perfectionists and demanding others are relaxed
and easy-going

 Determinants
Nature
Nurture
 Why do we do what we do?
 It is stable and explains ‘who we are’

Personality – is the reason why you behave the way you

do, the reason why you feel and think the way you do.
These things will influence how you see the world
 Personality Framework
 Locus of control - The degree to which people believe they are in control of
their own fates (Langton and Judge, 2015).

 Internals

 Externals

 Researchshows internals are more satisfied with their jobs, have lower
absenteeism, and perform better on certain types of jobs

Core self evaluation/Self-esteem – the extent to which people like or dislike

themselves
 The big-five model
 Extraversion – captures one’s comfort level with
relationships
 Agreeableness - cooperative, warm, and trusting.
 Conscientiousness – measure of one’s reliability
 Openness to experience – ones fascination with novelty
 Emotional stability – ability to withstand stress
The big-five model
 2 traits are useful predictors in nearly all jobs:
 − Conscientiousness = work related motivation
 Dependable, organized, hardworking, achievement
 − Emotional stability = influences motivation and satisfaction
 Calm, self-confident, resilient
 Extraversion - social jobs (e.g., sales & mgmt), leadership and for
training,extroverts tend to be happier and have good social skills
 − Agreeableness - cooperation is critical (teams) or with large
customer service demands
 − Openness to experience – training, creativity
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
➢ Most widely used instrument in the world.

Extroverted Introverted
(E) (I)
Sociable and Quiet and
Assertive Shy
Sensing Intuitive
(S) (N) Unconscious
Practical and
Orderly Processes
Thinking Feeling
Use Reason (T) (F) Uses Values
and Logic & Emotions

Judging Perceiving Flexible and

Want Order (J) (P)
& Structure Spontaneous

5-11
Self-monitoring
A trait that measures an individual’s ability
to adjust his or her behavior to external
situational factors.

 High self-monitors easily adapt by adjusting

their behavior to external situational
factors.
Type A and B Personality
Moves, Never suffers
Impatient Doesn’t need to display
Multitasks Plays for fun
Dislikes leisure Can relax
Obsessed with numbers Uncompetitive
Competitive Unambitious
Ambitious Casual about appointments
Never late for Take one thing at a time
appointments Express feelings
Try to do many things at
once
Hide feelings
Perceptions
 The process by which individuals select, organize, and interpret
their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their
environment (Langton and Judge, 2013).
 Perception is the way we see something
 Each individual perceives the same thing differently
 Factors that influence perceptions
 Life experience,
 education,
 family,
 culture
 Personality
 values
Values

 Values:stable, long-lasting beliefs about

what is important in a variety of situations
(McShane & Travaglione, 2007)

E.g fairness, innovation and community

involvement.
Personal Values
 Principles that define you as an individual e.g honesty,
integrity, trust, love etc

Value system
 Matching personality and values to the
workplace

 Person-job fit theory– satisfaction and turnover

 Person-organization fit theory – Performance

 Schneider’s attraction-selection-attrition framework

Attitudes?
Positive or negative feelings about objects, people, or
events (Langton and Judge, 2013).

 Job satisfaction
 Organisational commitment
 Organisational citizenship behaviours(OCB)
 Prejudice/bias
Types of organizational commitment
 Affective commitment
 Normative commitment
 Continuance commitment - calculation that it is in ones
best interest to stay with the organization based on the
perceived costs of leaving the organization.
Consequences of poor attitudes

 Temporary and permanent withdrawal

 Customer dissatisfaction
 Job performance might suffer
Definition Of Diversity
 The mix of people in organizations in terms
of gender, race, ethnicity, disability, sexual
orientation and age and demographic
characteristics such as education and socio-
economic status (Robbins and Judge, 2015)
Workforce Diversity
Attitudes towards Diversity
 Ethnocentrism (one may see his/her
own culture as the correct way of living.)

 Monoculture
 Ethnorelativism (states that no one
culture it is superior to another)
 Pluralism (different groups of people
can coexist)
 Diversity Management

 Diversity management - The process and programs by

which managers make everyone more aware of and
sensitive to the needs and differences of others (Robbins
and Judge, 2015).

 Isnot about not regulating diversity but enabling an

environment that empowers every employee to perform at
their maximum abilities without being secluded or unfairly
treated (Cummings and Worley, 2014)
Strategies for managing diversity
Recruiting and Retaining Diverse Employees
Flexible work arrangements
Targeted learning and development
Targeted talent management strategies
Diverse teams
Smashing the glass ceiling and affirmative action
Maternity and paternity leave
Mentorship programmes
Equity in compensation and benefits
Things to avoid
 Diversity sensitivity (makes use of diversity training and education
that seeks to sensitize employees to stereotypes and discrimination
whilst also encouraging smooth interaction and communication)
▪ Stereotypes are oversimplified generalizations about groups of people
(race, profession, gender, ethnicity etc)
▪ Positive or negative

 Prejudice refers to the beliefs, thoughts, feelings, and attitudes

someone holds about a group.
 Discrimination consists of actions against a group of people. (age,
religion, health, and other indicators; race-based laws against
discrimination strive to address this set of social problems.
Organisational culture
The link between organizational goals and
culture
 Organizational culture
• The pattern of shared values, beliefs, and assumptions
considered to be the appropriate way to think and act within
an organization.
• The beliefs and values, and how they are manifested.
• The shared beliefs, expectations, and core values of people in
the organization.
• The characteristics, values and behaviours that distinguish
and identify a group, which are maintained and passed on to
new members of the group (Inkson & Kolb, 2012).
• The way we do things around here.’
(Bower, 1966)
 VALUES of UG
Integrity
• We will demand the highest standard of ourselves to earn the trust of
others.
Commitment
• We will be committed to knowledge generation that positively
impacts the lives of those within and outside our university community.
Respect
• We will provide others with a world class experience that demonstrates
our value for the diversity and contributions of the members of our
community.
Loyalty
• We will demonstrate a strong resolve to give back selflessly to our
university
Organisational Culture:
Strong Cultures vs Weak Cultures
Strong Cultures Weak Cultures
Values widely shared Values limited to a few people –
usually top management
Culture conveys consistent Culture sends contradictory
messages about what’s important messages about what’s important
Most employees can tell stories Employees have little knowledge
about company history or heroes of company history or heroes
Employees strongly identify with Employees have little
culture identification with culture
Strong connection between Little connection between shared
shared values and behaviours values and behaviours
5
 Characteristics of organizational culture

• Innovation and risk-taking

• Attention to detail
• Outcome orientation
• People orientation
• Team orientation
• Aggressiveness
• Stability
Types of culture
 Schein’s Three Levels of Organisational Culture (cont.)
Culture:

Level 1: Observable artefacts

Physical manifestations such as manner of dress, awards,
furniture, myths and stories about the company, rituals and
ceremonies, slogans, symbols and decorations as well as
behaviour exhibited by managers and employees.

Level 2: Espoused value

The explicitly stated values and norms preferred by an organization.

Level 3: Basic assumptions – core

values of the organisation.

The core beliefs that employees have about

their organization which are not observable.
Creating and sustaining culture
• Founders’ philosophy
• Experience with the environment
• Selection criteria
• Top management
• Socialization
 Organisational Culture

How Employees Learn Culture:

Rites and Jargons and

Symbols Stories Heroes statements
Rituals
of principle
Objects, acts, Stories based on People whose The activities and
qualities or true events which accomplishments ceremonies,
events that are repeated and embody the planned and
convey sometimes values of the unplanned, that
meaning to embellished to organization. celebrate
others. emphasize a important
particular value. occasions in the
organization's life
 Organisational Culture (cont.)

Mechanisms for Culture Change

Changing culture is a process in which an organization’s members teach each other

about the organizations preferred values, beliefs, expectations and behaviours. The
process is accomplished by using one or more culture changing mechanisms.

• Rewards, titles, promotions and

• Formal Statements bonuses

• Slogans and sayings • Organisational goals and

performance criteria
• Stories, legends, myths • Organisational Structure

• Physical Design • Organisational Systems and

procedures
Importance of culture
WORKING ACROSS CULTURES
Diverse Workforce

A diverse workforce consists of people from many different

national and ethnic backgrounds and of women and men.

This workforce may include people with disabilities, people

with differing sexual orientations, religious affiliations and
family structures.

These differences affect the form and content of inter-

group behavior.
Challenges to working across cultures

In-group favouritism: It occurs as soon as people are divided into

groups, the bias is increased when there are differences of group
size, status or power.

Stereotypes: We are more likely to create stereotypes of people

who are members of different groups from ourselves. Our
stereotypes tend to favour our in-group. We tend to believe that
out-group members are less attractive, capable, trustworthy,
honest, co-operative and deserving members.
Cultural differences that influence working cross-
culturally

Communication Styles- including language usage, the degree of

importance given to non-verbal communication and norms
regarding the appropriate degree of assertiveness.

Attitudes toward conflict: Some cultures view it as a positive

thing, others as something to be avoided. Some prefer to
confront it in face-to-face meetings, others by working
differences out quietly.
 Cultural differences that influence working cross-
culturally

Approaches to compelling tasks - resulting from different judgments of the

rewards associated with task completion and different ideas about time
pressures. The importance attached to relationship-building generally in
the work context.

Decision-making styles - whether to delegate or retain decision-making

responsibilities, majority rule versus consensus. Individuals’ expectations about
their own roles in shaping a decision may be influenced by their cultural frame of
reference.

Attitudes toward disclosure - especially of emotions, personal information or

reasons behind a conflict or misunderstanding. In some cultures, it is not
appropriate to self-disclose, or ask questions that require the receiver to do so.
 Cultural differences that influence working cross-
culturally

Exclusion in the workplace is the practice of marginalizing members of

certain groups. Methods include limiting contact, excluding from
conversations by avoidance or stating them only when selected
individuals are present, and non-verbally or linguistically excluding
outsiders who are present by using esoteric language.

Other methods include changes in the content of information, especially

to exclude individuals from job-related information. This may be
deliberate or may result from assuming that they are not appropriate
recipients.

Divergence includes adjusting ways of speaking to dissociate.

 Processes Of Intercultural Work

Contact, communication and co-operative interdependence help to

overcome impediments to intercultural working.
When poor intercultural relation is caused by fear of an out-group,
communication increases co-operation. It helps to create trust by
reducing uncertainty and highlighting the benefits of mutual co-
operation.

Improving inter-cultural communication

1. Contenders exchange an understanding of the situation
2. State to the other party that mutual co-operation is beneficial
3. Explain their past actions
4. Using promises or the language of the other group to improve
communication.
Effective intercultural working

Positive High
Motivation Communication
resourcefulness

High Higher Intercultural Work Cultural

mindfulness Capabilities Relativism

High
High self- tolerance
monitoring for
ambiguity
 Sojourning

Sojourners are people who live and work abroad for a period of months
or years but are not permanent emigrants. Sojourners face the need to
adapt in a far more radical way than people who only work in diverse
organizations in their own country.

A major cause of expatriate failure is culture shock, brought on by a

number of things including;
1. The language barrier
2. Loneliness
3. Difficulty in penetrating the host society
4. Not knowing how to react in a series of difficult situations
5. Always being the centre of attention.
 Sojourning
The symptoms of the difficulties range from mild to severe homesickness,
feeling frustrated, alienated, isolated, irritable, lonely, depressed and
rigid.

Sojourning creates an ‘experience of separation’ from the home culture

and group that leads to greatly heightened awareness of culture. In this
way, culture shock eventually allows the individual to ‘move beyond
culture’ in a way that is not available to non-sojourners.

Adjustment is highly salient to sojourners—while it is going on, the

problems and solutions associated with it are often central in the
sojourner’s consciousness.
Intercultural sojourning
Intercultural sojourning is a process of stress, adaptation and growth. In new
environments, people have difficulty in coping. They suffer from information
overload, uncertainty about others’ expectations, difficulty in interpreting others’
communication behavior etc. the experiences are stressful.

A positive response to the new environment include assimilation and

accommodation.

Elements of the new culture are learnt and elements of the old ‘unlearnt.’ These
responses lead to growth, in particular to an increased ability to adapt to further
environmental changes.

As they begin to adapt successfully, sojourners can perform more effectively,

both at work and in living. They start to feel more cheerful, which is directly
related to an increased ability to communicate.
Working In Culturally Diverse Groups

Stress and tension levels in culturally diverse groups often exceed

those in homogeneous groups due to a lack of trust and
communication inaccuracies.

Group members from different cultures often disagree over

important meanings, the relevance of specific information and
the possible conclusions that can be drawn.

Be culturally sensitive!
A successful young English corporate lawyer, working for an American bank in London said
she was experiencing serious difficulties with the style of the Indian whose desk adjoined
hers.

“He was recruited in Bangalore. He is a good mathematician and computer software

designer. However, unlike previous Indians I’ve worked with, he’s not been ‘Westernised’ by
going to business school or having similar experiences.

He interrupts me all the time when I am in the middle of a complex drafting operation to ask
me questions such as ‘Is your hair naturally blonde?’ and ‘How do men and women in this
country meet their parents?’ I’m really upset by it, for several reasons.

First, he distracts me from my work. Then, I resent his sexism. Other people in the office hear
this going on, so unless I slap him down, I’m going to lose authority generally.

On the other hand, I feel I should try to make allowances. Apart from the fact that he comes
from a culture where women are rarely seen in positions equal or superior to his own, he is
lonely and far from home. I think there’s some sexism in management having placed him at
Notes on Types of Cultures

Adhocracy culture focuses on being on the leading edge of developing new knowledge,
products and services. Its longterm emphasis is on the acquistion of new resources, particulalry
information, which is essential for it to continually adapt to complex and turbulent
environmental conditions( Cameron and Quinn 1999).

Market culture is goal oriented and emphasises productivity and performance to achieve
market superiority.(Cameron and Quinn 1999). Its main focus is the production of knowledge
toward the survival of the organization.

The clan culture emphasises shared values and goals. Its main concern is developing human
resources to achieve cohesiveness and commitment. Its conceptual base is the idea that shared
understanding, values and meaning are prerequisites for the organization to learn and survive.

The hierarchy culture is formalised and structured. It emphasizes rules, policies, and
procedures to ensure efficient and smooth business Operations. Its main purpose is to move,
transfer, retrieve and caoture information and knowledge

Citation

Cameron,K.S., & Quinn,R.E (1999). Diagnosing and changing organizational culture : Based on
the competing values framework. Reading.MA :Addison-Wesley
Ethics in organisations
 Definition
• Ethics is the code of moral principles
that sets standards of good or bad or
right or wrong in one’s conduct.
 Ethical behaviour

• Ethical behaviour is that which is

accepted as “good” and “right” as
opposed to “bad” or “wrong” in the
context of the governing moral code.
 Ethical dilemma

• A situation that offers potential

benefit or gain and is also unethical.
 Ethical principles
Principle of Utilitarianism
• An action can be judged as right or good
depending upon its consequences.
– Therefore, one should choose the option that
delivers the most good for the most people,
or that protects the most people from a
negative outcome.
 Principle of Rights

• To the greatest possible extent, one should respect the

rights of all individuals, particularly their right to control
one’s own destiny.
 Principle of Justice

• Treat people equally in a way that makes

moral sense. This implies that benefits and
opportunities, as well as burdens, should all
be shared equally.
The Golden Rule principles
 Types of managerial ethics
Immoral manager

• An approach that not only lacks ethical

principles but is actively opposed to ethical
behaviour.
 Immoral manager

• The goals of the organisation are

profitability or success at any price.
 Immoral manager
• The manager not only lacks ethical
principles but is actively opposed to
ethical behaviour.
 Amoral manager

• A manager who fails to

consider/ignores the ethics of his or
behaviour.
 Amoral manager

• The amoral manager is inattentive or

insensitive to the moral implications of
their behaviour.
 Moral Manager
• A manager who makes ethical behaviour a
personal goal.
 Moral Manager

• Manager desires to succeed only within the

parameters of ethical standards and the
ideals of fairness, justice and due process.
 Workplace Deviance
• Refers to unethical behavior that violates
organizational norms about right and wrong.
 Production deviance
• Unethical behavior that hurts the quality and
quantity of work produced
– Leaving early
– Taking excessive breaks
– Intentionally working slowly
– Wasting resources
 Political Deviance

• Using one’s influence to harm others:

i. Showing favouritism
ii. Spreading rumours about
coworkers
iii. Blaming coworkers
iv. Competing non beneficially
 Personal Aggression

• Hostile or aggressive behaviour toward

others:

i. Sexual harassment
ii. Verbal abuse
iii. Stealing from coworkers
iv. Endangering coworkers
 Property deviance
• Unethical behavior aimed at the organization’s
property or products. It also includes
– Sabotaging equipment
– Accepting kickbacks
– Lying about hours worked
– Stealing from the company
 Maintaining high ethical standards
Ethics training:
• It is a structured program to help
participants understand the ethical
aspects of decision making.
Code of ethics

• It is a formal statement of an organisation’s

values and ethical principles.
 Code of ethics
• It offers guidelines on how to behave
in ethical dilemma situations
 Ethical role models

• A leader’s commitment to ethical conducts

speaks louder than words.
 Ethics hotlines

• A special telephone line established to

enable employees to bypass the normal
chain of command in reporting grievances
and serious ethical problems.
 Ethics committee

• A group charged with helping to establish

policies and resolve major questions
involving ethical issues confronting
organisation members in the course of
their work.
Ethics in organisations
 CARROLL’S FOUR PART
DESCRIPTION OF CSR
Responsibility Societal Examples
Expectation
Economic Required Be profitable,
maximize sales,
minimize cost etc
Legal Required Obey laws and
regulations
Ethical Expected Do what is right,
fair and just

Discretionary Desired/Expected Be a good

corporate citizen
 Definition
• Ethics is the code of moral principles that sets
standards of good or bad or right or wrong in
one’s conduct.
• Ethics is defined as the consensually accepted
standards of behavior for an occupation, trade,
or profession (Wheelen and Hanger, 2011).

• Moral relativism claims that morality is relative

to some personal, social, or cultural standard
and that there is no method for deciding
whether one decision is better than another.
 Ethical behaviour

• Ethical behaviour is that which is

accepted as “good” and “right” as
opposed to “bad” or “wrong” in the
context of the governing moral code
(Schemehorn, 2008).
 Ethical dilemma

• A situation that offers potential

benefit or gain and is also unethical.
– Likely to suffer something bad as a result of that
choice.
– Contradicting a personal ethical principle in
making that choice.
– Abandoning an ethical value of your community or
society in making that choice.
 HOW TO RESOLVE ETHICAL
DILEMMAS
• Step One: Analyze the consequences.
– Consider short vs. long run
– Consider benefit vs. harm

• Step Two: Analyze the actions.

– Are they fair, equal, honest, respectful?

• Step Three: Make a decision.

– Can you live with the outcome?
 Ethical principles/theories
Principle of Utilitarianism (Ethics for the Greater
Good)
• An action can be judged as right or good
depending upon its consequences.
– Therefore, one should choose the option that
delivers the most good for the most people, or
that protects the most people from a negative
outcome.
– People should therefore behave in such a way that
will produce the greatest benefit to society and
produce the least harm or the lowest cost.
 Individual Rights approach
• To the greatest possible extent, one should
respect the rights of all individuals,
particularly their right to control one’s own
destiny.

• This approach proposes that human beings have

certain fundamental rights that should be
respected in all decisions. A particular decision
or behavior should be avoided if it interferes
with the rights of others.
 Principle of Justice

• Treat people equally in a way that makes moral

sense. This implies that benefits and
opportunities, as well as burdens, should all be
shared equally.
• This approach proposes that decision makers
be equitable, fair, and impartial in the
distribution of costs and benefits to individuals
and groups.
 The Golden Rule principles
• Do unto others as you want them to do unto
you
 Types of managerial ethics
Immoral manager

• An approach that not only lacks ethical

principles but is actively opposed to ethical
behaviour.
 Immoral manager

• The goals of the organisation are

profitability or success at any price.
 Immoral manager
• The manager not only lacks ethical
principles but is actively opposed to
ethical behaviour.
 Amoral manager

• A manager who fails to

consider/ignores the ethics of his or
behaviour.
 Amoral manager

• The amoral manager is inattentive or

insensitive to the moral implications of
their behaviour.
 Moral Manager
• A manager who makes ethical behaviour a
personal goal.
 Moral Manager

• Manager desires to succeed only within the

parameters of ethical standards and the
ideals of fairness, justice and due process.
 Workplace Deviance
• Refers to unethical behavior that violates
organizational norms about right and wrong.
 Production deviance
• Unethical behavior that hurts the quality and
quantity of work produced
– Leaving early
– Taking excessive breaks
– Intentionally working slowly
– Wasting resources
 Political Deviance

• Using one’s influence to harm others:

i. Showing favouritism
ii. Spreading rumours about
coworkers
iii. Blaming coworkers
iv. Competing non beneficially
 Personal Aggression

• Hostile or aggressive behaviour toward

others:

i. Sexual harassment
ii. Verbal abuse
iii. Stealing from coworkers
iv. Endangering coworkers
 Property deviance
• Unethical behavior aimed at the organization’s
property or products. It also includes
– Sabotaging equipment
– Accepting kickbacks
– Lying about hours worked
– Stealing from the company
 Maintaining high ethical standards
Ethics training:
• It is a structured program to help
participants understand the ethical
aspects of decision making.
Code of ethics

• It is a formal statement of an organisation’s

values and ethical principles.
 Code of ethics
• It offers guidelines on how to behave
in ethical dilemma situations
• It specifies how an organization expects its
employees to behave while on the job.
Developing codes of ethics can be a useful way
to promote ethical behavior.
 Ethical role models

• A leader’s commitment to ethical conducts

speaks louder than words.
 Ethics hotlines

• A special telephone line established to

enable employees to bypass the normal
chain of command in reporting grievances
and serious ethical problems.
 Ethics committee

• A group charged with helping to establish

policies and resolve major questions
involving ethical issues confronting
organisation members in the course of
their work.
 IMPRESSION
MANAGEMENT
 IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT DEFINITIONS

• The behaviors used by individuals to control the

impression they make on others (Tedeschi,
Lindskold, & Rosenfeld, 1985).

• This perspective views much of social behaviour

as being something like an advertising campaign
that individuals conduct on their own behalf, in
the course of which they seek to highlight their
virtues and minimize their deficiencies
(Schlenker, 1980) 2
 Impression Management

• The process by which individuals attempt to control

the impression others form of them (Longton and
Robbins, 2015)
• People act in way to leave desired impressions about
themselves in the minds of others.
• Goffman (1959) suggested that everyone is an actor
on a stage in front of an audience
– It might help people get jobs, get favourable evaluation,
rapid promotion
– Likely to be used by high-self monitors than low-self
monitors
April 23, 2021 3
 Strategies of impression management

• Ingratiation – create the impression you are likeable

– Conformity – agreeing with someone else’s opinion in order to gain his or her
approval
– Flattery – complementing others about their virtues in an effort to make one
likeable
– Favours – doing something nice for someone to gain the person’s approval
• Self-promotion – highlighting ones best qualities downplaying
one’s deficits and calling attention to ones achievements
– Enhance an outcome (enhancement)
– Take credit for outcomes to show one is a high performer (entitlement)
– Can be seen as arrogance on the other hand

April 23, 2021 4

Strategies of impression management

• Intimidation – to be seen as dangerous

– One should be feared
– Bosses can use fear to create an impression
• Exemplification – desired image is to be seen as
morally worthy – high moral values
– Profession of morality
– Self-sacrifice
– Exemplary conduct
• Supplication- to be viewed at helpless or pitied
(lazy)
– Play dump to avoid more responsibility 5
 Effectiveness of impression management

• Impression management behavior is

– Positively associated with job-interview success
– Individuals who used this receive better performance
evaluations, liked more and less criticized.
– Individuals who intend to be leaders are more likely to be if
they apply impression management techniques

April 23, 2021 6

 Psychological contract

• refers to individuals’ expectations, beliefs, ambitions and

obligations, as perceived by the employer and the worker (CIPD,
2021).
• a set of unwritten expectations that exist between individual
employees and their employers (Armstrong & Taylor, 2012)
• The perceptions of both parties to be employment relationship,
organisation and individual or the reciprocal promises and
obligations implied in that relationship (Guest 2007, p. 133)
• Was developed by Denise Rousseau
• The basic questions are:
– What can I reasonably expect from the organisation?
– What should I reasonably be expected to contribute in return?
April 23, 2021 7
 Psychological and employment contract

• The legal contract refers to an agreement, usually written

and signed, about the mutual formal obligations of the
employer and the worker.

• The psychological contract, on the other hand, describes

how the parties themselves understand their
relationship, their own views of commitment and what
they can expect to receive in return.

• The psychological contract isn’t generally enforceable.

• Looks at the human side of the employment relationship
April 23, 2021 8
 Employees’ perspectives?

• Security of employment
• Career expectations and the opportunity to develop
skills
• Trust in the management of the organisation to keep
their promises
• Training and development.
• Perceived fairness of pay and benefits.
• Manager support.

9
 Employers’ expectations

• It covers areas such as

– Competence
– Effort
– Compliance
– Commitment
– loyalty

April 23, 2021 10

 Breaches of the contract

• Morale problems are likely to develop when the

psychological contract is perceived to be unfair,
unbalanced or broken.
• Employers will see negative emotions from the employee
such as anger, betrayal, or sadness.
• There will be less job satisfaction. There may also be a
withdrawal of behavior. (the employee is less willing to
work hard, to share ideas, and to be a good work citizen).
• Fulfillment leads to productivity

Round a 11
Communication in
organisations
Overview
• Poor communication is cited as a source of interpersonal conflict
• Over 70% of time is spent writing, reading, speaking and listening
• Communication skills is therefore a desired characteristic
 Communication
• The transfer and the understanding of meaning (message) between two or more
people (Judge and Robbinson, 2015)

• Thus the process by which a person, group, or organization (the sender) transmits some
type of information (the message) to another person, group, or organization (the
receiver).

• Communication is perfect when the idea or thought was transmitted so the

receiver perceived exactly the same mental picture as the sender
 The communication process
• Sender: (initiates the message)
• Forms message & encodes into words, gestures, voice intonations etc.
• Sends encoded message through communication channel(s)/media
• encoding – translating an idea into a form, such as written or spoken language,
that can be recognized by a receiver. We encode information when we select the
words we use to send an e-mail message or when we speak to someone in
person.

• Receiver: (person to whom message is directed)

• Senses incoming message and decodes into something meaningful.
• Channel (sender chooses): the medium through which the message travels
• Verbal:
• Any oral or written means of transmitting meaning through words
• Nonverbal:
• Any part of communication that does not use words (gestures, tone of voice, distance, silence etc)
• Includes communication medium: i.e., face-to-face, email, phone, SMS, TV etc.

• Feedback: (determines whether understanding has been achieved)

• Sender typically seeks evidence that message received & understood
• Formal acknowledgement, or indirect acknowledgement through receiver’s behavior.
• Note: feedback essentially repeats the communication process (two-way relationship)

• Noise: (barrier distorting clarity of message)

• Distort & obscure sender’s intended message
 Transmit Message

Sender Receiver

Form Message Receive Encoded Decode

Encode Message Message Message

Noise

Decode Receive Feedback Encode Feedback Form Feedback

Feedback

(McShane & Travaglione, 2010 )

Transmit Feedback
Directions of communication
• Vertically (downward/upward)
• Downward (communication that flows from upper levels to a lower level. E.g.
managers use that to assign goals, provide instructions and explain policies
and procedures, offer feedback about performance)
• Managers need to explain issues to employees in order to get their
commitment
• Upward (information flow to a higher level in the group)
• Soliciting information from subordinates
• Useful in making managers aware of issues in the organization, enhancing
engagement and improving innovation
• Laterally or horizontally (flow of communication among members of
the same work group or people at the same level)
 Channels of communicating
• Verbal (the power of words)
oral
• Speeches, one on one discussions, grapevine (rumour)
• Commonest form with the advantage of speed and feedback especially face-to face
communication
• Major drawback is the amount of distortion if it passes through a number of people
because it is subject to different interpretation

Written – memos, letters, emails, instant messaging, notices

• It provides written records and can be stored
• Prevents instant feedback
• Non verbal –
• kinesics (body movements, gestures (help me, I am lonely, surprise, indifferent,
forgetful)
• intonations (the way we say things),
• facial expressions (smile, a frown, shyness, eye contact is important)
• Proxemics (physical distance between the sender and receiver (proper spacing distance
is dependent on culture)
• Colours
• Aesthetic (creative expression such as music, dance, theatre)
• Avoid contradictions when communicating using both verbal and non-verbal.
Non-verbal communication
• Mainly used to transmit emotions (happiness, anger, sadness, envy,
fear, love)
• When there is a conflict between verbal and non-verbal
communication, the true meaning is gotten from the non-verbal
• Generally, non verbal communication:
• repeat a message
• Contradict the message
• Substitute verbal communication
• Can add meaning to verbal communication
Information Richness of Communication Media

Figure 16.2 16-13

 Barriers to effective communication (Noise)
• Distort & obscure sender’s intended message

• Filtering – a sender purposely manipulating information so the receiver will

see it more favorably. (e.g. telling your boss what you feel he should hear).
Fear of conveying bad news or the desire to please the boss can lead to that.
• Information overload – when information exceeds our processing capacity. It
therefore leads people to select, ignore, pass over or forget
Barriers to communication
• Semantic barriers
• Not knowing grammar
• Not knowing jargon
• Accent – sometimes different accents can make the same word sound
completely different
• Idiom – are expressions and can be specific to the culture or region
• Solution: KISS
Barriers to communication
• Physical barriers
• Context – the building, temperature, other people in the room – how can you overcome
these?
• Distance – face to face is the easiest, problems can occur without the non-verbal signals to
help us – how can you overcome these?
• Physical disabilities – hearing, eyesight, speech – how can you overcome these?
• Technical difficulties – computers, telephone lines – how can you overcome these?
• Illness and tiredness – colds, flus, tiredness can effect a person’s concentration – how can you
overcome these?
 Barriers to communication
• Psychological barriers
• Culture – cultural differences can make people feel like they don’t fit in so they may try to adjust very quickly
• Religion – religion does not often cause too many communication barriers
• Values – people can have different which can impact on how they perceive a message remember that people may not
have the same values as you do
• Differing fields of experience – differences can create barriers
• Lack of feedback – this means the communication process is unfinished, people like to know how others feel and think
about the message they have sent out
• Emotion – can be a barrier when it prevents us from communicating or thinking.
• Negative emotion can be difficult to express at work and can be inappropriate
• Stereotyping and gender
• Personality
• Lack of confidence – a lack of confidence may reduce your ability to communicate an idea clearly or in a convincing way.
Assertiveness training can help
Improving communications
• Encourage open feedback
• Use simple language (no jargon, know your audience, KISS – keep it
short and sweet)
• Avoid overload
• Be a good listener (not talking, ask questions)
POWER IN ORGANISATIONS
UNDERSTANDING POWER
EXERCISING POWER
RESISTING POWER
 POWER DEFINED

• According to Langton and Robbins (2013),

• the capacity that a person has to influence the behavior of another, so that he or she acts in accordance with
the wishes of the other person.

• POWER IS THE ABILITY OF ONE PERSON OR GROUP TO CAUSE ANOTHER PERSON OR GROUP TO DO
SOMETHING THEY OTHERWISE MIGHT NOT HAVE DONE. THE USE OF POWER IS THE PRINCIPAL MEANS OF
DIRECTING OR CONTROLLING ORGANIZATIONAL GOALS AND ACTIVITIES. (R.A. DAHL, 1957; R.M. EMERSON, 1962)
• HIERARCHY STILL EXISTS, PEOPLE WANT TO BE AT THE TOP
• ORGANIZATION IS A PYRAMID

• There is a potential for power if someone is dependent on another

 POWER
• POWER: ABILITY TO GET SOMETHING DONE THE WAY A PERSON
WANTS IT DONE
• INCLUDES THE ABILITY TO GATHER PHYSICAL AND HUMAN
RESOURCES AND PUT THEM TO WORK TO REACH A GOAL
• ESSENTIAL TO LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS
 POWER & ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS
• DAVID EASTON – POLITICS IS THE AUTHORITATIVE ALLOCATION OF
VALUES INCLUDING RESOURCES
• POWER ENSURES RESOURCES ARE AVAILABLE, ACCESSIBLE & UTILISED
• POLITICAL BEHAVIOR PERVADES ORGANIZATIONAL LIFE
• CORPORATE POLITICS IS FOCUSED ON DEVELOPING AND USING
POWER IN AN ORGANIZATION
• UNAVOIDABLE PRESENCE AT EVERY WORK PLACE
 POWER
• FACETS OF POWER
• POTENTIAL POWER: ONE PARTY PERCEIVES ANOTHER PARTY AS
HAVING POWER AND THE ABILITY TO USE IT
• ACTUAL POWER: THE PRESENCE AND USE OF POWER
• POTENTIAL FOR POWER: PERSON OR GROUP HAS CONTROL OF
RESOURCES FROM WHICH TO BUILD POWER
 POWER

• POWER RELATIONSHIPS: MOMENTS OF INTERACTION WITHIN AN

ORGANIZATION WHERE POWER IS DEMONSTRATED

• DIMENSIONS OF POWER RELATIONSHIPS

• RELATIONAL: INTERACTION BETWEEN PEOPLE AND GROUPS

• DEPENDENCE
• RELIANCE OF ONE PARTY ON ANOTHER PARTY
• HIGH POWER WHEN VALUED RESULTS NOT AVAILABLE ELSEWHERE

• SANCTIONING: USE OF REWARDS OR PENALTIES

 WHAT CREATES DEPENDENCY

• IMPORTANCE – the things you control must be important

• Scarce
• Nonsubstitutability
 POWER
• POWER DYNAMICS

• DYNAMIC NOT STATIC; RISES AND FALLS FOR PEOPLE AND GROUPS. UPS
AND DOWNS!

• SHIFTS IN INTERNAL & EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT CAN CHANGE POWER

OF PERSON OR TEAMS
• MARKETING: SUCCESSFUL PRODUCT--POWER GOES UP; LOSE MARKET
SHARE--POWER GOES DOWN
• HUMAN RESOURCES – UNSUCCESSFUL SOFTWARE FOR MANAGING
EMPLOYEE RECORDS, LINE MANAGERS GET UPSET AND PRODUCTIVITY GOES
DOWN
• TECHNOLOGY: AS IT INCREASES IN IMPORTANCE, PEOPLE WHO KNOW IT
ACCESS AND APPLY IT TO ENHANCE THEIR POWER. THE OPPOSITE HAPPENS
AS TECHNOLOGY BECOMES OBSOLETE
 TYPES OF POWER

• FORMAL (based on ones position)

• PERSONAL (comes from the unique characteristics)
SOURCES OF MANAGERIAL POWER

14-10
 BASES OF POWER

• AUTHORITY/POSITION POWER/LEGITIMATE POWER–

• Power that a person receives as a result of his position in the formal hierarchy of the organization
• Ones position power can give access to the other types of power
 COERCIVE POWER
• one reacts to this power base out of fear of the negative results that might occur if one fails to comply
• if your boss can dismiss,
• transfer,
• suspend or demote,
• assign a different role and the job matters to employees, then the boss has power
 REWARD POWER
• power that achieves compliance based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable
• raises,
• promotions,
• praise and recognition,
• favourable performance appraisals,
• interesting work,
• important information,
• preferred work shifts or sales territories
 EXPERT POWER

• ability to influence based on special skills, expertise or knowledge

• having technical knowledge
 REFERENT POWER

• influence based on possession by an individual of desirable resources or personal traits

 INFORMATION POWER

• comes from access to and control over information.

• people can be dependent on others due to their possession of information.
 MOST EFFECTIVE SOURCES OF POWER

• WHICH IS MOST IMPORTANT TO HAVE?

• expert and referent power are most effective because they are positively related to satisfaction with
supervision, commitment and performance
• coercive power can backfire as it is negatively related to satisfaction and commitment
 POWER
STRATEGIES FOR ACQUIRING POWER AT WORK
• INCREASE YOUR CENTRALITY OR IMPORTANCE IN THE ORGANIZATION
• INCREASE THE VISIBILITY OF YOUR JOB PERFORMANCE
• INCREASE THE RELEVANCE OF YOUR TASKS
• BUILD SOCIAL NETWORKS
 POWER TACTICS

• LEGITIMACY
• RATIONAL PERSUASION
• INSPIRATIONAL APPEALS
• CONSULTATION
• PERSONAL APPEAL
• PRESSURE
• COALITIONS
• THREATS
 FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF POWER TACTICS

• SEQUENCING SKILLS
• CULTURE OF ORGANIZATION
• RESOURCES VISIBLE TO BACK USE OF POWER
APPLICATION OF POWER TO LEADERSHIP,
AND MANAGEMENT
• BEHAVIOR OF POWERFUL LEADERS AND MANAGERS
• DELEGATE DECISION AUTHORITY
• SEE EMPLOYEES AS TALENTED RESOURCE TO BE HARNESSED FOR GROWTH
AND LEADERSHIP AND ORGANIZATIONAL SUSTAINABILITY
• CAN TRANSFORM PEOPLE’S WORKING CONDITIONS POSITIVELY
• PROVIDE RESOURCES AND INFORMATION FOR TEAM PERFORMANCE
• TAKE RISKS
• STRIVE FOR INNOVATION
• BUILD AGILE ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
• TOLERATE GENUINE MISTAKES
• PROMOTE EMPLOYEE WELL BEING
 BUILDING POWER

• KNOWLEDGE, SKILL, REPUTATION, INTEGRITY, PROFESSIONAL CREDIBILITY (EXPERT AND

INFORMATION POWER)

• NETWORK
• FORMAL OR INFORMAL
• OFTEN BASED ON POSITION IN A COMMUNICATION CHANNEL
• IMPORTANT IN LATERAL RELATIONSHIPS

• CREATE PERCEPTION OF DEPENDENCE: CONTROL OF SCARCE RESOURCES, KNOWLEDGE,

CREATIVITY

• POWER BASE OF THE TEAM

• COPING WITH ADVERSITY & MANAGING UNCERTAINTY
• VALUE ADDED CONTRIBUTION TO ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE
• ADAPTING TO CHANGES IN EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
 THE DARK SIDE OF
ORGANIZATIONAL POWER &POLITICS
Deception Undermining

Organizational
Power & politics

Intimidation/harassm
ent
 SEXUAL HARASSMENT – ABUSE OF POWER

• any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individual’s employment and creates a
hostile work environment
 SEXUAL HARASSMENT:

• IS A FORM OF GENDER-BASED DISCRIMINATION

• INVOLVES
• UNWELCOME SEXUAL ADVANCES,
• REQUESTS FOR SEXUAL FAVORS, OR
• OTHER UNWANTED VERBAL OR PHYSICAL CONDUCT OF A SEXUAL
NATURE
• IS ILLEGAL IF IT
• BECOMES A CONDITION OF EMPLOYMENT,
• AFFECTS DECISIONS ABOUT A PERSON’S JOB OR CAREER,
• INTERFERES WITH WORK PERFORMANCE, OR
• CREATES A HOSTILE WORK ENVIRONMENT
 TYPES OF HARASSMENT
- VERBAL, VISUAL OR PHYSICAL -

• QUID PRO QUO - REQUIRES AN EMPLOYEE SUBMIT TO

SEXUAL HARASSMENT TO KEEP THEIR JOB OR TO GET A
PROMOTION OR GET A JOB
• HOSTILE WORK ENVIRONMENT - UNWELCOME, REPETITIVE
BEHAVIOR THAT IS BASED ON SEX AND GENDER-RELATED. IT
MUST BE SEVERE, OFFENSIVE, AND INTERFERE WITH JOB
PERFORMANCE.
 WORKPLACE BULLYING

• abusing power by demanding overtime without pay

• excessive work performance
• bullying has an effect on health
• DESIRE TO HAVE POWER OVER ANOTHER PERSON
• DESIRE TO BOOST BULY UP BY HAVING CONTROL OVER ANOTHER
• DESIRE TO PROTECT SPACE
• BUILD DOMINANCE AND SUPERIORITY
 CULTURE & POWER IN ORGANIZATIONS

• IT DESCRIBES THE EFFECTS OF A SOCIETY'S CULTURE ON THE VALUESOF ITS MEMBERS, AND
HOW THESE VALUES RELATE TO BEHAVIOR INCLUDING THE APPLICATION OF POWER
 6 DIMENSIONS OF NATIONAL CULTURE

• POWER DISTANCE INDEX (PDI): THE POWER DISTANCE INDEX IS DEFINED AS “THE EXTENT TO WHICH THE LESS POWERFUL MEMBERS OF ORGANIZATIONS AND INSTITUTIONS (LIKE THE FAMILY) ACCEPT AND
EXPECT THAT POWER IS DISTRIBUTED UNEQUALLY.” IN THIS DIMENSION, INEQUALITY AND POWER IS PERCEIVED FROM THE FOLLOWERS, OR THE LOWER LEVEL. A HIGHER DEGREE OF THE INDEX INDICATES THAT
HIERARCHY IS CLEARLY ESTABLISHED AND EXECUTED IN SOCIETY, WITHOUT DOUBT OR REASON. A LOWER DEGREE OF THE INDEX SIGNIFIES THAT PEOPLE QUESTION AUTHORITY AND ATTEMPT TO DISTRIBUTE
POWER.

• INDIVIDUALISM VS. COLLECTIVISM (IDV): THIS INDEX EXPLORES THE “DEGREE TO WHICH PEOPLE IN A SOCIETY ARE INTEGRATED INTO GROUPS.” INDIVIDUALISTIC SOCIETIES HAVE LOOSE TIES THAT OFTEN
ONLY RELATES AN INDIVIDUAL TO HIS/HER IMMEDIATE FAMILY. THEY EMPHASIZE THE “I” VERSUS THE “WE.” ITS COUNTERPART, COLLECTIVISM, DESCRIBES A SOCIETY IN WHICH TIGHTLY-INTEGRATED
RELATIONSHIPS TIE EXTENDED FAMILIES AND OTHERS INTO IN-GROUPS. THESE IN-GROUPS ARE LACED WITH UNDOUBTED LOYALTY AND SUPPORT EACH OTHER WHEN A CONFLICT ARISES WITH ANOTHER IN-
GROUP.[

• UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE (UAI): THE UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE INDEX IS DEFINED AS “A SOCIETY'S TOLERANCE FOR AMBIGUITY,” IN WHICH PEOPLE EMBRACE OR AVERT AN EVENT OF SOMETHING
UNEXPECTED, UNKNOWN, OR AWAY FROM THE STATUS QUO. SOCIETIES THAT SCORE A HIGH DEGREE IN THIS INDEX OPT FOR STIFF CODES OF BEHAVIOR, GUIDELINES, LAWS, AND GENERALLY RELY ON
ABSOLUTE TRUTH, OR THE BELIEF THAT ONE LONE TRUTH DICTATES EVERYTHING AND PEOPLE KNOW WHAT IT IS. A LOWER DEGREE IN THIS INDEX SHOWS MORE ACCEPTANCE OF DIFFERING THOUGHTS OR
IDEAS. SOCIETY TENDS TO IMPOSE FEWER REGULATIONS, AMBIGUITY IS MORE ACCUSTOMED TO, AND THE ENVIRONMENT IS MORE FREE-FLOWING.

• MASCULINITY VS. FEMININITY (MAS): IN THIS DIMENSION, MASCULINITY IS DEFINED AS “A PREFERENCE IN SOCIETY FOR ACHIEVEMENT, HEROISM, ASSERTIVENESS AND MATERIAL REWARDS FOR SUCCESS.” ITS
COUNTERPART REPRESENTS “A PREFERENCE FOR COOPERATION, MODESTY, CARING FOR THE WEAK AND QUALITY OF LIFE.” WOMEN IN THE RESPECTIVE SOCIETIES TEND TO DISPLAY DIFFERENT VALUES. IN
FEMININE SOCIETIES, THEY SHARE MODEST AND CARING VIEWS EQUALLY WITH MEN. IN MORE MASCULINE SOCIETIES, WOMEN ARE SOMEWHAT ASSERTIVE AND COMPETITIVE, BUT NOTABLY LESS THAN MEN.
IN OTHER WORDS, THEY STILL RECOGNIZE A GAP BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE VALUES. THIS DIMENSION IS FREQUENTLY VIEWED AS TABOO IN HIGHLY MASCULINE SOCIETIES.

• LONG-TERM ORIENTATION VS. SHORT-TERM ORIENTATION (LTO): THIS DIMENSION ASSOCIATES THE CONNECTION OF THE PAST WITH THE CURRENT AND FUTURE ACTIONS/CHALLENGES. A LOWER DEGREE
OF THIS INDEX (SHORT-TERM) INDICATES THAT TRADITIONS ARE HONORED AND KEPT, WHILE STEADFASTNESS IS VALUED. SOCIETIES WITH A HIGH DEGREE IN THIS INDEX (LONG-TERM) VIEWS ADAPTATION AND
CIRCUMSTANTIAL, PRAGMATIC PROBLEM-SOLVING AS A NECESSITY. A POOR COUNTRY THAT IS SHORT-TERM ORIENTED USUALLY HAS LITTLE TO NO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT, WHILE LONG-TERM ORIENTED
COUNTRIES CONTINUE TO DEVELOP TO A POINT.

• INDULGENCE VS. RESTRAINT (IND): THIS DIMENSION IS ESSENTIALLY A MEASURE OF HAPPINESS; WHETHER OR NOT SIMPLE JOYS ARE FULFILLED. INDULGENCE IS DEFINED AS “A SOCIETY THAT ALLOWS
RELATIVELY FREE GRATIFICATION OF BASIC AND NATURAL HUMAN DESIRES RELATED TO ENJOYING LIFE AND HAVING FUN.” ITS COUNTERPART IS DEFINED AS “A SOCIETY THAT CONTROLS GRATIFICATION OF
NEEDS AND REGULATES IT BY MEANS OF STRICT SOCIAL NORMS.” INDULGENT SOCIETIES BELIEVE THEMSELVES TO BE IN CONTROL OF THEIR OWN LIFE AND EMOTIONS; RESTRAINED SOCIETIES BELIEVE OTHER
FACTORS DICTATE THEIR LIFE AND EMOTIONS
 CONCLUSION –POWER DOUBLE EDGED SWORD

• POWER CAN BE AN ENABLER OR CONSTRAINT TO ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE

• POWER CAN BE AN ENABLER OR CONSTRAINT TO LEADERSHIP SUCCESS
• POWER CAN BE AN ENABLER OR CONSTRAINT TO GROWING TALENT
• POWER CAN BE AN ENABLER FOR REINFORCING STRONG OR WEAK ORGANIZATIONAL
CULTURE
WORK RELATIONSHIPS
 Introduction

Relationships between people at work differs from relationships

between friends and relations because it arises out of the work
setting by working on the same or related tasks and having
specified positions and roles.

People at work value each other partly for their competence,

which is less of a concern between friends and relations.

At work, individuals must relate to one another simultaneously as

sources of power, influence and resources need to be shared.
 The Nature Of Work Relationship

Relationship refers to an enduring association

between two persons.

Within relationships, there exists a set of

understandings about the nature of the relationship
and what each side can expect from the other.
 Relationship Theories

a) Interdependence theory
b) Social orientations theory
 Interdependence Theory
People’s level of commitment in relationships is seen as a
function of their satisfaction with their outcomes. A
persons’ dependence on (commitment to) a relationship is
seen as equal to their satisfaction of the outcome of their
investment.

The concept of ‘investments’ represent resources put into

a relationship that would be lost if the relationship ended.
These consist of time, effort, money or other inputs
(Rusbult, 1983).
 Interdependence Theory

Expectations about the relationship, based on the early stages of

the interaction or on experiences with previous relationships,
also affect how satisfied people are with their outcomes.

An individual will remain in a relationship only if their satisfaction

level exceeds the satisfaction they would get from an alternative.

People are dependent on any relationship if the extent that their

outcome from it exceeds the satisfaction they would get from
their best alternative.
 Social Orientations Theory
Complexity of relationships make people develop social
orientations or habitual solutions to interactive problems or
situations.

The theory considers how people reconcile their priorities and

self-interests with the need to coordinate action and responses
from other participants.

The theory asserts that they do it by transforming their personal

desires and goals into behavioral tendencies through
characteristic patterns of responding to the other participants’
interest.
 Social Orientations Theory

This works with the decision rules, known as social orientations.

These rules may cover orientations such as trust, control,
courage, dependence and power sharing.

Social orientations are habits formed as solutions to each

individual’s encountered patterns of interdependence – solutions
that on average yield desirable outcomes.
 Work Communication

Patterns of communication have a strong influence on all

work relationships.

There are downward and upwards communications within

organizations.

Downward communication in traditional organizations

consists of job directives, feedback on performances,
statements of organizational policies and practices.
.
 Work Communication

Communication at work is transmitted personally, in newsletters or

memoranda and it is difficult for its originators to know how it is
interpreted or received.

Information or instructions that are passed person-to-person down the

chain of command are also subject to distortion.

Upward communications too, are often inaccurate, especially when

senders are keen to be promoted, do not trust their supervisor or feel
insecure. Bad news is often likely to be ill received and may reflect on the
competence of the person who brings it. For this reason, it is often
delayed and distorted.
.
 Work Communication

Workers are expected to seek help from their immediate

supervisor. However, it is more common for help to be sought
from equals because this avoids loss of reputation.

People protect themselves by appealing to rules or a common

authority, evading the rules (e.g. by ignoring requests) , relying
on friendships or past or future favors, using political allies,
persuading, trying to change the work-flow or other aspects of
the organizational arrangements in an advantageous way.

.
 Work Role Behavior
For every position there is a role that is a pattern of behavior that is both typical of
the people in that position and it is expected of them.

Role ambiguity: This leads to uncertainty about the scope of responsibility and
others’ expectations, and can lead to lack of confidence.

Role conflict: This results from being required to carry out more than one role at the
same time, where the requirements of one role are incompatible with those of the
other. Role conflict or role overload, which results from having too much work, can
lead to role stress.

Role stress affects people who carry responsibility for the work of others, or whose
roles span boundaries between departments and organizations. Role stress causes
tension, low morale and communication difficulties. It significantly diminishes
interactive work performances.
 Work Norms

To maintain good relations with colleagues, people at work need to know

and obey the ‘rules’ or norms governing interactions and other aspects of
the work.

In work relationships, norms help resolve interpersonal problems and

avoid conflicts.
 Cooperation & Competition

Cooperation is working together to maximize joint outcomes.

Competition is the attempt to maximize own outcomes relative to

the other.

Edward Lawler (1983 ) holds that in some long-term relationships

there is a continuous struggle for power, which leads to constant
competition or conflict.
 Conflict & Conflict Resolution

The difference between competition and conflict can be kept clear by

thinking of competition as a race and conflict as a war. In both, the
parties are trying to win, but whereas in competition they will not
actively hurt the other, in conflict they will.

Conflict can be defined as ‘the tension between two or more social

entities—individuals, groups or larger organizations - which arises from
the incompatibility of actual or desired responses’.

Blake and Mouton set out a model of conflict handling based on concern
for self and concern for others. The styles of conflict management are
forcing, confrontation, compromise, withdrawal and smoothing.
 Integrative Solution To Conflict

The disputants try to create solutions jointly rather than to force a

predetermined position or simply accept the partner’s position in order to avoid
confrontation. They also link their objectives with those of their opponent,
eschew destructive personal attacks and offer persuasive arguments.

To pursue integrative solutions, they must meet the following cognitive

requirements:
1. See conflict situations as having many perspectives, motives and
interpretations.
2. Think about the other’s perspectives and goals.
3. Anticipate likely actions from the other person.
4. Consider multiple specific and effective arguments.
5. Construct new arguments to accommodate and integrate their concerns.
6. Developing contingency plans.
 Dealing With Prejudice, Discrimination & Harassment
These negative behaviors are problems for the perpetrators and
secondly for the organization and the victim.

Laws in many countries recognize the responsibility of

organizations to protect their employees against discrimination.
However, in many organizations, in practice, individuals are left to
cope with prejudice and harassment more or less alone.

People persist to be victims and are trapped because in most

cases they need the job in which they are being victimized.
 The
Individual’s
Better Willingness to
own clear
qualifications move on Judging when
parameters
to ‘let it go’
and consistent
commitment
to fair
treatment

WINNING Ignoring
THROUGH ‘harmless’
Seniority prejudice

Recognising
allies in the
Getting a Proving
oppressing
mentor oneself over
categories
and over

COPING WITH PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION

 CONFLICT
MANAGEMENT IN
ORGANISATIONS
 Introduction

• Common in organisations as managers spend over 20%

of time dealing with conflict and its effects.

December 10, 2021 2

 Conflicts

• A sharp disagreement, usually accompanied by

strong emotion (Jenks, 1990).

December 10, 2021 OHRM 605: CSR& OHS: Prof. Dan Ofori 3
 WHAT IS CONFLICT ?

• A process that begins when one party perceives

another party has or is about to negatively affect
something the first party cares about (Robbins & Judge,
2013).

• The process by which one part believes that another

party has taken or will take actions that are
incompatible with his or her own interests.

4
 Workplace conflict

• Involving grievances and disputes between individual

employees and their employers, among individuals
and between groups of employees, whether
unionized or not, and their employers (Currie,
Gormley, Roche & Teague, 2017).

December 10, 2021 5

 Causes of conflict

• Unclear job boundaries

• Competition for scarce resources
• Time pressures
• Personality clashes
• Communication breakdowns
• Destructive criticism
• Distrust

December 10, 2021 6

 Schools of thought on conflict

• Traditional view of conflict

• Human relations view

– Argues that conflict is a natural occurrence
– Advocated acceptance of conflict since it cannot be eliminated

7
• Interactionist:
– is not only a positive force in a group but also an absolute
necessity for a group to perform effectively.
• Managers must therefore stimulate controlled
conflict.
• Ambiguous communications
• Hiring outsiders
• Devil’s advocate
• Conflict is therefore all not good or bad

December 10, 2021 8

 Situations that lead to conflicts

• Cognitive
• conflict that is task-oriented and related to differences in
perspectives and judgments.

• Affective conflict
• emotional and aimed at a person rather than an issue

December 10, 2021 OHRM 605: CSR& OHS: Prof. Dan Ofori 9
 constructive conflict

• Conflict that supports the goals of the group and

improves its performance.
– improve the quality of organizational decisions
– motivate people to appreciate each others' positions more
fully.
– encourage people to consider new ideas, thereby facilitating
change

December 10, 2021 10

 Dysfunctional

• Hinders group performance

• It raises negative emotions and distract people’s attention
• Can lead to workplace aggression
– (harming other people, killings by ex-employees, stealing from the
organization, bringing lawsuit, sabotaging an associates work,
defamation of character)

December 10, 2021 11

 Conflict management

December 10, 2021 12

 Conflict management strategies

• Cooperativeness
– the degree to which one tries to satisfy the other person’s
concerns
• Assertiveness
– the degree to which one tries to satisfy one’s own concern

December 10, 2021 13

• Avoiding
– withdrawing form or ignoring conflict

• Yielding/accommodating
– Accepting and incorporating the will of the other party
– placing the other’s interest above one’s own

• Compromising
– giving up something to reach an outcome (done by both parties),
search for a middle ground

December 10, 2021 14

• Forcing/competing
– satisfying one’s own interests without concern for the other’s
interests
– Win/lose
• Problem solving/ collaborating
– clarifying differences to find mutually beneficial outcomes
– Exchange information
– Make trade-offs between important and unimportant issues

December 10, 2021 15

 management strategies

• PROBLEM SOLVING
• Face-to-face meeting of the conflicting parties for the purpose of identifying
the problem and resolving it through open discussion.

• SUPERORDINATE GOALS
• Creating a shared goal that cannot be attained without the cooperation of
each of the conflicting parties.

• SMOOTHING
• Playing down differences while emphasizing common interests with the
other party
16
• ALTERING THE STRUCTURAL VARIABLES
• Changing the formal organization structure and the interaction
patterns of conflicting parties through job redesign, transfers,
creation of coordinating positions, and the like.
• EXPANSION OF RESOURCES

December 10, 2021 17

• AUTHORITATIVE COMMAND
• Management uses its formal authority to resolve the conflict and then
communicates its desires to the parties involved.
• ALTERING THE HUMAN VARIABLE
• Using behavioral change techniques such as training to alter attitudes and
behaviors that cause conflict.

18
 Personality conflicts

• Occurs due to
– Misunderstanding due to age, race or cultural differences
– Prejudice, discrimination, intolerance

• Strategies
– Communicate directly
– Avoid dragging others
– Seek help from supervisors

December 10, 2021 19

 REFERENCES

• Currie, D., Gormley, T., Roche, B., & Teague, P. (2017).

The management of workplace conflict: Contrasting
pathways in the HRM literature. International Journal of
Management Reviews, 19(4), 492-509.
• P. Robbins, Managing Organizational Conflict: A
Nontraditional Approach (Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall, 1974), pp. 59–89.
• Robbins, S., & Judge, T. A. (2013). Organisational
behaviour. Pearson Higher Education AU.

20
NEGOTIATION
When bargaining/ negotiation occurs
•Labour bargains with management
•managers negotiate with employees, peers, and senior management
•salespeople negotiate with customers
•purchasing agents negotiate with suppliers
•a job offer
•employees agree to answer a colleague’s phone for a few minutes in exchange for some past or
future benefit.
 WHAT IS NEGOTIATION ?
•A process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services
and attempt to agree on the exchange rate for them.(Robbins &
Judge, 2012).
 NEGOTIATION PROCESS
•Preparation and Planning:
•What’s the nature of the conflict?
•What’s the history leading up to this negotiation
• Who’s involved and what are their perceptions of the conflict?
• What do you want from the negotiation?
•What are your goals?
 NEGOTIATION PROCESS
•Definition of Ground Rules:
•Who will do the negotiating?
•Where will it take place?
•What time constraints, if any, will apply?
•To what issues will negotiation be limited?
•Will you follow a specific procedure if an impasse is reached?
•Parties will also exchange their initial proposals or demands.
 NEGOTIATION PROCESS
•Clarification and Justification:
• both you and the other party will explain, amplify, clarify, and justify
your original demands.
• This step needn’t be confrontational.
• Rather, it’s an opportunity for educating and informing each other on
the issues, why they are important, and how you arrived at your initial
demands.
• Provide the other party with any documentation that helps support
your position.
 NEGOTIATION PROCESS
•Bargaining and Problem Solving:
•The essence of the negotiation process is the actual give-and-take
This is where both parties will undoubtedly need to make
concessions.
 NEGOTIATION PROCESS
•Closure and Implementation:
• formalizing the agreement and developing any procedures necessary for
implementing and monitoring it.
•requires hammering out the specifics in a formal contract.
•closure of the negotiation process could be a handshake.
 NEGOTIATION TYPES
•Distributive Bargaining: Negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed
amount of resources
• a win–lose situation.
• a zero-sum situation
•Its identifying feature is that it operates under zero-sum conditions—
that is, any gain I make is at your expense and vice versa.
•The ultimate aim, under distributive bargaining approach, is not to
come to a win-win kind of situation but that one side wins as much they
can.
• Both parties will try to get the maximum share from the asset or
resource which needs to be distributed.
• the parties are aggressive and focus on their differences
 NEGOTIATIONS TYPES
•Integrative Bargaining: Negotiation that seeks one or more
settlements that can create a win–win solution.
• Also called "interest-based bargaining," "win-win bargaining“.
•This strategy focuses on developing mutually beneficial
agreements based on the interests of the disputants. Interests
include the needs, desires, concerns, and fears important to each
side.
•They are the underlying reasons why people become involved in a
conflict.
NEGOTIATION TYPES
NEGOTIATION STRATEGIES
COMPETITIVE – I win, you lose. Using secrecy, threats or bluffs as a way of hiding ones goals and
uncovering the other party’s. it is creating a bad image of the other party
COLLABORATIVE – pursuing common goals, satisfying both. Win win situation
SUBORDINATIVE – Used to avoid hostility, put others interest above yours
Improving negotiation skills
Research your opponent – acquire as much information
Address the problem, not personalities (concentrate on issues, separate the problems from the
people)
Emphasize a win-win solution
Pay little attention to initial offers
Current demand (CD)
Level of aspiration (LOA)
Bargainers limit(BL)
 REFERENCES
•Robbins, S., & Judge, T. A. (2013). Organisational
behaviour. Pearson Higher Education AU.
GROUPS AND TEAMS IN
ORGANISATIONS
 GROUPS

• Is two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent,

who have come together to achieve particular objectives
(Robbins & Judge, 2013).

• Two or more people with a common relationship (Langton

and Robbins, 2015).

• A collection of two or more interacting individuals with a

stable pattern of relationships between them who share
common goals and who perceive themselves as being a
group 2
 Session 9
MAJOREEN OSAFROADU AMANKWAH
(PHD)

May 5, 2021 3
 Teams

• “a small number of people with complementary skills

who are committed to a common purpose, performance
goals, and approach for which they hold themselves
mutually accountable.” (Katzenbach and Smith, 1993)

• NB: Groups and Teams are not the same thing.

• All teams can be considered as groups but not all groups
are teams.

May 5, 2021 4
 TYPES OF WORK TEAMS

• Problem-Solving Teams:
• Self-Managed Work Teams:
• Cross-Functional Teams:
• Virtual Teams: Teams that use computer technology
to tie together physically dispersed members in order
to achieve a common goal.

5
 Characteristics of teams

• Team members share leadership.

• Both individuals and the team as a whole share
accountability for the work of the team.
• The team develops its own purpose or mission.
• The team works on problem solving continuously, rather
than just at scheduled meeting times.
• The team’s measure of effectiveness is the team’s
outcomes and goals, not individual outcomes and goals.

May 5, 2021 6
 Why Teams/Groups

• The evidence suggests that teams typically outperform

individuals when the tasks being done require multiple
skills, judgment, and experience

May 5, 2021 OHRM 605: CSR& OHS: Prof. Dan Ofori 7

 TYPES OF GROUPS

• Formal groups:
– ones defined by the organization’s structure, with
designated work assignments establishing tasks.
– Example: The six members of an airline flight crew are a
formal group.
– Standing committee
– Ad hoc committee

8
 TYPES OF GROUPS

• An informal group is neither formally structured

nor organizationally determined.
• Membership is voluntary

• Eg. An interest group protesting the company’s pollution

• Friendship group

9
 Tuckman’s (1965) four stages of group development
Stages of Group Group Structure (the group Task-activity development
Development as a social entity) (the group as a task entity)
1. Forming Testing and dependence- Group members exchange ideas
discovering what interpersonal and gather information about what
behaviours are acceptable and they have to do and about the
behaving accordingly e.g. nature of the group task e.g goals,
patterns of communication, ways deadlines, available resources,
to collaborate or compete work process etc

2. Storming Intra-group conflict is sometimes

severe because of members’ Trying to reach agreement on
emotional response to the task objectives and strategy. Emotional
demands and other group response to task demands,
members because the members especially to discrepancy between
do not yet have a set of agreed the individual’s orientation and the
norms to regulate these requirements of the task.
disagreements.

HBO
Bruce Tuckman’s (1965) stages of group development
Stages of Group Group Structure (the group Task-activity development
Development as a social entity) (the group as a task entity)

3. Norming Group cohesion develops. Open exchange of relevant

Members accept the group and interpretations or opinions of
the idiosyncrasies of others; the information. Openness to other
group generates norms; group members.
harmony prevails and task
conflicts are avoided.
4. Performing Members are assigned particular Task solutions and ways of
functions or roles to increase the implementing them begin to
effectiveness by clarifying emerge. The real work gets
relationships within the group accomplish in this stage
and increasing efficiency through
specialisation. The group’s
procedures are formalised.

HBO
 Tuckman’s (1965) STAGES OF GROUP
DEVELOPMENT
• Forming stage: This stage is characterized by a great deal
of uncertainty about the group’s purpose, structure, and
leadership.
– Members “test the waters” to determine what types of behaviors
are acceptable.
• How do I fit in and why are we here?

12
 STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT

• Storming Stage: At this stage members accept the

existence of the group but resist the constraints it
imposes on individuality.
– People do not get along, power struggles, interpersonal
problems

13
 STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT

• Norming Stage: At this stage close relationships

develop and the group demonstrates cohesiveness.
– The group develops norms, acceptable standards of
behaviour that are shared by the group’s members.

14
 STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT

• Performing: At this stage, the structure at this point is

fully functional and accepted.
– Group energy has moved from getting to know and
understand each other to performing the task at hand.

15
 Adjourning stage
• This stage is for wrapping up activities and preparing to
disband.

May 5, 2021 16
 IMPORTANCE OF WORK TEAMS

• Improving productivity.
• Improving quality and encouraging innovation.
• Taking advantage of the opportunities provided by
technological advances.
• Improving employee motivation and commitment.
• Full participation by all members and decision-making by
consensus.
• The open expression of feelings and disagreements

17
 CREATING EFFECTIVE WORK TEAMS
• Context:
– Adequate resources
• (technology, adequate staffing, administrative assistance,
encouragement, and timely information)
– Leadership and structure
• Setting a clear and meaningful direction for the team’s work
- Climate of trust
– Performance evaluation and reward systems
– Should individuals be paid for their “teamwork” or their individual
performance?.

18
• Composition:
– Abilities of members
• technical expertise, problem-solving and decision-making, interpersonal
skills

– Personality
• Personality also influences team behaviour.

• Diversity
• Size of teams (the smaller the better <10, uneven
number)
• Member preferences
May 5, 2021 19
Process:
• Common purpose
– (it provides direction and guidance under any and all conditions.)
• Specific and difficult goals
• Conflict levels
– Conflict on a team is not necessarily bad.

May 5, 2021 20
• Social loafing – free riders
– The tendency for people to reduce their effort when working
with others
Eliminating strategies
- have both individual and overall group performance
(make each performer identifiable)
– Make work tasks more important and interesting
– Reward individuals for contributing to their group’s performance
– Use punishment threats
– Size

May 5, 2021 21
 Knowledge, Skills, Abilities

• Communication
• Goal setting
• Collaborative problem-solving
• Conflict resolution

May 5, 2021 22
 Belbin’s (1981) roles in team performance

Role Role name

Co-ordinating Chairman

Directing Team leader

Creative thinking Innovator

Critical thinking Monitor-evaluator

Carrying out the task Company worker

Looking for personal relationships in the team Team worker

Progress chasing Completer

Keeping in touch with other teams Resource investigator

 Belbin’s team roles

Roles: A tendency to behave, contribute and interrelate

with others in a particular way
Team roles are categorized into
• Action oriented roles
• People oriented roles
• Thought oriented roles

May 5, 2021 24
 Action oriented roles

• Sharper – challenges the team to improve

• Implementer – puts ideas into actions
• Completer – ensures thorough timely completion

May 5, 2021 25
 People oriented

• Coordinator – acts as a chairperson

• Team worker – encourages cooperation
• Resource investigator – explores outside opportunities

May 5, 2021 26
 Thought oriented

• Plant – presents new ideas and approaches

• Monitor-evaluator – analyzes the options
• Specialist – provides specialized skills

May 5, 2021 27
WORKING IN GROUPS
 Introduction

Groups are defined as three or more people who are interacting.

Conditions for effective group operations:

1. Task suited to group handling
2. Operate within a culture that supports innovation, flexibility
and trust.
3. Composed of people with the right combination of abilities
and knowledge for task.
4.Team which cooperates rather than competes.
 Two types of groups
Formal groups are official groups that are designated by formal
authority to serve specific organisational purposes to which
employees are formally assigned. They may be permanent or
temporary. Permanent workgroups appear on organisation charts
as departments. i.e. marketing department, divisions or teams.

Informal groups emerge without being officially designated by the

organisation. They form spontaneously through personal
relationships or special interests, not by any specific
organisational endorsement. i.e. friendship groups, interest
groups. Informal groups often help people to get their jobs done.
They help satisfy social and security needs.
Collaborative groups and Competitive groups

Group behaviour: The way people behave in a group situation.

There are situations that require collaborative behavior and there
are situations that demand people to act competitively.

Individuals and Groups: Individuals have varying experiences,

attitudes, hopes and expectations about a given task and a
group. A process of harmonisation is therefore needed before a
high and consistent level of productive work can occur in a group.
 Tuckman’s (1965) four stages of group development
Stages of Group Group Structure (the group Task-activity development
Development as a social entity) (the group as a task entity)
1. Forming Testing and dependence- Group members exchange ideas
discovering what interpersonal and gather information about what
behaviours are acceptable and they have to do and about the
behaving accordingly e.g. nature of the group task e.g goals,
patterns of communication, ways deadlines, available resources,
to collaborate or compete work process etc

2. Storming Intra-group conflict is sometimes

severe because of members’ Trying to reach agreement on
emotional response to the task objectives and strategy. Emotional
demands and other group response to task demands,
members because the members especially to discrepancy between
do not yet have a set of agreed the individual’s orientation and the
norms to regulate these requirements of the task.
disagreements.

HBO
Tuckman’s (1965) stages of group development
Stages of Group Group Structure (the group Task-activity development
Development as a social entity) (the group as a task entity)

3. Norming Group cohesion develops. Open exchange of relevant

Members accept the group and interpretations or opinions of
the idiosyncrasies of others; the information. Openness to other
group generates norms; group members.
harmony prevails and task
conflicts are avoided.
4. Performing Members are assigned particular Task solutions and ways of
functions or roles to increase the implementing them begin to
effectiveness by clarifying emerge.
relationships within the group
and increasing efficiency through
specialisation. The group’s
procedures are formalised.

HBO
 Group Cohesiveness and Conformity
Influences on group cohesiveness
1. Group’s goals and reward culture (material or social)

2. Level of attraction to members within the group

Cohesiveness in part produces and is produced by the pressure members

exert on one another to conform to the group norms.

Our liking for other group members depends on how closely they conform to
the characteristics which define the group in comparison to other groups.

In groups, norms help to reinforce group cohesiveness, regulate group

processes, communicate values and enable members to know how to behave
and predict what others will do.
 Cohesiveness and Conformity Pressures
It is important for the group to conform to norms and to adapt to changing
conditions by deviating from the norms (Argyle, 1989).

Conformity pressures can lead to two negative effects on group performance:

Groupthink and, risk or cautious shifts.

Groupthink: When groups work together over a period of time and have been
successful, they develop a conviction that the group is superior in knowledge and
ability and mount conformity pressures so that any deviation from the group
consensus is censored. This can lead to bad decisions. Members avoid controversy
within the group and fail to question weak arguments.

Risky or cautious shifts: Conformity pressures can lead groups to make decisions that
are either riskier or more cautious than decisions which the individual members
would make on their own. In groups, people feel less personally responsible for
mistakes.
 Inter-group Conflict

The differences between groups can be quite damaging to the

organisation leading to low levels of inter-departmental communication,
poor co-ordination of efforts, and displacement of loyalty onto outside
organisations.

This lack of cooperation can easily turn into outright distrust and hostility
when the groups are in competition with each other for resources.
 Inter-group conflict management strategies

AVOIDANCE APPROACH
Resignation Fighting: Fighting occurs when both groups
perceive the other as not open to reason and as
belligerently opposed to the interest of the other.
May resolve the conflict but only by creating
winners and losers
Withdrawal Compromise: adopted by groups that see their
opponents as unreasonable but interested in peace.
Does not resolve conflict.

Isolation Arbitration: when group see their opponents as

open to reason but belligerent . Postpones
resolving conflict. Creates winner and losers.

Cover-up Negotiation: Adopted by groups that see their

opponents as both open to reason and interested in
peace. It resolves the conflict and avoids creating
winners and losers. It is the best strategy.
 Teamwork

Team building: bringing people together with the right combinations of

specialist knowledge, personal qualities and role orientations.

Effective teams include at least one task-oriented and one maintenance-

oriented person. Those in the task role ensures completion of the task
and those in the maintenance role handles conflict and interpersonal
problems within the team.
 Belbin’s (1981) roles in performance
Role team Role name
Co-ordinating Chairman

Directing Team leader

Creative thinking Innovator

Critical thinking Monitor-evaluator

Carrying out the task Company worker

Looking for personal relationships in the team Team worker

Progress chasing Completer

Keeping in touch with other teams Resource investigator