COMPILATION OF ACTIVITIES

IN HISTOLOGY
Second Semester

BSMT
Ma. Irene Gabrielle Abuyen
Angelica R. Blancada
Ma. Veronica M. Del Rosario
Marl Loiz B. Gonzales
Alleah Grace S. Jusay
Ma. Carmela N. Mangao
Mary Rose Ellaine R. Ortiz

Prof. Cecilio Ichon

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents…………………………………….….…. 2

Ma. Irene Gabrielle Abuyen ……………….…….…... 3

Angelica R. Blancada ...............................…...... 30

Ma. Veronica M. Del Rosario ..………..….…………. 72

Marl Loiz B. Gonzales …………………..……………….. 99

Alleah Grace S. Jusay …………………………………….. 129

Ma. Carmela N. Mangao ……………………………….. 139

Mary Rose Ellaine R. Ortiz ……………………………… 190

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 Ma. Irene Gabrielle Abuyen
Compilation

Abuyen, Ma. Irene Gabrielle

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 ACTIVITY #1

MICROSCOPE

Overview: A microscope is an optical instrument used for viewing very small

objects, such as mineral samples or animal or plant cells, typically magnified
several hundred times.

Objectives:

1. Identify the parts & functions of a microscope

2. Types of microscope
3. Importance of the microscope in the laboratory

Drawing:

I. PARTS AND FUNCTIONS

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Eyepiece: The lens the viewer looks through to see the specimen. The eyepiece
usually contains a 10X or 15X power lens.

Diopter Adjustment: Useful as a means to change focus on one eyepiece so as to

correct for any difference in vision between your two eyes.

Body tube (Head): The body tube connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses.

Arm: The arm connects the body tube to the base of the microscope.

Coarse adjustment: Brings the specimen into general focus.

Fine adjustment: Fine tunes the focus and increases the detail of the specimen.

Nosepiece: A rotating turret that houses the objective lenses. The viewer spins
the nosepiece to select different objective lenses.

Objective lenses: One of the most important parts of a compound microscope, as

they are the lenses closest to the specimen. A standard microscope has three,
four, or five objective lenses that range in power from 4X to 100X. When focusing
the microscope, be careful that the objective lens doesn’t touch the slide, as it
could break the slide and destroy the specimen.

Slide: The specimen is the object being examined. Most specimens are mounted
on slides, flat rectangles of thin glass. The specimen is placed on the glass and a
cover slip is placed over the specimen. This allows the slide to be easily inserted
or removed from the microscope. It also allows the specimen to be labeled,
transported, and stored without damage.

Stage: The flat platform where the slide is placed.

Stage clips: Metal clips that hold the slide in place.

Stage height adjustment (Stage Control): These knobs move the stage left and
right or up and down.

Aperture: The hole in the middle of the stage that allows light from the
illuminator to reach the specimen.

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On/off switch: This switch on the base of the microscope turns the illuminator off
and on.

Illumination: The light source for a microscope. Older microscopes used mirrors

to reflect light from an external source up through the bottom of the stage;
however, most microscopes now use a low-voltage bulb.

Iris diaphragm: Adjusts the amount of light that reaches the specimen.

Condenser: Gathers and focuses light from the illuminator onto the specimen
being viewed.

Base: The base supports the microscope and it’s where illuminator is located.

II. TYPES OF MICROSCOPE

1.) Compound microscope: most common

2.) Electron microscope: uses beam of electrons, can magnify objects up to
60,000x
3.) Fluorescent: used to study antigen & antibody reactions
4.) Dark field: used to study unstainable microbes like spirochetes
5.) Phase contrast: for research purposes
6.) Ultraviolet: uses UV lamp

III. IMPORTANCE OF MICROSCOPE IN THE LABORATORY

 Used to study fine details of biological cells & tissues.

 Allows scientists to view tissue changes or signs of infection, even if the
pathogen is not present.
 Enables scientists to study the microorganisms, the cells, the crystalline
structures & the molecular structures.

Abuyen, Ma. Irene Gabrielle

ACTIVITY #2

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 CELL PARTS AND FUNCTION

Overview: The cell (Latin cella, meaning “small room”) is the basic structural,
functional, and biological unit of all known organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of
life. Cells are often called the “building blocks of life”.

Objectives:

1. Identify the parts and functions of the cell.

2. Difference of eukaryotes to prokaryotes.

Drawing:

I. CELL PARTS AND FUNCTIONS

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 II. DIFFERENCE OF EUKARYOTES FROM PROKARYOTES
Nucleus/DNA: Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus surrounded by a nuclear envelope
that consists of two lipid membranes. The nucleus holds the eukaryotic cell’s

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DNA. Prokaryotic cells do not have nucleus; rather, they have membrane-less
nucleoid region that holds free-floating DNA.

Organelles in Eukaryotic Cells: Eukaryotic cells have several other membrane-

bound organelles not found in prokaryotic cells. These include the mitochondria;
rough & smooth endoplasmic reticulum; golgi complex; and in case of plant cells,
chloroplasts. All of these organelles are located in the eukaryotic cell’s cytoplasm.

Ribosomes: In eukaryotic cells, the ribosomes are bigger, more complex and
bound by a membrane. They can be found in various places. Sometimes in the
cytoplasm; on the endoplasmic reticulum; or attached to the nuclear membrane.
In prokaryotic cells, the ribosomes are scattered and floating freely throughout
the cytoplasm. The ribosomes in prokaryotic cells also have smaller subunits. All
ribosomes (in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells) are made up of two subunits
– one larger and one smaller.

Reproduction: Most eukaryotes reproduce sexually. Prokaryotes reproduce

asexually, resulting in the offspring being an exact clone of the parent. Some
prokaryotic cells also have pili, which are adhesive hair-like projections used to
exchange genetic material during a type of sexual process called conjugation.
Conjugation can occur in bacteria, protozoans and some algae and fungi.

Cell Walls: Most prokaryotic cells have a rigid cell wall that surround the plasma
membrane and gives shape to the organism. In eukaryotes, vertebrates don’t
have a cell wall but plants do. The cell walls of prokaryotes differ chemically from
the eukaryotic cell walls of plant cells, which are primarily made of cellulose. In
bacteria, for example, the cell walls are composed of peptidoglycans (sugars and
amino acids)

Abuyen, Ma. Irene Gabrielle

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 ACTIVITY #3

EPITHELIAL TISSUES

Overview: Epithelial tissues are widespread throughout the body. They form the
covering of all body surfaces, line body cavities and hollow organs, and are the
major tissue in glands.

Objectives:

1. Functions of epithelial tissues.

2. Identify the classification and idealized shapes of epithelial tissues.
3. Major types of epithelial tissues.

Drawing:

I. FUNCTIONS OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES

 Protection for underlying structures.
 Acts as a barrier.
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  Secreting substances.
 Absorbing substances.

II. CLASSIFICATION AND IDEALIZED SHAPES

Classification:

1.) Simple
2.) Stratified
3.) Pseudostratified

Idealized shapes:

1.) Squamous – have the appearance of thin, flat plates that can look
polygonal when viewed from above
2.) Cuboidal – cube-like shape and appear square in cross-section
3.) Columnar – elongated and column-shaped and have a height of atleast
four times their width

III. MAJOR TYPES OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES

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Abuyen, Ma. Irene Gabrielle

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 ACTIVITY #4

CONNECTIVE TISSUES

Overview: Connective tissue fills the spaces between organs and tissues,
and provides structural and metabolic support for other tissues and organs. It is
made up of cells and extracellular matrix.

Objectives:

1. Functions of connective tissues.

2. Classification and types of connective tissues.
3. Type of cells found in connective tissue.

Drawing:

I. FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES

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  Binding and support
 Protecting
 Insulating
 Storing reserve fuel
 Transporting substances within the body

II. CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES

Classification:

 Loose irregular connective tissue

 Dense irregular connective tissue
Specialized connective tissues:

 Dense regular connective tissue – tendons & ligaments

 Cartilage – ears & epiglottis
 Adipose – fat cells
 Haemopoeitic tissue – bone marrow
 Blood
 Bone
Types:

 Collage fibers – most are type I collagen (most abundant protein in the
body)
 Elastic fibers – contain elastin and fibrillin
 Reticular fibers – contain type III collagen

III. TYPE OF CELLS FOUND IN CONNECTIVE TISSUE

1.) Fibroblasts – Least specialized of all the cells. Mainly responsible for
secreting the non-rigid extracellular matrix including the fibres: collagen,
elastin or fibronectin.
2.) Adipocytes – Fat storing cells, which are thought to derive from
fibroblastic like cells.
3.) Macrophages, Mast cells & Plasma cells – Types of immune cell.

Abuyen, Ma. Irene Gabrielle

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 ACTIVITY #5

HISTOLOGY OF BONE

Overview: Bone is a modified form of connective tissue. It is hardened by the

extracellular matrix to accommodate a supporting function.

Objectives:

1. Significance of bone structure to the human body.

2. Process of ossification primarily from neonatal age up to adult age.
3. The bone cells and matrix.

Drawing:

I. SIGNIFICANCE OF BONE STRUCTURE IN THE BODY

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 They support the body structurally, protect our vital organs, and allow us
to move. Also, they provide an environment for bone marrow, where the
blood cells are created, and they act as a storage area for minerals,
particularly calcium.

II. PROCESS OF OSSIFICATION PRIMARILY FROM NEONATAL AGE UP TO

ADULT
Bone ossification, or osteogenesis, is the process of bone formation.
This process begins between the sixth and seventh weeks of embryonic
development and continues until about age twenty-five; although this
varies slightly based on the individual. There are two types of bone
ossification, intramembranous and endochondral.

Endochondral ossification:
 Mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes and form the cartilage
model for bone
 Chondrocytes near the center of the cartilage model undergo hypertrophy
and alter the contents of the matrix they secrete, enabling mineralization
 Chondrocytes undergo apoptosis due to decreased nutrient availability;
blood vessels invade and bring osteogenic cells
 Primary ossification center forms in the diaphyseal region of the
periosteum called the periosteal collar
 Secondary ossification centers develop in the epiphyseal region after birth

Intramembranous ossification:
 Mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts and group into
ossification centers
 Osteoblasts become entrapped by the osteoid they secrete, transforming
them to osteocytes
 Trabecular bone and periosteum form
 Cortical bone forms superficially to the trabecular bone
 Blood vessels form the red marrow

III. THE BONE CELLS AND MATRIX

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Bone is a tissue in which the extracellular matrix has been hardened to
accommodate a supporting function. The fundamental components of bone, like
all connective tissues, are cells and matrix. There are three key cells of bone
tissue. They each have unique functions and are derived from two different cell
lines.

 Osteoblasts synthesize the bone matrix and are responsible for its
mineralization. They are derived from osteoprogenitor cells, a mesenchymal
stem cell line.
 Osteocytes are inactive osteoblasts that have become trapped within the
bone they have formed.
 Osteoclasts break down bone matrix through phagocytosis. Predictably, they
are derived from the monocyte (macrophage) cell line. Think of osteoclasts as
the "bone version" of the macrophage. Their activity occurs along their
ruffled border, and the space between the osteoclast and the bone is known
as Howship's lacuna.

The balance between osteoblast and osteoclast activity governs bone turnover
and ensures that bone is neither overproduced nor overdegraded. These cells
build up and break down bone matrix, which is composed of:

 Osteoid, which is the unmineralized matrix composed of type I collagen and

glycosaminoglycans (GAGs).
 Calcium hydroxyapatite, a calcium salt crystal that gives bone its strength and
rigidity.

Bone is divided into two types that are different structurally and functionally.
Most bones of the body consist of both types of bone tissue:

 Compact bone/cortical bone, mainly serves a mechanical function. This is the

area of bone to which ligaments and tendons attach. It is thick and dense.
 Trabecular bone/cancellous bone/spongy bone, mainly serves a metabolic
function. This type of bone is located between layers of compact bone and is
thin and porous. Located within the trabeculae is the bone marrow.

Abuyen, Ma. Irene Gabrielle

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 ACTIVITY #6

HISTOLOGY OF THE HEART

Overview: The heart is composed of cardiac muscle, specialized conductive

tissue, valves, blood vessels and connective tissue. Cardiac muscle, the
myocardium, consists of cross-striated muscle cells, cardiomyocytes, with one
centrally placed nucleus.

Objectives:

1.) Functions of the heart in histology.

2.) Composition of the heart.
3.) 3 layers of the heart.

Drawing:

I. FUNCTIONS OF HEART IN HISTOLOGY

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  The cellular features of the heart play a vital role in the normal function
and adaptations of the heart.

II. COMPOSITION OF THE HEART

The cardiovascular system is comprised of the following structures:

 Heart - pumps blood through the system

 Arteries - vessels that deliver blood to tissues
 Capillaries - networks of small vessels that perfuse tissues
 Veins - vessels that return blood to the heart

III. 3 LAYERS OF THE HEART

Tunica Adventitia (Epicardium)

This layer contains fibro-elastic connective tissue, blood vessels, lymphatics and
adipose tissue. The simple squamous epithelium of the tunica adventitia layer is
called the mesothelium.

Tunica Media (Myocardium)

In the heart:

The tunica media layer is called the myocardium. The myocardium is the largest

of the three layers, and contains cardiac muscle fibers, and loose endomysial
connective tissue that contains lots of capillaries.

Tunica Intima (Endocardium)

Lines the atria and ventricles and covers the heart valves. As well as the
endothelium and underlying basement membrane, there is a small layer of loose
connective tissue and some adipose tissue. 

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Abuyen, Ma. Irene Gabrielle

ACTIVITY #7

TISSUES OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN

Overview: The female reproductive system is unique in that its histological

appearance cycles and undergoes structural changes that are not pathological.

Objectives:

1.) Function of female reproductive organs

2.) Organs comprised of female reproductive organs

Drawing:

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 OVARY UTERUS PLACENTA

CERVIX VAGINA OVIDUCT

I. FUNCTION OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

 They work together for the production of female gametes (oocytes),
fertilization, support of the developing fetus, delivering it to the outside
world, and nutrition of the newborn.

II. ORGANS COMRPISED OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

Ovary

The ovaries are responsible for the production of an oocyte (oogenesis) and

secretion of female sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone). When it releases
a mature ovum, it travels down the oviduct to the uterus.

Oviduct
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The oviducts (uterine tubes; fallopian tubes) are fibromuscular tubes that
transport an ovulated ovum from the ovary to the uterus. Fertilization usually
takes place in the oviduct.

Uterus

The uterus is the muscular organ that nourishes and supports the growing
embryo.

Cervix

The cervix is the lower end of the uterus that opens into the vagina. During
menstruation, it allows the passage of menstrual fluid from the uterus. In
childbirth, it widens (dilates) to allow passage of the baby from the uterus to the
outside world.

Vagina

The vagina is a fibromuscular tube that connects the uterus to the opening of the
external genitalia.

Placenta

The placenta develops during pregnancy to support the developing fetus by

producing hormones, transferring nutrients and waste products between the
mother and the fetus.

Mammary Gland

Mammary glands are responsible for the production of milk (lactation) for

nutrition of a newborn.

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Abuyen, Ma. Irene Gabrielle

ACTIVITY #8

TISSUES OF KIDNEYS

Overview: The kidneys are paired retroperitoneal organs of the urinary system.

Their function is to filter blood & produce urine. Each kidney consists of a cortex,
medulla and calyces. Nephrons are the main functional units of the kidney, in
charge of removing metabolic waste and excess water from the blood.

Objectives:

1.) Function of kidneys

2.) What makes up the kidney

Drawing:

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 I. FUNCTION OF KIDNEYS
 Regulation of extracellular fluid volume
 Regulation of osmolarity
 Regulation of ion concentrations
 Regulation of pH
 Excretion of wastes and toxins
 Production of hormones

II. WHAT MAKES UP THE KIDNEY

Renal cortex

Outer layer of the kidney tissue. It is darker than its underlying renal medulla
because it receives over 90% of the kidney blood supply. The cortex has a grainy
appearance, as it mostly contains ovoid and coiled parts of the nephrons

Renal medulla

Striped, as it contains vertical nephron structures (tubules, collecting ducts). It

consists of renal (medullary) pyramids separated by projections of the renal cortex
(renal columns). The apices of the pyramids project towards the renal pelvis and
open into the minor calyces via perforated plates on their surfaces (area
cribrosa). Each renal pyramid, with its surrounding cortical tissue, forms a renal
lobe. Renal lobes are further divided into renal lobules. Each lobule consists of a
group of nephrons emptying into one collecting duct.

Nephron

Functional unit of the kidney. It produces concentrated urine by creating an

ultrafiltrate from blood. A nephron consists of two main parts: a renal corpuscle
and its associated renal tubule system. 

Renal corpuscle

Filtration apparatus of the nephron. Each corpuscle consists of two main elements;
the glomerulus and glomerular (Bowman's) capsule.

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Abuyen, Ma. Irene Gabrielle

ACTIVITY #9

TISSUES OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN

Overview: The male reproductive system consists of the testes, conducting

tubules and ducts (epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory ducts), accessory sex
glands (seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands), and the penis.

Objectives:

1.) Function of male reproductive system

2.) What male reproductive organ consists of

Drawing:

Testis Ductus Deferens Seminal Vesicle

Penis Prostate Epididymis

I. FUNCTION OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 Organs work to together to produce male gametes (sperm) and the other
components of semen.

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 II. WHAT MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN CONSISTS OF
Testis

Testes are responsible for the production of sperm (spermatogenesis) and

secretion of male sex hormones (testosterone). The production of sperm occurs
within the seminiferous tubules that make up most of the testis.

Epididymis

Sperm leave the testes and enter the epididymis. Each epididymis is a long,
tightly coiled duct in which sperm undergo maturation as they move through it.
Mature sperm are stored in the tail of the epididymis.

Ductus Deferens

Ductus deferens (vas deferens) is a thick walled, fibromuscular tube that is

continuous with the epipdidmis. Peristaltic movements propel sperm through the
duct.

Seminal Vesicles

The seminal vesicles are unbranched, highly-coiled tubular glands. Their

secretions make up 60 percent of the volume of the semen. This fluid is high in
fructose that acts as the main energy source for sperm outside the body.

Prostate

The prostate is composed of compound tubuloalveolar glands that contributes a

slightly alkaline fluid to semen. These secretions help neutralize the acidity of the
vagina, prolonging the lifespan of sperm.

Penis

The penis is composed of three cylindrical bodies of erectile tissue.

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Abuyen, Ma. Irene Gabrielle

ACTIVITY #10

TISSUES OF THE BRAIN

Overview: Brain is part of the nervous system. The nervous system is a complex
collection of nerves and specialized for the rapid communication of information
from one region of the body to another.

Objectives:

1.) Divisions of nervous system

2.) Composition of the CNS

Drawing:

Brain Spinal cord Dorsal root ganglion

Sympathetic ganglion Peripheral nerve

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 I. DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous system is divided anatomically into two major components:

 Central nervous system (CNS) – consists of the brain and spinal

cord
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – peripheral nerves and
ganglia

Nervous system is divided functionally into two major components:

 Somatic nervous system – conscious voluntary movements

 Autonomic nervous system – regulates the functions of
internal organs - further divided into two subdivisions:
 Sympathetic nervous system – involved in functions
requiring quick responses (i.e., stress, impending danger,
and fight or flight response)
 Parasympathetic nervous system – regulates functions
that do not require a quick response

II. COMPOSITION OF CNS & PNS

CNS:

Brain

Neurons have considerable variation in their size and shape

Spinal cord

The spinal cord functions primarily in the transmission of nerve signals between

the brain and the body.

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PNS:

Dorsal root

Dorsal root ganglia are clusters of nerve bodies of sensory neurons located

alongside the spinal cord.

Sympathetic ganglion

Sympathetic ganglia form long chains on either side of the spinal cord. They
deliver information about stress, impending danger, and the fight-or-flight
response.

Parasympathetic ganglion

Parasympathetic nerves have their nerve cell bodies in small ganglia located

within the organ they innervate.

Peripheral nerve

Peripheral nerves contain the axons of both motor neurons and sensory neurons
that connect with the spinal cord. They are surrounded by multiple layers of
connective tissue.

Sensory nerve endings

The nervous system has a variety of specialized receptors. Meissner's and

Pacinian corpuscles are two that can be readily seen by H&E.

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Angelica R. Blancada
Compilation

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 Activity 1
The Microscope and Its Importance In Medical Laboratory Science

Importance:
1) To discover microorganism
2) Study cell structure and parts
3) See smallest parts of plants, animals, virus and fungi.

Questions:

What is a microscope?

A microscope is a high precision optical instrument that uses a lens or a combination of

lenses to produce highly magnified images of small specimens or objects especially when they
are too small to be seen by the naked (unaided) eye. A light source is used (either by mirrors or
lamps) to make it easier to see the subject matter.

Who invented microscope?

There is no one person who invented the microscope as several different inventors
experimented with theories and ideas and developed different parts of the concept as they
evolved to what is today’s microscopes.

About 1590 two Dutch spectacle makers, Zaccharias Janssen and his son Hans,
experimented with a crude concept of a microscope that enlarged objects 10x to 30x or so. In
1609, Galileo (an Italian) improved on the principle of lenses and added a focusing device to
improve somewhat upon what the Janssen’s had done.

These rudimentary instruments didn’t change much until the early 1670s. A Dutchman,
Anton van Leeuwenhoek, is considered the father of microscopes because of the advances he
made in microscope design and use. He worked as an apprentice in a dry goods store where
magnifying lenses were used to count the threads in cloth. Anton was inspired by these glasses
and he taught himself new methods for grinding and polishing small lenses which magnified up
to 270x. This led to the first practical microscopes. In 1674, Anton was the first to see and
describe bacteria, yeast, plants, and life in a drop of water.

Not many improvements were made until the 1850’s when several inventors in Europe
and America made vast improvements. From this time frame, modern compound and stereo
microscopes have changed very little.

In the early 1930’s the first electron beam microscopes were developed which were a
breakthrough in technology as they increased the magnification from about 1000x or so up to
250,000x or more. These microscopes use electrons rather than light to examine objects.

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 Normal will become extraordinary when looking through a microscope. You will find
that almost everything (alive or that was alive) consists of components called cells and they take
on a fabulous view at the cellular structure – like your own blood, molds, yeast, and bacteria.
You can observe prepared slides or prepare your own. You can spend hours examining a drop of
pond water and observing the enormous amount of life within it. You can study ordinary things
like salt, cotton, foods, plants, or flowers. Using stereo (dissecting) microscopes, you can
examine details of the specific parts of insects, animals, gems, textiles, paper, fingerprints, sand,
milk, bread, etc.

Microscopes are essential tools in creating new medicines and finding cures for
diseases.

The same basic microscopes are used for all these various activities. Everyone should
own a decent microscope and it will last a lifetime with reasonable care. Many people think that
microscopes are very complex and difficult to use and that they are only used in research
facilities and universities and that they are expensive --- but they are less expensive than one
might think and are really easy to use.

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What specific categories are microscopes used for or by?

 Hobbyists – gems, coins, stamps, collectibles, learning and discovery, etc.

 Education – chemistry, biology, botany, zoology
 Medical – microbiology, hematology, pathology, entomology, dermatology, dental usage,
veterinary use, everyday analysis to advanced research. From medical schools to labs to
hospitals
 Industry – inspection of electronic assembly components and many different materials such as
metals, textiles, plastics, etc. Used in agriculture, wineries, breweries, and for fine engravings
and mining inspection. Used by jewelers and geologists
 Teachers and students – in the educational process starting in elementary school through
graduate school
 Science – for the study of archeology, oceanography, geology, metallurgy, and numerous other
fields
 Government – many areas for public health and safety such as water quality, pharmaceuticals,
forensics, asbestos, lab work, military applications, etc.

Enumerate the kinds of microscope and describe each.

COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

Compound refers to the fact that in order to enlarge an image, a

single light path passes through a series of lenses in a line where each lens
magnifies the image over the previous one. In other words, one light path
with multiple lenses equals a compound microscope. The image is seen by
the observer as if it were only 10” (250mm) from your eye.

In the standard form the lenses consist of an objective lens (closest

to the object or specimen) and an eyepiece lens (closest to the observers’
eye) and a means of adjusting the focus and position of the specimen or
object. In addition, a compound microscope uses light (reflected from a
mirror, from indirect sunlight, from desk lamps or other interior light sources,
or from built-in lamps) to illuminate the specimen or object so that you can
see it with your eye.

The objective lens usually consists of three or four lenses (sometimes even five) on a
rotating nosepiece (turret) so that the power can be changed. The image produced at the eye is
two dimensional (2-D) and usually reversed and upside down. The most used light method is
trans-illumination (light projected from below to pass through the specimen).

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 At 400x much detail can be seen at the cellular level of biological specimens. Learning
about cells and microorganisms is both educational and important for medical and science
applications.

STEREO MICROSCOPE

There are two separate light paths (as opposed to a single light path
in a compound microscope) which produce a true stereo, three dimensional
(3-D) image of the specimen or object. Within the objective lens you will find
two lenses (one for each path of light) side-by-side. The optical design
parameters of a stereo microscope limit its 3-D effects to low powers only.

Also in the category of low power microscopes is the single light path
(like a compound microscope) type usually referred to as a dissecting
microscope. This type is more economical than the stereo type but is very
useful for examining large sized specimens and objects.
In the standard form the lenses consist of objective lenses (closest to the object or
specimen) and eyepiece lenses (closest to the observers’ eyes) and a means of adjusting the
focus (rack and pinion style) and position of the object or specimen. In addition, a stereo
microscope uses light (from desk or table lamps, indirect sunlight, other interior light sources, or
from built-in or attached lamps) to illuminate the specimen or object so that you can see it with
your eyes.

The images you see are correct (upright and normal which is the opposite of compound
microscopes). Most stereo microscopes have both top and bottom built-in or attached
illumination to handle various objects and specimens of all varieties, shapes, and colors.

OTHER TYPES OF MICROSCOPES

These are usually advanced and expensive type microscopes made for specific usages
mainly in advanced medical and research. There are many, many types but some of the more
popular types are listed below:

Phase Contrast -- This is a microscope that uses the differences in the phase of light transmitted
or reflected by a specimen to form distinct, contrasting images of different parts of the
specimen.

Polarizing – A microscope in which the object viewed is illuminated by polarized light for
typically analyzing the content and make-up of organic or inorganic material like crystals,
chemical microscopy, and optical mineralogy.
Fluorescence – These microscopes use an illumination method that is used to locate
fluorescently tagged material (protein, enzyme, genes) by exciting the specimen with one

34
wavelength of light in hopes that the fluorescence will appear by emitting a light at a different
wavelength.

Metallurgical – A microscope that is used for identification, inspection, and analysis of different
metals and alloys.

Electron Beam – These microscopes typically cost more than $ 100,000 and sometimes much
more and use a beam of highly energetic electrons instead of light to examine objects on a very
fine scale. This allows the microscope to surpass the resolution limits of optical microscopes and
can magnify specimens up to 250,000x or more. Users can examine the topography of a
specimen, its morphology, composition, etc.

Digital – These are a combination of a microscope and a digital camera. The more common
types are the digital cameras which can use a CCD or CMOS chip. The camera can be integrated
(built-in) with the microscope or specialized cameras (imagers) can be purchased separately and
adapted to virtually any microscope (like one pictured below) at economical prices. With basic
software provided (with the camera (or using your own photo editing software) the user can
display, save, and edit images. Some more expensive software packages allows for a variety of
image analysis useful for medical, educational, and sophisticated research usage.

Handheld Digital Microscopes - use new technology for a miniature camera and illuminator in
one unit. You use a PC or laptop computer to view and image.

What is magnification? How do you get an object magnification?

Magnification in physical terms is defined as “a measure of the ability of a lens or oter

optical instruments to magnify, expressed as the ratio of the size of the image to that of the
object.” This means, that an object of any size is magnified to form an enlarged image.

The magnification required to produce the visible image can be calculated using the
formula:
Magnification = Image + Object

35
 It is important that the all the units are in unison so that the final answer obtained is
correct.

What is parfocal?
"Parfocal" refers to objectives that can be changed with minimal or no refocusing.
Parfocalling compound microscope objectives is a procedure which allows you to adjust
each objective lens so that it will remain in relative focus with the other objective lenses on the
microscope when switching from one magnifcation to the next. If microscope objectives are not
parfocalled it means that you would need to refocus the microscope each time the objective
turret is changed to a different magnification.
When microscope objectives are not parfocalled it is inconvenient and can increase eye
strain as well as wear and tear on the microscope. Each microscope manufacturer generally has
a slightly different method for parfocalling objectives. The images below demonstrate how to
parfocal the objectives on a Meiji laboratory microscope.

How to Parfocal Objectives

1) Remove the objectives that you wish to

parfocal. You will need to remove each
objective and the outer covers will need to be
opened.

If you have a 4x or a 10x objective in your microscope,

leave those in place. These will not have adjustable
settings.

The higher power objectives will be parfocalled using the 10x objective as a base line. The other
objectives will be adjusted in order moving up from the 10x microscope objective.

2) Start by removing the outer cover of the

objective lens. On the Meiji microscope
objectives the objective cover will unscrew by
turning it counter clockwise, like most
threaded devices. The cover should unscrew
easily and shouldn't have to be forced.

If you are removing the covers of multiple

objectives at one time make sure that you do
not mix them up!

36
 3) The arrow in this image is pointing to the ring
that allows you to adjust the parfocallity of the
objective lens.

Begin by trying to turn the ring. If the ring moves then

you may skip the next image and set of instructions. If
the ring does not move it is most likely because there
is a dab or drop of optical cement that is keeping it
from rotating.
You may have to look closely in order to locate the drop of optical cement holding the ring in
place.
4) You can remove the optical cement on the
objective adjustment ring. If it can't be removed
with your finger nail you may want to lightly
moisten a Q-tip with acetone and carefully
remove the dab of cement. You may need to
work the ring back and forth to make the ring
spin freely.

After the ring is free re-install the objective (this time

without the cover on it) on the microscope. Make sure you put the next highest objective after
the 10x so the objectives ascend in order. (For example, place the 10x, then 40x, 100x, etc.)

5) Rotate the 10x objective into postion and focus

on an object. A stage micrometer is a good item
to focus on, but you can use anything with lines
on it. Now move up to the next objective. While
you are looking through the next microscope
objective rather than using the focusing knobs
to focus, rotate the adjustment ring on the
objective.

The adjustment is somewhat sensitive, so you might have to move it slowly.

You will then repeat this process for the rest of your objectives. When you are done with all the
objectives you should be able to quickly cycle through each one without having to re-focus your
microscope.

6) Finally, you may want to apply a drop of optical

cement to secure the objective ring that you just
adjusted. This is not required, but is sometimes
helpful in keeping your objectives parfocalled.

37
If you don't have any optical cement just substitute clear nail polish. You can add the cement
while the objectives are still in the microscope nosepiece. The photo at left shows where to
apply the cement.

Once the cement has dried replace the objective covers and screw the objectives back into the
nosepiece of the microscope. Parfocalling of microscope objectives should only need to be
performed once, so you should be done with this task.

1) Draw and Label fully a Compound Microscope

38
 OBJECTIVE LENSES

The objective lenses are the most important components of microscopes and thus will
be discussed in greater detail here. Their basic function is to gather the light passing through the
specimen and then to project the image up into the body of the microscope. Then, the eyepiece
lens system further magnifies the image for your eye to see. Most quality microscopes use glass
for the objectives and even for beginner microscopes, stay away from plastic objectives lenses as
the quality level is quite inferior. The objectives are the lens system closest to the specimen.

There is one objective for each eyepiece in a compound microscope. For stereo
microscopes, there are objective pairs (one objective lens for each eyepiece lens) which give the 3-
D effect.

39
On compound microscope objectives, there is printed the following information on each one –
power, DIN tube length, N.A., cover slip thickness, universal color ring. Tube length of the
objectives usually have a DIN (interchangeable) of 185mm or 195mm.

Objectives vary in power from 1x to 160x in compound microscopes but the most
common power range is from 4x to 100x. Most compound microscopes have three or four
(occasionally five) objectives usually of 4x, 10x, 40x, and 100x (oil immersion) which revolve on a
nosepiece (turret) to give different magnifying powers. The 4x, 10x, and 40x are called “dry”
objectives which means they operate with air between the objective and the specimen. The 100x
is called a “wet” objective which means it operates with immersion oil between the lens and the
specimen.

For stereo microscopes, they usually have one or two objectives lenses which normally
are 1x, 2x, 3x, or 4x. In addition, there are zoom models which operate from about 0.5x up to 5x.

The extent of corrections for lens errors (aberrations) and flatness of the image field
determines the usefulness and cost of the objectives for compound microscopes. The least
expensive objectives are achromatic types and these are fine for all microscopes costing under
about $ 750.00. The cost of objectives increases if using fluorites or semi-apochromatic types and
the most expensive are the apochromats.

Flatness of field (field curvature) refers to how well the specimen is focused across the entire field
of view. In achromatic objectives the flatness of field is usually about 50% to &70% of the field
where they are in sharp focus in the center and the outside of field becomes out of focus but you
can refocus in the outer portions to see that area sharply. Flatter field objectives (micro plan or
semi-Plan) are the semi-apochromats which are flat for about 70% to 85% of the field and
apochromats (Plan types) are flat for about 90% to 100% of the field. Plan objectives are the
ultimate for quality and a microscope typically will cost more than $ 750.00 to have these type
objectives in them.
N.A. (numerical aperture) is a number that expresses the ability of a lens to resolve fine details in
an object being observed especially those close together. As the N.A. number increases, the
resolution becomes better. The N.A. may vary from 0.04 (low power) to 1.4 (high power Plan wet
objective). The N.A. will be marked on the objective and the typical N.A. for the following are;
4x=0.10, 10x=0.25, 40x=0.65, and 100x=1.25.

Resolution (actual not theoretical) is the separation distance of two details (points or lines) lying
close together still seen as separate. The higher the resolution, the closer the two points may be
to one another and still be distinguished as two points. Resolution comes from the objective and
not the eyepieces as the eyepieces only magnify the resolution.

Sometimes objectives have a color ring (universally used) to aid in identifying the
magnification: black (1x), brown (2x), red (4x), yellow (10x), green (20x), turquoise (25x), light blue
(40x), dark blue (60x), white (100x).

40
 Another number on the objective (like 0.17) refers to the thickness in millimeters of the
cover glass that was assumed by the lens designer in computing best performance for the
objective lens. 12 DIN (Deutsche Institut Fuer Normung) standard objectives are the most popular
in international standards which dictates the design capability of the objectives.

DIN standard objectives from one manufacturer can be used in another manufacturer’s
compatible microscope. The standard refers to the 45mm parfocal (explained below) distance and
RMS standard 33mm thread for the objective. The 45mm distance is the measurement from the
mounting hole in the objective nosepiece to the point of focus on the specimen.

JIS (Japanese Industrial Standard) is a less used international standard for objectives. They use
36mm objective distance. RMS (Royal Microscopical Society) uses a 33mm parfocal distance for
the objective. RMS screw threads are 20.32mm diameter with a pitch of 0.706.

Parfocal refers to the ability to change objective lenses with differing powers and have the focus
remain sharp or with very little refocusing. Parcentered refers to when changing objective lens
power, the specimen should stay centered in the field of view.

Oil Immersion concentrates the light path and increases the resolution. A special oil is
used with the 100x objective lens and usually at 1000x up to 1500x. This is a technique used to
close the air gap between the tip of the objective and the top of the specimen with the oil. Once
the objective contacts the drop of oil of matching refractivity, it becomes one unit. Immersion oil
is the only suitable oil for this purpose and will allow high magnifications and avoid damage to the
objectives. There are two basic types of oil immersion – Type A is for low viscosity and Type B is
for high viscosity.

EYEPIECE / OCULAR

The eyepiece consists of a series of lenses mounted in a tube (barrel) at the upper end
of the microscope. Its basic function is to look at the focused, magnified image projected by the
objective lens and magnify that image a second time before your eye looks at the image of the
specimen. As with objective lenses, stay away from eyepieces where the optics are made of
plastic as they will ensure very poor quality. Eyepieces come in several different designs such as
Huygens, Ramsden, Kellner, Orthoscopic, Plossl, etc. and all can be good in microscopes and the
differences are minor as compared to various optical designs used with astronomical telescopes.

41
 The eyepieces are usually 10x but also come in 5x, 12.5x, 15x, and 20x. The “x” refers to
the amount of magnification (power) that this lens adds as a multiplier to the magnification of
the objective. They are inscribed with the magnification and its field number (which is the
diameter in millimeters of the diaphragm opening (aperture) of the eyepiece. The aperture
limits the field of view to the useful coverage of the eyepiece. For special applications, eyepieces
can have scales, pointers, crosshairs, markers, etc. on them.

Eyepieces also come in wide field styles. They have a large diameter and show a wider
field of view than standard eyepieces. Most are 10x although 15x and sometimes 20x are
common. Eye Relief is the distance (in millimeters) between the observer’s eye (cornea) and the
nearest surface of the eyepiece lens – longer eye relief being better for eyeglass wearers.

The eyepoint is the location (or position) of the eye from the eyepiece which allows for the best
possible viewing of the image. Some eyepieces use a pointer to point at a section of the
specimen. You can rotate the pointer by turning the eyepiece. An eyepiece reticle (micrometer)
is a piece of glass with a pattern printed or etched which is put inside an eyepiece to make
measurements of the size of objects seen through the microscope.

The diopter adjustment is a focusing characteristic to match the user’s eyes on microscopes
with binocular heads. Most all people have a different vision in each eye. This allows the user to
adjust the focus of each eyepiece separately. For eyeglass wears, it allows them to adjust for
their prescription and they can use the microscope without using their glasses. Typically, the
diopter is on the left eyepiece and to make the adjustment --- close your left eye and look
through the right eyepiece with your right eye and focus the specimen sharply, then close your
right eye and look through the left eyepiece with your left eye and focus the specimen sharply.
Then you will be able to focus and examine specimens with comfort and ease.

Rubber eyecups (eye shields) are typically used with stereo microscopes. They reduce ambient
light and provide comfort but should not be used if you are wearing eyeglasses.

CONDENSER (Sub-stage Condenser)

A glass lens or lens system located within or below the stage on compound microscopes.
Its basic function is to gather the light coming in from the light source and to concentrate that

42
light into a light cone onto the specimen. High power 13 objective lenses have very tiny
diameters and require concentrated light to work properly. A basic condenser is fixed in place.

A moveable and more precise and more expensive condenser is the Abbe condenser. It
usually can be moved up and down vertically, regulating the amount of light from the
illuminator. It mounts under the stage and usually has an adjustable iris type aperture to control
the diameter of the beam of light entering the lens system. By changing the size of the iris and
moving the lens up or down from the stage, the diameter and focal point of the cone of light
that goes through the specimen can be controlled. It is most useful at 400x and higher powers.

A condenser should have a N.A. equal to or greater than the N.A. of the objective lens
being used. A basic condenser has a N.A. of 0.65 which is fine at 400x and below. But, at higher
magnifications, a N.A. of 1.20 or 1.25 is common and you will need an Abbe type condenser. For
condensers of a higher quality than the Abbe type, they are usually called aplanatic achromatic
types and they have a very flat field and they are very expensive. Some condensers can be
designed to have special accessories for phase contrast, polarized light, differential interference,
and dark field microscopy.

DIAPHRAGM

The diaphragm is also called the sub-stage diaphragm or aperture diaphragm. The
diaphragm is normally located under the stage of a microscope and it adjusts the amount of
light passing into the slide or specimen. It is most useful at high powers. Most compound
microscopes have one of two types of diaphragm:

1. Disc Diaphragm – is the simplest and least expensive of the two types. It is located between
the light source and the slide or specimen. It contains a rotating disk (usually fixed) with five to
ten openings of differing diameters which limit the amount of light passing through to the
specimen.
2. Iris Diaphragm – is the better and more expensive of the two types. It has a continuously
variable diameter (like the iris of an eye or a camera shutter) which has a function to limit the
size of the opening through which light passes from the light source to optimize resolution,
contrast, and sharpness. It is usually controlled by a lever.

43
 ILLUMINATION SYSTEMS (LIGHT SOURCE)

Since specimens rarely generate their own light, illumination is necessary. Illumination is
the application of light onto an object or specimen in a microscope. The illuminator is the source
of light which illuminates the object or specimen to be observed. Illumination of the object or
specimen should be bright, free of glare, and evenly dispersed in the field of view.

The simplest means of illumination can be provided by overhead lights, desk or table
lamps, or indirect sunlight. Many compound microscopes are provided with adjustable
plano/concave mirrors which reflect an external light source into the microscope. The flat slide
(plano) of the mirror usually provides the sharper image but if stronger and brighter illumination
14 is needed then use the concave side. These methods are the least expensive illumination
methods but it can be difficult to direct the light source for proper illumination.

The more expensive and common illumination is by using built-in or attached light
sources using bulbs or lamps that provide direct and intense illumination. These light sources
can be from above the specimen or object which is used mainly with low power stereo
microscopes and is called incident (reflected) light or from below a specimen (typically a slide
specimen) which is light passing up through the specimen from inside the base and called
transillumination (transmitted light). Lighting from both top and bottom at the same time can
provide enough light for the most thick and irregular specimens. These illuminators may be of a
fixed intensity, or of a variable intensity, which use a control knob (rheostat) to control the
intensity of the light produced.

Illumination lamps or bulbs come in various types:

Tungsten – is an incandescent bulb filament which is the most common and least expensive.
They give off a yellowish hue and give off moderate heat. They are typically 15-watt or 20-watt.

Halogen – is a lamp which generally is the hottest light source for a microscope. The light is very
bright, very white, and concentrated. The halogen type is more expensive than the tungsten.
They are typically 15-watt or 20-watt.

Fluorescent – is a lamp that is cool in temperature. The light is bright and white and very sharp
while being comfortable to the eye. The fluorescent is great for observing live specimens. They
are typically 5-watt to 10-watt and generate the same brightness as the tungsten or halogens
do. They can be built in the base of a microscope or they can be attached (called a ring light) to
observe from above.

44
LED – these are light emitting diodes which provide a bright light source with virtually no heat.
The white beam is brighter and cooler than the other illumination systems. They are typically
battery operated and thus are cordless and great for outdoor use also.

There are various forms of illumination produced by varying the amount of light or the quality of
the light allowed to impinge on the specimen:

Bright Field – this is the most fundamental and common form of lighting for microscopes. It is a
highly directional and intense light source. Light aimed from beneath the stage through a
condenser lens, through the specimen, through an objective lens, and through the eyepiece to
the eye.

Diffuse – this is where you place a ground glass, some translucent plastic, some opalescent
material, or other similar material in front of the condenser (between the illuminator source and
the condenser lens) and will cause the light of a bright field source to be scattered. Often this
broadens the field illumination and brings subtle changes in the image.

Phase Contrast – this form is used mainly because a large spectrum of living biological
specimens (blood, tissue, and cultured cells), are virtually transparent or have poor contrast
when observed with a bright field microscope. By utilizing a phase annulous (ring) mounted in
the condensers front focal plane partially modulates the light ray bundles that pass through and
around the specimen, where they are slowed ¼ wave, then are retarded another ¼ wave when
they pass through the phase plate in the rear focal plane of the objective. This system also
diminishes background light about 85% providing a darkened background to contrast with the
illuminated structure of the phase object. While the affect diminishes the resolution of the
image, it makes detail visible that one could not see without it.

Dark Field – this form is a method to examine transparent or semi-transparent specimens which
cannot be distinguished from the background. It shuts out background light and allows only
scattered light to reach the specimen in order to heighten textural detail.

Koehler – this form is a technique to optimize light quality and sharpness by aligning and
adjusting each component of the optical system starting with a focusing illuminator. The light
quality will be even and bright. The Koehler is the best form of illumination possible with a
microscope and is offered on only the most expensive microscopes.

45
 FOCUS SYSTEMS

A focus control allows you to adjust the focus of the microscope. Every microscope
includes a focusing control (knob) for quick (coarse) focusing of the image. More expensive
compound microscope models include a coarse (quick) and fine focusing control. The fine focus
is particularly advantageous in high power applications and required for 400x and higher but is
not available on stereo microscopes since they are only low power.

Coaxial controls (focus) are where both the course and fine focus knobs are on one large control
(on top of each other). The larger knob is typically for the coarse focusing and the smaller knob
for the fine focusing. The smaller knob is usually centered on the inside of the larger one.

Focusing mechanisms used in microscopes are rack and pinion type. This is a design
involving the intermeshing of a geared wheel and matching grooved rack. The rack is a track
with teeth and the pinion is a gear that rides on the teeth. By turning a knob, the pinion gear
moves along the track.

A safety rack stop (rack stop or stop screw) is an adjustable screw located at or near the base of
a focus mechanism. When adjusted properly, it prevents the body tube from lowering too far
and potentially causing damage to both the high power objective and/or the specimen. Most
microscopes have a slip clutch which allows for continuous turning of a focus knob when it is all
the way up or down without damaging the gear system.

Focusing can take place in one of two ways. The stage moves vertically to bring it nearer
or further from the objective which remains fixed in place. The other method is the drawtube
moves vertically with the objective and nosepiece while the stage stays in place.

The head is the upper part of the microscope that connects the eyepiece to the
nosepiece or turret. Some heads are fixed in place and allow you to tilt them from angles of 0°
up to 60°. More expensive microscopes usually have heads that can be rotated 360° allowing
two or more users to see the specimen without the microscope itself having to be picked up and
rotated.

There are several types of heads:

46
Monocular – this is a microscope with a single eyepiece. These types are the more economical
models and are very satisfactory for their usage. A monocular head with a second vertical
viewing port is called a teaching head (dual view head) which can be used by a second person
(or teacher) to observe the same image as the first person. Or, the second port can be used with
various cameras.

Binocular – this is a microscope with two eyepieces, one for each eye. They are generally used
on high power compound microscopes and all low power stereo microscopes and are generally
more comfortable to use than a monocular type. There are different types of heads for adjusting
the interpupillary distance (IPD) – see description below -- and the more common types are (
1) seidentoff – IPD is adjusted by twisting the eyepieces in an up and down arc motion similar to
most binoculars and
(2) slider – IPD is adjustable side-to-side by sliding the eyepieces toward and away from each
other.

Trinocular – this is a microscope with a binocular head for viewing and an additional port that
can be used for a third eyepiece for a second person (or teacher) to use or it would be used for
various photo applications. On many microscopes, the amount of light can be adjusted (from
30% to 70% or so) for the third port.

Binocular heads contain prisms carrying light rays from the objectives to the eyepieces.
The two eyepieces must be lined up with the user’s pupils for comfortable viewing and this
process is called adjusting the interpupillary distance (IPD). The eyepieces will get further apart
or closer together to fit each individual as different people have varying distances between their
eyes.

NOSEPIECE (TURRET OR REVOLVING NOSEPIECE)

The nosepiece is a rotating turret located above the stage on compound microscopes
that can hold multiple objective lenses of various magnifications. By rotating the objectives into
the light path and over the specimen you can observe various magnifications of the specimen
during your examination. As any of the objectives are rotated they will click when the precise
location is reached. There are normally three or four objectives (4x, 10x, 40x, and 100x) and in
rare cases there are five. The objective can be of different powers but the ones just mentioned
are used in the vast majority of all compound microscopes.

Sometimes the 40x and 100x objectives are spring loaded at the end which allows the
objective to be retracted slightly when nearing the slide/cover slip that may be too thick and this
then prevents damage to the objective. Some nosepieces may be called “reverse nosepieces”
and this is when the objectives are in a tucked position under the head and nosepiece allowing
ease of placing slide specimens onto the stage from the front of the microscope.

47
 In a stereo microscope, a nosepiece can be referred to as a single objective housing or a
turret that may have two objectives. If a turret type, the turret is rotated all the way in either
direction to use the particular objective.

ARM

The arm (also called the stand or limb) is the component of a microscope which contains
the focus mechanism and supports the stage, as well as the body or head which contains the
eyepieces. It provides the rigidity of a microscope as it rises from the base. When moving a
microscope, this is the part you should grab with one hand while putting your other hand under
the base which will give you good protection.

A few types of arms are:

Fixed – a type of arm where the arm and the body are integral parts of the microscope and
connected solidly to the base.
Pillar (Post) – a type of arm which consists of a single post rising vertically from the base. The
microscope body can rotate about the post and also be moved up and down on it.
Boom (Universal) – a long boom type stand used to support a microscope body. It has many
adjustments allowing the microscope to be aligned in a wide variety of configurations. This is the
least common type of arm.

BASE

The base is the bottom support part of the microscope. It provides balance and rigidity.
It houses electrical components for illumination.
EYEPIECE TUBES

The eyepiece tubes are also called observation tubes or drawtubes. They are attached to
the arm above the nosepiece. They are usually set at angles of 45° or 30° for comfortable
viewing. The bottom of the eyepiece tubes hold a special lens called 17 the eyepiece (tube) lens.
The tube length is a fixed measurement in millimeters of the distance from the objective
shoulder to the seat of the eyepiece which is typically DIN 160mm or 170mm (except on
introductory microscopes) where the focused image forms. This distance governs the
interchangeability of optical components.
TUBE LENS

At the bottom of the eyepiece tubes is a tube lens. Its function is to gather the parallel
rays of light projected by the objective lens and bring those rays to focus at the plane of the
fixed diaphragm of the eyepiece. On some microscopes, the tube lens is built into the body of
the microscope itself.

48
 STAGE

The platform beneath the objectives on which the slide or object to be observed is
placed is called a stage. It has a smooth, flat surface and can be rectangular or circular. On most
compound microscopes, the stage moves up and down and the nosepiece is stationary but on
some microscopes just the reverse takes place. The stage has an opening for passing light. The
simple type of stage is called a plain stage and the more sophisticated stage is called a
mechanical stage.

The more sophisticated and expensive mechanical stage makes it much easier to center
specimen slides (standard slide size is 1”x 3”) with precise movements in two axes with knobs
which is critical at high powers (400x or more) where slight movements of the slide by hand
moves the slide too much or out of the field of view. A vernier type scale on the stage allows for
making measurements of the specimen. The “X” axis moves a slide forward and back
(north/south) and the “Y” axis moves the slide side-to-side (east/west or left/right).

A stage plate is used with stereo microscopes and this plate fits in over the lower
illumination in a circular hole. It normally is a frosted glass plate or a dual sided (white and black)
plastic plate which can be used for improving contrast on various specimens to be viewed with
top illumination.

The working distance of a stage is the vertical area that is available to place specimens
for examination.
Activity 2
Epithelial Tissues

Objectives:
1) Describe histology of skin and its appendages
2) Illustrate and label the keratinized stratified squamous epithelium (epidermis)
3) Differentiate the different types of Epithelium
4) Identify the dermis and its parts

Overview:
Epithelium is one of the four basic types of animals tissue along sith connective tissue,
muscle tissue and nervous tissue. Epithelial tissues line the cavities and surface of structure in
the body and also form many glands.

Functions:
Secretion, absorption of nutrients, protection, cellular transport, detection of sensation.

Materials:
Microscope and glass slide with histological specimens

49
Drawing:

Simple Squamous Epithelium

is a single layer of flat cells in contact with the basal lamina
(one of the two layers of the basement membrane) of the
epithelium. This type of epithelium is often permeable and
occurs where small molecules need to pass quickly through
membranes via filtration or diffusion.
Simple squamous epithelia are found in a variety of
locations, starting from capillaries to the alveoli of lungs, and
nephrons of kidneys. Most of these cells arise from the
ectoderm, or outermost layer of cells in the embryo.

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

consists of squamous (flattened) epithelial cells arranged in layers upon a basal
membrane. Only one layer is in contact with the basement membrane; the other layers adhere
to one another to maintain structural integrity.
Types:
Squamous
- nonkeratinized (covers the mucosa)
- keratinized (skin)
Cuboidal (lines excretory ducts of glands)
Columnar (conjunctiva of the eyelids)
Transitional (urinary tract)

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

is a type of tissue that is found lining parts of organs and ducts in the body. Its structure
allows for absorption and diffusion in those areas.

50
 Simple cuboidal epithelia are found on the surface of ovaries, the lining of nephrons, the
walls of the renal tubules, and parts of the eye and thyroid. On these surfaces, the cells perform
secretion and absorption.

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

is a type of epithelial tissue composed of multiple layers of cube-shaped cells. Only the most
superficial layer is made up of cuboidal cells, and the other layers can be cells of other types.

Simple Columnar Epithelium

is a columnar epithelium that is uni-layered. In
humans, a simple columnar epithelium lines most
organs of the digestive tract including the stomach,
small intestine, and large intestine. Simple columnar
epithelia line the uterus.

Stratified Columnar Epithelium

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 is a rare type of epithelial tissue composed of column shaped cells arranged in multiple
layers. Stratified columnar epithelia are found in the conjunctiva of the eye, in parts of the
pharynx, anus, the uterus, and the male urethra and vas deferens.

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

are tissues formed by a single layer of cells that give the
appearance of being made from multiple layers, especially when
seen in cross section. The nuclei of these epithelial cells are at
different levels leading to the illusion of being stratified.

Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

moves mucus and other substances via cilia and is found
in the upper respiratory tract, the fallopian tubes, the uterus,
and the central part of the spinal cord. They are the primary
target of infection for "common cold viruses" such as
coronaviruses, influenza virus and rhinoviruses.
Questions:

1.What is the function of epithelial cells?

Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and lines organs, vessels (blood and lymph),
and cavities. Epithelial cells form the thin layer of cells known as the endothelium, which is
contiguous with the inner tissue lining of organs such as the brain, lungs, skin, and heart. The
free surface of epithelial tissue is usually exposed to fluid or the air, while the bottom surface is
attached to a basement membrane.

Epithelial tissue also helps to protect against microorganisms. The skin is the body's first line
of defense against bacteria, viruses, and other microbes.

Epithelial tissue functions to absorb, secrete, and excrete substances. In the intestines, this
tissue absorbs nutrients during digestion. Epithelial tissue in glands secrete hormones, enzymes,
and other substances. Epithelial tissue in the kidneys excrete wastes, and in the sweat glands
excrete perspiration.

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2.What does the ciliated epithelial do?

A region of epithelium consisting of columnar or cuboidal cells bearing hairlike appendages

(see cilium) that are capable of beating rapidly. Ciliated epithelium performs the function of
moving particles or fluid over the epithelial surface in such structures as the trachea, bronchial
tubes, and nasal cavities. It often occurs in the vicinity of mucus-secreting goblet cells.

3.Name the parts of epithelial cell and functions.

Epithelial cells are a specialized component of many organs. They are characterized by
common structural features, especially their arrangement into cohesive sheets, but have diverse
functions made possible by many specialized adaptations. Many of the physical properties of
epithelial cells rely on their attachment to each other, which is mediated by several types of cell
junctions. The specialized functions of epithelial cells are mediated both through structural
modifications of their surface and by internal modifications, which adapt cells to manufacture
and secrete a product.

4.How do epithelial cells work?

Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and lines organs, vessels (blood and lymph),
and cavities. Epithelial cells form the thin layer of cells known as the endothelium, which is
contiguous with the inner tissue lining of organs such as the brain, lungs, skin, and heart. The
free surface of epithelial tissue is usually exposed to fluid or the air, while the bottom surface is
attached to a basement membrane.

5.What are squamous epithelial cells, cuboidal, columnar, ciliated and pseudostratified
columnar cells? Where are their point of origin or where can we find these cells in our body?

Cell Form Examples of Distribution Main Function

Mouth, esophagus, larynx, Protection, secretion;
Squamous non keratinized vagina, anal canal. prevents water loss.
(moist)

Sweat glands, developing

Cuboidal ovarian follicles. Protection, secretion

Transitional Bladder, ureters, renal Protection, distensibility.

calyces.

Columnar Conjunctiva Protection

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6.What are renal epithelial cells?
- are the single layer of cells lining the nephron. These include cells lining the glomerulus, the
proximal and distal convoluted tubules, and the collecting ducts.

Activity 4
Connective Tissues

Objectives:
5) To identify connective tissues
6) To enumerate specific functions of connective tissues in our body.
7) To draw and illustrate the different types of connective tissues in our body.
8) To appreciate the knowledge about their importance in our body.

Questions:
1. Define Connective Tissues. Give their specific activities in our body.
- is to connect tissues and organs. Unlike epithelial tissue, which is composed of cells
closely packed with little or no extracellular space in between, connective tissue cells
are dispersed in a matrix. The matrix usually includes a large amount of extracellular
material produced by the connective tissue cells that are embedded within it. The
matrix plays a major role in the functioning of this tissue. The major component of the

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 matrix is a ground substance often crisscrossed by protein fibers. This ground substance
is usually a fluid, but it can also be mineralized and solid, as in bones.

- Connective tissues perform many functions in the body, but most importantly, they
support and connect other tissues; from the connective tissue sheath that surrounds
muscle cells, to the tendons that attach muscles to bones, and to the skeleton that
supports the positions of the body. Protection is another major function of connective
tissue, in the form of fibrous capsules and bones that protect delicate organs and, of
course, the skeletal system. Specialized cells in connective tissue defend the body from
microorganisms that enter the body. Transport of fluid, nutrients, waste, and chemical
messengers is ensured by specialized fluid connective tissues, such as blood and lymph.
Adipose cells store surplus energy in the form of fat and contribute to the thermal
insulation of the body.

2. Enumerate types of Connective Tissue and give their specific functions

 Connective Tissue Proper

- Fibroblasts are present in all connective tissue proper. Fibrocytes, adipocytes, and
mesenchymal cells are fixed cells, which means they remain within the connective
tissue. Other cells move in and out of the connective tissue in response to chemical
signals. Macrophages, mast cells, lymphocytes, plasma cells, and phagocytic cells are
found in connective tissue proper but are actually part of the immune system protecting
the body.
- Connective Tissue Fibers and Ground Substance
Three main types of fibers are secreted by fibroblasts: collagen fibers, elastic
fibers, and reticular fibers. Collagen fiber is made from fibrous protein subunits linked
together to form a long and straight fiber. Collagen fibers, while flexible, have great
tensile strength, resist stretching, and give ligaments and tendons their characteristic
resilience and strength. These fibers hold connective tissues together, even during the
movement of the body.

Elastic fiber contains the protein elastin along with lesser amounts of other
proteins and glycoproteins. The main property of elastin is that after being stretched or
compressed, it will return to its original shape. Elastic fibers are prominent in elastic
tissues found in skin and the elastic ligaments of the vertebral column.

Reticular fiber is also formed from the same protein subunits as collagen fibers;
however, these fibers remain narrow and are arrayed in a branching network. They are
found throughout the body, but are most abundant in the reticular tissue of soft organs,
such as liver and spleen, where they anchor and provide structural support to
the parenchyma (the functional cells, blood vessels, and nerves of the organ).

All of these fiber types are embedded in ground substance. Secreted by

fibroblasts, ground substance is made of polysaccharides, specifically hyaluronic acid,
and proteins. These combine to form a proteoglycan with a protein core and

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 polysaccharide branches. The proteoglycan attracts and traps available moisture
forming the clear, viscous, colorless matrix you now know as ground substance.

- Loose Connective Tissue

Loose connective tissue is found between many organs where it acts both to
absorb shock and bind tissues together. It allows water, salts, and various nutrients to
diffuse through to adjacent or imbedded cells and tissues.

Adipose tissue consists mostly of fat storage cells, with little extracellular matrix
. A large number of capillaries allow rapid storage and mobilization of lipid molecules.
White adipose tissue is most abundant. It can appear yellow and owes its color to
carotene and related pigments from plant food. White fat contributes mostly to lipid
storage and can serve as insulation from cold temperatures and mechanical injuries.
White adipose tissue can be found protecting the kidneys and cushioning the back of
the eye. Brown adipose tissue is more common in infants, hence the term “baby fat.” In
adults, there is a reduced amount of brown fat and it is found mainly in the neck and
clavicular regions of the body. The many mitochondria in the cytoplasm of brown
adipose tissue help explain its efficiency at metabolizing stored fat. Brown adipose
tissue is thermogenic, meaning that as it breaks down fats, it releases metabolic heat,
rather than producing adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a key molecule used in
metabolism.

Areolar tissue shows little specialization. It contains all the cell types and fibers
previously described and is distributed in a random, web-like fashion. It fills the spaces
between muscle fibers, surrounds blood and lymph vessels, and supports organs in the
abdominal cavity. Areolar tissue underlies most epithelia and represents the connective
tissue component of epithelial membranes, which are described further in a later
section.

Reticular tissue is a mesh-like, supportive framework for soft organs such as

lymphatic tissue, the spleen, and the liver. Reticular cells produce the reticular fibers
that form the network onto which other cells attach. It derives its name from the
Latin reticulus, which means “little net.”
- Dense Connective Tissue
Dense connective tissue contains more collagen fibers than does loose
connective tissue. As a consequence, it displays greater resistance to stretching. There
are two major categories of dense connective tissue: regular and irregular. Dense
regular connective tissue fibers are parallel to each other, enhancing tensile strength
and resistance to stretching in the direction of the fiber orientations. Ligaments and
tendons are made of dense regular connective tissue, but in ligaments not all fibers are
parallel. Dense regular elastic tissue contains elastin fibers in addition to collagen fibers,
which allows the ligament to return to its original length after stretching. The ligaments
in the vocal folds and between the vertebrae in the vertebral column are elastic.

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 In dense irregular connective tissue, the direction of fibers is random. This
arrangement gives the tissue greater strength in all directions and less strength in one
particular direction. In some tissues, fibers crisscross and form a mesh. In other tissues,
stretching in several directions is achieved by alternating layers where fibers run in the
same orientation in each layer, and it is the layers themselves that are stacked at an
angle. The dermis of the skin is an example of dense irregular connective tissue rich in
collagen fibers. Dense irregular elastic tissues give arterial walls the strength and the
ability to regain original shape after stretching.

 Supportive Connective Tissues

- Two major forms of supportive connective tissue, cartilage and bone, allow the body to
maintain its posture and protect internal organs.
Cartilage
The distinctive appearance of cartilage is due to polysaccharides called
chondroitin sulfates, which bind with ground substance proteins to form proteoglycans.
Embedded within the cartilage matrix are chondrocytes, or cartilage cells, and the space
they occupy are called lacunae (singular = lacuna). A layer of dense irregular connective
tissue, the perichondrium, encapsulates the cartilage. Cartilaginous tissue is avascular,
thus all nutrients need to diffuse through the matrix to reach the chondrocytes. This is a
factor contributing to the very slow healing of cartilaginous tissues.

The three main types of cartilage tissue are hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and
elastic cartilage. Hyaline cartilage, the most common type of cartilage in the body,
consists of short and dispersed collagen fibers and contains large amounts of
proteoglycans. Under the microscope, tissue samples appear clear. The surface of
hyaline cartilage is smooth. Both strong and flexible, it is found in the rib cage and nose
and covers bones where they meet to form moveable joints. It makes up a template of
the embryonic skeleton before bone formation. A plate of hyaline cartilage at the ends
of bone allows continued growth until adulthood. Fibrocartilage is tough because it has
thick bundles of collagen fibers dispersed through its matrix. The knee and jaw joints
and the the intervertebral discs are examples of fibrocartilage. Elastic cartilage contains
elastic fibers as well as collagen and proteoglycans. This tissue gives rigid support as well
as elasticity. Tug gently at your ear lobes, and notice that the lobes return to their initial
shape. The external ear contains elastic cartilage.

3. How will you take good care of your Connective Tissue?

 Practice Letting Go of Emotional “Issues in the Tissues”

Emotional strain and stress can build up in the physical body, including the
connective tissue. As a result, fascia can become thick, tight, and irritated.

A good book on this subject is The Endless Web: Fascial Anatomy and Physical
Reality, by R. Louis Shultz and Rosemary Feitis. As the authors describe, “Emotions travel

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 through the fascial web... Fascia may become stiffer and less compliant when a client is
depressed, anxious and fearful.”

Practice techniques that bring your mind and body into balance, and over time, you may
experience less physical tension. Fostering a stress management strategy that works for you
promotes the health of your connective tissue and your health overall. Skyterra’s
recommendations:

Meditation and/or breathwork. Even just five minutes a day is enough to feel a difference.

Get a daily dose of nature. Nature is linked to mental and emotional wellbeing. Aim to spend at
least ten minutes outdoors per day.

Get plenty of sleep. A lack of sleep compounds the effects of stress. Get 7-9 consecutive hours
per night.

 Hydration & Therapy

Think of fascia as a sponge. When it’s well hydrated, you can twist it, wring it, ball it
up – it’s difficult to break, and it will return to its original shape. When it’s dried out, it
becomes brittle, inflexible, and more easily damaged.

You already know that staying hydrated is essential for overall health, and its effect
on fascia is just another reason why. Hydrated fascia can skate and slide, but when it’s dry,
the connective tissue can glue together, becoming stuck, brittle, and hard.

If your fascia is already in a dry, rigid state, you’ll need more than hydration alone to
restore it and minimize the risk of future injury. In addition to plenty of water, you’ll need to
engage in myofascial work – that is, mobility and soft tissue work performed specifically to
loosen up connective tissue.
Water & Myofascial Therapy

How much to drink? Half your body weight in ounces. Divide your body weight (in pounds) by
two. That’s the minimum number of ounces of water you should drink daily. For example, a 200-
lb person should drink at least 100 ounces of water per day.

Myofascial work. We recommend ten minutes daily. This could mean self-message routines
with yoga tune-up balls, foam rollers, or similar apparatuses, or you could opt for professional
treatments from a yoga therapist, massage or bodywork therapist.

 Stretch & Relax

The type of myofascial techniques described above use targeted external pressure
to loosen tight areas. But it’s also important to also work on loosening the body from within,
which helps train your fascia to relax more naturally.

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 Remember, fascia is a resilient structure. Once it tightens up, it does not want to let
go! Research states that fascia can withstand 2,000 lbs of pressure per square inch.
Therefore, it is important to stretch slowly, gently, and with purpose.

Have you ever noticed yourself gripping or holding onto tension when stretching?
That’s exactly the feeling you want to avoid. Instead, take your time and honor the breath.
The longer you hold, and the more you relax, the more you can soften and deepen into that
particular stretch. This “slow stretch” paradigm is a boost to your fascia, flexibility, and
overall stress response.

Restorative or Yin Yoga Practice

Take up a restorative or yin yoga practice to ensure gentle stretches with longer holds.
Skyterra recommends incorporating therapeutic yoga and/or restorative yoga into your active
lifestyle regimen at least 1-2 times per week.

Drawing:

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60
 Activity 5
Bone

Objectives:
9) To identify the bone
10) To enumerate specific parts of the bone in our body.
11) To draw and illustrate the bone and its parts in our body.
12) To appreciate the tissues of the bone and their importance in our body.

Questions:
4. Define Ossification. Give their specific functions of the bone in our body.
Ossification is the gradual transition from a fibrous or cartilaginous template to
bone. This process takes place at different rates and is completed at different ages
depending on the site of ossification. There are two distinct types of ossification,
intermembranous and endochondral.

Intermembranous Ossification: This is the less common form of bone formation,

being limited primarily to the flat bones of the skull such as the parietal, parts of the
temporal, and parts of the maxilla. In this form, bone is deposited between two fibrous
membranes. The bone formed in this way is normally quite porous and does not display
the Haversian System of other bones.

Endochondral Ossification: In this type of bone formation a cartilage template,

surrounded by the perichondrium, is entered by blood vessels to begin the process. As the
template grows, ossification begins in the central portion of the template, which will
become the diaphysis. This area is termed the primary ossification center. Later, the
extremities of the template each develop ossification centers called secondary ossification
centers, which are located in the epiphyses (proximal and distal ends of the bone). Once the
template has begun to grow the perichondrium is referred to as the periosteum.

During endochondral ossification, the area between the primary and secondary
ossification centers that remains cartilage is called the epiphyseal plate and is an example of
a synchondrosis. The final ossification of these plates takes place gradually and is completed
at different chronological ages.

5. Enumerate types of Bones and give their specific functions.

 Compact (cortical) bone: A hard outer layer that is dense, strong, and durable. It makes
up around 80 percent of adult bone mass.

 Cancellous (trabecular or spongy) bone: This consists of a network of trabeculae or rod-

like structures. It is lighter, less dense, and more flexible than compact bone.

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Bone cells
Bones are not a static tissue but need to be constantly maintained and remodeled.
There are three main cell types involved in this process.

Osteoblasts: These are responsible for making new bone and repairing older bone. Osteoblasts
produce a protein mixture called osteoid, which is mineralized and becomes bone. They also
manufacture hormones, including prostaglandins.

Osteocytes: These are inactive osteoblasts that have become trapped in the bone that they
have created. They maintain connections to other osteocytes and osteoblasts. They are
important for communication within bone tissue.

Osteoclasts: These are large cells with more than one nucleus. Their job is to break down bone.
They release enzymes and acids to dissolve minerals in bone and digest them. This process is
called resorption. Osteoclasts help remodel injured bones and create pathways for nerves and
blood vessels to travel through.

Osteocytes: These are inactive osteoblasts that have become trapped in the bone that they
have created. They maintain connections to other osteocytes and osteoblasts. They are
important for communication within bone tissue.

Osteoclasts: These are large cells with more than one nucleus. Their job is to break down bone.
They release enzymes and acids to dissolve minerals in bone and digest them. This process is
called resorption. Osteoclasts help remodel injured bones and create pathways for nerves and
blood vessels to travel through.

6. How will you take good care of your Skeletal System.

Include plenty of calcium in your diet.

For adults ages 19 to 50 and men ages 51 to 70, the Recommended Dietary Allowance
(RDA) is 1,000 milligrams (mg) of calcium a day. The recommendation increases to 1,200 mg a
day for women after age 50 and for men after age 70.

Good sources of calcium include dairy products, almonds, broccoli, kale, canned salmon
with bones, sardines and soy products, such as tofu. If you find it difficult to get enough calcium
from your diet, ask your doctor about supplements.

Pay attention to vitamin D. 

Your body needs vitamin D to absorb calcium. For adults ages 19 to 70, the RDA of
vitamin D is 600 international units (IUs) a day. The recommendation increases to 800 IUs a day
for adults age 71 and older.

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 Good sources of vitamin D include oily fish, such as salmon, trout, whitefish and tuna.
Additionally, mushrooms, eggs and fortified foods, such as milk and cereals, are good sources of
vitamin D. Sunlight also contributes to the body's production of vitamin D. If you're worried
about getting enough vitamin D, ask your doctor about supplements.

Include physical activity in your daily routine. Weight-bearing exercises, such as walking,

jogging, and climbing stairs, can help you build strong bones and slow bone loss.

Avoid substance abuse. Don't smoke. If you are a woman, avoid drinking more than one
alcoholic drink each day. If you are a man, avoid drinking more than two alcoholic drinks a day.

Drawing:

Activity 6

Research on what Epithelial Tissues found in following:

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1. Lungs

Squamous epithelium – make up the alveoli (tiny

holow sacs in the lungs).

 Thin, flattened cells. Epithelium – a lining

tissue.
 Advantages – short distance between air in the
alveoli and the blood in the capillary.
 This means gas exchange is very efficient.

Goblet Cells
 Shaped like a goblet (hence their name.
 Produce large amounts of mucus (a
glycoprotein)
 Dirt and bacteria in the air that is breathed in
gets trapped in the mucus. When mucus
reaches the throat it is swallowed. The dirt and
bacteria is then destroyed by the acid and
enzymes in the stomach.

Ciliated Epithelium
 Have tiny hairs called cilia.
 Beat together in a rhythm moving
mucus back up the trachea into the
throat.
 Cigarette smoke damages cilia – why
do smokers have a persistent chesty
cough and are prone to lung
infections?

2. Adrena Gland
Zona glomerulosa
 The outermost zone of the adrenal cortex is the zona glomerulosa. It lies
immediately under the fibrous capsule of the gland. Cells in this layer form oval

64
 groups, separated by thin strands of connective tissue from the fibrous capsule
of the gland and carry wide capillaries.

 This layer is the main site for production of aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid, by

the action of the enzyme aldosterone synthase. Aldosterone plays an important
role in the long-term regulation of blood pressure.

Zona fasciculata
 The zona fasciculata is situated between the zona glomerulosa and zona
reticularis. Cells in this layer are responsible for producing glucocorticoids such
as cortisol.
 It is the largest of the three layers, accounting for nearly 80% of the volume of
the cortex. In the zona fasciculata, cells are arranged in columns radially
oriented towards the medulla.
 Cells contain numerous lipid droplets, abundant mitochondria and a
complex smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

Zona reticularis
 The innermost cortical layer, the  zona reticularis, lies directly adjacent to the
medulla.
 It produces androgens, mainly dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), DHEA
sulfate (DHEA-S), and androstenedione (the precursor to testosterone) in
humans.
 Its small cells form irregular cords and clusters, separated by capillaries and
connective tissue. The cells contain relatively small quantities of cytoplasm and
lipid droplets, and sometimes display brown lipofuscin pigment.

3. Testis
Tunica - tough, fibrous layers of tissue.
Tunica vaginalis (Outer Layer)

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  pouch of serous membrane that covers the testes. It is derived from the
vaginal process of the peritoneum, which in the fetus precedes the
descent of the testes from the abdomen into the scrotum.
Tunica albuginea (Inner Layer)
 The whitish membrane within the penis that surrounds the spongy
chambers (corpora cavernosa). The tunica albuginea helps to trap the
blood in the corpora cavernosa, thereby sustaining erection of the
penis.

4. Ovary
Germinal Epithelium
 derived from the mesoderm during
embryonic development and are closely
related to the mesothelium of
the peritoneum.

 The germinal epithelium gives the ovary a

dull gray color as compared with the shining
smoothness of the peritoneum; and the
transition between the mesothelium of the
peritoneum and the cuboidal cells which
cover the ovary is usually marked by a line
around the anterior border of the ovary.

5. Kidney
Simple cuboidal epithelium 
 consists of a single layer cells that are as tall as they are
wide.
 The important functions of the simple
cuboidal epithelium are secretion and absorption.
 This epithelial type is found in the small collecting ducts of
the kidneys, pancreas, and salivary glands.

6. Appendix

Glandular Epithelium
 The inner lining, facing the lumen of the appendix, is covered by a glandular epithelium
with intestinal glands that extend into the deeper layers of the mucosa.

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  The glands are lined with simple columnar epithelium and a high number
of mucin producing goblet cells that are characterized by a large globule of mucus
located in the apical portion of the cell. The lamina propria typically contains
lymphocytes that partly obscure the underlying muscularis mucosae, which separates
the mucosa from the submucosa.

Similar to the colon, an inner circular muscle layer and a thin external longitudinal muscle
layer comprise the muscularis externa that encircles the appendix. Outside of the muscular
layers there is a subserosa containing loose connective tissue, vasculature and nerves. The
outermost located peritoneum consists of a thin lining of mesothelial cells.

7. Pancreas

Cuboidal
 The smaller forms have a cuboidal epithelium,
while a columnar epithelium lines the larger
ducts. Intralobular ducts transmit secretions
from intralobular ducts to the major
pancreatic duct. The main pancreatic duct
received secretion from interlobular ducts and
penetrates through the wall of the duodenum.

8. Small Intestine

Simple Columnar Epithelium

 The mucosa of the small intestine is lined by
a simple columnar epithelium which consists
primarily of absorptive cells (enterocytes), with

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 scattered goblet cells and occasional enteroendocrine cells. In crypts, the epithelium
also includes Paneth cells and stem cells

9. Liver

Hepatocytes
 is a cell of the main parenchymal tissue of
the liver. Hepatocytes make up 55-65% of
the liver's mass. These cells are involved in:
Protein synthesis. Protein storage.

Cholangiocytes
 are cuboidal epithelium in the small
interlobular bile ducts, but become
columnar and mucus secreting in larger bile
ducts approaching the porta hepatis and the
extrahepatic ducts.

10. Fallopian Tube

Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium

 Inside the Fallopian tubes there are hair-
like Fallopian cilia which carry the
fertilized egg from the ovaries of female
mammals to the uterus, via the
uterotubal junction. This tubal tissue is
ciliated simple columnar epithelium.

Activity 7: TISSUES OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN

Overview: The female reproductive system is made up of the internal and external sex organs
that function in reproduction of new offspring. In humans, the female reproductive system is
immature at birth and develops to maturity at puberty to be able to produce gametes, and to carry
a fetus to full term.

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Objectives:

 Tissue in the female reproductive organ

 Function of female reproductive organ

Tissue Picture
Endometrium - Simple Columnar Ciliated

Fallopian Tube - Simple Columnar Ciliated

Ovary - Simple Cuboidal

Functions:
The female reproductive system is designed to carry out several functions. It produces the female
egg cells necessary for reproduction, called the ova or oocytes. The system is designed to
transport the ova to the site of fertilization.

Activity 8: TISSUES OF KIDNEYS

Overview: The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs in the renal system. They help the body pass
waste as urine. They also help filter blood before sending it back to the heart. The kidneys
perform many crucial functions, including: maintaining overall fluid balance.

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Objectives:

 Tissue in the kidney

 Function of the kidney

Tissue Picture
Collecting Duct - Simple Cuboidal

Renal Pelvis - Transitional

Ureter - Transitional

Urinary Bladder - Transitional

Functions:
The kidneys' job is to filter your blood. They remove wastes, control the body's fluid balance, and
keep the right levels of electrolytes. All of the blood in your body passes through them several
times a day. Blood comes into the kidney, waste gets removed, and salt, water, and minerals are
adjusted, if needed.

Activity 9: TISSUES OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN

Overview: The male reproductive system consists of a number of sex organs that play a role in
the process of human reproduction. These organs are located on the outside of the body and
within the pelvis.

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 Objectives:

 Tissue in the male reproductive organ

 Function of male reproductive organ

Tissue Picture
Epididymis - Pseudostratified Columnar

Vas Deferens - Pseudostratified Columnar

Ejaculatory Duct - Simple Columnar

Testis - Simple Cuboidal

Function:
The purpose of the organs of the male reproductive system is to perform the following functions:
To produce, maintain, and transport sperm (the male reproductive cells) and protective fluid
(semen) To discharge sperm within the female reproductive tract during sex

Activity 10: TISSUES OF THE BRAIN

Overview: The Human Brain. The brain is the most complex organ in the human body. It
produces our every thought, action, memory, feeling and experience of the world. This jelly-like

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mass of tissue, weighing in at around 1.4 kilograms, contains a staggering one hundred billion
nerve cells, or neurons.
Objectives:

 Tissue in the brain

 Function of the brain

Tissue Picture
Lining of the ventricles of the brain - Ciliated Epithelial

Spinal Cord - Nervous Tissue

Brain - Nervous Tissue

Nerves - Nervous Tissue

Functions:
The brain sends messages via the spinal cord to peripheral nerves throughout the body that serve
to control the muscles and internal organs. The somatic nervous system is made up of neurons
connecting the CNS with the parts of the body that interact with the outside world.

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Ma. Veronica M. Del Rosario
Compilation

Del Rosario, Ma. Veronica M.

BSMT II

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 Activity 1
The Microscope and Its Importance in Medical Lab.
Science

Importance:
4) To discover microorganism
5) Study cell structure and parts
6) See smallest parts of plants, animals, virus and fungi.

Questions:

2) Enumerate the kinds of microscope and describe each.

 Simple Microscope
is a magnifying glass that has a double convex lens with a short focal length.
A microscope having one lens or lens system, such as a magnifying glass or hand
lens.
 Compound Microscope
is an instrument that is used to view magnified images of small objects on a
glass slide. The objective lens or objectives located on the nosepiece have a
short focal length and are close to the target object where it collects light and
focuses the image of the object into the microscope.
 Stereo Microscope
stereoscopic or dissecting microscope is an optical microscope variant designed
for low magnification observation of a sample, typically using light reflected
from the surface of an object rather than transmitted through it.
 Confocal Microscope
most frequently confocal laser scanning microscopy or laser confocal scanning
microscopy, is an optical imaging technique for increasing optical resolution and
contrast of a micrograph by means of using a spatial pinhole to block out-of-
focus light in image formation
 Scanning Electron Microscope
is a type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by scanning
the surface with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms
in the sample, producing various signals that contain information about the
surface topography and composition of the sample.
 Transmission Electron Microscope

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 is a microscopy technique in which a beam of electrons is transmitted through a
specimen to form an image. The specimen is most often an ultrathin section less
than 100 nm thick or a suspension on a grid.
3) What is magnification? How do you get an object magnification?

Magnification is a measure of the ability of a lens or other optical

instruments to magnify, expressed as the ratio of the size of the image to that of
the object. To figure the total magnification of an image that you are viewing
through the microscope is really quite simple. To get the total magnification take
the power of the objective (4X, 10X, 40x) and multiply by the power of the
eyepiece, usually 10X.

4) What is parfocal?

Parfocal microscope objectives stay in focus when magnification is changed;

i.e., if the microscope is switched from a lower power objective (e.g., 10×) to a
higher power objective (e.g., 40×), the object stays in focus.

Draw and Label fully a Compound Microscope

Del Rosario, Ma. Veronica M.

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BSMT II
Activity 2:
Epithelial Tissues
Objectives:
13) Describe histology of skin and its appendages
14) Illustrate and label the keratinized stratified squamous epithelium (epidermis)
15) Differentiate the different types of Epithelium
16) Identify the dermis and its parts

Overview:
Epithelium is one of the four basic types of animal’s tissue along with connective tissue,
muscle tissue and nervous tissue. Epithelial tissues line the cavities and surface of
structure in the body and also form many glands.

Functions:
Secretion, absorption of nutrients, protection, cellular transport, detection of sensation.

Materials:
Microscope and glass slide with histological specimens

Drawing:
1) Simple squamous epithelium

2) Stratified squamous epithelium

3) Simple cuboidal epithelium

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 4) Stratified cuboidal epithelium

5) Simple columnar epithelium

6) Stratified columnar epithelium

7) Pseudostartified columnar

8) Columnar ciliated epithelium

Questions:

1) What is the function of epithelial cells?

Functions of epithelial cells include secretion, selective absorption, protection,

transcellular transport, and sensing. Epithelial layers contain no blood vessels, so they
must receive nourishment via diffusion of substances from the underlying connective
tissue, through the basement membrane.

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2) What does the ciliated epithelial do?

Ciliated epithelium is a thin tissue that has hair-like structures on it. These hairs,
called cilia, move back and forth to help move particles out of our body. We find ciliated
epithelial tissue in our respiratory tract and in the fallopian tubes of women.

3) Name the parts of epithelial cell and functions

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4) How do epithelial cells work?

Functions of epithelial cells include secretion, selective absorption, protection,

transcellular transport, and sensing. Epithelial layers contain no blood vessels, so they
must receive nourishment via diffusion of substances from the underlying connective
tissue, through the basement membrane.

5) What are squamous epithelial cells, cuboidal, columnar, ciliated and

pseudostratified columnar cells? Where are their point of origin or where can we
find these cells in our body?

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6) What are renal epithelial cells?

Renal epithelial cells are the single layer of cells lining the nephron. These
include cells lining the glomerulus, the proximal and distal convoluted tubules, and
the collecting ducts.

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Del Rosario, Ma. Veronica M.
Histology Lab.
BSMT II

Activity 4: Connective Tissues

Objective:

 To identify connective tissues.

 To enumerate specific functions of connective tissues in our body.
 To draw and illustrate the different types of connective tissues in our body.
 To appreciate the knowledge about their importance in our body.

Questions and Answers:

1) Define Connective Tissues. Give their specific activities in our body.

Connective tissues are specialized tissues, which provide support and hold the body’s
tissues together. Connective tissue is made up of a small fraction of cells and a majority
of extracellular substance which keeps the cells separated.

A material made up of fibers forming a framework and support structure for body
tissues and organs. Connective tissue surrounds many organs. Cartilage and bone are
specialized forms of connective tissue. All connective tissue is derived from mesoderm,
the middle germ cell layer in the embryo. Connective tissues perform many functions in
the body, but most importantly, they support and connect other tissues; from the
connective tissue sheath that surrounds muscle cells, to the tendons that attach muscles
to bones, and to the skeleton that supports the positions of the body.

Protection is another major function of connective tissue, in the form of fibrous capsules
and bones that protect delicate organs and, of course, the skeletal system. Specialized
cells in connective tissue defend the body from microorganisms that enter the body.
Transport of fluid, nutrients, waste, and chemical messengers is ensured by specialized
fluid connective tissues, such as blood and lymph. Adipose cells store surplus energy in
the form of fat and contribute to the thermal insulation of the body.

2) Enumerate types of connective tissues and give their specific functions.

Cartilage
Cartilage is a type of supporting connective tissue. Cartilage is a dense connective tissue,
consisting of the chondrocyte cells. Cartilage connective tissue includes hyaline
cartilage, fibrocartilage and elastic cartilage. The fibers in the cartilage connective tissue

81
include collagen and elastic fibers. Cartilage connective tissue has limited ground
substance and can range from semisolid to a flexible matrix.
Bone
Bone is another type of supporting connective tissue. Bone, also referred to as osseous
tissue, can either be compact (dense) or spongy (cancellous), and contains the
osteoblasts or osteocytes cells. Bone connective tissue is made up of collagen fibers and
has rigid, calcified ground substance.

Adipose
Adipose is another type of supporting connective tissue that provides cushions and
stores excess energy and fat. It contains reticular cells and is made up of reticular fibers.
The extracellular substance of adipose connective tissue is made up of a tight pack of
cells with a small amount of gelatinous ground substance.

Blood
Blood, also referred to as vascular tissue, is a type of fluid connective tissue. Blood
connective tissue contains three types of cells including erythrocytes, leukocytes, and
thrombocytes. The fibers found in blood connective tissue are soluble proteins that
form during clotting and the extracellular substance making up blood connective tissue
is the liquid blood plasma.

Hemapoetic/Lymphatic
Hemapoetic or lymphatic connective tissue is another type of fluid connective tissue.
Lymphatic connective tissues are responsible for the manufacture of all the blood cells
and immunological capability. It contains leukocytes cells and is made of fibers which
are soluble liquid proteins that form during clotting. The extracellular substance of
hemapoetic tissue is blood plasma.

Elastic
Elastic connective tissue helps maintain blood pressure and promotes normal
exhalation. Elastic connective tissues consist of chondrocytes cells and are made up of
elastic fibers. The extracellular substance of elastic connective tissue is composed of
limited ground substance and is structured in a flexible, but firm matrix.

Fibrous
The fibrous connective tissue functions to provide strength to the inner layer of skin and
strength, allowing it to handle forces of joint movements. Fibrous connective tissue
contains fibroblast cells and is made up of fibrous fibers. It is a dense connective tissue,
with its extracellular substance consisting of parallel or irregularly arranged bundles of
fibers with few cells and little ground substance.

Ordinary and Special

The composition of ordinary connective tissue is as described in the most typical case:
cells suspended in a matrix of fibers and ground substance. Skin is one such example of

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 ordinary connective tissue. Special connective tissue shares many common traits with
ordinary connective tissue but with highly differentiated cell lines suspended within its
matrices. Examples of special connective tissue include bone, cartilage, lymphoid tissue
and blood.

Dense and Loose

The density of connective tissue depends on the concentration of its fibrous component.
Dense connective tissue can be either higher in collagen or high in elastin and contains a
high proportion of fibers compared to cells and ground substance. Examples of
collagenous connective tissue include skin, tendons and ligaments. The aorta of the
heart is an example of an elastin-containing dense connective tissue. Loose connective
tissue, as you may expect, contains a higher proportion of cells and ground substance
compared to fibers. Adipose tissue, otherwise known as body fat, is an example of a
loose connective tissue.

Regular and Irregular

Connective tissue may be described as regular or irregular depending on the direction of
orientation of the fibers. Irregular tissue has fibers extending in multiple directions while
regular tissue has fibers running in the same direction. The tendons that attach muscle
to other body parts are an example of regular dense connective tissue, because the
fibrous portion is oriented the same way. Skin is an example of irregular dense
connective tissue because its fibers lie in all directions.

3) How will you take good care of your connective tissues?

 Practice Letting Go of Emotional “Issues in the Tissues”

Practice techniques that bring your mind and body into balance, and over time, you may
experience less physical tension. Fostering a stress management strategy that works for
you promotes the health of your connective tissue and your health overall. Skyterra’s
recommendations:

Meditation and/or breathwork. Even just five minutes a day is enough to feel a
difference.
Get a daily dose of nature. Nature is linked to mental and emotional wellbeing.
Aim to spend at least ten minutes outdoors per day.
Get plenty of sleep. A lack of sleep compounds the effects of stress. Get 7-9
consecutive hours per night.

 Hydration & Therapy

 Stretch & Relax

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Drawing:

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Del Rosario, Ma. Veronica M.
Histology Lab.
BSMT II

Activity 5: Bones
Objective:

 To identify bone.
 To enumerate specific parts of bone in our body.
 To draw and illustrate the bone and its parts in our body.
 To appreciate the tissues of the bone and their importance in our body.

Questions and Answers:

1) Define Ossification. Give their specific functions of the bone in our body.

The process of creating bone, that is of transforming cartilage (or fibrous tissue) into
bone. The verb corresponding to "ossification" is "ossify." Cartilage becomes ossified as
it is converted into bone. Bone is osseous tissue. "Os" is a synonym for "bone." The Latin
word "os" means "bone" as does the related Greek word "osteon." Ossification (or
osteogenesis) in bone remodeling is the process of laying down new bone material by
cells called osteoblasts. It is synonymous with bone tissue formation. There are two
processes resulting in the formation of normal, healthy bone tissue: Intramembranous
ossification is the direct laying down of bone into the primitive connective tissue
(mesenchyme), while endochondral ossification involves cartilage as a precursor.

Bone is often stereotyped as simply a protective and supportive framework for the
body. Though it does perform these functions, bone is actually a very dynamic organ
that is constantly remodeling and changing shape to adapt to the daily forces placed
upon it. Moreover, bone stores crucial nutrients, minerals, and lipids and produces
blood cells that nourish the body and play a vital role in protecting the body against
infection. All these functions make the approximately 206 bones of the human body an
organ that is essential to our daily existence.

Bones have many functions, including the following:

 Support: Bones provide a framework for the attachment of muscles and other
tissues.
 Protection: Bones such as the skull and rib cage protect internal organs from
injury.
 Movement: Bones enable body movements by acting as levers and points of
attachment for muscles.
 Mineral storage: Bones serve as a reservoir for calcium and phosphorus,
essential minerals for various cellular activities throughout the body.

85
  Blood cell production: The production of blood cells, or hematopoiesis, occurs
in the red marrow found within the cavities of certain bones.
 Energy storage: Lipids, such as fats, stored in adipose cells of the yellow marrow
serve as an energy reservoir.

2) Enumerate types of bone tissues and give their specific functions.

Structure of Bone Tissue

There are two types of bone tissue: compact and spongy. The names imply that the two
types differ in density, or how tightly the tissue is packed together. There are three
types of cells that contribute to bone homeostasis. Osteoblasts are bone-forming cell,
osteoclasts resorb or break down bone, and osteocytes are mature bone cells. An
equilibrium between osteoblasts and osteoclasts maintains bone tissue.

Compact Bone
Compact bone consists of closely packed osteons or haversian systems. The osteon
consists of a central canal called the osteonic (haversian) canal, which is surrounded by
concentric rings (lamellae) of matrix. Between the rings of matrix, the bone cells
(osteocytes) are located in spaces called lacunae. Small channels (canaliculi) radiate
from the lacunae to the osteonic (haversian) canal to provide passageways through the
hard matrix. In compact bone, the haversian systems are packed tightly together to
form what appears to be a solid mass. The osteonic canals contain blood vessels that are
parallel to the long axis of the bone. These blood vessels interconnect, by way of
perforating canals, with vessels on the surface of the bone.

Spongy (Cancellous) Bone

Spongy (cancellous) bone is lighter and less dense than compact bone. Spongy bone
consists of plates (trabeculae) and bars of bone adjacent to small, irregular cavities that
contain red bone marrow. The canaliculi connect to the adjacent cavities, instead of a
central haversian canal, to receive their blood supply. It may appear that the trabeculae
are arranged in a haphazard manner, but they are organized to provide maximum
strength similar to braces that are used to support a building. The trabeculae of spongy
bone follow the lines of stress and can realign if the direction of stress changes.

3) How will you take good care of your skeletal system?

1. Eat lots of vegetables.

Vegetables are the best source of Vitamin C, which stimulates production of bone-
forming cells. Greens and yellows have been shown in studies to help with bone
mineralization.

2. Perform strength training.

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Strength training exercise is especially important for those who suffer from lower
extremity joint deficiencies such as knee or hip arthritis, which are conditions that may
limit your ability to perform weight bearing exercise.

3. Start weight-bearing exercises.

Weight-bearing exercise is defined as an activity that forces you to move against gravity,
or gives you resistance as you move. High-impact weight-bearing exercises are best for
building bones. These should be limited if you have been diagnosed with osteopenia or
osteoporosis.

4. Don’t smoke and don’t drink excessively.

Bad news for bad habits: Loss of bone mineral density is associated with tobacco use
and excessive alcohol consumption. If you smoke, look into a program to help you quit.
If you drink, the recommendation is to stick to no more than one libation a day.

5. Get your bone mineral density tested.

Doctors can get a quick and painless “snapshot” of bone health using a simple X-ray test
called DXA. This test measures bone mineral density and helps determine risks of
osteoporosis and fracture. It is recommended that women are tested within two years
of menopause. Earlier tests are recommended for men and women with certain
diseases and for those taking medications that increase risk, such as long-term steroid
therapy.

6. Consider medication.
Perimenopausal women may consider hormone therapy, especially if they have
symptoms of menopause (hot flashes and more), to increase waning estrogen levels,
which are linked to bone loss. And women and men diagnosed with osteopenia or
osteoporosis can take various medications to prevent dangerous hip and spine
fractures.

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Drawing

88
Del Rosario, Ma. Veronica M.
BSMT II
Activity 6
Research on what epithelial tissues found in following:

1. Lungs
 Most of the respiratory passageways, from the nasal cavity through the bronchi,
are lined by ciliated, pseudostratified columnar epithelium with goblet cells.

 Bronchioles are lined by simple cuboidal epithelium.

 Lung alveoli, in contrast, are lined by very thin simple squamous epithelium.

2. Adrenal Glands
The adrenal cortex is made up of layers of epithelial cells and associated capillary
networks. These layers form three distinct regions: an outer zona glomerulosa that
produces mineralocorticoids, a middle zona fasciculata that produces glucocorticoids,
and an inner zona reticularis that produces androgens. Grandular epithelium, columnar
epithelium with goblet cell.

89
3. Testis
Spermatozoa pass via the tubuli recti (low columnar epithelium) and the rete testis
(flattened or cuboidal epithelium) into numerous ductuli efferentes, which are lined by a
columnar epithelium, which consists of both absorptive and ciliated cells. ... These cells
regenerate the epithelium.

4. Ovary
The ovarian surface epithelium, also called the germinal epithelium of Waldeyer, is a
layer of simple squamous-to-cuboidal epithelial cells covering the ovary. The term
germinal epithelium is a misnomer as it does not give rise to primary follicles.

5. Kidney
 Simple cuboidal epithelium is found in glandular tissue and in the kidney
tubules.

90
  Simple columnar epithelium lines the stomach and intestines.

 Pseudostratified columnar epithelium lines portions of the respiratory tract and

some of the tubes of the male reproductive tract.

6. Appendix
The mucosa of the appendix, colon, and rectum has a simple columnar epithelium
shaped into straight tubular crypts.

7. Pancreas
The smaller forms have a cuboidal epithelium, while a columnar epithelium lines the
larger ducts. Intralobular ducts transmit secretions from intralobular ducts to the major
pancreatic duct. The main pancreatic duct received secretion from interlobular ducts
and penetrates through the wall of the duodenum.

91
8. Small Intestine
The mucosa of the small intestine is lined by a simple columnar epithelium which
consists primarily of absorptive cells (enterocytes), with scattered goblet cells and
occasional enteroendocrine cells.

9. Liver
The liver contains two types of epithelial cells, namely, hepatocytes and cholangiocytes.
They split from hepatoblasts (embryonic liver stem cells) in mid-gestation and
differentiate into structurally and functionally mature cells. It will be made of simple
cuboidal epithelium (arrow). Bile ducts (bd) collect bile from the liver lobules and take it
out of the liver.

10. Fallopian Tube

The fallopian tube epithelium (FTE) is another accepted origin of ovarian cancer and is a
layer of pseudostratified epithelial cells derived from the Müllerian duct.

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 Activity 7: TISSUES OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN
Overview: The female reproductive system is made up of the internal and external sex organs
that function in reproduction of new offspring. In humans, the female reproductive system is
immature at birth and develops to maturity at puberty to be able to produce gametes, and to
carry a fetus to full term.

Objectives:

 Tissue in the female reproductive organ

 Function of female reproductive organ

Tissue Picture
Endometrium Simple Columnar Ciliated

Fallopian Tube Simple Columnar Ciliated

Ovary Simple Cuboidal

Functions:

The female reproductive system is designed to carry out several functions. It produces the
female egg cells necessary for reproduction, called the ova or oocytes. The system is designed to
transport the ova to the site of fertilization.

Activity 8: TISSUES OF KIDNEYS

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 Overview: The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs in the renal system. They help the body
pass waste as urine. They also help filter blood before sending it back to the heart. The kidneys
perform many crucial functions, including: maintaining overall fluid balance.

Objectives:

 Tissue in the kidney

 Function of the kidney

Tissue Picture
Convoluted Tubule Simple Cuboidal

Loop of Henle Simple Squamous

Collecting Duct Simple Cuboidal

Renal Pelvis Transitional

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 Ureter Transitional

Urinary Bladder Transitional

Functions:

The kidneys' job is to filter your blood. They remove wastes, control the body's fluid balance,
and keep the right levels of electrolytes. All of the blood in your body passes through them
several times a day. Blood comes into the kidney, waste gets removed, and salt, water, and
minerals are adjusted, if needed.

Activity 9: TISSUES OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN

Overview: The male reproductive system consists of a number of sex organs that play a role in
the process of human reproduction. These organs are located on the outside of the body and
within the pelvis.

Objectives:

 Tissue in the male reproductive organ

95
  Function of male reproductive organ

Tissue Picture
Tubuli Recti Simple Cuboidal

Epididymis Pseudostratified Columnar

Vas Deferens Pseudostratified Columnar

Ejaculatory Duct Simple Columnar

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Seminal Vesicle Pseudostratified Columnar

Testis Simple Cuboidal

Function:

The purpose of the organs of the male reproductive system is to perform the following
functions: To produce, maintain, and transport sperm (the male reproductive cells) and
protective fluid (semen) To discharge sperm within the female reproductive tract during sex

Activity 10: TISSUES OF THE BRAIN

Overview: The Human Brain. The brain is the most complex organ in the human body. It
produces our every thought, action, memory, feeling and experience of the world. This jelly-like
mass of tissue, weighing in at around 1.4 kilograms, contains a staggering one hundred billion
nerve cells, or neurons.

Objectives:

 Tissue in the brain

 Function of the brain

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 Tissue Picture
Lining of the ventricles of the Ciliated Epithelial
brain

Spinal Cord Nervous Tissue

Brain Nervous Tissue

Nerves Nervous Tissue

Functions:

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The brain sends messages via the spinal cord to peripheral nerves throughout the body that
serve to control the muscles and internal organs. The somatic nervous system is made up of
neurons connecting the CNS with the parts of the body that interact with the outside world.

Marl Loiz B. Gonzales

99
 Compilation

Activity 1
The Microscope and Its Importance in Medical
Laboratory Science

Importance:
1. To discover microorganism
2. Study cell structure and parts
3. See smallest parts of plants, animals, virus and fungi.

100
Questions:

1. Enumerate the kinds of microscope and describe each.

A. Simple Microscope

The simple microscope is generally considered to be the first microscope. It was

created in the 17th century by Antony van Leeuwenhoek, who combined a convex lens
with a holder for specimens. Magnifying between 200 and 300 times, it was essentially
a magnifying glass. While this microscope was simple, it was still powerful enough to
provide van Leeuwenhoek information about biological specimens, including the
difference in shapes between red blood cells
B. Compound Microscope

With two lenses, the compound microscope offers better magnification than a
simple microscope; the second lens magnifies the image of the first. Compound
microscopes are bright field microscopes, meaning that the specimen is lit from
underneath, and they can be binocular or monocular. These devices provide a
magnification of 1,000 times, which is considered to be high, although the resolution is
low. This high magnification, however, allows users to take a close look at objects too
small to be seen with the naked eye, including individual cells.
C. Stereo Microscope

The stereo microscope, also called a dissecting microscope, provides magnification

of up to 300 times. These binocular microscopes are used to look at opaque objects or
objects that are too large to be viewed with a compound microscope, since they do not
require a slide preparation. Although their magnification is relatively low, they are still
useful. They provide a close-up, 3-D view of objects’ surface textures, and they allow
the operator to manipulate the object during viewing.
D. Confocal Microscope

Unlike stereo and compound microscopes, which use regular light for image
formation, the confocal microscope uses a laser light to scan samples that have been
dyed. These samples are prepared on slides and inserted; then, with the aid of a
dichromatic mirror, the device produces a magnified image on a computer screen.
Operators can create 3-D images, as well, by assembling multiple scans. Like the
compound microscope, these microscopes offer a high degree of magnification, but
their resolution is much better. They are commonly used in cell biology and medical
applications.
E. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

The scanning electron microscope, or SEM, uses electrons rather than light for
image formation. Samples are scanned in vacuum or near-vacuum conditions, so they

101
must be specially prepared by first undergoing dehydration and then being coated with
a thin layer of a conductive material, such as gold. After the item is prepared and placed
in the chamber, the SEM produces a 3-D, black-and-white image on a computer screen.
Offering ample control over the amount of magnification, SEMs are used by
researchers in the physical, medical and biological sciences to examine a range of
specimens from insects to bones.
F. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

Like the scanning electron microscope, the transmission electron microscope

(TEM) uses electrons in creating a magnified image, and samples are scanned in a
vacuum so they must be specially prepared. Unlike the SEM, however, the TEM uses a
slide preparation to obtain a 2-D view of specimens, so it's more suited for viewing
objects with some degree of transparency. A TEM offers a high degree of both
magnification and resolution, making it useful in the physical and biological sciences,
metallurgy, nanotechnology and forensic analysis.

2. What is magnification? How do you get an object magnification?

Magnification on a microscope refers to the amount or degree of visual

enlargement of an observed object. Magnification is measured by multiples, such as
2x, 4x and 10x, indicating that the object is enlarged to twice as big, four times as big
or 10 times as big, respectively. Magnification on a microscope refers to the amount or
degree of visual enlargement of an observed object. Magnification is measured by
multiples, such as 2x, 4x and 10x, indicating that the object is enlarged to twice as big,
four times as big or 10 times as big, respectively.

3. What is parfocal?
"Parfocal" refers to objectives that can be changed with minimal or no refocusing.
Parfocalling compound microscope objective is a procedure which allows you to
adjust each objective lens so that it will remain in relative focus with the other objective
lenses on the microscope when switching from one magnifcation to the next. If
microscope objectives are not parfocalled it means that you would need to refocus the
microscope each time the objective turret is changed to a different magnification.

Draw and Label fully a Compound Microscope

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 Activity 2: Epithelial Tissues

Objectives:
1. Describe histology of skin and its appendages
2. Illustrate and label the keratinized stratified squamous epithelium (epidermis)
3. Differentiate the different types of Epithelium
4. Identify the dermis and its parts

Overview:

Epithelium is one of the four basic types of animals tissue along with connective
tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. Epithelial tissues line the cavities and surface of
structure in the body and also form many glands.

103
Functions:

Secretion, absorption of nutrients, protection, cellular transport, detection of sensation.

Materials:

Microscope and glass slide with histological specimens

Drawing:

1. Simple squamous epithelium- A simple squamous epithelium is a single layer of flat

cells in contact with the basal lamina (one of the two layers of the basement membrane)
of the epithelium. This type of epithelium is often permeable and occurs where small
molecules need to pass quickly through membranes via filtration or diffusion. Simple
squamous epithelia are found in capillaries, alveoli, glomeruli, and other tissues where
rapid diffusion is required

2. Stratified squamous epithelium- A stratified squamous epithelium consists of

squamous (flattened) epithelial cells arranged in layers upon a basal membrane. Only one
layer is in contact with the basement membrane; the other layers adhere to one another to
maintain structural integrity. Although this epithelium is referred to as squamous, many
cells within the layers may not be flattened; this is due to the convention of naming
epithelia according to the cell type at the surface. In the deeper layers, the cells may be
columnar or cuboidal.

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3. Simple cuboidal epithelium- Simple cuboidal epithelium is a type of epithelium that
consists of a single layer of cuboidal (cube-like) cells. These cuboidal cells have large,
spherical and central nuclei.
Simple cuboidal epithelia are found on the surface of ovaries, the lining of nephrons, the
walls of the renal tubules, and parts of the eye and thyroid.

4.Stratified cuboidal epithelium- Stratified cuboidal epithelium is a type of epithelial

tissue composed of multiple layers of cube-shaped cells.
Only the most superficial layer is made up of cuboidal cells, and the other layers can be
cells of other types.

5. Simple columnar epithelium- A simple columnar epithelium is a columnar

epithelium that is uni-layered. In humans, a simple columnar epithelium lines most
organs of the digestive tract including the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.
Simple columnar epithelia line the uterus.

6. Stratified columnar epithelium- Stratified columnar epithelium is a rare type

of epithelial tissue composed of column shaped cells arranged in multiple layers.
Stratified columnar epithelia are found in the conjunctiva of the eye, in parts of
the pharynx, anus, the uterus, and the male urethra and vas deferens. It is also found in
the lobar ducts in salivary glands.
The cells function in secretion and protection.

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7. Pseudostartified columnar- Pseudostratified columnar epithelia are tissues formed by a
single layer of cells that give the appearance of being made from multiple layers,
especially when seen in cross section. The nuclei of these epithelial cells are at different
levels leading to the illusion of being stratified. However, this tissue is made of a single
layer of cells and while the cells do not share a common apical surface, each cell is in
contact with the basement membrane.

8. Columnar ciliated epithelium- Ciliated columnar epithelium moves mucus and other

substances via cilia and is found in the upper respiratory tract, the fallopian tubes, the
uterus, and the central part of the spinal cord. They are the primary target of infection for
"common cold viruses" such as coronaviruses, influenza virus and rhinoviruses.

Questions:

1. What is the function of epithelial cells?

- Functions of epithelial cells include secretion, selective absorption, protection,
transcellular transport, and sensing. Epithelial layers contain no blood vessels, so they

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 must receive nourishment via diffusion of substances from the underlying connective
tissue, through the basement membrane.

2. What does the ciliated epithelial do?

- Ciliated epithelium is a thin tissue that has hair-like structures on it. These hairs,
called cilia, move back and forth to help move particles out of our body. We find ciliated
epithelial tissue in our respiratory tract and in the fallopian tubes of women.

3. Name the parts of epithelial cell and functions

-Epithelial cells derive from all three major embryonic layers. The epithelia lining
the skin, parts of the mouth and nose, and the anus develop from the ectoderm. Cells
lining the airways and most of the digestive system originate in the endoderm. The
epithelium that lines vessels in the lymphatic and cardiovascular system derives from the
mesoderm and is called an endothelium.
4. How do epithelial cells work?
-All epithelia share some important structural and functional features. This tissue
is highly cellular, with little or no extracellular material present between cells. Adjoining
cells form a specialized intercellular connection between their cell membranes called
a cell junction. The epithelial cells exhibit polarity with differences in structure and
function between the exposed or apical facing surface of the cell and the basal surface
close to the underlying body structures. The basal lamina, a mixture of glycoproteins
and collagen, provides an attachment site for the epithelium, separating it from
underlying connective tissue. The basal lamina attaches to a reticular lamina, which is
secreted by the underlying connective tissue, forming a basement membrane that helps
hold it all together.
5. What are squamous epithelial cells, cuboidal, columnar, ciliated and
pseudostratified columnar cells? Where are their point of origin or where can we
find these cells in our body?
-Epithelial tissues line the outer surfaces of organs and blood vessels throughout
the body, as well as the inner surfaces of cavities in many internal organs. An example is
the epidermis, the outermost layer of the skin.
There are three principal shapes of epithelial cell: squamous, columnar, and cuboidal.
These can be arranged in a single layer of cells as simple epithelium, either squamous,
columnar, or cuboidal, or in layers of two or more cells deep as stratified (layered), either
squamous, columnar or cuboidal. In some tissues, a layer of columnar cells may appear to
be stratified due to the placement of the nuclei. This sort of tissue is called
pseudostratified. All glands are made up of epithelial cells. Functions of epithelial cells
include secretion, selective absorption, protection, transcellular transport, and sensing.
Epithelial layers contain no blood vessels, so they must receive nourishment
via diffusion of substances from the underlying connective tissue, through the basement
membrane.[2][3] Cell junctions are well employed in epithelial tissues.

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6. What are renal epithelial cells?
-Renal epithelial cells are the single layer of cells lining the nephron. These
include cells lining the glomerulus, the proximal and distal convoluted tubules, and the
collecting ducts.

Activity 3: Connective Tissues

Objective:
 To identify connective tissues.
 To enumerate specific functions of connective tissues in our body.
 To draw and illustrate the different types of connective tissues in our body.
 To appreciate the knowledge about their importance in our body.

Questions and Answers:

1. Define Connective Tissues. Give their specific activities in our body.

As the name implies, connective tissue serves a connecting function: It supports and binds other
tissues in the body. Unlike epithelial tissue, which has cells that are closely packed together,
connective tissue typically has cells scattered throughout an extracellular matrix of fibrous
proteins and glycoproteins attached to a basement membrane. The primary elements of
connective tissue include a ground substance, fibers, and cells.

2. Enumerate types of connective tissues and give their specific functions.

There are three main groups of connective tissues:
 Loose connective tissue holds organs in place and attaches epithelial tissue to other underlying
tissues.
 Dense connective tissue helps attach muscles to bones and link bones together at joints.
 Specialized connective tissue encompasses a number of different tissues with specialized cells
and unique ground substances. Some are solid and strong, while others are fluid and flexible.
Examples include adipose, cartilage, bone, blood, and lymph.

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The ground substance acts as a fluid matrix that suspends the cells and fibers within the
particular connective tissue type. Connective tissue fibers and matrix are synthesized by
specialized cells called fibroblasts. There are three main groups of connective tissues: loose
connective tissue, dense connective tissue, and specialized connective tissue.
In vertebrates, the most common type of connective tissue is loose connective tissue. It holds
organs in place and attaches epithelial tissue to other underlying tissues. Loose connective tissue
is named so because of the "weave" and type of its constituent fibers. These fibers form an
irregular network with spaces between the fibers. The spaces are filled with ground substance.
The three main types of loose connective fibers include collagenous, elastic, and reticular fibers.

 Collagenous fibers are made of collagen and consist of bundles of fibrils that are coils of
collagen molecules. These fibers help to strengthen connective tissue.
 Elastic fibers are made of the protein elastin and are stretchable. They help to give connective
tissue elasticity.

 Reticular fibers join connective tissues to other tissues.

Loose connective tissues provide support, flexibility, and strength required to support internal
organs and structures such as blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves.
Another type of connective tissue is dense or fibrous connective tissue, which can be found in
tendons and ligaments. These structures help attach muscles to bones and link bones together at
joints. Dense connective tissue is composed of large amounts of closely packed collagenous
fibers. In comparison to loose connective tissue, dense tissue has a higher proportion of
collagenous fibers to ground substance. It is thicker and stronger than loose connective tissue and
forms a protective capsule layer around organs such as the liver and kidneys.

Dense connective tissue can be categorized into dense regular, dense irregular, and elastic
connective tissues.
 Dense regular: Tendons and ligaments are examples of dense regular connective tissue.
 Dense irregular: Much of the dermis layer of the skin is composed of dense irregular
connective tissue. The membrane capsule surrounding several organs is also dense irregular
tissue.
 Elastic: These tissues enable stretching in structures such as arteries, vocal cords, the trachea,
and bronchial tubes in the lungs.

Specialized connective tissues include a number of different tissues with specialized cells and
unique ground substances. Some of these tissues are solid and strong, while others are fluid and
flexible. Examples include adipose, cartilage, bone, blood, and lymph.
Adipose Tissue
Adipose tissue is a form of loose connective tissue that stores fat. Adipose lines organs and body
cavities to protect organs and insulate the body against heat loss. Adipose tissue also produces
endocrine hormones that influence activities such as blood clotting, insulin sensitivity, and fat
storage.
The primary cells of adipose are adipocytes. These cells store fat in the form of triglycerides.
Adipocytes appear round and swollen when fat is being stored and shrink as fat is used. Most
adipose tissue is described as white adipose which functions in the storage of energy. Both
brown and beige adipose burn fat and produce heat.

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Cartilage
Cartilage is a form of fibrous connective tissue that is composed of closely packed collagenous
fibers in a rubbery gelatinous substance called chondrin. The skeletons of sharks and human
embryos are composed of cartilage.1 Cartilage also provides flexible support for certain
structures in adult humans including the nose, trachea, and ears.
There are three different types of cartilage, each with different characteristics.

 Hyaline cartilage is the most common type and is found in areas such as the trachea, ribs, and
nose. Hyaline cartilage is flexible, elastic, and surrounded by a dense membrane called
perichondrium.

 Fibrocartilage is the strongest type of cartilage and composed of hyaline and dense collagen
fibers. It is inflexible, tough, and located in areas such as between vertebrae, in some joints, and
in heart valves. Fibrocartilage does not have perichondrium.

 Elastic cartilage contains elastic fibers and is the most flexible type of cartilage. It is found in
locations such as the ear and larynx (voice box).
3. How will you take good care of your connective tissues?

1.) Practice Letting Go of Emotional “Issues in the Tissues”

Emotional strain and stress can build up in the physical body, including the connective tissue. As
a result, fascia can become thick, tight, and irritated.
2.) Hydration & Therapy
Think of fascia as a sponge. When it’s well hydrated, you can twist it, wring it, ball it up – it’s
difficult to break, and it will return to its original shape. When it’s dried out, it becomes brittle,
inflexible, and more easily damaged.
3.) Stretch & Relax
The type of myofascial techniques described above use targeted external pressure to loosen tight
areas. But it’s also important to also work on loosening the body from within, which helps train
your fascia to relax more naturally.

Drawing:

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 Activity 4: Bones
Objective:
 To identify bone.
 To enumerate specific parts of bone in our body.
 To draw and illustrate the bone and its parts in our body.
 To appreciate the tissues of the bone and their importance in our body.

Questions and Answers:

1. Define Ossification. Give their specific functions of the bone in our body.
Bone ossification, or osteogenesis, is the process of bone formation. This process begins between
the sixth and seventh weeks of embryonic development and continues until about age twenty-
five; although this varies slightly based on the individual. There are two types of bone
ossification, intramembranous and endochondral. Each of these processes begins with a
mesenchymal tissue precursor, but how it transforms into bone differs. Intramembranous

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ossification directly converts the mesenchymal tissue to bone and forms the flat bones of the
skull, clavicle, and most of the cranial bones. Endochondral ossification begins with
mesenchymal tissue transforming into a cartilage intermediate, which is later replaced by bone
and forms the remainder of the axial skeleton and the long bones.

 Development of the skeleton can be traced back to three derivatives.

o Cranial neural crest cells: These form the flat bones of the skull, clavicle, and the cranial bones
(excluding a portion of the temporal and occipital bones)
o Somites: These form the remainder of the axial skeleton
o Lateral plate mesoderm: This forms the long bones
 Bone formation requires a template for development. This template is mostly cartilage, derived
from embryonic mesoderm, but also includes undifferentiated mesenchyme (fibrous membranes)
in the case of intramembranous ossification. This framework determines where the bones will
develop. By the time of birth, the majority of cartilage has undergone replacement by bone, but
ossification will continue throughout growth and into the mid-twenties.

 Intramembranous ossification

o This process involves the direct conversion of mesenchyme to the bone. It begins when neural
crest-derived mesenchymal cells differentiate into specialized, bone-forming cells called
osteoblasts. Osteoblasts group into clusters and form an ossification center. Osteoblasts begin
secreting osteoid, an unmineralized collagen-proteoglycan matrix that can bind calcium. The
binding of calcium to osteoid results in hardening of the matrix and entrapment of osteoblasts.
This entrapment results in the transformation of osteoblasts to osteocytes. As osteoid continues to
be secreted by osteoblasts, it surrounds blood vessels, forming trabecular/cancellous/spongy
bone. These vessels will eventually form the red bone marrow. Mesenchymal cells on the surface
of the bone form a membrane called the periosteum. Cells on the inner surface of the periosteum
differentiate into osteoblasts and secrete osteoid parallel to that of the existing matrix, thus
forming layers. These layers are collectively called the compact/cortical bone [2].
o Five steps can summarize intramembranous ossification:
 Mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts and group into ossification centers
 Osteoblasts become entrapped by the osteoid they secrete, transforming them to osteocytes
 Trabecular bone and periosteum form
 Cortical bone forms superficially to the trabecular bone
 Blood vessels form the red marrow
 Endochondral ossification

o This process involves the replacement of hyaline cartilage with bone. It begins when
mesoderm-derived mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes. Chondrocytes proliferate
rapidly and secrete an extracellular matrix to form the cartilage model for bone. The cartilage
model includes hyaline cartilage resembling the shape of the future bone as well as a surrounding
membrane called the perichondrium.

2. Enumerate types of bone tissues and give their specific functions.

Bones are not a static tissue but need to be constantly maintained and remodeled. There are three
main cell types involved in this process.

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Osteoblasts: These are responsible for making new bone and repairing older bone. Osteoblasts
produce a protein mixture called osteoid, which is mineralized and becomes bone. They also
manufacture hormones, including prostaglandins.
Osteocytes: These are inactive osteoblasts that have become trapped in the bone that they have
created. They maintain connections to other osteocytes and osteoblasts. They are important for
communication within bone tissue.
Osteoclasts: These are large cells with more than one nucleus. Their job is to break down bone.
They release enzymes and acids to dissolve minerals in bone and digest them. This process is
called resorption. Osteoclasts help remodel injured bones and create pathways for nerves and
blood vessels to travel through.

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Bone marrow
Bone marrow is found in almost all bones where cancellous bone is present. The marrow is
responsible for making around 2 million red blood cells every second. It also produces
lymphocytes or the white blood cells involved in the immune response. Extracellular matrix
Bones are essentially living cells embedded in a mineral-based organic matrix. This extracellular
matrix is made of:

Organic components, being mostly type 1 collagen.

Inorganic components, including hydroxyapatite and other salts, such as calcium and phosphate.
Collagen gives bone its tensile strength, namely the resistance to being pulled apart.
Hydroxyapatite gives the bones compressive strength or resistance to being compressed.
3. How will you take good care of your skeletal system?
1. Eat lots of vegetables. Vegetables are the best source of Vitamin C, which stimulates
production of bone-forming cells. ...
2. Perform strength training. ...
3. Add D to your day. ...
4. Start weight-bearing exercises. ...
5. Don't smoke and don't drink excessively. ...
6. Get your bone mineral density tested. ...
7. Consider medication.

Drawing:

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 Histology of Bones

Introduction
The skeletal system, which is made up of bone and cartilage, serves three primary functions:
• • Mechanical support for sites of muscle attachment
• • Protection of vital organs
• • Ion reserve of Ca and PO for metabolic functions

Bone Cells and Matrix

Bone is a tissue in which the extracellular matrix has been hardened to accommodate a supporting
function. The fundamental components of bone, like all connective tissues, are cells and matrix.
There are three key cells of bone tissue. They each have unique functions and are derived from
two different cell lines.
• • Osteoblasts synthesize the bone matrix and are responsible for its mineralization. They
are derived from osteoprogenitor cells, a mesenchymal stem cell line.
• • Osteocytes are inactive osteoblasts that have become trapped within the bone they have
formed.
• Osteoclasts break down bone matrix through phagocytosis. Predictably, they are derived from
the monocyte (macrophage) cell line. Think of osteoclasts as the "bone version" of the
macrophage. Their activity occurs along their ruffled border, and the space between the osteoclast
and the bone is known as Howship's lacuna. The balance between osteoblast and osteoclast
activity governs bone turnover and ensures that bone is neither overproduced nor overdegraded.
These cells build up and break down bone matrix, which is composed of:
• • Osteoid, which is the unmineralized matrix composed of type I collagen and
glycosaminoglycans (GAGs).
• • Calcium hydroxyapatite, a calcium salt crystal that gives bone its strength and rigidity.

Bone is divided into two types that are different structurally and functionally. Most bones of the
body consist of both types of bone tissue:
• • Compact bone, or cortical bone, mainly serves a mechanical function. This is the area of
bone to which ligaments and tendons attach. It is thick and dense.
• • Trabecular bone, also known as cancellous bone or spongy bone, mainly serves a
metabolic function. This type of bone is located between layers of compact bone and is thin and
porous. Located within the trabeculae is the bone marrow.

Bone is a modified form of connective tissue which is made of extracellular matrix, cells and
fibers.
The high concentration of calcium and phosphate based minerals throughout the connective tissue
is responsible for its hard calcified nature. The histological structure, mode of ossification, cross-
sectional appearance, and degree of maturity influences the classification of bony tissue.

Bone Structure
Bone tissue consists of two types within the same specific bone, e.g., a vertebra of the spinal
column: trabecular (cancellous) and cortical (compact). Trabecular tissue is the more

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metabolically active because it has about eight to 10 times more total surface area than cortical
tissue, and these surfaces are all largely covered by bone cells that are responsible for new bone
formation and old bone resorption (degradation). In the body of a vertebra most of the bone tissue
is trabecular, but near the surfaces of the entire vertebra, cortical bone predominates. Therefore,
each specific bone or organ contains both types of bone tissue but typically in different locations
within the bone. For example, long bones, such as the femur, contain much more trabecular tissue
at either end near the hip joint or knee joint and a much greater proportion of cortical bone in the
shaft that connects the two ends. This distinction is important because most of the fractures of the
bones (organs) occur where more metabolically active trabecular bone tissue exists.

In summary, bone connective tissue is comprised of a few different cell types. Osteoblasts form
bone, and osteoclasts degrade bone. Osteocytes live within healthy bone tissue and assist
osteoblasts and osteoclasts in performing their respective jobs. The functional unit of bone is an
osteon.

Histology of the Heart ❤

Introduction
The heart is a four-chambered organ responsible for pumping throughout the body. It receives
deoxygenated blood from the body, sends it to the lung, receives oxygenated blood from the
lungs, and then distributes the oxygenated blood throughout the body. At the histological level,

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the cellular features of the heart play a vital role in the normal function and adaptations of the
heart.

The wall of the heart separates into the following layers: epicardium, myocardium, and
endocardium. These three layers of the heart are embryologically equivalent to the three layers
of blood vessels: tunica adventitia, tunica media, and tunica intima, respectively. A double-layer,
fluid-filled sac known as the pericardium, surrounds the heart. The two layers of the pericardium
are called the outer fibrous/parietal pericardium and the inner serous/visceral pericardium. The
epicardium constitutes the visceral pericardium, underlying fibro-elastic connective tissue, and
adipose tissue.
Coronary arteries and veins, lymphatic vessels and nerves run below the epicardium. The
endocardium is composed of the endothelium and the subendothelial connective tissue layer.
The subendocardium is found between the endocardium and myocardium and contains the
impulse-conducting system.

Function
The heart's main function is to pump blood throughout the body. Cardiac function can be best
represented by cardiac output, the amount of blood pumped out of the heart per minute. Many
factors determine the cardiac output. The product of stroke volume and heart rate equals
cardiac output. Hence, cardiac output is directly alterable through variations in these two
factors. Stroke volume is the blood volume ejected after ventricular contraction, calculated by
taking the difference between end-diastolic volume and end-systolic volume. Contractility,
afterload, and preload can change stroke volume.
The heart is a muscular pump that propels blood at high pressure round the body through the
blood vessels. The heart contracts rhymically, and autonomously. Contractions begin at the apex
of the heart and spreads through to the postero-basal region.
As with the rest of the circulatory system, the heart has three layers, as shown in the diagram
below and the photo on the right:
epicardium (tunica adventitia) myocardium (tunica media) endocardium (tunica intima)

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Cardiac Layers
Endocardium
• • Inner layer of the heart (lines the atria and ventricles and covers the heart valves) and
contains blood vessels.
• Has 3 sublayers: • Endothelium - innermost portion a simple squamous epithelium.
• Smooth Muscle and Connective Tissue - middle layer of the endocardium is mix of connective
tissue and smooth muscle.
• Subendocardial Layer - outer layer of the endocardium is loose connective tissue joining the
endocardium and myocardium.

• equivalent to tunica intima.

Myocardium
• Middle layer of the heart, thickest layer contains cardiomyocytes, blood vessels. • contains
cardiac muscle fibres and loose endomysial connective tissue containing many capillaries.

• Muscular layer.
• equivalent to tunica media.

Epicardium
• Outer layer of the heart, contains blood vessels and lymphatics. • fibroelastic connective tissue,
blood vessels, lymphatics and adipose tissue.

• Visceral layer of pericardium rather thin.

• equivalent to tunica adventitia.

The pericardium is a two-layered connective tissue sac that encloses the heart. The fibrous
pericardium is the outer layer, and the serous pericardium is the inner layer.The space between
the two layers is the pericardial cavity, that contains serous fluid. This facilitates the pumping
action of the heart.

Sarcomere
The sarcomere is the visible functional contractile unit within cardiac (and skeletal) muscle. The
animation below shows the relative movement of the thick and thin filaments in the sarcomere (if
animation not playing reload page).
• A band - (anisotropic bands, light band) are composed of the thick myosin filaments.
• I band - (isotropic bands, light band) are composed of thin actin filaments.
• H band - (German, heller =brighter). are composed of the thick filaments that is not overlapped
(superimposed) by the thin filaments.
• Z line - (German, Zwischenscheibe = Intermediate plate) appears as a series of dark lines between the
I bands, indicate the end of one sarcomere and the beginning of the next.

Epithelial Tissues that are found in:

1. Lungs

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Simple squamous epithelium
Most of the respiratory passageways, from the nasal cavity through the bronchi, are lined by
ciliated, pseudostratified columnar epithelium with goblet cells. Bronchioles are lined by simple
cuboidal epithelium. (Lung alveoli, in contrast, are lined by very thin simple squamous
epithelium).

2. Adrenal glands
The adrenal cortex is made up of layers of epithelial cells and associated capillary networks.
These layers form three distinct regions: an outer zona glomerulosa that produces
mineralocorticoids, a middle zona fasciculata that produces glucocorticoids, and an inner zona
reticularis that produces androgens.
3. Testis

Spermatozoa pass via the tubuli recti (low columnar epithelium) and the rete testis (flattened or
cuboidal epithelium) into numerous ductuli efferentes, which are lined by a columnar
epithelium, which consists of both absorptive and ciliated cells. ... These cells regenerate the
epithelium.

4. Ovary

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The ovarian surface epithelium, also called the germinal epithelium of Waldeyer, is a layer of
simple squamous-to-cuboidal epithelial cells covering the ovary. The term germinal epithelium
is a misnomer as it does not give rise to primary follicles.

5. Appendix
The mucosa consists of columnar epithelium with enterocytes and goblet cells, a lamina propria
and a muscularis mucosae. ... Intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs) in the appendix consist mainly
of small CD8+ regulatory T (Treg) cells 19, comparable with their presence in the epithelium of
the colon.

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6. Kidney
Simple cuboidal epithelium is found in glandular tissue and in the kidney tubules.

7. Small Intestine
Simple columnar epithelium
The mucosa of the small intestine is lined by a simple columnar epithelium which consists
primarily of absorptive cells (enterocytes), with scattered goblet cells and occasional
enteroendocrine cells. In crypts, the epithelium also includes Paneth cells and stem cells.

8. Liver
The liver contains two types of epithelial cells, namely, hepatocytes and cholangiocytes. They
split from hepatoblasts (embryonic liver stem cells) in mid-gestation and differentiate into
structurally and functionally mature cells.

9. Pancreas

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The smaller forms have a cuboidal epithelium, while a columnar epithelium lines the larger
ducts. Intralobular ducts transmit secretions from intralobular ducts to the major pancreatic duct.
The main pancreatic duct received secretion from interlobular ducts and penetrates through the
wall of the duodenum.

10. Fallopian Tube

Ciliated Epithelium is a type of Epithelial Tissue. The ciliated epithelium is found in the inner
lining surface of the fallopian tubes, bronchioles etc. The ciliated epithelium cells are columnar
epithelial cells with cilia. Their main function is to help in the movement of material in one
direction.

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 Activity 7: TISSUES OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN

Objectives:

 Tissue in the female reproductive organ

 Function of female reproductive organ

 Endometrium – Simple Columnar Ciliated

 Fallopian Tube – Simple Columnar Ciliated

 Ovary – Simple Cuboidal

Function:

 To produce egg and sperm cells.

 To transport and sustain these cells.
 To nurture the developing offspring.
 To produce hormones.

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 Activity 8: TISSUES OF KIDNEYS
Overview: The kidneys also help to control your body's production of red blood cells,
regulate blood pressure, and help keep bones strong and healthy. Each kidney has about a
million tiny nephrons. Each nephron has a group of tiny blood vessels called a glomerulus.

Objectives:

 Tissue in the kidney

 Function of kidney

 Convoluted Tubule – Simple Cuboidal

 Loop of Henle – Simple Squamous

 Collecting Duct – Simple Cuboidal

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  Renal Pelvis – Transitional

 Ureter – Transitional

 Urinary Bladder – Transitional

Function:

 Regulation of extracellular fluid volume.

 Regulation of osmolarity.
 Regulation of ion concentrations.
 Regulation of pH.
 Excretion of wastes and toxins.
 Production of hormones.

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 Activity 9: TISSUES OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN
Overview: The male reproductive system is a network of external and internal organs that
function to produce, support, transport, and deliver viable sperm for reproduction. Sperm is
produced in the testes and is transported through the epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory
duct, and urethra.

Objectives:

 Tissue in the male reproductive organ

 Function of male reproductive organ

 Tubuli Recti – Simple Cuboidal

 Epididymis – Pseudostratified Columnar

 Vas Deferens – Pseudostratified Columnar

 Ejaculatory Duct – Simple Columnar

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  Seminal Vesicle – Pseudostratified Columnar

 Testis – Simple Cuboidal

Function:

 To produce, maintain, transport, and nourish sperm (the male reproductive cells), and
protective fluid ( semen ).
 To discharge sperm within the female reproductive tract.
 To produce and secrete male sex hormones.

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 Activity 10: TISSUES OF THE BRAIN
Overview: A brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate
and most invertebrate animals. It is located in the head, usually close to the sensory organs for
senses such as vision. It is the most complex organ in a vertebrate's body.

Objectives:

 Tissue in the brain

 Function of the brain

 Lining of the ventricles of the brain - Ciliated Epithelial

 Spinal Cord – Nervous Tissue

 Brain – Nervous Tissue

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  Nerves - Nervous Tissue

Functions:

Housed within the protective covering of the skull, the brain is the most complex organ in the
body. It controls thought, behavior, emotions, and memory, as well as basic life functions such
as breathing and heart rate. The brain consists of the cortex, brainstem, and cerebellum.

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Alleah Grace S. Jusay
Compilation

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 ACTIVITY#1:
MICROSCOPE
TEST I.
Direction: label each part of the microscope.
Eyepiece

Revolving Nosepiece

Objective Lens

Arm

Stage Clip
Stage
Condenser
Course Adjustment
Fine Adjustment
Illuminator

Base
TEST II.
Direction: Give the functions of the part of the microscope.
1) EYEPIECE - The lens the viewer looks through to see the specimen. The eyepiece usually contains a
10X or 15X power lens.
2) ARM - The arm connects the body tube to the base of the microscope.
3) BASE -The base supports the microscope and it’s where illuminator is located.
4) STAGE CLIP - Metal clips that hold the slide in place.
5) COURSE FOCUS - Brings the specimen into general focus.
6) FINE FOCUS - Fine tunes the focus and increases the detail of the specimen.
7) REVOLVING NOSEPIECE - A rotating turret that houses the objective lenses. The viewer spins the
nosepiece to select different objective lenses.
8) OBJECTIVE LENS -One of the most important parts of a compound microscope, as they are the
lenses closest to the specimen.
9) STAGE - The flat platform where the slide is placed.
10) CONDENSER - Gathers and focuses light from the illuminator onto the specimen being viewed.
11) ILLUMINATOR - The light source for a microscope. Older microscopes used mirrors to reflect light
from an external source up through the bottom of the stage; however, most microscopes now use
a low-voltage bulb.

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 ACTIVITY #3
EPITHELIAL CELLS
Direction: identify what type of epithelial cells are given in the pictures.

1.) = SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

2.) = SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM

3.) = SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHILIUM

4.) = PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHILIUM

5.) = Stratified squamous epithelium

6.) = Stratified cuboidal epithelium

7.) = Stratified columnar epithelium

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8.) = Transitional epithelium
ACTIVITY#4:
CONNECTIVE TISSUE

TEST I
Direction: identify the pictures below.

1.)

= Dense Regular Connective Tissue

2.)

= Loose Connective Tissue

3. )

= Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

TEST II
Direction: give atleast 7 examples of connective tissue.

1. Cartilage
2. Bone
3. Adipose
4. Blood
5. Hematopoetic/Lymphatic
6. Elastic

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7. Fibrous
ACTIVITY#2:

CELL PARTS AND ITS FUNCTION

1. What are the importance of the cell in human body?

- The human body is composed of trillions of cells. They provide structure for the
body, take in nutrients from food, convert those nutrients into energy, and carry out
specialized functions. Cells also contain the body's hereditary material and can make
copies of themselves.

2. What are the 2 types of cell?

- There are two cell types: prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Prokaryotic cells are
usually single-celled and smaller than eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells are usually
found in multicellular organisms, but there are some single-celled eukaryotes.

3. What will happen if a cell dies?

- Typically, human cells die by apoptosis (programmed cell death) or necrosis (due
to ischaemia, loss of blood flow). ... Without fuel and immune circulation, the cell
deteriorates and is susceptible to infection. Toxic materials seep out, uncontrolled,
into the surrounding cells and tissues, causing even more damage.

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What are the parts and function of the cell?

Nucleus Regulates all cell activities

Cell Membrane Is made out of phospholipids and proteins
Mitochondrion Site of cellular respiration "power house"
Lysosome Suicide Sacks that contain digestive enzymes
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Contains Ribosomes, transports proteins and other materials
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Contains no ribosomes, stores proteins
Gogi complex (apparatus) Processes and packages proteins
Nucleuolus Dark spot of chromatin in the nucleous where ribosomes are produced
Cytoplasm Colloid that contains water and nutrients and supports the organelles
Organelles The parts of a cell with a particular function
Prokaryotic Cells with no true nucleus and no membrane bound organelles
Eukaryotic Cells that contain a true nucleus and membrane bound organelles
Centrioles Only in animal cells, aid in cell division
Ribosomes Produce Proteins
Chloroplast Found only in plants, site of photosynthesis
Vacuoles Large storage sacks found mainly in plants
Cell Wall Structure in plants made of cellulose that is outside of the cell membrane
Chromatin Thin strands of DNA and proteins found in the nucleus of a cell.
Cell Smallest unit of life
Cytoskeleton Long protein filaments in the cytosol that support the cell.

135
 ACTIVIT #5:
Bone histology

The strength, shape and stability of the human body are dependent on the
musculoskeletal system. The most robust aspect of this unit is the underlying bony
architecture. Bone is a modified form of connective tissue which is made of extracellular
matrix, cells and fibers.

The high concentration of calcium and phosphate based minerals throughout the
connective tissue is responsible for its hard calcified nature. The histological structure,
mode of ossification, cross-sectional appearance, and degree of maturity influences the
classification of bony tissue.

In addition to discussing the cellular constituents of bone and the architectural

arrangement of their products, this article will also address the embryology and
mechanisms of ossification as well. Furthermore, some prominent bone-related
pathological processes will also be addressed.
Key facts

Spongy Bone Trabeculae (enclose bone marrow and vessels), contains marrow, contains
canaliculi (communication between adjacent cavities)

Compact Bone Osteons are the functional units (central Haversian canal encased in lamella

Periosteum Outermost layer anchored by Sharpey's fibers found along the outer surface
bones which are involved in repairing fractures

Endosteum Production of osteoprogenitor cells and osteoclasts

Osteoclasts Remove bone during growth and remodeling ('osteoClasts ->Cut bone') and
located in Howship's lacunae. Activity is at the ruffled border where
osteoclasts release cathepsin K and collagenase

Osteoblasts Facilitate the mineralization of osteoid matrix ('osteoBlasts ->Build bone') an

are interconnected via dendritic extensions

Osteocytes Differentiated osteoblasts trapped in the bone matrix containing cytoplasmic

projections with osteoblasts and osteocytes
Embryology

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 Please take into account that unlike most organ systems that complete
organogenesis during the antenatal period, skeletal development is spread out over the
gestational period and continues into extra-uterine life. Bone is derived from three
embryonic sources. The neurocranium and the viscerocranium originate from
derivatives of the neural crest cells as well as paraxial mesoderm. The paraxial
mesoderm also contributes to the formation of the axial skeleton, while the
appendicular skeleton originates from the lateral plate mesoderm.

The so-called flat bones of the body such as calvaria, mandible, maxilla, etc. and
long bones such as those of the limbs, are formed by two different processes. The
former originates by way of intramembranous ossification, while the latter undergoes
endochondral ossification. The initiation of either process depends on the
differentiation of the preceding mesenchymal cell line. If the mesenchymal cells
differentiate into chondrocytes, then endochondral ossification will occur. However,
should the mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts intramembranous
ossification would ensue.

Irrespective of the pathway taken, ossification begins around the 6th or 7th
gestational week and persists well into extra-uterine life; the clavicle can take up to 20 –
21 years for complete fusion to occur, and 26 years for the epiphyseal scar to disappear.
Extra-uterine bone development has been classified into 5 stages.

 In stage 1, the epiphysis is not yet ossified.

 Once ossification becomes apparent in the epiphyses,
 then the bone is in stage 2 of development.
 At the point where the epiphyses and diaphysis begin to fuse,
 then the bone has entered stage 3.
 Stage 4 represents complete fusion of the epiphyses and diaphysis,
 leaving behind an epiphyseal scar at the site of the epiphyseal growth plate.
 The final stage is characterized by disappearance of the epiphyseal scar.

Endochondral ossification relies on an analgen in the form of hyaline cartilage laid

down during embryogenesis. Initially, a hyaline cartilaginous framework is laid down as
a template for osteogenesis. It is encased by a perichondrial layer that comprises of a
condensed vascular mesenchyme. The model grows by both interstitial (replication of
chondrocytes and secretion of new matrix) and appositional (absorption of old cartilage
and deposition of new matrix) methods. The chondrocytes (cartilaginous cells) in the
mid shaft of the cartilaginous template (diaphysis) begin to replicate and hypertrophy.
An increase in the number of vacuoles can be observed in the cytoplasm in this phase.
Subsequently, the matrix is compressed, forming thin fenestrated septae. The cartilage

137
model subsequently calcifies, resulting in decreased diffusion of nutrients to the cells.
They eventually degenerate, die, and calcify; leaving confluent lacunae in their absence.

As the cartilage calcifies, the inner layer of the perichondrium begin to express
osteogenic (i.e. bone forming) properties; and thus become osteoblasts. Osteoblasts are
responsible for production of bone matrix; they eventually produce a bony collar around
the diaphysis called the periosteal collar. The connective tissue superficial to the
periosteal collar is subsequently referred to as the periosteum. The visceral periosteum
contains mesenchyme cells that evolve into osteoprogenitor cells. This cell line
replicates and further differentiates into osteoblasts. These cells travel with osteogenic
buds, which are terminal capillary sprouts.

The osteoclasts break down previously formed bone and as a result, facilitate the
breakdown of calcified cartilage to allow invasion of osteoblasts (that will lay down new
bone matrix) and osteogenic buds (to establish nutrient supply to the developing bone).
The inner surface of bone (i.e. endosteum) that lines all bony cavitation is also covered
by a single layer of osteoprogenitor cells that provides a supply of stem cells for future
differentiation.

The bony development occurring in the diaphysis is referred to as the primary

ossification centre. However, as the bones continue to elongate and increase in
diameter, a secondary ossification centre develops in the epiphyses (distal articular
ends) of the long bones. The secondary ossification centre is also invaded by a vascular
supply and mesenchymal derivatives similar to those present in the primary ossification
centre.

At both the primary and secondary ossification centres, cartilage is replaced by

bone. However, there is a region where cartilage is preserved, known as the epiphyseal
growth plate. The bone continues to grow by appositional and interstitial mechanisms at
this region until the ideal length is achieved. Fusion of the epiphyses with the diaphysis
marks the cessation of bone growth. At this point, the only remnant of hyaline cartilage
is found at the articulating surfaces of the bone.

Unlike endochondral ossification, the intramembranous ossification pathway does

not require a cartilaginous scaffold. Instead, the bone is formed within primitive
mesenchymal layers that have rich blood supplies. The stem cells within the
mesenchyme differentiate into osteoprogenitor cells that replicate adjacent to capillary
beds. The end result is scattered layers of osteoblasts producing bone matrix.
Consequently, there are multiple ossification centres observed in intramembranous
ossification. The osteoblasts are described as being polarized cells, owing to the fact that
osteoid secretion occurs at the surface furthest away from the blood supply. The

138
ossification centres subsequently anastomose, leaving a woven pattern of trabeculae,
referred to as primary spongiosa or spongy bone.

Functional bone constituents

Periosteum
There are two regions within bone that contains osteoprogenitor cells and their
derivatives, along with osteoclasts and other cells involved in bone homeostasis. These
are the periosteum and the endosteum. The periosteum is a fibro-collagenous layer at
the outermost layer of the bone. It is anchored by Sharpey’s fibres (collagen fibres) and
found along the outer surface with the exception of the articular surfaces of the bone
and areas of ligament and tendon insertion. About two to three layers of osteoblasts
occupy the space between the visceral periosteum and the newly produced bone
matrix. The periosteum is actively involved in the repair of fractures; in areas where it is
absent (intracapsular areas) the fractured bones heal at a slower rate.

Endosteum
The periosteum actively participates in bone development in utero. However, it is
the endosteum that produces more osteoprogenitor cells and osteoclasts that facilitate
bone remodelling. The osteoblasts at the endosteum are flat and are surrounded by
type III collagen. It extends along the inner surface of the bone; projecting even into the
Haversian canals.

Osteoclasts
Osteoclasts are thought to be monocyte derivatives that have the responsibility of
removing bone during growth and remodelling. They are larger than osteoblasts and
osteocytes, polymorphic and multinucleated (with roughly 20 oval nuclei in the
cytoplasm). They are commonly found in Howship’s lacunae (resorption bays). Owing to
the high metabolic demand of these cells, there are numerous mitochondria in the
cytoplasm. Additionally, there are many vacuoles that contain acid-phosphatase
enzymes that facilitate bone resorption.

There are many microtubular structures that facilitate the transportation of

lysosomes to the Golgi body and deeper ruffled membrane of the osteoclast. The ruffled
membrane is the site of osteoclast activity, where hydrogen ions are released along with
collagenase (non-lysosomal enzyme) and cathepsin K (lysosomal enzyme), resulting in
breakdown of bony material. These cells are activated by osteoblast signals (discussed
below), calcitriol and parathyroid hormone levels, and are inhibited by calcitonin from
the thyroid C cells.

Osteoblasts

139
 Osteoblasts are mesenchymal derivatives that are differentials of osteoprogenitor
cells. The latter are stimulated by bone morphogenic proteins just before bone begins to
form. Unlike the osteoclasts, osteoblasts are mononuclear, cuboidal and basophilic cells
that are found on the developing surface of bone during growth or remodelling.
Osteoblasts secrete and also facilitate the mineralization of osteoid matrix.

Because of the need for newly formed osteoblasts to move to areas of bone
growth and remodelling, the cytoplasm is filled with actin and myosin bundles. There
are dendritic extensions from the cytoplasm that communicate with neighbouring
osteoblasts, thus establishing electrical and metabolic continuity among the osteoblasts
and osteocytes within a system. It should be noted that osteoblasts express receptors
for calcitriol and parathyroid hormone. Activation of the parathyroid hormone receptors
result in osteoblast-induced differentiation of immature osteoclasts.

Osteocytes
Osteoblasts become trapped in the bone matrix that they produce. Subsequently,
they differentiate into osteocytes. These cells retain the cytoplasmic projections and
form numerous communications with neighbouring osteocytes and osteoblasts. Unlike
chondrocytes, osteocytes neither undergo cellular division, nor produce new matrix.
These cells are elliptical, mildly basophilic and contain an oval nucleus with fewer
organelles than osteoblasts.

Bone architecture

Spongy
The structural layout of bone can be classified in one of the following groups:
either trabecular (cancellous or spongy) or compact. Histologically, spongy bone is
comprised of anastomosing strips of slender bone known as trabeculae that enclose
marrow and blood vessels. It forms the relatively softer core of the bones that is filled
with marrow. The less densely arranged trabeculae also contribute to making the bones
lighter (as opposed to the heavier compact bone). Communication between adjacent
cavities is achieved by canaliculi. Although the trabecular network makes the bone
lighter, and increases the available space to house marrow, the arrangement also
provides reinforcement for the bone, making it stronger.

Compact
Compact bone stands in stark contrast to trabecular bone in several ways. The
functional units of compact bone are osteons; which contain a centrally located
Haversian canal, encased in lamellae (concentric rings). Osteocytes can be observed in
the lacunae between the osteons. The osteons – unlike the trabeculae – are densely

140
packed, making compact bone tougher and heavier than spongy bone. The Haversian
canals facilitate passage of blood vessels supplying the developing bone.

Clinical significance

Bone remodelling is an ongoing process that occurs throughout life and is dependent on
the relationship between bone deposition and resorption; both of which are linked to
the activity of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. After groups of osteoclasts dissolve an area
of bone, the osteoblast will begin to deposit bone matrix in that area, ensuring that a
blood vessel is within the region of deposition.

There is a variety of bone disorders that have deleterious effects on patients. Some
common ones will be discussed below:

Osteopenia
Osteopenia is a disorder of bone mass characterized by bone density that is 1 to 2.5
standard deviations below the age appropriate average for that individual. Once the
bone density is more than 2.5 standard deviations below the average, then the patient
is said to have osteoporosis. However, the presence of non-traumatic fractures is highly
indicative of osteoporosis. Bone density usually peaks in young adulthood and gradually
declines as the patient ages. Therefore, age-related or senile osteoporosis is not
uncommon. Postmenopausal women are also at increased risk of osteopenia and
osteoporosis owing to the oestrogen deficiency. Other causes include poor calcium
intake and physical inertia.

Paget’s disease
Paget’s disease of the bone stands in contrast to osteoporosis in that it is a disorder
of increased, disorganized bone production. The sequel follows three steps,
commencing with an osteolytic phase initially, then a subsequent osteoclastic-
osteoblastic picture that culminates with an osteoblastic overtone. Finally, the disease
usually ends with a osteoclastic phase. While the aetiology is unknown, there is
evidence of both genetic and environmental contributors to its pathogenesis.

Lack of vitamin D
Vitamin D plays an important role in calcium metabolism. Lack of vitamin D therefore
results in two age-dependent disorders. In children with vitamin D deficiency, there is an
abnormal mineralization of bone matrix at the epiphyseal plate. The resultant disorder
is known as Rickets. When this disorder occurs in adults, the matrix deposited during
bone remodelling is inadequately mineralized. This disorder is known as osteomalacia.

Osteomyelitis

141
Osteomyelitis is an infectious disorder of the bone, resulting in an inflammatory
response. While it can occur as a result of a local insult (i.e. posttraumatic infection of an
open fracture), haematogenous spread to the bone following a systemic infection also
occurs. Special care should be taken when managing immunosuppressed patients
(diabetics, iatrogenic immunosuppression, HIV, etc.) with fractures or systemic
infections.

Hyperparathyroidism
The parathyroid gland releases parathyroid hormone in order to establish calcium
homeostasis. This is implemented via several mechanisms, including:

 Upregulation of RANKL in osteoblasts results in stimulation of the RANKL receptors

on the primitive osteoclasts. This results in activation of osteoclastic activity and
subsequent bone resorption.
 More calcium is reabsorbed by the renal tubules
 Stimulation of vitamin D synthesis by the kidneys
 Promotes excretion of phosphate ions by the kidneys (recall phosphate ions impair
alpha-1-hydroxylase, which is necessary for vitamin D synthesis).

Therefore, hyperparathyroidism would result in inappropriate osteoclastic activity that

would lead to bone destruction.

Neoplasms
There are also several important neoplastic lesions of bone that every student should be
relatively familiar with. Note that those classified as benign aggressive tumors have a
propensity to undergo malignant transformation:

Benign
 Osteoid osteoma
 Fibrous cortical defect
 Osteochondroma

Benign aggressive
 Giant cell tumors
 Osteoblastomas
Malignant
 Ewing’s osteosarcoma
 Ewing’s of tubular bones
 Chondrosarcoma
 Metastatic disease

142
REFERENCE

1.  Steele, D. Gentry; Claud A. Bramblett (1988). The Anatomy and Biology of the

Human Skeleton. Texas A&M University Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-89096-300-5.
2. ^ Mammal anatomy : an illustrated guide. New York: Marshall Cavendish. 2010.
p. 129. ISBN 9780761478829.
3. ^ "ossein". The Free Dictionary.
4. ^ Hall, John (2011). Textbook of Medical Physiology (12th ed.). Philadelphia:
Elsevier. pp. 957–960. ISBN 978-08089-2400-5.
5. ^ Jump up to:a b Schmidt-Nielsen, Knut (1984). Scaling: Why Is Animal Size So
Important?. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-521-31987-
4.
6. ^ Jump up to:a b c Deakin 2006, p. 192.
7. ^ Gdyczynski, C.M.; Manbachi, A.; et al. (2014). "On estimating the directionality
distribution in pedicle trabecular bone from micro-CT images". Journal of
Physiological Measurements. 35 (12): 2415–
2428. Bibcode:2014PhyM...35.2415G. doi:10.1088/0967-3334/35/12/2415. PMI
D 25391037.
8. ^ Jump up to:a b Deakin 2006, p. 195.
9. ^ Hall, Susan J. (2007). Basic Biomechanics with OLC (5th ed., Revised. ed.). Burr
Ridge: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-07-126041-1.
10. ^ Gomez, Santiago (February 2002). "Crisóstomo Martinez, 1638-1694: the
discoverer of trabecular bone". Endocrine. 17 (1): 3–
4. doi:10.1385/ENDO:17:1:03. ISSN 1355-008X. PMID 12014701
ACTIVITY#6:
Cardiovascular System - Heart Histology

The heart is composed of cardiac muscle, specialised conductive tissue, valves, blood vessels and
connective tissue.

Cardiac muscle, the myocardium, consists of cross-striated muscle cells, cardiomyocytes, with one
centrally placed nucleus.

 Nuclei are oval, rather pale and located centrally in the muscle cell which is 10 - 15 µm wide.
 Cardiac muscle cells excitation is mediated by rythmically active modified cardiac muscle cells.
 Cardiac muscle is innervated by the autonomic nervous system (involuntary), which adjusts the force
generated by the muscle cells and the frequency of the heart beat.
 Cardiac muscle cells often branch at acute angles and are connected to each other by specialisations
of the cell membrane in the region of the intercalated discs.

143
 Intercalated discs invariably occur at the ends of cardiac muscle cells in a region corresponding to the
Z-line of the myofibrils.
 Cardiac muscle does not contain cells equivalent to the satellite cells of skeletal muscle.

Cardiac Layers

Endocardium

 Inner layer of the heart (lines the atria and ventricles and covers the heart valves) and contains
blood vessels.
 Has 3 sublayers:
 Endothelium - innermost portion a simple squamous epithelium.
 Smooth Muscle and Connective Tissue - middle layer of the endocardium is mix of connective
tissue and smooth muscle.
 Subendocardial Layer - outer layer of the endocardium is loose connective tissue joining the
endocardium and myocardium.
 equivalent to tunica intima.

Myocardium

 Middle layer of the heart, thickest layer contains cardiomyocytes, blood vessels.
 contains cardiac muscle fibres and loose endomysial connective tissue containing many
capillaries.
 Muscular layer.
 equivalent to tunica media.

Epicardium

 Outer layer of the heart, contains blood vessels and lymphatics.

 fibroelastic connective tissue, blood vessels, lymphatics and adipose tissue.
 Visceral layer of pericardium rather thin.
 equivalent to tunica adventitia.
Sarcomere

The sarcomere is the visible functional contractile unit within cardiac (and skeletal) muscle. The animation
below shows the relative movement of the thick and thin filaments in the sarcomere (if animation not
playing reload page).
 A band - (anisotropic bands, light band) are composed of the thick myosin filaments.
 I band - (isotropic bands, light band) are composed of thin actin filaments.
 H band - (German, heller =brighter). are composed of the thick filaments that is not overlapped
(superimposed) by the thin filaments.
 Z line - (German, Zwischenscheibe = Intermediate plate) appears as a series of dark lines
between the I bands, indicate the end of one sarcomere and the beginning of the next.

144
 Intercalated Discs
Cardiac muscle showing intercalated disc (electron micrograph)

 seen in longitudinal sections.

Histology "step-like" appearance due to:
 connect the individual muscle cells.
 located in region corresponding to the Z-
 transverse part - crossing fibres at right
line of the myofibrils.
angle to myofibrils.
 permit the conduction of electrical
 lateral part - runs in parallel to myofibrils.
impulses between the cells.

Junctional Components

145
 Adherens Junction Desmosome Gap junction
Macula adherens – (desmosomes) transverse
Gap junctions - lateral component.
and lateral components. Bind individual
Fascia adherens – major portion of Allow action potentials to spread
myocytes to one another. stop separation
transverse component. Anchoring sites between cardiac cells by passage of ions
during contraction by binding intermediate
for actin, and connect to the closest between cells, producing depolarization
filaments, joining the cells together. Macula
sarcomere. of the heart muscle. Allows muscle to
adherens junctions are also called
act as syncytium.
desmosomes.

146
Purkinje Fibres

Purkinje Fibres

Do not confuse these cardiac Purkinje fibres (cells) with neural Purkinje cells (neurons) located in

the cerebellum.

 modified cardiac muscle cells. Compared to ordinary cardiac muscle cells:

 contain large amounts of glycogen.
 fewer myofibrils.
 thicker cells.
 can be binucleated (cell contains 2 nuclei).
 extend from the atrioventricular node, pierces the fibrous body, divides into left and right
bundles, and travels, beneath the endocardium, towards the apex of the heart.
 bundle branches contact cardiac muscle cells through specialisations similar to intercalated discs.
 conduct stimuli faster than ordinary cardiac muscle cells (2-3 m/s vs. 0.6 m/s).
 discovered in 1839 by Jan Evangelista Purkyně).

147
Cardiac Valves

Note for the semilunar valves not anchored to the walls of the atria by chordae tendineae.

Only the mitral and tricuspid valves, located between the atria and the ventricles, are connected to the
cardiac wall by chord tendineae and papillary muscles.

Terms

 cardiomyocyte -
 chordae tendineae - tricuspid and mitral valves connective tissue bands attached on the other
end to the papillary muscles.
 intercalated disc -
 nodule - (of semilunar valve) small fibrous nodules located in the middle of the flaps, the nodules
of the semilunar valve come closely together to fill the triangular opening.
 Purkinje fibres -

REFERENCES

148
 1.  Taber, Clarence Wilbur; Venes, Donald (2009). Taber's cyclopedic medical
dictionary. F. A. Davis Co. pp. 1018–1023. ISBN 978-0-8036-1559-5.
2. ^ Guyton & Hall 2011, p. 157.
3. ^ Jump up to:a b c Moore, Keith L.; Dalley, Arthur F.; Agur, Anne M. R. (2009).
"1". Clinically Oriented Anatomy. Wolters Kluwel Health/Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins. pp. 127–173. ISBN 978-1-60547-652-0.
4. ^ Starr, Cecie; Evers, Christine; Starr, Lisa (2009). Biology: Today and Tomorrow
With Physiology. Cengage Learning. p. 422. ISBN 978-0-495-56157-
6. Archived from the original on 2 May 2016.
5. ^ Jump up to:a b Reed, C. Roebuck; Brainerd, Lee Wherry; Lee, Rodney; Inc, the
staff of Kaplan (2008). CSET : California Subject Examinations for Teachers (3rd
ed.). New York: Kaplan Pub. p. 154. ISBN 978-1-4195-5281-6. Archived from the
original on 4 May 2016.
6. ^ Jump up to:a b Gray's Anatomy 2008, p. 960.
7. ^ Jump up
to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aqar as at au av aw ax 
ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo
                                 Betts, J. Gordon (2013). Anatomy & physiology.
pp. 787–846. ISBN 978-1-938168-13-0. Retrieved 11 August2014.
8. ^ Guyton & Hall 2011, pp. 101, 157.
9. ^ Jump up to:a b c Guyton & Hall 2011, pp. 105–107.
10. ^ Guyton & Hall 2011, pp. 1039–1041

ACTIVITY#7:

TISSUES OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN

Direction: identify the pictures below.

1. Simple Columnar, Ciliated - Endometrium

2. Imple Columnar, Ciliated - Fallopian Tube

149
3. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium - Ovary

4. Stratified squamous, non-keratinized

5. Simple columnar, ciliated

ACTIVITY#8:

TISSUES OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN

Direction: identify the pictures below.

1. Simple cuboidal - Tubuli Recti

2. Pseudostratified columnar - Efferent Duct

150
3. Pseudostratified columnar, with stereocilia - Epididymis

4. Pseudostratified columnar - vas deferens

5. Simple columnar - Ejaculatory Duct

6. Simple columnar - Bulbourethral Gland

7. Pseudostratified columnar - Seminal Vesicle

151
8. Simple Cuboidal Epithilium - Male Testis

ACTIVITY#9:

TISSUES OF THE KIDNEY

Direction: identify the pictures below.

1. Simple cuboidal, with microvillI(kidney)-proximal convoluted tubule

2. Simple squamous - Kidney - Loop of Henle

152
3. Simple cuboidal, without microvilli - distal convoluted tubule

4. Simple cuboidal - kidney -collecting duct

5. Transitional - renal pelvis

6. Transitional - ureter

7. Transitional - urinary bladder

153
8. Transitional - prostatic urethra

9. Pseudostratified columnar, non-ciliated - Membranous Urethra

10. Pseudostratified columnar, non-ciliated - penile urethra

154
Ma. Carmela N. Mangao
Compilation

155
MA. CARMELA N. MANGAO

ACTIVITY 1
THE MICROSCOPE AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE

I. IMPORTANCE:
7) To discover microorganism
8) Study cell structure and parts
9) See smallest parts of plants, animals, virus and fungi.

II. QUESTIONS:

What is a microscope?

A microscope is a high precision optical instrument that uses a lens or a combination of lenses to
produce highly magnified images of small specimens or objects especially when they are too
small to be seen by the naked (unaided) eye. A light source is used (either by mirrors or lamps)
to make it easier to see the subject matter.

Who invented microscope?

There is no one person who invented the microscope as several

different inventors experimented with theories and ideas and
developed different parts of the concept as they evolved to what
is today’s microscopes.

About 1590 two Dutch spectacle makers, Zaccharias Janssen and

his son Hans, experimented with a crude concept of a
microscope that enlarged objects 10x to 30x or so. In 1609,
Galileo (an Italian) improved on the principle of lenses and added
a focusing device to improve somewhat upon what the Janssen’s had done.

These rudimentary instruments didn’t change much until the early 1670s. A Dutchman, Anton
van Leeuwenhoek, is considered the father of microscopes because of the advances he made in

156
microscope design and use. He worked as an apprentice in a dry goods store where magnifying
lenses were used to count the threads in cloth. Anton was inspired by these glasses and he
taught himself new methods for grinding and polishing small lenses which magnified up to 270x.
This led to the first practical microscopes. In 1674, Anton was the first to see and describe
bacteria, yeast, plants, and life in a drop of water.

Not many improvements were made until the 1850’s when several inventors in Europe and
America made vast improvements. From this time frame, modern compound and stereo
microscopes have changed very little.

In the early 1930’s the first electron beam microscopes were developed which were a
breakthrough in technology as they increased the magnification from about 1000x or so up to
250,000x or more. These microscopes use electrons rather than light to examine objects.
What can you do with a microscope?

One could write a book answering this question but briefly – a microscope can be used for
numerous things:
 hobbyists have an interest in microscopic worlds from learning and having fun to using a
microscope for the study of stamps, coins, gems, insects, etc
 children can view a fantastic world of discovery
 students have an interest in pursuing knowledge anywhere from middle school through the
university level
 medical uses from analysis to advanced research in many and varied disciplines
 industrial uses as inspection and measurement tools
 government and scientific uses for public safety and discovery
 imaging of whatever you are looking at

Normal will become extraordinary when looking through a microscope. You will find that almost
everything (alive or that was alive) consists of components called cells and they take on a
fabulous view at the cellular structure – like your own blood, molds, yeast, and bacteria. You can
observe prepared slides or prepare your own. You can spend hours examining a drop of pond
water and observing the enormous amount of life within it. You can study ordinary things like
salt, cotton, foods, plants, or flowers. Using stereo (dissecting) microscopes, you can examine
details of the specific parts of insects, animals, gems, textiles, paper, fingerprints, sand, milk,
bread, etc.

Microscopes are essential tools in creating new medicines and finding cures for diseases.

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The same basic microscopes are used for all these various activities. Everyone should own a
decent microscope and it will last a lifetime with reasonable care. Many people think that
microscopes are very complex and difficult to use and that they are only used in research
facilities and universities and that they are expensive --- but they are less expensive than one
might think and are really easy to use.

What specific categories are microscopes used for or by?

 Hobbyists – gems, coins, stamps, collectibles, learning and discovery, etc.

 Education – chemistry, biology, botany, zoology
 Medical – microbiology, hematology, pathology, entomology, dermatology, dental usage,
veterinary use, everyday analysis to advanced research. From medical schools to labs to
hospitals
 Industry – inspection of electronic assembly components and many different materials such as
metals, textiles, plastics, etc. Used in agriculture, wineries, breweries, and for fine engravings
and mining inspection. Used by jewelers and geologists
 Teachers and students – in the educational process starting in elementary school through
graduate school
 Science – for the study of archeology, oceanography, geology, metallurgy, and numerous other
fields
 Government – many areas for public health and safety such as water quality, pharmaceuticals,
forensics, asbestos, lab work, military applications, etc.

5) Enumerate the kinds of microscope and describe each.

COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

Compound refers to the fact that in order to enlarge an

image, a single light path passes through a series of lenses in
a line where each lens magnifies the image over the
previous one. In other words, one light path with multiple
lenses equals a compound microscope. The image is seen by
the observer as if it were only 10” (250mm) from your eye.

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 In the standard form the lenses consist of an objective lens (closest to the object or specimen)
and an eyepiece lens (closest to the observers’ eye) and a means of adjusting the focus and
position of the specimen or object. In addition, a compound microscope uses light (reflected
from a mirror, from indirect sunlight, from desk lamps or other interior light sources, or from
built-in lamps) to illuminate the specimen or object so that you can see it with your eye.

The objective lens usually consists of three or four lenses (sometimes even five) on a rotating
nosepiece (turret) so that the power can be changed. The image produced at the eye is two
dimensional (2-D) and usually reversed and upside down. The most used light method is trans-
illumination (light projected from below to pass through the specimen).

At 400x much detail can be seen at the cellular level of biological specimens. Learning about
cells and microorganisms is both educational and important for medical and science
applications.

STEREO MICROSCOPE

There are two separate light paths (as opposed to a single

light path in a compound microscope) which produce a
true stereo, three dimensional (3-D) image of the
specimen or object. Within the objective lens you will find
two lenses (one for each path of light) side-by-side. The
optical design parameters of a stereo microscope limit its
3-D effects to low powers only.

Also in the category of low power microscopes is the

single light path (like a compound microscope) type
usually referred to as a dissecting microscope. This type is
more economical than the stereo type but is very useful
for examining large sized specimens and objects.

In the standard form the lenses consist of objective lenses (closest to the object or specimen) and
eyepiece lenses (closest to the observers’ eyes) and a means of adjusting the focus (rack and
pinion style) and position of the object or specimen. In addition, a stereo microscope uses light
(from desk or table lamps, indirect sunlight, other interior light sources, or from built-in or
attached lamps) to illuminate the specimen or object so that you can see it with your eyes.

The images you see are correct (upright and normal which is the opposite of compound
microscopes). Most stereo microscopes have both top and bottom built-in or attached
illumination to handle various objects and specimens of all varieties, shapes, and colors.

OTHER TYPES OF MICROSCOPES

These are usually advanced and expensive type microscopes made for specific usages mainly in
advanced medical and research. There are many, many types but some of the more popular

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types are listed below:

PHASE CONTRAST -- This is a microscope that uses the differences in the phase of light
transmitted or reflected by a specimen to form distinct, contrasting images of different parts of
the specimen.

POLARIZING – A microscope in which the object viewed is illuminated by polarized light for
typically analyzing the content and make-up of organic or inorganic material like crystals,
chemical microscopy, and optical mineralogy.
FLUORESCENCE – These microscopes use an illumination method that is used to locate
fluorescently tagged material (protein, enzyme, genes) by exciting the specimen with one
wavelength of light in hopes that the fluorescence will appear by emitting a light at a different
wavelength.

METALLURGICAL – A microscope that is used for identification, inspection, and analysis of

different metals and alloys.

ELECTRON BEAM – These microscopes typically cost more than $ 100,000 and sometimes much
more and use a beam of highly energetic electrons instead of light to examine objects on a very
fine scale. This allows the microscope to surpass the resolution limits of optical microscopes and
can magnify specimens up to 250,000x or more. Users can examine the topography of a
specimen, its morphology, composition, etc.
DIGITAL – These are a combination of a microscope and a digital camera. The more common
types are the digital cameras which can use a CCD or CMOS chip. The camera can be integrated
(built-in) with the microscope or specialized cameras (imagers) can be purchased separately and
adapted to virtually any microscope (like one pictured below) at economical prices. With basic
software provided (with the camera (or using your own photo editing software) the user can
display, save, and edit images. Some more expensive software packages allows for a variety of
image analysis useful for medical, educational, and sophisticated research usage.

HANDHELD DIGITAL MICROSCOPES use new technology for a miniature camera and illuminator
in one unit. You use a PC or laptop computer to view and image.

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6) What is magnification? How do you get an object magnification?

Magnification in physical terms is defined as “a measure of the ability of a lens or oter

optical instruments to magnify, expressed as the ratio of the size of the image to that of
the object.” This means, that an object of any size is magnified to form an enlarged
image.

The magnification required to produce the visible image can be calculated using the
formula:

Magnification = Image + Object

It is important that the all the units are in unison so that the final answer obtained is
correct.

7) What is parfocal?

"Parfocal" refers to objectives that can be changed with minimal or no refocusing.

Parfocalling compound microscope objectives is a procedure which allows you to adjust

each objective lens so that it will remain in relative focus with the other objective lenses on
the microscope when switching from one magnifcation to the next. If microscope objectives
are not parfocalled it means that you would need to refocus the microscope each time the
objective turret is changed to a different magnification.

When microscope objectives are not parfocalled it is inconvenient and can increase eye
strain as well as wear and tear on the microscope. Each microscope manufacturer generally
has a slightly different method for parfocalling objectives. The images below demonstrate
how to parfocal the objectives on a Meiji laboratory microscope.

How to Parfocal Objectives

7) Remove the objectives that you wish to

parfocal. You will need to remove each
objective and the outer covers will need to be
opened.

If you have a 4x or a 10x objective in your microscope,

leave those in place. These will not have adjustable
settings.

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The higher power objectives will be parfocalled using the 10x objective as a base line. The other
objectives will be adjusted in order moving up from the 10x microscope objective.

8) Start by removing the outer cover of the

objective lens. On the Meiji microscope
objectives the objective cover will unscrew by
turning it counter clockwise, like most
threaded devices. The cover should unscrew
easily and shouldn't have to be forced.

If you are removing the covers of multiple

objectives at one time make sure that you do
not mix them up!

9) The arrow in this image is pointing to the ring

that allows you to adjust the parfocallity of the
objective lens.

Begin by trying to turn the ring. If the ring moves then

you may skip the next image and set of instructions. If
the ring does not move it is most likely because there
is a dab or drop of optical cement that is keeping it
from rotating.
You may have to look closely in order to locate the drop of optical cement holding the ring in
place.
10) You can remove the optical cement on the
objective adjustment ring. If it can't be removed
with your finger nail you may want to lightly
moisten a Q-tip with acetone and carefully
remove the dab of cement. You may need to
work the ring back and forth to make the ring
spin freely.

After the ring is free re-install the objective (this time

without the cover on it) on the microscope. Make sure
you put the next highest objective after the 10x so the objectives ascend in order. (For example,
place the 10x, then 40x, 100x, etc.)

11) Rotate the 10x objective into postion and focus

on an object. A stage micrometer is a good item
to focus on, but you can use anything with lines
on it. Now move up to the next objective. While
you are looking through the next microscope

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 objective rather than using the focusing knobs to focus, rotate the adjustment ring on
the objective.

The adjustment is somewhat sensitive, so you might have to move it slowly.

You will then repeat this process for the rest of your objectives. When you are done with all the
objectives you should be able to quickly cycle through each one without having to re-focus your
microscope.

12) Finally, you may want to apply a drop of optical

cement to secure the objective ring that you just
adjusted. This is not required, but is sometimes
helpful in keeping your objectives parfocalled.

If you don't have any optical cement just substitute clear

nail polish. You can add the cement while the objectives
are still in the microscope nosepiece. The photo at left
shows where to apply the cement.

Once the cement has dried replace the objective covers and screw the objectives back into the
nosepiece of the microscope. Parfocalling of microscope objectives should only need to be
performed once, so you should be done with this task.

MA. CARMELA N. MANGAO

ACTIVITY 2
EPITHELIAL TISSUES

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I. OBJECTIVES
1. Describe histology of skin and its appendages.
2. Illustrate and label the keratinized stratified squamous epithelium (epidermis) observed
microscopically.
3. Differentiate the different types of epithelium.
4. Identify the dermis and its parts.

II. OVERVIEW

Epithelium is one of the four basic types of animal tissue along with connective tissue,
muscle tissue, and nervous tissue. Epithelial tissues line the cavities and surface of
structure in the body and also form many glands.

Functions include
- Secretion
- Absorption of nutrients
- Protection
- Cellular transport
- Detection of sensation

III. MATERIALS
Microscope, glass slides with histological specimens

IV. DRAWING

V. QUESTIONS
1. What is the function of epithelial cell?
An epithelial tissue (ep-i-THĒ-lē-al) or epithelium (plural is epithelia) consists of cells
arranged in continuous sheets, in either single or multiple layers. Because the cells are

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 closely packed and are held tightly together by many cell junctions, there is little
intercellular space between adjacent plasma membranes.

Epithelial tissue may be divided into two types.

(1) Covering and lining epithelium, also called surface epithelium, forms the outer covering
of the skin and some internal organs. It also forms the inner lining of blood vessels, ducts,
body cavities, and the interior of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive
systems.
(2) Glandular epithelium makes up the secreting portion of glands such as the thyroid gland,
adrenal glands, sweat glands, and digestive glands.

Because epithelial tissue forms boundaries between the body’s organs, or between the body
and the external environment, it is repeatedly subjected to physical stress and injury. A high
rate of cell division allows epithelial tissue to constantly renew and repair itself by sloughing
off dead or injured cells and replacing them with new ones.

Epithelial tissue has many different roles in the body; the most important are protection,
filtration, secretion, absorption, and excretion. In addition, epithelial tissue combines with
nervous tissue to form special organs for smell, hearing, vision, and touch.

2. How do epithelial cells work?

Epithelial cells are a specialized component of many organs. They are characterized by common
structural features, especially their arrangement into cohesive sheets, but have diverse
functions made possible by many specialized adaptations. Many of the physical properties of
epithelial cells rely on their attachment to each other, which is mediated by several types of cell
junctions. The specialized functions of epithelial cells are mediated both through structural
modifications of their surface and by internal modifications, which adapt cells to manufacture
and secrete a product.
Epithelial cells are firmly joined together by adhesion specializations. These special structures
serve to anchor the cytoskeleton of each epithelial cell to its neighbours and to anchor the
epithelium to underlying or surrounding extracellular matrix materials.
Epithelial cells are further specialized by modifications of their surfaces to fulfil their specific
role, which may be absorption or secretion or to act as a barrier

3. Name the parts of epithelial cell and functions.

The various surfaces of covering and lining epithelial

cells oft en differ in structure and have specialized
functions. The apical (free) surface of an epithelial cell
faces the body surface, a body cavity, the lumen
(interior space) of an internal organ, or a tubular duct
that receives cell secretions. Apical surfaces may
contain cilia or microvilli. The lateral surfaces of an
epithelial cell, which face the adjacent cells on either

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side, may contain tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, and/or gap junctions. The
basal surface of an epithelial cell is opposite the apical surface. The basal surfaces of the
deepest layer of epithelial cells adhere to extracellular materials such as the basement
membrane. Hemidesmosomes in the basal surfaces of the deepest layer of epithelial cells
anchor the epithelium to the basement membrane. In discussing epithelia with multiple layers,
the term apical layer refers to the most superficial layer of cells, and the basal layer is the
deepest layer of cells.
The basement membrane is a thin extracellular layer that commonly consists of two layers, the
basal lamina and reticular lamina. The basal lamina (lamina = thin layer) is closer to—and
secreted by— the epithelial cells. It contains proteins such as laminin and collagen (described
shortly), as well as glycoproteins and proteoglycans (also described shortly). As you have already
learned, the laminin molecules in the basal lamina adhere to integrins in hemidesmosomes and
thus attach epithelial cells to the basement membrane. The reticular lamina is closer to the
underlying connective tissue and contains proteins such as collagen produced by connective
tissue cells called fibroblasts. In addition to attaching to and anchoring the epithelium to its
underlying connective tissue, basement membranes have other functions. They form a surface
along which epithelial cells migrate during growth or wound healing, restrict passage of larger
molecules between epithelium and connective tissue, and participate in filtration of blood in the
kidneys.
Epithelial tissue has its own nerve supply but, as mentioned previously, is avascular (a- =
without; -vascular = vessel), relying on the blood vessels of the adjacent connective tissue to
bring nutrients and remove wastes. Exchange of substances between an epithelial tissue and
connective tissue occurs by diffusion.

4. What does the ciliated epithelial do?

Ciliated epithelium are hairlike projections which lines the trachea, bronchi of the lungs, parts of
nasal cavities, the uterus and oviductof the female, and the vas deferens and epididymis of the
male.

5. What are simple epithelium, pseudostratified epithelium, stratified epithelium, squamous

cells, cuboidal cells, columnar cells?

Types of covering and lining epithelial tissue are classified according to two characteristics:
the arrangement of cells into layers and the shapes of the cells.

1. Arrangement of cells in layers

The cells are arranged in one or more layers depending on function:

a. Simple epithelium is a single layer of cells that functions in diffusion, osmosis, filtration,
secretion, or absorption. Secretion is the production and release of substances such as
mucus, sweat, or enzymes. Absorption is the intake of fluids or other substances such as
digested food from the intestinal tract.

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 b. Pseudostratified epithelium (pseudo- = false) appears to have multiple layers of cells
because the cell nuclei lie at diff erent levels and not all cells reach the apical surface; it is
actually a simple epithelium because all its cells rest on the basement membrane. Cells that
do extend to the apical surface may contain cilia; others (goblet cells) secrete mucus.

c. Stratified epithelium (stratum = layer) consists of two or more layers of cells that protect
underlying tissues in locations where there is considerable wear and tear.

2. Cell shapes
Epithelial cells vary in shape depending on their function:

a. Squamous cells (SKWĀ-mus = flat) are thin, which allows for the rapid passage of
substances through them.

b. Cuboidal cells are as tall as they are wide and are shaped like cubes or hexagons. They
may have microvilli at their apical surface and function in either secretion or absorption.

c. Columnar cells are much taller than they are wide, like columns, and protect underlying
tissues. Their apical surfaces may have cilia or microvilli, and they oft en are specialized for
secretion and absorption.

6. What are renal epithelial cells?

Renal Epithelial Cells, also called renal tubular epithelium, may be found in the urine of
healthy persons because of normal exfoliation. However, the presence of more than 15
renal tubular epithelial cells per 10 hpfs (×430) is strong evidence of active renal disease or
tubular injury.

Of the 3 types of epithelial cells found in urine (renal, transitional or urothelial, and
squamous), renal epithelial cells are the most significant clinically. They are associated with
acute tubular necrosis, viral infections (such as cytomegalovirus), and renal transplant
rejection. Their presence is also increased with fever, chemical toxins, drugs (especially
aspirin), heavy metals, inflammation, infection, and neoplasms.

Renal epithelial cells are the single layer of cells lining the nephron. These include cells lining
the glomerulus, the proximal and distal convoluted tubules, and the collecting ducts.

Recognition of renal epithelial cells is difficult, especially in the wet urine sediment, and
morphologic characteristics vary depending on the place of origin within the nephron. They
are especially difficult to distinguish from the small forms of transitional epithelial cells
(urothelium). They are generally slightly larger to twice as large as a neutrophil (20-35 µm),
which is about the same size as smaller transitional epithelial cells, and have a distinct single
round nucleus.

Inclusion bodies may be seen in viral infections, such as rubella and herpes, and especially
with cytomegalovirus. Renal cells from the collecting tubules tend to be polyhedral or
cuboidal, as opposed to the rounded cells more typical of transitional epithelium.

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 Renal cells derived from the proximal tubules are relatively large, ovoid, or elongated
granular cells, which may be mistaken for small or fragmented granular casts.

Renal epithelial cells are associated with a positive reagent-strip test result for protein and
the presence of casts. They do not react with leukocyte esterase, and the reagent strip is
negative in their presence; this is a helpful distinction from neutrophils.

MA. CARMELA N. MANGAO

ACTIVITY 3
CONNECTIVE TISSUES

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Objective:

 To identify connective tissues.

 To enumerate specific functions of connective tissues in our body.
 To draw and illustrate the different types of connective tissues in our body.
 To appreciate the knowledge about their importance in our body.

Questions and Answers:

4) Define Connective Tissues. Give their specific activities in our body.

Connective tissues are specialized tissues, which provide support and hold the body’s tissues
together. Connective tissue is made up of a small fraction of cells and a majority of
extracellular substance which keeps the cells separated.

A material made up of fibers forming a framework and support structure for body tissues
and organs. Connective tissue surrounds many organs. Cartilage and bone are specialized
forms of connective tissue. All connective tissue is derived from mesoderm, the middle germ
cell layer in the embryo. Connective tissues perform many functions in the body, but most
importantly, they support and connect other tissues; from the connective tissue sheath that
surrounds muscle cells, to the tendons that attach muscles to bones, and to the skeleton
that supports the positions of the body.

Protection is another major function of connective tissue, in the form of fibrous capsules
and bones that protect delicate organs and, of course, the skeletal system. Specialized cells
in connective tissue defend the body from microorganisms that enter the body. Transport of
fluid, nutrients, waste, and chemical messengers is ensured by specialized fluid connective
tissues, such as blood and lymph. Adipose cells store surplus energy in the form of fat and
contribute to the thermal insulation of the body.

5) Enumerate types of connective tissues and give their specific functions.

Cartilage
Cartilage is a type of supporting connective tissue. Cartilage is a dense connective tissue,
consisting of the chondrocyte cells. Cartilage connective tissue includes hyaline cartilage,
fibrocartilage and elastic cartilage. The fibers in the cartilage connective tissue include collagen
and elastic fibers. Cartilage connective tissue has limited ground substance and can range from
semisolid to a flexible matrix.

Bone
Bone is another type of supporting connective tissue. Bone, also referred to as osseous tissue,
can either be compact (dense) or spongy (cancellous), and contains the osteoblasts or
osteocytes cells. Bone connective tissue is made up of collagen fibers and has rigid, calcified
ground substance.

Adipose

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Adipose is another type of supporting connective tissue that provides cushions and stores excess
energy and fat. It contains reticular cells and is made up of reticular fibers. The extracellular
substance of adipose connective tissue is made up of a tight pack of cells with a small amount of
gelatinous ground substance.

Blood
Blood, also referred to as vascular tissue, is a type of fluid connective tissue. Blood connective
tissue contains three types of cells including erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes. The
fibers found in blood connective tissue are soluble proteins that form during clotting and the
extracellular substance making up blood connective tissue is the liquid blood plasma.

Hemapoetic/Lymphatic
Hemapoetic or lymphatic connective tissue is another type of fluid connective tissue. Lymphatic
connective tissues are responsible for the manufacture of all the blood cells and immunological
capability. It contains leukocytes cells and is made of fibers which are soluble liquid proteins that
form during clotting. The extracellular substance of hemapoetic tissue is blood plasma.

Elastic
Elastic connective tissue helps maintain blood pressure and promotes normal exhalation. Elastic
connective tissues consist of chondrocytes cells and are made up of elastic fibers. The
extracellular substance of elastic connective tissue is composed of limited ground substance and
is structured in a flexible, but firm matrix.

Fibrous
The fibrous connective tissue functions to provide strength to the inner layer of skin and
strength, allowing it to handle forces of joint movements. Fibrous connective tissue contains
fibroblast cells and is made up of fibrous fibers. It is a dense connective tissue, with its
extracellular substance consisting of parallel or irregularly arranged bundles of fibers with few
cells and little ground substance.

Ordinary and Special

The composition of ordinary connective tissue is as described in the most typical case: cells
suspended in a matrix of fibers and ground substance. Skin is one such example of ordinary
connective tissue. Special connective tissue shares many common traits with ordinary
connective tissue but with highly differentiated cell lines suspended within its matrices.
Examples of special connective tissue include bone, cartilage, lymphoid tissue and blood.

Dense and Loose

The density of connective tissue depends on the concentration of its fibrous component. Dense
connective tissue can be either higher in collagen or high in elastin and contains a high
proportion of fibers compared to cells and ground substance. Examples of collagenous
connective tissue include skin, tendons and ligaments. The aorta of the heart is an example of an
elastin-containing dense connective tissue. Loose connective tissue, as you may expect, contains
a higher proportion of cells and ground substance compared to fibers. Adipose tissue, otherwise
known as body fat, is an example of a loose connective tissue.

Regular and Irregular

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Connective tissue may be described as regular or irregular depending on the direction of
orientation of the fibers. Irregular tissue has fibers extending in multiple directions while regular
tissue has fibers running in the same direction. The tendons that attach muscle to other body
parts are an example of regular dense connective tissue, because the fibrous portion is oriented
the same way. Skin is an example of irregular dense connective tissue because its fibers lie in all
directions.

6) How will you take good care of your connective tissues?

 Practice Letting Go of Emotional “Issues in the Tissues”

Practice techniques that bring your mind and body into balance, and over time, you may
experience less physical tension. Fostering a stress management strategy that works for you
promotes the health of your connective tissue and your health overall. Skyterra’s
recommendations:

 Meditation and/or breathwork. Even just five minutes a day is enough to feel a
difference.
 Get a daily dose of nature. Nature is linked to mental and emotional wellbeing. Aim to
spend at least ten minutes outdoors per day.
 Get plenty of sleep. A lack of sleep compounds the effects of stress. Get 7-9 consecutive
hours per night.

 Hydration & Therapy

 Stretch & Relax

5. Drawing

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MA. CARMELA N. MANGAO

ACTIVITY 4
BONES

Objective:

 To identify bone.
 To enumerate specific parts of bone in our body.
 To draw and illustrate the bone and its parts in our body.
 To appreciate the tissues of the bone and their importance in our body.

Questions and Answers:

4) Define Ossification. Give their specific functions of the bone in our body.

The process of creating bone, that is of transforming cartilage (or fibrous tissue) into bone. The
verb corresponding to "ossification" is "ossify." Cartilage becomes ossified as it is converted into
bone. Bone is osseous tissue. "Os" is a synonym for "bone." The Latin word "os" means "bone"
as does the related Greek word "osteon." Ossification (or osteogenesis) in bone remodeling is
the process of laying down new bone material by cells called osteoblasts. It is synonymous with
bone tissue formation. There are two processes resulting in the formation of normal, healthy
bone tissue: Intramembranous ossification is the direct laying down of bone into the primitive
connective tissue (mesenchyme), while endochondral ossification involves cartilage as a
precursor.

Bone is often stereotyped as simply a protective and supportive framework for the body.
Though it does perform these functions, bone is actually a very dynamic organ that is constantly
remodeling and changing shape to adapt to the daily forces placed upon it. Moreover, bone
stores crucial nutrients, minerals, and lipids and produces blood cells that nourish the body and
play a vital role in protecting the body against infection. All these functions make the
approximately 206 bones of the human body an organ that is essential to our daily existence.

Bones have many functions, including the following:

 Support: Bones provide a framework for the attachment of muscles and other tissues.
 Protection: Bones such as the skull and rib cage protect internal organs from injury.
 Movement: Bones enable body movements by acting as levers and points of attachment for
muscles.
 Mineral storage: Bones serve as a reservoir for calcium and phosphorus, essential minerals
for various cellular activities throughout the body.

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 Blood cell production: The production of blood cells, or hematopoiesis, occurs in the red
marrow found within the cavities of certain bones.
 Energy storage: Lipids, such as fats, stored in adipose cells of the yellow marrow serve as an
energy reservoir.

5) Enumerate types of bone tissues and give their specific functions.

Structure of Bone Tissue

There are two types of bone tissue: compact and spongy. The names imply that the two types
differ in density, or how tightly the tissue is packed together. There are three types of cells that
contribute to bone homeostasis. Osteoblasts are bone-forming cell, osteoclasts resorb or break
down bone, and osteocytes are mature bone cells. An equilibrium between osteoblasts and
osteoclasts maintains bone tissue.

Compact Bone
Compact bone consists of closely packed osteons or haversian systems. The osteon consists of a
central canal called the osteonic (haversian) canal, which is surrounded by concentric rings
(lamellae) of matrix. Between the rings of matrix, the bone cells (osteocytes) are located in
spaces called lacunae. Small channels (canaliculi) radiate from the lacunae to the osteonic
(haversian) canal to provide passageways through the hard matrix. In compact bone, the
haversian systems are packed tightly together to form what appears to be a solid mass. The
osteonic canals contain blood vessels that are parallel to the long axis of the bone. These blood
vessels interconnect, by way of perforating canals, with vessels on the surface of the bone.

Spongy (Cancellous) Bone

Spongy (cancellous) bone is lighter and less dense than compact bone. Spongy bone consists of
plates (trabeculae) and bars of bone adjacent to small, irregular cavities that contain red bone
marrow. The canaliculi connect to the adjacent cavities, instead of a central haversian canal, to
receive their blood supply. It may appear that the trabeculae are arranged in a haphazard
manner, but they are organized to provide maximum strength similar to braces that are used to
support a building. The trabeculae of spongy bone follow the lines of stress and can realign if the
direction of stress changes.

6) How will you take good care of your skeletal system?

1. Eat lots of vegetables.

Vegetables are the best source of Vitamin C, which stimulates production of bone-forming cells.
Greens and yellows have been shown in studies to help with bone mineralization.

2. Perform strength training.

Strength training exercise is especially important for those who suffer from lower extremity joint
deficiencies such as knee or hip arthritis, which are conditions that may limit your ability to

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perform weight bearing exercise.

3. Start weight-bearing exercises.

Weight-bearing exercise is defined as an activity that forces you to move against gravity, or gives
you resistance as you move. High-impact weight-bearing exercises are best for building bones.
These should be limited if you have been diagnosed with osteopenia or osteoporosis.

4. Don’t smoke and don’t drink excessively.

Bad news for bad habits: Loss of bone mineral density is associated with tobacco use and
excessive alcohol consumption. If you smoke, look into a program to help you quit. If you drink,
the recommendation is to stick to no more than one libation a day.

5. Get your bone mineral density tested.

Doctors can get a quick and painless “snapshot” of bone health using a simple X-ray test called
DXA. This test measures bone mineral density and helps determine risks of osteoporosis and
fracture. It is recommended that women are tested within two years of menopause. Earlier tests
are recommended for men and women with certain diseases and for those taking medications
that increase risk, such as long-term steroid therapy.

6. Consider medication.
Perimenopausal women may consider hormone therapy, especially if they have symptoms of
menopause (hot flashes and more), to increase waning estrogen levels, which are linked to bone
loss. And women and men diagnosed with osteopenia or osteoporosis can take various
medications to prevent dangerous hip and spine fractures.

174
7) Drawing

MA. CARMELA N. MANGAO

ASSIGNMENT

1. LUNGS

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 Squamous Epithelium – make up the
alveoli (tiny hollow sacs in the lungs)
 Thin, flattened cells – lining
tissue
 Advantages – short distance
between air in the alveoli and
the blood in the capillary.
 This means gas exchange is very
efficient.

Goblet Cells
 Shaped like a goblet
 Produce large amounts of
mucus (a glycoprotein)
 Dirt and bacteria in the air that
is breathed in gets trapped in
the mucus. When mucus
reaches the throat it is
swallowed. The dirt and
bacteria is then destroyed by
the acid and enzymes in the
stomach.

Ciliated Epithelium
 Have tiny hairs called cilia
 Beat together in a rhythm
moving mucus back up the
trachea into the throat
 Cigarette smoke damages
cilia

2. ADRENAL GLAND

Zona glomerulosa

 The outermost zone of the adrenal cortex is the zona glomerulosa. It lies immediately
under the fibrous capsule of the gland. Cells in this layer form oval groups, separated by
thin strands of connective tissue from the fibrous capsule of the gland and carry wide
capillaries.
 This layer is the main site for production of aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid, by the
action of the enzyme aldosterone synthase. Aldosteroneplays an important role in the
long-term regulation of blood pressure.
Zone fasciculata

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  The zona fasciculata is situated between the zona glomerulosa and zona reticularis. Cells
in this layer are responsible for producing glucocorticoids such as cortisol.
 It is the largest of the three layers, accounting for nearly 80% of the volume of the
cortex. In the zona fasciculate, cells are arranged in columns radially oriented towards
the medulla.
 Cells ontain numerous lipid droplets, abundant mitochondria and a complex smooth
endoplasmic reticulum

Zone reticularis
 The innermost cortical layer, the zona reticularis, lies directly adjacent to the medulla.
 It produces androgens, mainly dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), DHEA sulphate (DHEA-
S), and androstenedione (the precursor to testosterone) in humans.
 Its small cells form irregular cords and clusters, separated by capillaries and connective
tissue. The cells contain relatively small quantities of cytoplasm and liquid droplets, and
sometimes display brown lipofuscin pigment.

3. TESTIS
Tunica – tough, fibrous layers of tissue
Tunica vaginalis (Outer Layer)
 Pouch of serous membrane that
covers the testes. It is derived
from the vaginal process of the
peritoneum, which in the fetus
precedes the descent of the
testes from the abdomen into
the scrotum
Tunica albuginea (Inner Layer)
 The whitish membrane within
the penis that surrounds the
spongy chambers (corpora
cavernosa). The tunica
albuginea helps to trap the

177
 blood in the corpora cavernosa,
thereby sustaining erection of
the penis.

4. Ovary

Germinal Epithelium
 Derived from the mesoderm
during embryonic development
and are closely related to the
mesothelium of the
peritoneum.
 The germinal epithelium gives
the ovary a dull gray color as
compared with the shining
smoothness of the peritoneum;
and the transition between the
mesothelium of the peritoneum
and cuboidal cells which cover
the ovary is usually marked by a
line around the anterior border
of the ovary.

5. KIDNEY
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
 Consists of a single layer cells
that are as tall as they are wide.
 The important functions of the
simple cuboidal epithelium are
secretion and absorption.
 This epithelial type is found in
the small collecting ducts of the
kidneys, pancreas, and salivary
glands.

6. APPENDIX

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Glandular Epithelium
 The inner lining, facing the lumen of the appendix, is covered by a glandular epithelium
with intestinal glands that extend into the deeper layers of the mucosa.
 The glands are lined with simple columnar epithelium and a high number of mucin
producing goblet cells that are characterized by a large globule of mucus located in the
apical portion of the cell. The lamina propria typically contains lymphocytes that partly
obscure the underlying muscularis mucosae, which separates the mucosa from the
submucosa.
Similar to the colon, an inner circular muscle layer and athin external longitudinal
muscle layer comprise the muscularis externa that encircles the appendix. Outside of the
muscular layers there is a subserosa containing loose connective tissue, vasculature and
nerves. The outermost located peritoneum consists of a thin lining of mesothelial cells.

7. PANCREAS

 The smaller forms have a

cuboidal epithelium, while a
columnar epithelium lines the
larger ducts. Intralobular ducts
transmit secretions from
intralobular ducts to the major
pancreatic duct. The main
pancreatic duct received
secretion from interlobular
ducts and penetrates through
the wall of the duodenum.
8. SMALL INTESTINE

Simple Columnar Epithelium

 The mucosa of the small
intestine is lined by a simple
columnar epithelium which
consists primarily of absorptive
cells (enterocytes), with
scattered goblet cells and
occasional enteroendocrine
cells. In crypts, thhe epithelium
also includes Paneth cells and
stem cells.

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9. FALLOPIAN TUBE
Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium
 Inside the fallopian tubes there
are hair-like Fallopian cilia
which carry the fertilized egg
from the ovaries of female
mammals to the uterus, via the
uterotubal junction. This tubal
tissue is ciliated simple
columnar epithelium.

10. LIVER
Hepatocytes
 is a cell of the main
parenchymal tissue of the liver.
Hepatocytes make up 55-65%
of the liver’s mass. These cells
are involved in protein
synthesis and protein storage.
Cholangiocytes
 are cuboidal epithelium in the
small interlobular bile ducts,
but become columnar and
mucus secreting in larger bile
ducts approaching the porta
hepatis and the extrahepatic
ducts.
MA. CARMELA N. MANGAO MARCH 2020
BSMLS II Prof. Cecilio
Ichon, RMT

REVIEWER IN HISTOLOGY

1) Intramembranous bone formation involves the formation of bone directly from the
embryonic connective tissue.
a. Mesenchyma
b. Ossification
c. Mineral

2) What do you call a bone that is uncalcified?

a. Osteoid
b. Mineral
c.Ossification

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3) Is a small, often microscopic, tissue element in the form of a small beam, strut or rod that
supports or anchors a framework of parts within a body or organ.
a. Trabeculae
b. Osteoid
c. Lamellar

4) The first bone that is formed, once ossification takes place, is woven bone and is in the form
of ________.
a. Osteoid
b. Spicules
c. Ossification

5) The result will be mature or ________ (secondary bone), with fully developed haversian
systems.
a. Ossification
b. Lamellar
c. Osteoid

6) What is the two types of Bone Formation?

a. Intramembranous and Ossification
b. Intramembranous and Endochondral
c. Endochondral and Integumentary

7) Bone is made up of different tissues working together:

a. Cartilage, Bone, Ossification
b. Epithelium, Tendon, Heart
c. Bone, Cartilage, Epithelium

8) It is the shaft of the long bone

a. Metaphysis
b. Epiphysis
c. Diaphysis

9) It is one end of a long bone

a. Metaphyses
b. Epiphysis
c. Diaphysis

10) The areas between the epiphysis and diaphysis and include the epiphyseal plate in growing
bones.
a. Metaphyses
b. Diaphyses
c. Metamorphyses

11) It is a cartilage over joint surfaces acts as friction reducer and shock absorber.
a. Articular cartilage
b. Reticular cartilage
c. Elastic Cartilage

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12) It is a tough membrane covering bone but not the cartilage
a. Endosteum
b. Periosteum
c. Medullary

13) It is the lining of marrow cavity

a. Endosteum
b. Periosteum
c. Medullary

14) The matrix of the bone contains inorganic salts, ____________

a. Hydroxyapatite and calcium carbonate
b. Collagen fibers and water
c. Calcium carbonate and enzyme

15) It is a process occurs only in the presence of collagen fibers.

a. Mineralizatiom
b. Calcification
c. Ossification

16) It undergo cell division and develop into osteoblasts

a. Osteoclasts
b. Osteocytes
c. Osteogenic cells

17) It is a bone-building cells

a. Osteoblasts
b. Osteocytes
c. Osteogenic cells

18) It is a mature bone cells and the principal cells of bone tissue.
a. Osteoblasts
b. Osteocytes
c. Osteogenic cells

19) It is derived from monocytes and serve to breakdown bone tissue

a. Osteoclasts
b. Osteocytes
c. Osteogenic cells

20) Compact bone is arranged in units called _______ or Haversian systems

a. Ossification
b. Osteoid
c. Osteons

21) Spongy bone does not contain osteons but consists of __________

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a. Lamellae
b. Osteoid
c. Trabeculae

22) It is the formation of bone directly from or within fibrous connective tissue membranes
a. Intramembranous Ossification
b. Endochondrial Ossification
c. Osteogenesis

23) It is the formation of bone from hyaline cartilage models.

a. Intramembranous Ossification
b. Endochondrial Ossification
c. Osteogenesis

24) The circulatory system is composed of:

a. Blood, blood vessels, heart
b. Blood. Cartilage, veins
c. Blood, heart, artery

25) It contain the pigment hemoglobin, which imparts the red color to blood, and transport
oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the tissues.
a. Erythrocytes
b. White Blood Cell
c. Eosinophil

26) Hemoglobin consists of:

a. Hema and Globin
b. Hemo and Globin
c. Globin and Heme

27) It refers to whole blood cell production.

a. Erythtocytes
b. Erythropoiesis
c. Hematopoiesis
28) It refers specifically to red blood cell production
a. Erythtocytes
b. Erythropoiesis
c. Hematopoiesis

29) It is a network of reticular connective tissue that borders on wide blood capillaries called
__________
a. Blood sinusoids
b. Diploe
c. Trabeculae

30) Erythrocytes are produced throughout whole life and replace dead cells.
a. Erythtocytes
b. Erythropoiesis

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c. Hematopoiesis

31) A glycoprotein hormone, is produced by renal cells in response to a decreased renal blood
O2 content
a. Erythtocytes
b. Erythropoietin
c.Hematopoiesis

32) It is a condition in which the blood has an abnormally low oxygen-carrying capacity.
a. Anemia
b. Tuberculosis
c. Polycythemia

33) It is abnormally excess of erythrocytes that increase the viscosity of the blood, causing it to
sludge or flow sluggishly
a. Anemia
b. Tuberculosis
c. Polycythemia

34) Bacterial or fungal infection

a. Neutrophil
b. Basophil
c. Monocyte

35) Parasitic infection and allergic reactions

a. Neutrophil
b. Eosinophil
c. Monocyte

36) Allergic and antigen response

a. Neutrophil
b. Basophil
c. Monocyte

37) Operate primarily in the lymphatic system

a. Neutrophil
b. Basophil
c. Lymphocyte

38) Phagocytosis of pathogens

a. Neutrophil
b. Basophil
c. Monocyte

39) The matrix of the bone contains inorganic salts, ____________

a. Hydroxyapatite and calcium carbonate
b. Collagen fibers and water

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c. Calcium carbonate and enzyme

40) It undergo cell division and develop into osteoblasts

a. Osteoclasts
b. Osteocytes
c. Osteogenic cells

41-45) Name the 5 types White Blood Cells and their functions
 Neutrophil – Bacterial or fungal infection
 Eosinophil – Parasitic infection and allergic reactions
 Basophil – Allergic and antigen response
 Lymphocyte – Operate primarily in the lymphatic system
 Monocyte – Phagocytosis of pathogens

46-50) Function of Leukocytes

 Defense against diseases
 Protection
 Helps fight infection
 Phagocytosis
 Formation of fibroblast

Activity 7: TISSUES OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN

Overview: The female reproductive system is made up of the internal and external sex organs
that function in reproduction of new offspring. In humans, the female reproductive system is
immature at birth and develops to maturity at puberty to be able to produce gametes, and to
carry a fetus to full term.

Objectives:

 Tissue in the female reproductive organ

 Function of female reproductive organ

185
  Endometrium – Simple Columnar Ciliated

 Fallopian Tube – Simple Columnar Ciliated

 Ovary – Simple Cuboidal

Function:

 To produce egg and sperm cells.

 To transport and sustain these cells.
 To nurture the developing offspring.
 To produce hormones.
Activity 8: TISSUES OF KIDNEYS
Overview: The kidneys also help to control your body's production of red blood cells,
regulate blood pressure, and help keep bones strong and healthy. Each kidney has about a
million tiny nephrons. Each nephron has a group of tiny blood vessels called a glomerulus.

Objectives:

 Tissue in the kidney

 Function of kidney

186
 Convoluted Tubule – Simple Cuboidal

 Loop of Henle – Simple Squamous

 Renal Pelvis – Transitional

 Ureter – Transitional

187
  Urinary Bladder – Transitional

Function:

 Regulation of extracellular fluid volume.

 Regulation of osmolarity.
 Regulation of ion concentrations.
 Regulation of pH.
 Excretion of wastes and toxins.
 Production of hormones.

Activity 9: TISSUES OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN

Overview: The male reproductive system is a network of external and internal organs that
function to produce, support, transport, and deliver viable sperm for reproduction. Sperm is
produced in the testes and is transported through the epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory
duct, and urethra.

Objectives:

188
 Tissue in the male reproductive organ
 Function of male reproductive organ

 Epididymis – Pseudostratified Columnar

 Vas Deferens – Pseudostratified Columnar

 Ejaculatory Duct – Simple Columnar

189
  Seminal Vesicle – Pseudostratified Columnar

 Testis – Simple Cuboidal

Function:

 To produce, maintain, transport, and nourish sperm (the male reproductive cells), and
protective fluid ( semen ).
 To discharge sperm within the female reproductive tract.
 To produce and secrete male sex hormones.

190
 Activity 10: TISSUES OF THE BRAIN
Overview: A brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate
and most invertebrate animals. It is located in the head, usually close to the sensory organs for
senses such as vision. It is the most complex organ in a vertebrate's body.

Objectives:

 Tissue in the brain

 Function of the brain

 Lining of the ventricles of the brain - Ciliated Epithelial

 Spinal Cord – Nervous Tissue

 Brain – Nervous Tissue

191
  Nerves - Nervous Tissue

Functions:

Housed within the protective covering of the skull, the brain is the most complex organ in the
body. It controls thought, behavior, emotions, and memory, as well as basic life functions such
as breathing and heart rate. The brain consists of the cortex, brainstem, and cerebellum.

192
Mary Rose Ellaine R. Ortiz
Compilation

193
Ortiz, Mary Rose Ellaine R.
ACTIVITY #1
MICROSCOPE
Overview: A microscope (from the Ancient Greek: μικρός, mikrós, "small" and σκοπεῖν,
skopeîn, "to look" or "see") is an instrument used to see objects that are too small to be
seen by the naked eye. Microscopy is the science of investigating small objects and
structures using such an instrument.
Objectives:
1. To identify the parts and functions of microscope.
2. To know the uses of microscope.
3. To know the importance of microscope in laboratory.
Drawing:

194
PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF MICROSCOPE:
Eyepieces: The eyepieces are the lenses at the top that the viewer looks through; they
are usually 10X or 15X. To get the total magnification level, multiply the magnification of
the objective used (ex: 10X eyepiece * 40X objective = 400X total magnification).
Tube: Where the eyepieces are dropped in. Also, they connect the eyepieces to the
objective lenses.
Base: The bottom of the microscope—what the microscope stands on.
Arm: Structural element that connects the head of the microscope to the base.
Stage: The flat platform that supports the slides. Stage clips hold the slides in place. If
your microscope has a mechanical stage, the slide is controlled by turning two knobs
instead of having to move it manually. One knob moves the slide left and right, the
other moves it forward and backward.
Illuminator: A steady light source (110 volts in the US) that shines up through the slide.
Mirrors are sometimes used in lieu of a built-in light. If your microscope has a mirror, it
is used to reflect light from an external light source up through the bottom of the stage.
Nosepiece: This circular structure is where the different objective lenses are screwed in.
To change the magnification power, simply rotate the turret.
Objective Lenses: Usually you will find 3 or 4 objective lenses on a microscope. The most
common ones are 4X (shortest lens), 10X, 40X and 100X (longest lens). The higher power
objectives (starting from 40x) are spring loaded. Spring loaded objective lenses will
retract if the objective lens hits a slide, preventing damage to both the lens and the
slide.
Rack Stop: This feature determines how far up the stage can go. Setting the rack stop is
useful in preventing the slide from coming too far up and hitting the objective lens.
Normally, this adjustment is set at the factory, and changing the rack stop is only
necessary if your slides are exceptionally thin and you are unable to focus the specimen
at higher powers.
Condenser Lens: Condenser lenses focus the light that shines up through the slide, and
are useful for attaining sharp images at magnifications of 400X and above. If the
maximum power of your microscope is 400X, a stage mounted 0.65 NA (or greater)
condenser is ideal since it give you greater clarity without having to be focused
separately.
Diaphragm or Iris: The diaphragm or iris is located under the stage and is an apparatus
that can be adjusted to vary the intensity, and size, of the cone of light that is projected
through the slide. As there is no set rule on which setting to use for a particular power,
the setting depends on the transparency of the specimen and the degree of contrast
you desire in your image.
Questions:

195
1. How does microscope function?
 The eyepiece lens (the one closest to your eye) magnifies the image from
the objective lens, rather like a magnifying glass. On some microscopes,
you can move the eyepiece up and down by turning a wheel. This gives
you fine control or "fine tuning" of the focus. You look down on a
magnified image of the object.
2. What is the importance of microscope?
 Microscopes help the scientists to study the microorganisms, the cells,
the crystalline structures and the molecular structures, they are one of the
most important diagnostic tools when the doctors examine the tissue
samples.
3. What is empty magnification?
 empty magnification. Definition: Increase in size of image which does
not increase information. * Magnfication which does not contribute to
improved resolution or resolving power and which is beyond what the
system can deliver.

196
Ortiz, Mary Rose Ellaine R.
ACTIVITY #2
CELL AND PARTS & FUNCTIONS
Overview: There are hundreds of different kinds of cells in an animal body. But all
the cells share a common cell structure such as cytoplasm, cell membrane, and nucleus.
The outermost layer of the cell is the cell membrane / plasma membrane.
Objectives:
1. To identify the parts and functions of cell.
2. To know the importance of cell in the body.
3. To identify the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.
Drawing:

197
PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF CELL
Nucleus - The nucleus can be thought of as the cell's headquarters. There is normally
one nucleus per cell, but this is not always the case, skeletal muscle cells, for instance,
have two. 
Plasma membrane - To ensure each cell remains separate from its neighbor, it is
enveloped in a special membrane known as the plasma membrane.
Cytoplasm - The cytoplasm is the interior of the cell that surrounds the nucleus and is
around 80 percent water; it includes the organelles and a jelly-like fluid called the
cytosol. Many of the important reactions that take place in the cell occur in the
cytoplasm.
Lysosomes and peroxisomes - Both lysosomes and peroxisomes are essentially bags of
enzymes. Lysosomes contain enzymes that break down large molecules, including old

198
parts of the cells and foreign material. Peroxisomes contain enzymes that destroy toxic
materials, including peroxide.
Cytoskeleton - The cytoskeleton can be considered the scaffolding of the cell. It helps it
maintain the correct shape. However, unlike regular scaffolding, the cytoskeleton is
flexible; it plays a role in cell division and cell motility — the ability of some cells to
move, such as sperm cells, for instance.
Endoplasmic reticulum - The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) processes molecules within the
cell and helps transport them to their final destinations. In particular, it synthesizes,
folds, modifies, and transports proteins.
Golgi apparatus - Once molecules have been processed by the ER, they travel to the
Golgi apparatus. The Golgi apparatus is sometimes considered the post office of the cell,
where items are packaged and labeled. Once materials leave, they may be used within
the cell or taken outside of the cell for use elsewhere.
Mitochondria - Often referred to as the powerhouse of the cell, mitochondria help turn
energy from the food that we eat into energy that the cell can use — adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). However, mitochondria have a number of other jobs,
including calcium storage and a role in cell death (apoptosis).
Ribosomes - In the nucleus, DNA is transcribed into RNA (ribonucleic acid), a molecule
similar to DNA, which carries the same message. Ribosomes read the RNA and translate
it into protein by sticking together amino acids in the order defined by the RNA.
QUESTIONS:
1. What is the importance of cell in the body?
 The human body is composed of trillions of cells. They provide structure
for the body, take in nutrients from food, convert those nutrients into
energy, and carry out specialized functions. Cells also contain
the body's hereditary material and can make copies of themselves.
2. What is the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
 There are several differences between the two, but the
biggest distinction between them is that eukaryotic cells have a distinct
nucleus containing the cell's genetic material, while prokaryotic
cells don't have a nucleus and have free-floating genetic material instead.
3. Why are Mithocondria important in cell?
 Mitochondria are tiny double membrane-bound organelles found in
almost every cell of all organisms except bacteria. Known as the
“powerhouse of the cell” they are primarily responsible for converting
the air we breathe and the food we eat into energy that our cells can use
to grow, divide and function.

199
Ortiz Mary Rose Ellaine R.
ACTIVITY #3
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Overview: Epithelial tissues are widespread throughout the body. They form the
covering of all body surfaces, line body cavities and hollow organs, and are the
major tissue in glands. ... Opposite the free surface, the cells are attached to underlying
connective tissue by a non-cellular basement membrane.
Objectives:
1. To identify the different types of epithelial tissues.
2. To know the importance of epithelial tissues in the body.

200
 3. To identify the uses of epithelial tissues in the body.
Drawing:

Questions:
1. What is the importance of the epithelial tissues in the body?
 Epithelial tissues are widespread throughout the body. They form the
covering of all body surfaces, line body cavities and hollow organs, and
are the major tissue in glands. They perform a variety of functions that
include protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, filtration, diffusion,
and sensory reception.
2. What are the uses of epithelial tissues in the body?
 Functions of epithelial cells include secretion, selective absorption,
protection, transcellular transport, and sensing. Epithelial layers contain
no blood vessels, so they must receive nourishment via diffusion of

201
 substances from the underlying connective tissue, through the basement
membrane.
3. What are the characteristics of epithelial tissues?
 Despite there being many different types of epithelial tissue all epithelial
tissue has just five characteristics, these are cellularity, polarity,
attachment, vascularity, and regeneration. Cellularity as the name
suggests means that the epithelium is made up almost entirely of cells.

Ortiz, Mary Rose Ellaine R.

ACTIVITY #4
CONNECTIVE TISSUES
Overview: Connective tissue provides structure and support and is a “space filler” for
areas not occupied by other tissue. Connective tissue consists of cells, fibers, and
ground substance. The ground substance consisting of glycoproteins and water, and the
insoluble protein fibers collectively are called matrix

202
Objectives:
1. To identify different types of connective tissues.
2. To know the importance of connective tissues in our body.
3. To identify the uses of connective tissues in the body.
Drawing:

Questions:
1. What are the general characteristics of connective tissues?
 Connective tissue has three main components: cells, fibers, and ground
substance. Together the ground substance and fibers make up the
extracellular matrix. Connective tissue is classified into two subtypes: soft
and specialized connective tissue.
2. What does connective tissue include?

203
  The connective tissues include several types of fibrous tissue that vary
only in their density and cellularity, as well as the more specialized and
recognizable variants—bone, ligaments, tendons, cartilage, and adipose
(fat) tissue.
3. What do all connective tissues have in common?
 Connective tissues come in a vast variety of forms, yet they typically have
in common three characteristic components: cells, large amounts of
amorphous ground substance, and protein fibers.

Ortiz, Mary Rose Ellaine R.

LEARNINGS AND INSIGHTS IN HISTOLOGY OF THE BONE

204
The strength, shape and stability of the human body are dependent on
the musculoskeletal system. The most robust aspect of this unit is the underlying bony
architecture. Bone is a modified form of connective tissue which is made of extracellular
matrix, cells and fibers.

The high concentration of calcium and phosphate-based minerals throughout the

connective tissue is responsible for its hard-calcified nature. The histological structure,
mode of ossification, cross-sectional appearance, and degree of maturity influences the
classification of bony tissue.

In addition to discussing the cellular constituents of bone and the architectural

arrangement of their products, this article will also address the embryology and
mechanisms of ossification as well. Furthermore, some prominent bone-related
pathological processes will also be addressed.

Embryology

Please take into account that unlike most organ systems that complete organogenesis
during the antenatal period, skeletal development is spread out over the gestational
period and continues into extra-uterine life. Bone is derived from three embryonic
sources. The neurocranium and the viscerocranium originate from derivatives of
the neural crest cells as well as paraxial mesoderm. The paraxial mesoderm also
contributes to the formation of the axial skeleton, while the appendicular skeleton
originates from the lateral plate mesoderm.

The so-called flat bones of the body such as calvaria, mandible, maxilla, etc. and long
bones such as those of the limbs, are formed by two different processes. The former
originates by way of intramembranous ossification, while the latter
undergoes endochondral ossification. The initiation of either process depends on the
differentiation of the preceding mesenchymal cell line. If the mesenchymal cells
differentiate into chondrocytes, then endochondral ossification will occur. However,
should the mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts intramembranous ossification
would ensue.

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 Irrespective of the pathway taken, ossification begins around the 6th or 7th gestational
week and persists well into extra-uterine life; the clavicle can take up to 20 – 21 years for
complete fusion to occur, and 26 years for the epiphyseal scar to disappear. Extra-uterine
bone development has been classified into 5 stages.

 In stage 1, the epiphysis is not yet ossified.

 Once ossification becomes apparent in the epiphyses, then the bone is in stage 2 of
development.
 At the point where the epiphyses and diaphysis begin to fuse, then the bone has
entered stage 3.
 Stage 4 represents complete fusion of the epiphyses and diaphysis, leaving behind an
epiphyseal scar at the site of the epiphyseal growth plate.
 The final stage is characterized by disappearance of the epiphyseal scar.
Endochondral ossification relies on an analgen in the form of hyaline cartilage laid down
during embryogenesis. Initially, a hyaline cartilaginous framework is laid down as a
template for osteogenesis. It is encased by a perichondrial layer that comprises of a
condensed vascular mesenchyme. The model grows by both interstitial (replication of
chondrocytes and secretion of new matrix) and appositional (absorption of old cartilage
and deposition of new matrix) methods. The chondrocytes (cartilaginous cells) in the mid
shaft of the cartilaginous template (diaphysis) begin to replicate and hypertrophy. An
increase in the number of vacuoles can be observed in the cytoplasm in this phase.
Subsequently, the matrix is compressed, forming thin fenestrated septae. The cartilage
model subsequently calcifies, resulting in decreased diffusion of nutrients to the cells.
They eventually degenerate, die, and calcify; leaving confluent lacunae in their absence. 

As the cartilage calcifies, the inner layer of the perichondrium begins to express
osteogenic (i.e. bone forming) properties; and thus, become osteoblasts. Osteoblasts are
responsible for production of bone matrix; they eventually produce a bony collar around
the diaphysis called the periosteal collar. The connective tissue superficial to the
periosteal collar is subsequently referred to as the periosteum. The visceral periosteum
contains mesenchyme cells that evolve into osteoprogenitor cells. This cell line replicates
and further differentiates into osteoblasts. These cells travel with osteogenic buds, which
are terminal capillary sprouts.
Reference: https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/histology-of-bone

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Ortiz, Mary Rose Ellaine R.
LEARNINGS AND INSIGHTS IN HISTOLOGY OF THE HEART

The heart is a critical organ that keeps blood moving throughout the body. Blood is an
important medium that not only carries nutrients and oxygen throughout the body, but it
also collects waste products and returns them to the liver and kidney for further
processing and excretion. 

The heart is able to achieve this autonomy based on its histological make-up. The organ is
comprised of specialized conductive tissue that can generate an action
potential independent of the nervous system. This article will look at the early
embryology of the heart (not including cardiac origami), review the basic gross anatomy,
and discuss the cellular architecture and histological arrangement of the organ. Clinically
relevant points will also be discussed.

Gross anatomy

Location

The heart is a muscular, four-chambered system that is responsible for pumping blood
through the vascular network. The organ is located within the thoracic cavity in a region
known as the mediastinum. It is bordered bilaterally by the lungs, anteriorly by
the sternum and posteriorly by the oesophagus and thoracic vertebra.

Chambers

The heart is composed of left and right atria and ventricles. The atria are superior to
(and less muscular than) the ventricles.  The right and left atria are receptacles for blood
coming from the body and lungs, respectively. On the other hand, the right and
left ventricles eject blood from the heart to the lungs and body, respectively. As a result
of this arrangement, the right side of the heart contains oxygen poor blood, while the

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 left side contains oxygen rich blood. Under normal conditions, blood from the left and
right sides of the heart does not mix. This separation is achieved by
the interatrial and interventricular septum (both of which are continuous with each
other) that runs roughly along the midline of the heart.

Valves
There are two sets of valves located in the heart:

 The atrioventricular valves regulate one way passage of blood from the atria to the
ventricles. The mitral valve is located on the left side of the heart, while
the tricuspid valve is found on the right side.
 The outlet valves allow blood to leave the heart to one of two destinations. From the
right side of the heart, blood leaves the right ventricle and passes through
the pulmonary valve to gain access to the lungs via the pulmonary arteries . On the left
side of the heart, blood leaves the left ventricle and passes through the aortic valve to
perfuse the entire body via the derivative vessels of the aorta.
The action potential responsible for cardiac contraction is generated primarily from
the sinoatrial node, located near the orifice of the superior vena cava. The impulse is
transmitted across the atria and to the atrioventricular node, where it then depolarizes
the ventricles via the bundle of His and associated Purkinje fibres.

Early embryology
The development of the heart coincides with the increased nutrient demand of the
embryo to the extent where the yolk sac is no longer an ideal nutritional source. A cluster
of cells known as progenitor heart cells aggregate in the region cranial to the primitive
streak in the epiblast layer of the embryo. After these cells migrate from the epiblast
layer to the splanchnic layer, they become the primary heart field. These cells settle as a
semi-circular cluster of cells cranial to the neural folds. The primary heart field cells are
destined to form both left and right atria, the left ventricle, and majority of the right
ventricle.
About 20 days after the primary heart field cells appear, the secondary heart
field develops in the splanchnic mesoderm. They will form the remainder of the right
ventricle, as well as the great vessels that take blood away from the heart. Once the

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definitive primary heart field has been formed, the cells then differentiate, under the
influence of neighbouring pharyngeal endoderm, into cardiac myoblasts. Myoblasts are
early progenitor cells that differentiate into muscle cells. Cardiac myoblasts specifically
differentiate into myocardiocytes, which makes up the myocardium (muscular layer of
the heart). Of note, there are two other types of muscle fibres not discussed in this article
(smooth and striated). Additionally, primary heart field cells also form islands of blood
that will later participate in vasculogenesis.
Refference: https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/histology-of-the-heart
ACTIVITY #7
TISSUES OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN
Overview: The organs of the female reproductive system are the ovaries, oviducts,
uterus, vagina, placenta, and mammary glands. They work together for the production
of female gametes (oocytes), fertilization, support of the developing fetus, delivering it
to the outside world, and nutrition of the newborn
Objectives:
1. To identify the tissues of female reproductive organ
2. To know the importance of it in our body
3. To identify its uses in the body.
Drawing:

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Questions:
1. What is the thick connective tissue layer that surrounds the parenchyma of the
ovary called?
 The entire ovary is encased within a connective tissue capsule called the
tunica albuginea.
2. What is the tissue inside the ovary called?
 The surface of the ovary is covered by a single layer of cuboidal
epithelium, also called germinal epithelium. ... The cortex consists of a
very cellular connective tissue stroma in which the ovarian follicles are
embedded.
3. What kind of tissues make up the ovaries?
 The surface of the ovary is covered by a single layer of cuboidal
epithelium, also called germinal epithelium. It is continuous with the
peritoneal mesothelium. Fibrous connective tissue forms a thin capsule,
the tunica albuginea, immediately beneath the epithelium.

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Ortiz, Mary Rose Ellaine R.
ACTIVITY #8
TISSUES OF THE KIDNEYS
Overview: Each kidney consists of a cortex, medulla and calyces. Nephrons are the main
functional units of the kidney, in charge of removing metabolic waste and excess water
from the blood.
Objectives:
1. To identify the tissues of the kidney
2. To know identify its uses in our body

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 3. To know the importance of it our body.
Drawing:

Questions:
1. What kind of tissue makes up the kidneys?
 Each kidney is held in place by connective tissue, called renal fascia, and
is surrounded by a thick layer of adipose tissue, called perirenal fat,
which helps to protect it. A tough, fibrous, connective tissue
renal capsule closely envelopes each kidney and provides support for the
soft tissue that is inside.

2. What type of cells line the nephron?

 Nephron Histology. The nephron is a long, winding tubule that extends
from the Bowman's Capsule and ends in the renal papillae.

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 The nephron possesses a simple epithelium lined by a single layer
of cells which can generically be referred to as tubular epithelial cells.
3. What is the histology of kidney?
  Each kidney consists of a cortex, medulla and calyces. Nephrons are the
main functional units of the kidney, in charge of removing metabolic
waste and excess water from the blood.

Ortiz, Mary Rose Ellaine R.

ACTIVITY #9
TISSUES OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Overview: The male reproductive system consists of the testes, conducting tubules and
ducts (epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory ducts), accessory sex glands (seminal
vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands), and the penis. These organs work to
together to produce male gametes (sperm) and the other components of semen.
Objectives:

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 1. To identify the tissues of male reproductive system
2. To know the uses of it
3. To know the importance of it our body
Drawing:

Questions:
1. What is the histology of testis?
 Each testis is composed of an exocrine part (seminiferous tubules) and an
endocrine part (interstitial or Leydig cells). ... These tubules are lined by a
stratified epithelium that consists of the developing spermatozoa and
supporting cells (Sertoli cells).
2. What are the three types of cells found in the testes?
 The seminiferous tubules are considered the parenchyma of the testis.
Within the developing testis the three main differentiating cell types are:

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 gamete forming cells (spermatogonia), support cells (Sertoli cells) and
hormone secreting cells (Leydig or interstitial cells).
3. What are the layers of the testis?
 There are three layers to the tunica, the tunica vasculosa, tunica
albuginea and tunica vaginalis. The tunica vasculosa is the inner layer of
the tunica and consists of blood vessels and connective tissue. It is
covered by the tunica albuginea and facilitates blood supply to the
testes.

Ortiz, Mary Rose Ellaine R.

ACTIVITY #10
TISSUES OF THE BRAIN
Overview: The parenchymal cells of the central nervous system are neurons and
glia. The important cell types to examine are neurons, particularly cerebral cortical

215
pyramidal neurons, oligodendroglia, astrocytes, ependymal cells and choroid plexus
epithelium. The latter four cell types are glia or derived from glia.
Objectives:
1. To identify the different tissues in the brain
2. To know it’s uses
3. To know the importance of it in our body
Drawing:

Questions:
1. What type of tissue is found in the brain?
 The majority (approximately 98%) of neural tissue is found within the
brain and the spinal cord. It is composed of two basic classes of
cells: nerve cells (or neurons), which transmit communication signals,

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 and glial cells, which act to support both the structure and function
of neurons
2. What is the function of brain tissue?
 The brain is an organ that's made up of a large mass of nerve tissue that's
protected within the skull. It plays a role in just about every major body
system. Some of its main functions include: processing sensory
information.
3. Where is nervous tissue found?
 Nervous Tissue. Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, and
nerves. It is responsible for coordinating and controlling
many body activities.

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