JSS2 2ND TERM BASIC TECHNOLOGY E-NOTE

WEEK 1 - REVISION OF LAST TERM'S WORK

WEEK 2 - QUADRILATERALS
WEEK 3- PLANE FIGURE
WEEK 4 - AREA OF PLANE FIGURES
WEEK 5 - WOOD WORK MACHINES
WEEK 6 - METAL WORK MACHINES
WEEK 7 - METAL WORK MACHINES (CONTINUED)
WEEK 8 - FRICTION
WEEK 9 - FRICTION (CONTINUED)
WEEK 10 - REVISION
WEEK 11 - EXAMINATION

WEEK 2

Topic: QUADRILATERALS

Definition

A quadrilateral is a closed figure with four straight sides. You can make a
quadrilateral by taking (or imagining) anything straight and thin you might
have handy: pens, toothpicks, chopsticks, etc. A square is one type of a
special quadrilateral.

Quadrilateral just means “four sides”

(quad means four, lateral means side).

A Quadrilateral has four-sides, it is 2-dimensional (a flat

shape), closed (the lines join up), and has straight sides.

Properties
A quadrilateral has:

 four sides (edges)

 four vertices (corners)
 interior angles that add to 360 degrees:

Exercise

Try drawing a quadrilateral, and measure the angles. They should add
to 360°

Types of Quadrilaterals

There are special types of quadrilateral:

Some types are also included in the definition of other types! For example
a square, rhombus and rectangle are also parallelograms.

Let us look at each type in turn:

The Rectangle

means “right angle”

and show equal sides

A rectangle is a four-sided shape where every angle is a right angle (90°).

Also opposite sides are parallel and of equal length.

The Rhombus
A rhombus is a four-sided shape where all sides have equal length.

Also opposite sides are parallel and opposite angles are equal.

Another interesting thing is that the diagonals (dashed lines in second

figure) meet in the middle at a right angle. In other words they “bisect” (cut
in half) each other at right angles.

A rhombus is sometimes called a rhomb or a diamond.

The Square

means “right angle”

show equal sides

A square has equal sides and every angle is a right angle (90°)

Also opposite sides are parallel.

A square also fits the definition of a rectangle (all angles are 90°), and
a rhombus (all sides are equal length).
The Parallelogram

A parallelogram has opposite sides parallel and equal in length. Also opposite
angles are equal (angles “a” are the same, and angles “b” are the same).

NOTE: Squares, Rectangles and Rhombuses are all Parallelograms!

A parallelogram with:

 all sides equal and

 angles “a” and “b” as right angles is a square!

The Trapezoid/Trapezium

Isosceles Trapezoid
Trapezoid
A trapezoid (called a trapezium in the UK) has a pair of opposite sides
parallel.

And a trapezium (called a trapezoid in the UK) is a quadrilateral with NO

parallel sides:

Trapezoid Trapezium
In the US: a pair of parallel sides NO parallel sides

In the UK: NO parallel sides a pair of parallel sides

 (the US and UK definitions are swapped over!)
An Isosceles trapezoid, as shown above, has left and right sides of equal
length that join to the base at equal angles.

The Kite

Hey, it looks like a kite (usually).

It has two pairs of sides:

Each pair is made of two equal-length sides that join up.

Also:

 the angles where the two pairs meet are equal.

 the diagonals, shown as dashed lines above, meet at a right angle.
 one of the diagonals bisects (cuts equally in half) the other.

… and that’s it for the special quadrilaterals.

Irregular Quadrilaterals

The only regular (all sides equal and all angles equal) quadrilateral is a
square. So all other quadrilaterals are irregular.

The “Family Tree” Chart

Quadrilateral definitions are inclusive.

Example: a square is also a rectangle.

So we include a square in the definition of a rectangle.

(We don’t say “Having all 90° angles makes it a rectangle except when all
sides are equal then it is a square.”)

This may seem odd, as in daily life we think of a square as not being a
rectangle … but in mathematics it is.

Using the chart below we can answer such questions as:

 Is a Square a type of Rectangle? (Yes)

 Is a Rectangle a type of Kite? (No)

Complex Quadrilaterals

Oh Yes! when two sides cross over, we call it a “Complex” or “Self-

Intersecting” quadrilateral, like these:

They still have 4 sides, but two sides cross over.

Polygon

A quadrilateral is a polygon. In fact it is a 4-sided polygon, just like a

triangle is a 3-sided polygon, a pentagon is a 5-sided polygon, and so on.

Other Names

A quadrilateral can sometimes be called:

 a Quadrangle (“four angles“), so it sounds like “triangle”

 a Tetragon (“four and polygon“), so it sounds like “pentagon”,
“hexagon”, etc.
ASSESSMENT

1. What is the name of this quadrilateral?

(a) kite
(b) square
(c) rhombus
(d) trapezium
2. What is the name of this quadrilateral?

(a) trapezoid or trapezium

(b) kite
(c) parallelogram
(d) rhombus
3. What is the name of this quadrilateral?

(a) kite
(b) parallelogram
(c) rhombus
(d) trapezoid or trapezium
4. What is the name of this quadrilateral?

(a) parallelogram
(b) rectangle
(c) trapezoid or trapezium
(d) kite
5. One of these statements is not true of kites
(a) it has two pairs of sides
(b) it has three pairs of sides
(c) the angles where the two pairs meet are equal
(d) one of the diagonals bisects (cuts equally in half) the other
WEEK 3

PLANE FIGURE

Content:

 POLYGON: Definition
 Types/Sketches
 Construction

Definition of a Polygon

Polygons are everywhere! A polygon is any 2-dimensional shape formed with

straight lines. Triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons, and hexagons are all
examples of polygons. The name tells you how many sides the shape has.
For example, a triangle has three sides, and a quadrilateral has four sides.
So, any shape that can be drawn by connecting three straight lines is called
a triangle, and any shape that can be drawn by connecting four straight lines
is called a quadrilateral.

A polygon is a plane figure formed by joining three or more straight sides. A

polygon is said to be regular if all its sides are equal and its angles are
equal.

Types of Polygon

A pentagon is a polygon with five sides.

A hexagon is a polygon with six sides.

A heptagon has seven sides.

An octagon has eight sides.

A decagon has ten sides.

Construction of a Polygon

(A) To construct a regular a Regular Hexagon given its side

(I) Using 600 set square

i. Draw a horizontal line and mark off AB equal to the side of the hexagon.

ii. Through A, draw a line at 600 and mark off AC equal to AB.

iii. Through B, draw a line at 600 parallel to BD and mark off BD equal to AB.

iv. Through C, draw a line of 600 parallel to BD and mark off CE equal to AB.

v. Through D, draw a line of 600 parallel to AC and mark off DF equal to AB.

vi. Join EF to complete the hexagon

(II) Using a pair of Compass

This method is best remembered as the constant Radius Rule.

i. Draw a circle whose radius is equal to the side of the hexagon. Draw the
horizontal diameter AB.

ii. With centre A and the same radius, cut the circle above AB at E and below
AB at F.

iii. With centre B and the same radius, cut the circle above AB at E and
below AB at F.

iv. Join AD, DF, FB, BE, EC, and CA to obtain a hexagon.
Note: This procedure is required to draw a regular hexagon given the
distance across corners. The diameter of the circle is equal to the distance
across corners.

(B) To construct a regular hexagon given the distance across flats

i. Draw a circle whose diameter is equal to the distance across flats. Draw
the vertical diameter AB.

ii. Draw diameter CD and EF at 300.

iii. Through A and B, draw horizontal tangents.

iv. Through C, D, E, F, in turn, draw tangents at 60 0. The figure that is

formed by the intersection of the tangents is the required hexagon.

Hexagon

Note: This is the procedure when it is required to describe a regular hexagon

about a given circle.

(C) To construct a regular octagon given its side

i. Through C and D, draw vertical lines and mark off CE and DF equal to AB.

ii. Through E and F, draw lines at 450 and mark off EG and FH equal to AB.

iii. Join GH to complete the octagon.

iv. Through C and D, draw vertical lines and mark off CE and DF equal to AB.

v. Through E and F, draw lines at 45 0 and mark off EG and FH equal to AB.

vi. Join GH to complete the octagon.

(D) To construct a regular octagon given the distance across flats

i. Draw a circle whose diameter is equal to the distance across flats. Draw
horizontal diameter AB and vertical diameter CD.

ii. Draw diameters EF and GH at 450.

iii. Draw vertical tangents through A and B and horizontal tangents through
C and D.

iv. Through E, F, G H in turn draw tangents at 45 0. The figure formed by the

intersection of the tangents is the required octagon.

Note: This is the procedure when it is required to describe a regular about a

given circle.

(E) General methods for constructing a regular polygon on a given

base

(a) The ‘External – 3600/N Rule’

i. Obtain the external angle of the required polygon by dividing 360 0 by the
number of sides (N) of the polygon i.e. external angle = 360 0/N.

ii. Draw a horizontal line and mark off AB equal to the given base.

iii. Through A, draw a line at 3600/N and mark off a length equal to AB. Also
N at B, draw a line at 3600/N and mark off a length to AB.

iv. Continue the process until you have obtained the polygon N side where N
= 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, ….

Suppose that N = 5, then external angle = 360 0/N = 720. The pentagon will
be obtained by drawing at 720(b).

(b) The ‘Two-Triangle Rule’

i. Draw a horizontal line and mark off AB equal to the given base.

ii. Bisect AB and produce its bisector as long as it is convenient.

iii. On AB as base, draw an isosceles triangle with base angle 45 0 and an

equilateral triangle so that the apexes of the two triangles lie on the bisector
of AB. Denote the apex of the isosceles triangle as d, and that of the
equilateral triangle as f.

iv. Bisect fd to obtain point e.

v. Along the bisector of AB, from the point f, step off length de (or ef) to
obtain points g, h, I, j, etc. The points d, e, f, g, I, j are the centres of the
circumscribing circles for a square, regular pentagon, hexagon, heptagon,
octagon, nonagon and decagon respectively.

vi. suppose you want to draw a polygon of 9 sides (nonagon). With centre I
and radius I A (or iB) draw a circle. Take length AB and step it off on the
circle to obtain the points, C, D, E, F, G, H, I.

Join the points to obtain the required regular nonagon.

(Observed that d = 4; e = 5; f= 6; g = 7; h = 8; i = 9; j = 10.)

(F) The General Method for Describing a Regular about a given Circle

The method is best remembered as the ‘Centre – 3600/N Rule’.

i. Obtain the angle included by any two normals at the centre of the given
circle by dividing 3600/N by the number of sides N of the required described
polygon, i.e. angle at centre = 3600/N.

ii. Draw the given circle with centre O and draw a vertical radius OA.

iii. Use a protractor to set out angles of 360 0/N and draw radii of OB, OC, OD
etc., until you have got N radii.

iv. Through the points A, B, C, D, etc., draw tangents to obtain the required
polygon. Suppose it is required to draw an octagon.

3600/N = 3600/8 = 450.

ASSESSMENT

1. Define Polygon?
2. List FIVE types of Polygon?
WEEK 4

Topic: AREA OF PLANE FIGURES

INTRODUCTION

The idea of area may be explained as the amount of space enclosed within
the boundary of a figure. For instance, the area of the floor of a classroom is
the amount of space enclosed within the four corners of the room. Also, the
area of the top of the teacher’s table is the amount of space enclosed within
the edges of the table.

To measure this amount of space, we determine the number of square units.

As an example, let us find the area of the rectangular floor of length 10cm
and width 6cm. To do this, one method may be to take a square cardboard
of one centimeter side and starting from one corner of the floor, mark the
outline of the cardboard, edge to edge, until the whole space of the floor is
covered. Then the number of the one-square centimeter marking is counted
and that gives the area of the floor in square centimeters.

(A) To construct a triangle equal area to give a given triangle

(a) When the triangles are on equal bases

i. Draw the given triangle ABC and produce the base AB to D, making DE =
AB.

ii. Through C, draw CF parallel to AD.

iii. With centre E and radius equal to a side of the required triangle, cut CF at
G.

(B) To construct a triangle given its base and its area

Suppose that the given base and area are 5cm and 9sq. cm respectively:

i. Divide the given area by the given base, i.e. 9/5 =1.8cm.

ii. Draw a rectangle ABCD whose length is 5cm and width is 1.8cm.

iii. Produce the width of the rectangle to twice it magnitude, i.e. mark off CE
= BC = 1.8cm.

iv. Join E. Triangle ABE is the required triangle.

(C) To construct a triangle equal in area to any to any given
parallelogram

i. Draw the given parallelogram ABCD and draw diagonal BD.

ii. Through C, draw a line parallel to DB to intersect AB produced at E.

iii. Join DE. Triangle AED is the required triangle.

(D) To construct a rectangle equal in area to a given rectangle of

different length

i. Draw the given rectangle ABCD.

ii. On AB (produced), mark off AE equal to the different length of the

required rectangle.

iii. Join DE.

iv. Through B, draw a line parallel to ED to intersect AD (produced)at F. AF

is the width of the required rectangle AEGF.

(E) To construct a square in area to a given rectangle

i. Draw the given rectangle ABCD.

With centre B and radius BC, swing arc CE to intersect AB produced at E.

iii. Bisect AE in F and draw a semi-circle on AE diameter.

iv. Produce BC to meet the semi-circle at G. BG is the side of the required

square.

v. Complete square BGHI.

(F) To construct a square equal in area to the sum of the area of two
given squares

i. Draw a line and mark off AB equal to the side of one of the given squares.

ii. At A, erect a perpendicular and mark off AC equal to the side of the other
given square.
iii. Join CB. CB is the side of the required square.

iv. Complete the required square CBDE.

Note: This is based on Pythagoras’ theorem. This theorem states that the
square on the hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal to the sum of
the squares on the other two sides.

Enlargement and Reduction of Regular Plane Figures

(A) To construct a figure similar to a given figure ABCDEF with its

sides in the ratio of 6.4 to those of the given figure.

i. Draw the given figure ABCDE.

ii. Divide the figures into triangle by drawing lines AC, AD and AE.

iii. Draw line AG at a convenient angle and set off on it from A, 6 equal
parts.

iv. Join point 4 to B and draw GB1 parallel to GB to cut AB produced at B1.

V. Draw B1, C1, D1, and D1 E1 parallel to BC, CD, and DE respectively to
complete the required figure.

(B) To construct a figure similar to a given figure ABCDEF with its

sides in the ratio of 4:6 to those of the given figure

i. Draw the given figure ABCDEF.

ii. Divide the figures into triangles by drawing lines AC, AD and AE.

iii. Divide AB into six equal parts.

iv. Draw B1, C1, C1, D1 and D1 E1 parallel to BD, CD and DE respectively to
complete the required figure.

(C) To construct the size of a given rectangle by a given proportion

Let the proportion be 6:4.

1. Draw the given rectangle ABCD.

ii. Choose point P at any convenient distance from the rectangle, and from
radiate lines to corner A, B, C and D.

iii. Divide PA into 6 equal parts.

iv. Draw A1, D1, D1, C1 and B1 A1 respectively to complete the required
rectangle.

ASSESSMENT

1. Define Area?

WEEK 5
Topic: WOOD WORK MACHINES

INTRODUCTION

Woodwork machines refer to the common equipment used in the workshop.

Most of these machines are heavy and cannot be handled ordinarily. Some
of them are fixed on the ground and are used with electric power. A few of
these machines will be discussed.

Two sections exist here in this topic:

1. Portable power tools

2. Machines

Portable Power Tools

These are tools that are held in the hand and operated with electric current.
The examples to be discussed here are:

1. Sanders

2. Hand drills

3. Fret-saw

Sanders
Sanding means smoothing of work with coated abrasives. The abrasives may
be made of glass, garnet (a type of precious stone), silicon carbide,
aluminium oxide (a brown African abrasive), etc.

Available portable sanders for wood-work smoothing including belt sanders

and drum sanders.

Hand Drills

Holes in materials can be made by many methods, e.g. punching, flame

cutting, boring and drilling. This section is concerned only with making
cylindrical holes with the aid of drills. Drills and drilling machines are the
commonest tools used for making holes. The operation is called drilling and
the tool used is called a drill.

There are different types of drills used in a metal workshop:

a. Twist drill;

b. Flat drill;

c. Straight-fluted drill;

d. Counter-sink drill.

Sensitive Drilling Machine (Bench)

This type of drilling machine is also designed for light jobs. It is possible to
drill holes from 1mm diameter to about 18mm.

The main difference between this machine and the electrical hand-drilling
machine is that the bench type is to the work bench.
Fret-Saw

This saw is used for complex shapes and curves in plywood and veneers.
The blade of this saw is finer than the coping saw blade. It has a high frame
which allows it to be used over a wide area. Its blade is about 125mm long.

Machines

The other types of the equipments used in woodworks are those equipment
which are not portable as the discussed earlier. These machines are heavy.
They are fixed on a spot most of the times. Examples are circular saw, band
saw, wood lathe, surface planner, thicknesser, sanders, drills, etc.

Safety Hints in Using the Woodwork Machines

1. Remove loose fitting clothings, rolling sleeves aprons and eye shield.

2. Remove scraps from saws, tables and floor.

3. Regular oiling and greasing of bearing must be encouraged.

4. Use the correct saw for each job.

5. Saws should be properly set and should be sharp.

6. Before switching one, make sure the blade runs free.

7. Stand to one side when switching on.

8. Switching on to make adjustments on machine or checking measurements
or changing belt speed.

9. Do not overload the machine or force it to work beyond its capacity.

10. Make sure you know how to use the machine that you want to use.

ASSESSMENT

1. Define woodwork machines?

WEEK 6
Topic: METAL WORK MACHINES

Introduction

A machine tool is a machine that cuts metals and performs some other
operations by manipulation of its parts. This chapter introduces you to the
five basic machines normally regarded as machine tools.

Content:

 Types of metal work

 The centre lathe and its operation

Types of Metal work

Machines and their Functions

i. Lathe

ii. Shaper and planer

iii. Milling machine

iv. Drill press

Modern machinery production technology has made it possible to

manufacture other production machine tools for special purposes by utilizing
the technology of these basic ones. In this chapter, we shall briefly present
the functions and uses of these machine tools.

Lathes

There are two types of metal lathes – the plain lathe and the screw cutting
lathe. The purpose of a lathe is to remove metal by use of a rigidly
controlled hard steel-cutting tool. The revolving is the held firmly in a chuck
or between centres while the tool cuts. Lathes are equipped with various
devices as presented below:

a. Setting the tail stock

b. Checking for correctness

c. Turning between centers

Taper Turning

Taper turning is the production of a piece of round work in which one end is
bigger than the other. It is always a conical shape. There are few methods
by which the shape could be produced on the lathe. Tapering with a form
tool is the simplest. It involves the use of shaped tool or cutter fed into the
work piece to produce the taper required. Such tapers are termed short
tapers and can be used for either internal or external turning.

Surfacing

Surfacing is achieved when the cutting tool moves perpendicular to the axis
of rotation of the job being machined and therefore produces a flat surface.
A good face is got when a suitable surfacing tool is used. While surfacing to
the center point of a work, it is important to set the tool tip to the exact
centre height. On the other hand, if the tool moves parallel to the axis of
rotation of the workpiece, a cylindrical surface is produced. This is called a
plane face.

Turning of a series of plain diameters on a work piece can simply be carried

out on the centre lathe. This is better achieved with the use of carriage
movement, because the straightness of the bed ways ensures the
parallelism of the workpiece, and can be power-operated and produced at
one setting. The further maintains concentricity between the different
diameters. If the workpiece is removed for any reason while still turning,
accuracy is lost, and this should be avoided. This process is ideal in
producing what is termed stepping turning.
Sawing

The power sawing machine is used to cut the soft material with coarse tooth
back-saw blades. The coarse tooth ensures that the metal chips do not clog
the teeth. There are many brands of the hack sawing machine but a good
one is the type incorporated with relief of pressure on return stroke by oil
pump or by adjustable oil dash pot in conjunction with the angular setting of
the slide. The work piece should be gripped rigidly, and the frame lowered
carefully to start the cut.

Abrasives

In metal working, two types of abrasive are used. These are aluminium
oxide and silicon carbide. Silicon carbide is suitable for the grinding of
materials of low tensile strength such as iron, brass, bronze, copper,
aluminium and cemented carbide.

Its abrasive forms are obtainable in powder form, grinding paste, lapping
compound wheels and variously shaped stones and on cloth or paper in
grades O, FF, 1, 1½, 2, 2 2/2 – 3 to 4 which is the coarsest.

Drill Press

Small diameter holes can be drilled with the use offhand drills, as the holes
to be drilled becomes larger, the handle of the drill can be replaced with
breast plates at right angles.

(Most work is gripped in a vice, fastened to work table with boils. The
bottom of the vice must be parallel, and square to the jaws.

It is dangerous to drill a piece of work on the drill press without holding the
job firmly and securely. In order to avoid accidents, it is necessary to clamp
down the work to the body of the drill, thus becoming breast drill as much
pressure is needed, say about 25mm or over, hand powered drilling machine
can be used, or a drilling pillar and a ratchet brace. For thicker metal boring,
the use of power-driven sensitive drilling machine can be used. The work
table is a special vice or jig as the case may be. Work held by hand on a drill
press often results in injuries, and should be avoided. These are twist drill,
combination drill, reamer (sunblind drill), countersink, counter bore cutter,
spot face cutter, trepanning tool, tap, etc.

Cutting Fluids
These are sometimes called coolants or cutting lubricants. They are
important on machine tools. They are used to:

a. cool works and tools, and to lessen distortion.

b. lubricate, thereby reducing power consumption.

c. preventing welding of chips to tool.

d. wash away tools chips and swarf.

e. improve surface finish

f. protect tools against corrosion.

Coolant may be divided into three main classes:

a. Soluble oils

b. Straights oils

c. Water-based fluids

Soluble oils: These are mineral oils treated to form an emulsion when added
to water. They can be used neat, or diluted with water to increase their
cooling powder.

They usually leave on the machine a protective cooling or film that is rust
resistant.

Straight oils: These are mainly mineral and extreme pressure (EP) cutting
oils. They are used undiluted for slow heavy-cutting operations, as they
process good lubricating properties.

Water-base fluids: These are solutions of salts and other minerals in water.
They have good cooling properties. They are best applied by using a point,
an oil tray and reservoir to give a slow continuous stream over the cutting
action. An oil pipe can be used where pumping devices are not possible.

ASSESSMENT

1. A machine tool is___

2. List THREE types of metal work?
WEEK 7
Topic: METAL WORK MACHINES (continued)

Metalwork tools are split in two major categories. The first category includes
the industrial metalwork tools. They are very advanced and can easily do
various jobs with minor help from an engineer. Industrial metalwork tools
can easily be referred to as machines. Their prices reach astronomical
numbers. If you own such tools, then you probably need a professional to
take care of them. They require particular maintenance operations that
cannot be done by a regular owner. However, this is a valid statement only if
you own a large scale company or you are… An eccentric person.

A regular person interested in metalworking opts for a different category of

tools. Most garage owners don’t usually use them to host their car inside.
Almost every garage has a small area in a corner full of tools. It is a
common hobby for men to do various crafting operations. Sometimes they
are needed in the house, sometimes they are just fun times. However, such
metalwork tools are easier to maintain than industrial machines. Let’s see
how.

Among the most common tools, hammers and screwdrivers are the easiest
to take care of. They must be kept out of moisture and if somehow they end
up wet, they need to be taken through scrapping operations. However, such
unpleasant situations appear over long periods of time, like for instance
constant leaks through your garage roof in your tools set. On the other
hand, clippers may require more operations. Every once in a while, oil their
mechanisms in order to keep them working smoothly. Also, avoid using
them for anything else they are not designed for. Especially if you own
pneumatic or blading clippers. Blades need to be used for very clear and soft
surfaces. Any small particle of dirt may ruin them.

If your passion goes beyond the Sunday fun metal crafting, then you
probably need more than just the basic tools. If you are practicing to
become a professional or just having a little business going in your garage,
you may opt for mechanical or electric tools. They are more expensive, but
they can make a better job. They also need particular maintenance
operations for a good functionality.

For a proper care of more advanced metal crafting tools, make sure you
read their manuals first. It is imperative to avoid going beyond the limits if
you care for your tools. Since most of them come with warranty periods, you
are basically obliged to resume to exactly what you should do. If somehow
you think you are smarter than the manufacturers and start doing your own
things, you will lose the warranty. This only means two things – you have a
wrecked tool and you need to pay money to fix it, congratulations!

Among the basic maintenance operations for mechanical or electrical tools,

you might have to clean them with wet and clean sponges, or use oil for
their joints. Make sure you keep them at the temperatures indicated in their
manuals and avoid direct sunlight or moisture. Dusty places are also a bad
idea for depositing your tools.

Assessment

1. List the two metal works categories.

2. How do you care for metals?

WEEK 8
Topic: FRICTION

Definition of Friction

Friction is the resistance to motion of one object moving relative to another.

It is not a fundamental force, like gravity or electromagnetism. Instead,
scientists believe it is the result of the electromagnetic attraction between
charged particles in two touching surfaces.

In liquids, friction is the resistance between moving layers of a fluid, which is

also known as viscosity. In general, more viscous fluids are thicker, so
honey has more fluid friction than water.

The atoms inside a solid material can experience friction as well. For
instance, if a solid block of metal gets compressed, all the atoms inside the
material move, creating internal friction.

In nature, there are no completely frictionless environments: even in deep

space, tiny particles of matter may interact, causing friction.

Causes of Friction

Friction is a force that resists the relative motion between two objects or
materials. The causes of this resistive force are molecular adhesion, surface
roughness, and deformations.
Adhesion is the molecular force resulting when two materials are brought
into close contact with each other. Trying to slide objects against each other
requires breaking these adhesive bonds. For years, scientists thought that
friction was caused only by surface roughness, but recent studies have
shown that it is actually a result of adhesive forces between the materials.

But surface roughness is a factor when the materials are rough enough to
cause serious abrasion. This is called the sandpaper effect.

When one or both of the materials is relatively soft, much of the resistance
to movement is caused by deformations of the objects or by a plowing
effect.

Molecular adhesion

When two objects are brought into contact, many atoms or molecules from
one object are in such close proximity to those in the other object that
molecular or electromagnetic forces attract the molecules of the two
materials together. This force is called adhesion. Trying to slide one object
across the other requires breaking these adhesive bonds. Adhesion is the
essence of friction.

You’ve seen a water drop adhere to a window pane. The force of friction
prevents this liquid from sliding down the solid material. But most cases of
friction you see concern a solid object sliding or moving against another
solid.

Sliding objects against each other requires breaking these millions of contact
points where the adhesion force takes effect, only to result in millions of new
contact points of adhesion.

Sticky materials
Some solid materials may have a composition that greatly increases their
adhesion and makes them even “sticky” to the touch. This stickiness greatly
increases the fiction. Rubber and adhesive tape are examples of sticky
materials that have this type of friction.

Fluids
Fluids often exhibit molecular adhesion, increasing the friction. This adhesion
force is often seen in the capillary effect. This is where water will be pulled
up a glass tube by the forces of molecular adhesion. That same force can
slow down fluid motion.
One example is how a coin will easily slide down a ramp. But if you wet the
coin, it will stay in place. That is because of the molecular friction of the fluid
on the hard surfaces.

The motion of two fluids or two sections of a fluid against each other is also
slowed down by the molecular attraction factor. This type of fluid friction is
usually not considered as friction and is studied under the complex field of
fluid dynamics.

Surface roughness

All solid materials have some degree of surface roughness. If you looked at
what seems to be a smooth surface under a high-powered microscope, you
would see bumps, hills and valleys that could interfere with sliding motion.

Close-up view of surface roughness

At one time it was thought that the surface roughness of materials was the
cause for friction. In reality, it only has a small effect on friction for most
materials.

If the surfaces of two hard solids are extremely rough, the high points or
asperities can interfere with sliding and cause friction because of the
abrasion or wear that can take place when you slide one object against the
other. This is the “sandpaper effect” where particles of the materials are
dislodged from their surfaces. In such a case, the friction is caused by
surface roughness, although the adhesion effect still plays a part in the
abrasion.

Deformations

Soft materials will deform when under pressure. This also increased the
resistance to motion. For example, when you stand on a rug, you sink in
slightly, which causes resistance when you try to drag your feet along the
rug’s surface. Another example is how rubber tires flatten out at the area on
contact with the road.

When materials deform, you must “plow” through to move, thus creating a
resistive force.

Pushing object on soft surface

When the deformation becomes large, such that one object sinks into the
other, streamlining can affect the friction, similar to what happens in fluid
friction.

ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION

Friction plays a vital role in our daily life. Without friction we are handicap.

1. It is becomes difficult to walk on a slippery road due to low friction. When

we move on ice, it becomes difficult to walk due to low friction of ice.

2. We cannot fix nail in the wood or wall if there is no friction. It is friction

which holds the nail.

3. A horse cannot pull a cart unless friction furnishes him a secure Foothold.

DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION

Despite the fact that the friction is very important in our daily life, it also has
some disadvantages like:

1. The main disadvantage of friction is that it produces heat in various parts

of machines. In this way some useful energy is wasted as heat energy.

2. Due to friction we have to exert more power in machines.

3. It opposes the motion.

4. Due to friction, noise is also produced in machines.

5. Due to friction, engines of automobiles consume more fuel which is a

money loss.

METHODS OF REDUCING FRICTION

There are a number of methods to reduce friction in which some are

discussed here.

USE OF LUBRICANTS: The parts of machines which are moving over one
another must be properly lubricated by using oils and lubricants of suitable
viscosity.

USE OF GREASE: Proper greasing between the sliding parts of machine

reduces the friction.

USE OF BALL BEARING: In machines where possible, sliding friction can be

replaced by rolling friction by using ball bearings.

DESIGN MODIFICATION: Friction can be reduced by changing the design of

fast moving objects. The front of vehicles and airplanes made oblong to
minimize friction.

ASSESSMENT

1. What is friction?

2. What are the causes of friction?

3. Mention 3 advantages of friction.

4. Identify 4 disadvantages of friction.

WEEK 9
Topic: FRICTION (Continued)

Reduction of friction

It is beneficial to reduce the friction between surfaces to make movement

easier or reduce the wear and tear on a surface. There are a number of ways
to reduce friction:

1. Make the surfaces smoother: Rough surfaces produce more friction

and smooth surfaces reduce friction. Some swimmers wear suits to reduce
underwater resistance. These suits mimic the smooth skin of sharks.

2. Lubrication is another way to make a surface smoother. A lubricant is a

slippery substance designed to reduce the friction between surfaces. You
might use oil to stop a door from squeaking – the oil reduces the friction in
the hinge. Water can be used as a lubricant – think of how a floor becomes
slippery after it has been mopped.

3. Make the object more streamlined: A streamline shape is one that

allows air or water to flow around it easily, offering the least resistance.
Compare a boxy old car with a new car that has a rounded shape, allowing it
to move with less effort.

4. Reduce the forces acting on the surfaces: The stronger the forces
acting on the surfaces, the higher the friction, so reducing the forces would
reduce the friction. If you apply the handbrake when you try to drive a car,
the car will have a lot of difficulty moving because of the force immobilising
(stopping the movement of) the wheels. If you release the handbrake, the
wheels will move more freely because there is no extra force acting on them.

5. Reduce the contact between the surfaces: Have you ever tried to roll
a cube? Spheres are the best shape for reducing friction because very little
of a spherical object is in contact with the other surface. Several types of
wheels, such as skateboard wheels, contain small spheres called ball
bearings to reduce the friction between the moving parts. You can witness
the effect of ball bearings by comparing the friction between sliding a book
on a table and then doing the same, but using marbles between the book
and the surface of the table. Notice how the marbles act as ball bearings,
reducing the friction.

LUBRICATION
Lubrication is simply the use of a material to improve the smoothness if
movement of one surface over another; the material which is used in this
way is called a lubricant. Lubricants are usually liquids or semi-liquids, but
may be solids or gases or any combination of solids, liquids, and gases.

The smoothness of movement is improved by reducing friction. This is not,

however, always the case, and there may be situations in which it is more
important to maintain steady friction than to obtain the lowest possible
friction.

In addition to reducing or controlling friction, lubricants are usually expected

to reduce wear and often to prevent overheating and corrosion.

TYPES OF LUBRICANTS

Lubricants are usually divided into four basic classes.

(a) Oils: A general term used to cover all liquid lubricants, whether they
are mineral oils, natural oils, synthetics, emulsions, or even process fluids.

(b) Greases: Technically these are oils, which contain a thickening agent to
make them semi-solid. It is convenient, however, to include the anti-seize
pastes and the semi-fluid greases under the same heading.

(c) Dry lubricants: These include any lubricants, which are used in solid
form, and may be bulky solids, paint-like coatings, or loose powders.

(d) Gases: The gas usually used in gas bearings is air, but any gas can be
used which will not attack the bearings, or itself decompose.

The advantages and disadvantages of oils stem from their ability to flow
easily. Thus, on the credit side, it is very easy to pour them from a
container, to feed them into a bearing by dripping, splashing or pumping,
and to drain them out of a machine when no longer fir for use. Other
advantages are the cooling of a bearing by carrying away heat, and cleaning
it by removing debris.

The behavior of greases is very similar to that of oils, but the former are
used where the advantages of easy flow are outweighed by the
disadvantages. Thus grease do not easily leak out of a machine, or
container, do not migrate away, and will form an effective seal against
contaminants.
The advantages and disadvantages of solid lubricants are rather like the
extremes for greases, where the lubricant will not flow at all. Similarly, the
advantages and disadvantages of gas lubricants are like the extremes of oils,
where the flow properties are almost too good.

ASSESSMENT

1. Which of the following actions will reduce friction?

(a) Make the surfaces rougher
(b) Make the surfaces smoother
(c) Increasing the contact between the surfaces
(d) Exerting more force on the surfaces
2. Lubrication is a way to make a surface
(a) clean
(b) smooth
(c) rough
(d) dirty
3. The stronger the forces acting on the surfaces…
(a) the higher the friction
(b) the lower the friction
(c) the higher the smoothness
(d) the lower the smoothness
4. One of these is not a class of lubricants
(a) solid
(b) liquid
(c) gaseous
(d) flat
5. Greases contain a thickening agent that makes them
(a) solid
(b) semi-solid
(c) liquid
(d) gas