EEE311

Electronic Circuits 2
Syllabus

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Syllabus

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Syllabus

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Syllabus

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Syllabus

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LMS BlackBoard System

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 Definitions

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LOGARITHMS
• Positive features of using the logarithmic function
• The plotting of a variable between wide limits,
• Comparing levels without having to deal with unwieldy numbers,
• Identifying levels of particular importance in the design, review, and analysis
procedures
b: base

 log a

 ln a, e = 2.71828 . . . .

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 Example

Using the calculator, determine the logarithm of the following numbers to the base
indicated:
a. log10 106 = ?
b. loge e3 = ?
c. log10 10-2 = ?
d. loge e = ?

The logarithm of a number taken to a power is simply the power of the number if
the number matches the base of the logarithm.

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 Example - Solution

a. log10 106 = 6

b. loge e3 = 3 The logarithm of a number taken to a power is

simply the power of the number if the number
c. log10 10-2 = -2 matches the base of the logarithm.

d. loge e = 1

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 Example
a. log10 64 = 1.806

b. loge 64 = 4.159 The logarithm of a number does

not increase in the same linear
c. log10 1600 = 3.204 fashion as the number.

d. log10 8000 = 3.903

8000 is 125 times larger than 64, but the logarithm of 8000 is only about 2.16 times
larger than the magnitude of the logarithm of 64,

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 Example
Using a calculator, determine the antilogarithm of the following expressions:

a. 1.6 = log a  a = 101.6 = 39.81

b. 0.04 = ln a  a = e0.04 = 1.0408

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 Example

Using a calculator, determine the logarithm of the following numbers:

a. log 0.5 = - 0.3

b. log (4000/250) = log 4000 - log 250 = 3.602 - 2.398 = 1.204

c. log (0.6 * 30) = log 0.6 + log 30 = -0.2218 + 1.477 = 1.255

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Logarithms – Definitions:

Semilog: The term semi (meaning one-half) indicates that only one of the two scales
is a log scale,

Double-log (log-log) : both scales are log scales.

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Logarithms - Semilog Scale

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Logarithms - log Scale - Example

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Frequency response of Amplifier

Gain behavior versus frequency in semi-log scale

A straight-line plot on a linear scale can develop a curve on a log scale, and a nonlinear
plot on a linear scale can take on the appearance of a straight line on a log plot.
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DECIBELS
• Power Levels
• An increase in power level from, (4 W to 16 W) does not result in an audio level
increase by a factor of 16/4 = 4, but by a factor of 2, as derived from the power of 4
in the following manner: (4)2 = 16.
• For a change of 4 W to 64 W, the audio level will increase by a factor of 3 because
(4)3 = 64. In logarithmic form, the relationship can be written as log4 64 = 3.

• The decibel rating is a measure of the difference in magnitude between two power
levels.
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Decibels
• Terminal (output) power (P2), reference power level (P1).
• The reference level is generally accepted to be 1 mW.
• The resistance associated with the 1-mW power level is 600 Ω chosen because it
is the characteristic impedance of audio transmission lines.

• When the 1mW level is employed as the reference level, the decibel symbol
frequently appears as dBm.

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Decibels

• Multiplier of ratio is changed from 10 to 20 when the ratio is changed power to

voltage or current.

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Decibels
• Cascaded Stages

• Cascaded stages voltage gain:

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Decibels
Voltage Gains versus dB Levels
• A gain of 2 results in a dB level of +6 dB, whereas a
drop to 1/2 results in a -6dB level.
• A change in Vo>Vi from
• 1 to 10 = 20 dB
• 10 to 100 = 20 dB
• 100 to 1000 = 20 dB
change in level.
• When Vo = Vi  Vo /Vi = 1,  0 dB.
• Voltage gain of 1000  60 dB,
• An increase of only 20 dB is a result of the logarithmic
relationship.
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 Example 1
• Find the magnitude gain corresponding to a voltage gain of 100 dB.
Solution:

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 Example 2
• The input power to a device is 10,000 W at a voltage of 1000 V. The output power
is 500 W and the output impedance is 20.
a. Find the power gain in decibels.
b. Find the voltage gain in decibels.
c. Determine input resistance.

Solution:

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 Example 2 - Solution

𝑉2
𝑃=
𝑅

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 Example 3
• An amplifier rated at 40-W output is connected to a 10- speaker.
a. Calculate the input power required for full power output if the power gain is 25 dB.
b. Calculate the input voltage for rated output if the amplifier voltage gain is 40 dB.

Solution:

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 Example 3 - Solution

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FREQUENCY RESPONSE
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

1. How coupling and bypass capacitors cause the gain of discrete-circuit amplifiers
to fall off at low frequencies, and how to obtain an estimate of the frequency fL
at which the gain decreases by 3 dB below its value at midband.
2. The internal capacitive effects present in the MOSFET and the BJT and how to
model these effects by adding capacitances to the hybrid-π or T model of each
of the two transistor types.
3. The high-frequency limitation on the gain of the CS and CE amplifiers, and how
the gain falloff and the upper 3-dB frequency fH are mostly determined by the
small capacitance between the drain and gate (collector and base).
4. Powerful methods for the analysis of the high-frequency response of amplifier
circuits of varying complexity.

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CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

5. How the cascode amplifier studied in Chapter 8 can be designed to obtain

wider bandwidth than is possible with the CS and CE amplifiers.
6. The high-frequency performance of the source and emitter followers.
7. The high-frequency performance of differential amplifiers.
8. Circuit configurations for obtaining wideband amplification.

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Introduction
• The analysis of circuits in EC 1 course has been limited to a particular frequency.
• For the amplifier, it was a frequency that normally permitted ignoring the effects
of the capacitive elements, reducing the analysis to one that included only
resistive elements and sources of the independent and controlled variety.
• We will now investigate the frequency effects introduced by the larger capacitive
elements of the network at low frequencies and the smaller capacitive elements
of the active device at high frequencies.
• Because the analysis will extend through a wide frequency range, the logarithmic
scale will be defined and used throughout the analysis.
• In addition, because industry typically uses a decibel scale on its frequency plots,
the concept of the decibel is introduced in some detail.
• The similarities between the frequency response analyses of both BJTs and FETs
permit the coverage of both in the same chapter.
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Frequency Response of Amplifiers

• The input signal of an amplifier can always be expressed as a sum of sinusoidal

signals.
• An important characterization of an amplifier is its response to input sinusoids of
different frequencies

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Measuring the Amplifier Frequency Response

• Whenever a sine-wave signal is applied to a linear circuit, the resulting output is

sinusoidal with the same frequency as the input .
• Differences between input and output is amplitude and phase.
• Transfer function of the system T():

Amplitude

Phase

• To obtain the complete frequency response of the amplifier, change the

frequency of the input sinusoid and measure the new value for |T()| and T().

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Frequency Response of an Amplifier

• Amplitude and phase parameters together constitute the frequency response of

the amplifier;
• the first is known as the magnitude or amplitude response,
• the second is the phase response.
• The magnitude of transmission is given in decibels and thus plot “20log |T()|”
versus frequency.

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Amplifier Bandwidth

• The band of frequencies over which the gain of the amplifier is almost constant,
to within a certain number of decibels (usually 3 dB), is called the amplifier
bandwidth.

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Evaluating the Frequency Response of Amplifier

• To evaluate the frequency response of an amplifier, one has to analyze the

amplifier equivalent circuit model, taking into account all reactive components.
• An inductance L has a reactance or impedance jL,
• A capacitance C has a reactance or impedance 1/jC or, equivalently, a susceptance
or admittance jC.
 Thus in a frequency-domain analysis.
• Transfer Function (T()) is generally a complex function
• Magnitude of transfer function |T()| gives the magnitude (amplitude) response of
the amplifier.
• The phase of T() gives the phase response of the amplifier.

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Evaluating the Frequency Response of Amplifier

• The algebraic manipulations can be considerably simplified by using the complex

frequency variable s.
j  s
jL  sL
1/jC  1/sC

Transfer function in s-domain

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Single Time Constant (STC) Networks

• An STC network is one that can be reduced to, one reactive component
(inductance or capacitance) and one resistance.

Two examples of STC networks:

(a) a low-pass network and
(b) a high-pass network.

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Single Time Constant (STC) Networks

• An STC network formed of an inductance L and a resistance R has a time constant

 = L/R.
• An STC network composed of a capacitance C and a resistance R has a time
constant  = CR.
• Most STC networks can be classified into two categories,
1. Low pass (LP)
2. High pass (HP).

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 (a) Magnitude and (b) phase
response of STC networks of
the low-pass type.

These frequency-
response diagrams are
known as Bode plots
and the 3-dB frequency
(0) is also known as
the corner frequency,
break frequency, or
pole frequency.
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 (a) Magnitude and (b) phase
response of STC networks of
the high-pass type.

Here amplitude is
divided by a K factor
and frequency divided
by (0). This type of
plotting called as
normalized transfer
characteristics.

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-20dB/decade drop, beginning -45 degrees/decade drop,
from maximum gain at corner moving outward from -45
frequency degree shift at corner frequency

+20dB/decade incline, until -45 degrees/decade drop,

maximum gain is reached at moving outward from +45
corner frequency degree shift at corner frequency

Oxford University Publishing

Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith
(0195323033)
 Figure 1.2 : Characteristics of Various STC

low - pass high - pass

K Ks
transfer function
1  ( s / 0 ) 1  0
transfer function K K
(for physical freq.) 1  j( / 0 ) 1  j(0 /  )
K K
magnitude response
1  j( / 0 )2 1  j(0 /  )2
phase response tan( / 0 ) tan(0 /  )
transmission at   0 K 0
transmission at    0 K
1
3db Frequency 0  same

Bode Plots refer to next slide
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Single Time Constant (STC) Networks

• A facility for the rapid determination of the time constant  of an STC circuit.
1. Set the independent voltge or current source to zero;
2. “Grab hold” of the two terminals of the reactive element (capacitor C or
inductor L);
3. Determine the equivalent resistance R that appears between these two
terminals.
4. The time-constant is then CR or L/R.

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Sources
• Microelectronic Circuits, Adel S. Sedra and Kenner-th C. Smith, The Oxford Series,
7th edition, 2015.
• Electronıc Devıces and Cırcuıt Theory 11th edition, Robert Boylestad Louıs
Nashelsky, Prentıce Hall, 2013.
• Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design 4th edition, Neamen, Mc Graw Hill,
2010.
• Elektronik Devreleri II, M. Sait Türköz, Sistem Yayıncılık, 1996.