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Remedial Deped

The Department of Education (DepEd) issued guidelines for conducting remedial, advancement, and enrichment classes during summer 2021 amidst the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The guidelines require schools to use distance learning modalities and prohibit face-to-face activities. Remedial and advancement classes must be completed within six weeks and can utilize self-learning modules or alternative delivery modes. Schools must submit requests to their Schools Division Office to offer summer classes, which will run from July 19 to August 21, 2021.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
95 views22 pages

Remedial Deped

The Department of Education (DepEd) issued guidelines for conducting remedial, advancement, and enrichment classes during summer 2021 amidst the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The guidelines require schools to use distance learning modalities and prohibit face-to-face activities. Remedial and advancement classes must be completed within six weeks and can utilize self-learning modules or alternative delivery modes. Schools must submit requests to their Schools Division Office to offer summer classes, which will run from July 19 to August 21, 2021.
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DepEd Guidelines on the Conduct of Remedial, Advancement, and Enrichment Classes During Summer 2020

by Mark Anthony Llego

The Department of Education (DepEd) issued DepEd Memorandum (DM) No. 42. s.
2020 titled Guidelines for the Remainder of School Year 2019-2020 in Light of COVID-
19 Measures, which enforced directives designating the week of March 16-20 as
examination week in all DepEd schools for any remaining 4th Quarter Examinations. In
areas where classes have been suspended by the relevant national or local authorities
for the week of March 16-20. the 4th Quarter Examination shall no longer be
administered. A grading formula for the computation of the final grade for the 4th
quarter has been provided in the same issuance.

Guidelines on the computation of final grades, reporting of learner’s progress, and


promotion of learners at the end of the school year are stipulated in DepEd Order (DO)
No. 8, s. 2015 titled Policy Guidelines on Classroom Assessment for the K to 12 Basic
Education Program.

On the other hand, the implementing guidelines for the conduct of remedial classes
during summer for learners with learning gaps or subject area/s deficiency are provided
for in DO 13. s. 2018 titled Implementing Guidelines on the Conduct of Remedial and
Advancement Classes During Summer for the K to 12 Basic Education Program. The
remedial lessons can be made in the form of tutorial, mentoring, coaching, or other
ways of delivering the organized learning experiences, whichever is applicable in the
context of the learner. DO 13, s. 2018 also allows for the use of a combination of face-
to-face, modular, or online learning as delivery modes of instruction depending on the
learner’s profile. However, in compliance with Executive Order No. 112 issued by the the
President of the Philippines on April 30. 2020. where physical classes are suspended in
basic education during Enhanced Community Quarantine (ECQ) and General
Community Quarantine (GCQ), and when any person below 21 years old shall remain in
their residences at all times, distance learning modality shall be utilized, until there is a
decision or regulation by the proper authorities permitting learners and teachers to
leave their home for school purposes.

For Summer 2020, the conduct of remedial, enrichment and advancement classes shall
start on May 11, 2020. and shall end after the completion of the six-week period that
may include Saturdays as stipulated in DO 13, s. 2018. Schools may opt to shorten the
conduct of remedial and advancement classes when the essential learning
competencies have already been attained, while the conduct of enrichment classes may
be extended until the start of School Year (SY) 2020-2021.

Pursuant to Item VI (11) of DO 13, s. 2018. schools that wish to offer remedial or
advancement classes during summer are required to submit a letter of request to their
Schools Division Office (SDO). SDOs are advised to accept applications up to three days
before the start of the summer classes. Changes in the schedule of activities are by
reason of the constraints posed by the regulations relating to COVID-19.

his Department issues the following guidelines to assist schools in determining the
learning modality for remediation and enrichment classes that are suited to the unique
health situation/context of their community. School heads (SHs) shall decide on the
specific details of such classes, subject to the approval of their respective schools
division superintendent (SDS).

Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

July 16, 2021 – To reinforce learning advancement amidst the pandemic, the Department of
Education (DepEd) has issued guidelines to schools and schools division offices (SDO) on the
conduct of remedial and advancement classes during summer 2021.

In a memorandum sent to officials and school heads, the Department reminded SDOs to assist
schools in determining the appropriate learning modality for remedial and advancement
classes suited to the health situation of their community.

The conduct of remedial, advancement, and enrichment classes for Summer 2021 will be from
July 19, 2021 to August 21, 2021.

“Remedial and advancement classes must be completed within a six-week period that may
include Saturdays. Schools may also opt to shorten the conduct of remedial and advancement
classes when the essential learning competencies have already been attained,” Secretary
Leonor Magtolis Briones noted.

To ensure the protection of learners, teachers, and stakeholders, DepEd required schools to
use distance learning modalities according to the learner’s context, and face-to-face activities
are not allowed.

In this connection, modular learning in print or digital format shall be adopted using Self-
Learning Modules (SLMs) or Alternative Delivery Mode (ADM) self-instructional modules on
competencies in subject areas in which the learner failed.
“Teachers may conduct advance or remedial classes remotely with the help of the resources
stored in the DepEd Commons and DepEd Learning Resources Management and
Development System (LRMDS). This is crucial to help our learners cope up and develop their
skills according to Most Essential Learning Competencies (MELC) in their grade level,”
Undersecretary for Curriculum and Instruction Diosdado San Antonio said.

As mandated, a learner who receives a grade lower than 75 in any subject must be given an
intervention through remediation and must pass the said remedial classes for promotion to the
next grade level. Alternatively, schools may require the learners to attend make-up classes
during the SY 2021-2022.

Meanwhile, Senior High Schools (SHS) may offer advancement classes to SHS learners who
opt to pursue their work immersion before SY 2021-2022. Alternatively, SHS learners may take
advanced subjects before SY 2021-2022 to focus on their work immersion in the succeeding
semester.

DepEd reminded teachers to use the “Interim Policy Guidelines for Assessment and Grading in
Light of the Basic Education Learning Continuity Plan” for the computation of final grades,
including the utilization of alternative tools and strategies for assessing and supporting learning
for SY 2020-2021.

The Department also required schools intending to offer remedial or advancement classes
during summer to submit a letter of request and soon decide on the specific details of classes
subject to the approval of their respective SDO.

Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
In behavioral psychology, reinforcement is a consequence applied that will strengthen an organism's future
behavior whenever that behavior is preceded by a specific antecedent stimulus. This strengthening effect
may be measured as a higher frequency of behavior (e.g., pulling a lever more frequently), longer duration
(e.g., pulling a lever for longer periods of time), greater magnitude (e.g., pulling a lever with greater force), or
shorter latency (e.g., pulling a lever more quickly following the antecedent stimulus).
The model of self regulation has three main aspects of human behavior which are self awareness, self
reflection and self regulation. Reinforcements traditionally align with self regulation. The behavior can be
influenced by the consequence but behavior also needs antecedents. There are four types of reinforcement.
Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction, and punishment. Positive reinforcement is the
application of a positive reinforcer. Negative reinforcement is the practice of removing something negative
from the space of the subject as a way to encourage the antecedent behavior from that subject.
Extinction involves a behavior that requires no contingent consequence. If something (good or bad) is not
reinforced it should in theory disappear. Lastly, punishment is an imposition of aversive consequence upon
undesired behavior. Punishment by removal is a common example or removing a benefit following poor
performance. While reinforcement does not require an individual to consciously perceive an effect elicited by
the stimulus, it still requires conscious effort to work towards a desired goal.
Rewarding stimuli, which are associated with "wanting" and "liking" (desire and pleasure, respectively) and
appetitive behavior, function as positive reinforcers;[1] the converse statement is also true: positive reinforcers
provide a desirable stimulus.[1] Reinforcement does not require an individual to consciously perceive an
effect elicited by the stimulus.[2] Thus, reinforcement occurs only if there is an observable strengthening in
behavior. However, there is also negative reinforcement, which is characterized by taking away an
undesirable stimulus. Changing someone's job might serve as a negative reinforcer to someone who has
back problems, (e.g. changing from a labourers job to an office position).
In most cases, the term "reinforcement" refers to an enhancement of behavior, but this term is also
sometimes used to denote an enhancement of memory; for example, "post-training reinforcement" refers to
the provision of a stimulus (such as food) after a learning session in an attempt to increase the retained
breadth, detail, and duration of the individual memories or overall memory just formed. [3] The memory-
enhancing stimulus can also be one whose effects are directly rather than only indirectly emotional, as with
the phenomenon of "flashbulb memory," in which an emotionally highly intense stimulus can incentivize
memory of a set of a situation's circumstances well beyond the subset of those circumstances that caused
the emotionally significant stimulus, as when people of appropriate age are able to remember where they
were and what they were doing when they learned of the assassination of John F. Kennedy or September
11 terrorist attacks.[4]
Reinforcement is an important part of operant or instrumental conditioning.

Operant conditioning[edit]
Main article: Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning Extinction

Reinforcement Punishment
Increase behavior Decrease behavior

Negative punishment
Positive reinforcement Positive punishment
Remove appetitive
Add appetitive stimulus Negative reinforcement Add noxious stimulus
stimulus
following correct behavior following behavior
following behavior

Escape
Active avoidance
Remove noxious stimulus
Behavior avoids noxious stimulus
following correct behavior

The term operant conditioning was introduced by B. F. Skinner to indicate that in his experimental paradigm
the organism is free to operate on the environment. In this paradigm the experimenter cannot trigger the
desirable response; the experimenter waits for the response to occur (to be emitted by the organism) and
then a potential reinforcer is delivered. In the classical conditioning paradigm the experimenter triggers
(elicits) the desirable response by presenting a reflex eliciting stimulus, the Unconditional Stimulus (UCS),
which he pairs (precedes) with a neutral stimulus, the Conditional Stimulus (CS).
Reinforcement is a basic term in operant conditioning. For the punishment aspect of operant conditioning –
see punishment (psychology).

Positive reinforcement[edit]
Positive reinforcement occurs when a desirable event or stimulus is presented as a consequence of a
behavior and the chance that this behavior will manifest in similar environments increases. [13]: 253 

 Example: Whenever a rat presses a button, it gets a treat. If the rat starts pressing the button more
often, the treat serves to positively reinforce this behavior.
 Example: A father gives candy to his daughter when she tidies up her toys. If the frequency of picking up
the toys increases, the candy is a positive reinforcer (to reinforce the behavior of cleaning up).
 Example: A company enacts a rewards program in which employees earn prizes dependent on the
number of items sold. The prizes the employees receive are the positive reinforcement if they increase
sales.
 Example: A teacher praises his student when he receives a good grade. The praise the student receives
is the positive reinforcement in case the student's grades improve.
 Example: A supervisor attaches a monetary reward for the employee who exceeds expectations the
most. The monetary reward is the positive reinforcement of the good behavior: exceeding expectations.
The High Probability Instruction (HPI) treatment is a behaviorist psychological treatment based on the idea
of positive reinforcement.

Negative reinforcement[edit]
Negative reinforcement occurs when the rate of a behavior increases because an aversive event or
stimulus is removed or prevented from happening.[13]: 253 

 Example: A child cleans their room, and this behavior is followed by the parent stopping "nagging" or
asking the child repeatedly to do so. Here, the nagging serves to negatively reinforce the behavior of
cleaning because the child wants to remove that aversive stimulus of nagging.
 Example: A company has a policy that if an employee completes their assigned work by Friday, they
can have Saturday off. Working Saturday is the aversive stimulus; the employees have incentive to
increase productivity to avoid the aversive stimulus.
 Example: An individual leaves early for work to beat traffic and avoid arriving late. The behavior is
leaving early for work, and the aversive stimulus the individual wishes to remove is being late to work.
Extinction[edit]
Extinction can be intentional or unintentional and happens when an undesired behavior is ignored.

 Example (Intended): A young child ignores bullies making fun of them. The bullies do not get a reaction
from the child and lose interest in bullying them.
 Example (Unintended): A worker has not received any recognition for their above and beyond hard
work. They then stop working as hard.
 Example (Intended): A cat kept meowing for food in the night. The owners would not feed the cat so the
cat stopped meowing through the night.
Reinforcement versus punishment[edit]
Reinforcers serve to increase behaviors whereas punishers serve to decrease behaviors; thus, positive
reinforcers are stimuli that the subject will work to attain, and negative reinforcers are stimuli that the subject
will work to be rid of or to end.[14] The table below illustrates the adding and subtracting of stimuli (pleasant or
aversive) in relation to reinforcement vs. punishment.

Rewarding (pleasant)
Aversive (unpleasant) stimulus
stimulus

Adding/Presenting Positive Reinforcement Positive Punishment

Removing/Taking Away Negative Punishment Negative Reinforcement

For example, offering a child candy if he cleans his room is positive reinforcement. Spanking a child if he
breaks a window is positive punishment. Taking away a child's toys for misbehaving is negative punishment.
Giving a child a break from his chores if he performs well on a test is negative reinforcement. "Positive and
negative" do not carry the meaning of "good and bad" in this usage.

Further ideas and concepts[edit]


 Distinguishing between positive and negative can be difficult and may not always be necessary;
focusing on what is being removed or added and how it is being removed or added will determine the
nature of the reinforcement.
 Negative reinforcement is not punishment. The two, as explained above, differ in the increase (negative
reinforcement) or decrease (punishment) of the future probability of a response. In negative
reinforcement, the stimulus removed following a response is an aversive stimulus; if this stimulus were
presented contingent on a response, it may also function as a positive punisher.
 The form of a stimulus is separate from its function in terms of whether it will reinforce or punish
behavior. An event that may punish behavior for some may serve to reinforce behavior for others.
Example: A child is repeatedly given detention for acting up in school, but the frequency of the bad
behavior increases. Thus, the detention may be a reinforcer (could be positive or negative); perhaps the
child now gets one-on-one attention from a teacher or perhaps they now avoid going home where they
are often abused.
 Some reinforcement can be simultaneously positive and negative, such as a drug addict taking drugs for
the added euphoria (a positive feeling) and eliminating withdrawal symptoms (which would be a
negative feeling). Or, in a warm room, a current of external air serves as positive reinforcement because
it is pleasantly cool and as negative reinforcement because it removes uncomfortable hot air.
 Reinforcement in the business world is essential in driving productivity. Employees are constantly
motivated by the ability to receive a positive stimulus, such as a promotion or a bonus. Employees are
also driven by negative reinforcement. This can be seen when employees are offered Saturdays off if
they complete the weekly workload by Friday.
 Though negative reinforcement has a positive effect in the short term for a workplace (i.e. encourages a
financially beneficial action), over-reliance on a negative reinforcement hinders the ability of workers to
act in a creative, engaged way creating growth in the long term. [15]
 Both positive and negative reinforcement increase behavior. Most people, especially children, will learn
to follow instruction by a mix of positive and negative reinforcement. [13]
 Limited resources can cause a person to not be able to provide constant reinforcement.
Primary and secondary reinforcers[edit]
A primary reinforcer, sometimes called an unconditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus that does not
require pairing with a different stimulus in order to function as a reinforcer and most likely has obtained this
function through the evolution and its role in species' survival. [16] Examples of primary reinforcers include
food, water, and sex. Some primary reinforcers, such as certain drugs, may mimic the effects of other
primary reinforcers. While these primary reinforcers are fairly stable through life and across individuals, the
reinforcing value of different primary reinforcers varies due to multiple factors (e.g., genetics, experience).
Thus, one person may prefer one type of food while another avoids it. Or one person may eat much food
while another eats very little. So even though food is a primary reinforcer for both individuals, the value of
food as a reinforcer differs between them.
A secondary reinforcer, sometimes called a conditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus or situation that has
acquired its function as a reinforcer after pairing with a stimulus that functions as a reinforcer. This stimulus
may be a primary reinforcer or another conditioned reinforcer (such as money). An example of a secondary
reinforcer would be the sound from a clicker, as used in clicker training. The sound of the clicker has been
associated with praise or treats, and subsequently, the sound of the clicker may function as a reinforcer.
Another common example is the sound of people clapping – there is nothing inherently positive about
hearing that sound, but we have learned that it is associated with praise and rewards.
When trying to distinguish primary and secondary reinforcers in human examples, use the "caveman test." If
the stimulus is something that a caveman would naturally find desirable (e.g., candy) then it is a primary
reinforcer. If, on the other hand, the caveman would not react to it (e.g., a dollar bill), it is a secondary
reinforcer. As with primary reinforcers, an organism can experience satisfaction and deprivation with
secondary reinforcers.

Other reinforcement terms[edit]


 A generalized reinforcer is a conditioned reinforcer that has obtained the reinforcing function by pairing
with many other reinforcers and functions as a reinforcer under a wide-variety of motivating operations.
(One example of this is money because it is paired with many other reinforcers). [17]: 83 
 In reinforcer sampling, a potentially reinforcing but unfamiliar stimulus is presented to an organism
without regard to any prior behavior.
 Socially-mediated reinforcement (direct reinforcement) involves the delivery of reinforcement that
requires the behavior of another organism.
 The Premack principle is a special case of reinforcement elaborated by David Premack, which states
that a highly preferred activity can be used effectively as a reinforcer for a less-preferred activity. [17]: 123 
 Reinforcement hierarchy is a list of actions, rank-ordering the most desirable to least desirable
consequences that may serve as a reinforcer. A reinforcement hierarchy can be used to determine the
relative frequency and desirability of different activities, and is often employed when applying the
Premack principle.[citation needed]
 Contingent outcomes are more likely to reinforce behavior than non-contingent responses. Contingent
outcomes are those directly linked to a causal behavior, such a light turning on being contingent on
flipping a switch. Note that contingent outcomes are not necessary to demonstrate reinforcement, but
perceived contingency may increase learning.
 Contiguous stimuli are stimuli closely associated by time and space with specific behaviors. They
reduce the amount of time needed to learn a behavior while increasing its resistance to extinction.
Giving a dog a piece of food immediately after sitting is more contiguous with (and therefore more likely
to reinforce) the behavior than a several minute delay in food delivery following the behavior.
 Noncontingent reinforcement refers to response-independent delivery of stimuli identified as reinforcers
for some behaviors of that organism. However, this typically entails time-based delivery of stimuli
identified as maintaining aberrant behavior, which decreases the rate of the target behavior. [18] As no
measured behavior is identified as being strengthened, there is controversy surrounding the use of the
term noncontingent "reinforcement".[19]

Natural and artificial[edit]


In his 1967 paper, Arbitrary and Natural Reinforcement, Charles Ferster proposed classifying reinforcement
into events that increase frequency of an operant as a natural consequence of the behavior itself, and
events that are presumed to affect frequency by their requirement of human mediation, such as in a token
economy where subjects are "rewarded" for certain behavior with an arbitrary token of a negotiable value.
In 1970, Baer and Wolf created a name for the use of natural reinforcers called "behavior traps". [20] A
behavior trap requires only a simple response to enter the trap, yet once entered, the trap cannot be resisted
in creating general behavior change. It is the use of a behavioral trap that increases a person's repertoire, by
exposing them to the naturally occurring reinforcement of that behavior. Behavior traps have four
characteristics:

 They are "baited" with virtually irresistible reinforcers that "lure" the student to the trap
 Only a low-effort response already in the repertoire is necessary to enter the trap
 Interrelated contingencies of reinforcement inside the trap motivate the person to acquire, extend, and
maintain targeted academic/social skills[21]
 They can remain effective for long periods of time because the person shows few, if any, satiation
effects
As can be seen from the above, artificial reinforcement is in fact created to build or develop skills, and to
generalize, it is important that either a behavior trap is introduced to "capture" the skill and utilize naturally
occurring reinforcement to maintain or increase it. This behavior trap may simply be a social situation that
will generally result from a specific behavior once it has met a certain criterion (e.g., if you use edible
reinforcers to train a person to say hello and smile at people when they meet them, after that skill has been
built up, the natural reinforcer of other people smiling, and having more friendly interactions will naturally
reinforce the skill and the edibles can be faded). [citation needed]

Intermittent reinforcement schedules [edit]


Much behavior is not reinforced every time it is emitted, and the pattern of intermittent reinforcement strongly
affects how fast an operant response is learned, what its rate is at any given time, and how long it continues
when reinforcement ceases. The simplest rules controlling reinforcement are continuous reinforcement,
where every response is reinforced, and extinction, where no response is reinforced. Between these
extremes, more complex "schedules of reinforcement" specify the rules that determine how and when a
response will be followed by a reinforcer.
Specific schedules of reinforcement reliably induce specific patterns of response, irrespective of the species
being investigated (including humans in some conditions). However, the quantitative properties of behavior
under a given schedule depend on the parameters of the schedule, and sometimes on other, non-schedule
factors. The orderliness and predictability of behavior under schedules of reinforcement was evidence
for B.F. Skinner's claim that by using operant conditioning he could obtain "control over behavior", in a way
that rendered the theoretical disputes of contemporary comparative psychology obsolete. The reliability of
schedule control supported the idea that a radical behaviorist experimental analysis of behavior could be the
foundation for a psychology that did not refer to mental or cognitive processes. The reliability of schedules
also led to the development of applied behavior analysis as a means of controlling or altering behavior.
Many of the simpler possibilities, and some of the more complex ones, were investigated at great length by
Skinner using pigeons, but new schedules continue to be defined and investigated.
Simple schedules[edit]

A chart demonstrating the different response rate of the four simple schedules of reinforcement, each hatch mark
designates a reinforcer being given

 Ratio schedule – the reinforcement depends only on the number of responses the organism has
performed.
 Continuous reinforcement (CRF) – a schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of the
instrumental response (desired response) is followed by the reinforcer. [17]: 86 
o Lab example: each time a rat presses a bar it gets a pellet of food.
o Real-world example: each time a dog defecates outside its owner gives it a treat; each time a
person puts $1 in a candy machine and presses the buttons they receive a candy bar.
Simple schedules have a single rule to determine when a single type of reinforcer is delivered for a specific
response.

 Fixed ratio (FR) – schedules deliver reinforcement after every nth response.[17]: 88  An FR 1 schedule is


synonymous with a CRF schedule.
o Example: FR 2 = every second desired response the subject makes is reinforced.
o Lab example: FR 5 = rat's bar-pressing behavior is reinforced with food after every 5 bar-presses in
a Skinner box.
o Real-world example: FR 10 = Used car dealer gets a $1000 bonus for each 10 cars sold on the lot.
 Variable ratio schedule (VR) – reinforced on average every nth response, but not always on the nth
response.[17]: 88 
o Lab example: VR 4 = first pellet delivered on 2 bar presses, second pellet delivered on 6 bar
presses, third pellet 4 bar presses (2 + 6 + 4 = 12; 12 / 3= 4 bar presses to receive pellet).
o Real-world example: slot machines (because, though the probability of hitting the jackpot is
constant, the number of lever presses needed to hit the jackpot is variable).
 Fixed interval (FI) – reinforced after n amount of time.
o Example: FI 1-s = reinforcement provided for the first response after 1 second.
o Lab example: FI 15-s = rat's bar-pressing behavior is reinforced for the first bar press after 15
seconds passes since the last reinforcement.
o Real-world example: FI 30-min = a 30-minute washing machine cycle.
 Variable interval (VI) – reinforced on an average of n amount of time, but not always exactly n amount
of time.[17]: 89 
o Example: VI 4-min = first pellet delivered after 2 minutes, second delivered after 6 minutes, third is
delivered after 4 minutes (2 + 6 + 4 = 12; 12 / 3 = 4). Reinforcement is delivered on the average
after 4 minutes.
o Lab example: VI 10-s = a rat's bar-pressing behavior is reinforced for the first bar press after an
average of 10 seconds passes since the last reinforcement.
o Real-world example: VI 30-min = Going fishing—you might catch a fish after 10 minutes, then have
to wait an hour, then have to wait 20 minutes.
 Fixed time (FT) – Provides a reinforcing stimulus at a fixed time since the last reinforcement delivery,
regardless of whether the subject has responded or not. In other words, it is a non-contingent schedule.
o Lab example: FT 5-s = rat gets food every 5 seconds regardless of the behavior.
o Real-world example: FT 30-d = a person gets an annuity check every month regardless of behavior
between checks
 Variable time (VT) – Provides reinforcement at an average variable time since last reinforcement,
regardless of whether the subject has responded or not.
Simple schedules are utilized in many differential reinforcement [22] procedures:

 Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) - A conditioning procedure in which an


undesired response is decreased by placing it on extinction or, less commonly, providing contingent
punishment, while simultaneously providing reinforcement contingent on a desirable response. An
example would be a teacher attending to a student only when they raise their hand, while ignoring the
student when he or she calls out.
 Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) – Also known as omission training procedures, an
instrumental conditioning procedure in which a positive reinforcer is periodically delivered only if the
participant does something other than the target response. An example would be reinforcing any hand
action other than nose picking.[17]: 338 
 Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI) – Used to reduce a frequent behavior
without punishing it by reinforcing an incompatible response. An example would be reinforcing clapping
to reduce nose picking
 Differential reinforcement of low response rate (DRL) – Used to encourage low rates of responding.
It is like an interval schedule, except that premature responses reset the time required between
behavior.
o Lab example: DRL 10-s = a rat is reinforced for the first response after 10 seconds, but if the rat
responds earlier than 10 seconds there is no reinforcement and the rat has to wait 10 seconds from
that premature response without another response before bar pressing will lead to reinforcement.
o Real-world example: "If you ask me for a potato chip no more than once every 10 minutes, I will give
it to you. If you ask more often, I will give you none."
 Differential reinforcement of high rate (DRH) – Used to increase high rates of responding. It is like an
interval schedule, except that a minimum number of responses are required in the interval in order to
receive reinforcement.
o Lab example: DRH 10-s/FR 15 = a rat must press a bar 15 times within a 10-second increment to
get reinforced.
o Real-world example: "If Lance Armstrong is going to win the Tour de France he has to
pedal x number of times during the y-hour race."
Effects of different types of simple schedules [edit]

 Fixed ratio: activity slows after reinforcer is delivered, then response rates increase until the next
reinforcer delivery (post-reinforcement pause).
 Variable ratio: rapid, steady rate of responding; most resistant to extinction.
 Fixed interval: responding increases towards the end of the interval; poor resistance to extinction.
 Variable interval: steady activity results, good resistance to extinction.
 Ratio schedules produce higher rates of responding than interval schedules, when the rates of
reinforcement are otherwise similar.
 Variable schedules produce higher rates and greater resistance to extinction than most fixed schedules.
This is also known as the Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect (PREE).
 The variable ratio schedule produces both the highest rate of responding and the greatest resistance to
extinction (for example, the behavior of gamblers at slot machines).
 Fixed schedules produce "post-reinforcement pauses" (PRP), where responses will briefly cease
immediately following reinforcement, though the pause is a function of the upcoming response
requirement rather than the prior reinforcement. [23]
o The PRP of a fixed interval schedule is frequently followed by a "scallop-shaped" accelerating rate
of response, while fixed ratio schedules produce a more "angular" response.
 fixed interval scallop: the pattern of responding that develops with fixed interval reinforcement
schedule, performance on a fixed interval reflects subject's accuracy in telling time.
 Organisms whose schedules of reinforcement are "thinned" (that is, requiring more responses or a
greater wait before reinforcement) may experience "ratio strain" if thinned too quickly. This produces
behavior similar to that seen during extinction.
o Ratio strain: the disruption of responding that occurs when a fixed ratio response requirement is
increased too rapidly.
o Ratio run: high and steady rate of responding that completes each ratio requirement. Usually higher
ratio requirement causes longer post-reinforcement pauses to occur.
 Partial reinforcement schedules are more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement
schedules.
o Ratio schedules are more resistant than interval schedules and variable schedules more resistant
than fixed ones.
o Momentary changes in reinforcement value lead to dynamic changes in behavior. [24]

Compound schedules[edit]
Compound schedules combine two or more different simple schedules in some way using the same
reinforcer for the same behavior. There are many possibilities; among those most often used are:

 Alternative schedules – A type of compound schedule where two or more simple schedules are in
effect and whichever schedule is completed first results in reinforcement. [25]
 Conjunctive schedules – A complex schedule of reinforcement where two or more simple schedules
are in effect independently of each other, and requirements on all of the simple schedules must be met
for reinforcement.
 Multiple schedules – Two or more schedules alternate over time, with a stimulus indicating which is in
force. Reinforcement is delivered if the response requirement is met while a schedule is in effect.
o Example: FR4 when given a whistle and FI6 when given a bell ring.
 Mixed schedules – Either of two, or more, schedules may occur with no stimulus indicating which is in
force. Reinforcement is delivered if the response requirement is met while a schedule is in effect.
o Example: FI6 and then VR3 without any stimulus warning of the change in schedule.

Administrating two reinforcement schedules at the same time

Concurrent schedules – A complex reinforcement procedure in which the participant can choose any
one of two or more simple reinforcement schedules that are available simultaneously. Organisms are
free to change back and forth between the response alternatives at any time.

o Real-world example: changing channels on a television.


 Concurrent-chain schedule of reinforcement – A complex reinforcement procedure in which the
participant is permitted to choose during the first link which of several simple reinforcement schedules
will be in effect in the second link. Once a choice has been made, the rejected alternatives become
unavailable until the start of the next trial.
 Interlocking schedules – A single schedule with two components where progress in one component
affects progress in the other component. In an interlocking FR 60 FI 120-s schedule, for example, each
response subtracts time from the interval component such that each response is "equal" to removing
two seconds from the FI schedule.
 Chained schedules – Reinforcement occurs after two or more successive schedules have been
completed, with a stimulus indicating when one schedule has been completed and the next has started
o Example: On an FR 10 schedule in the presence a red light, a pigeon pecks a green disc 10 times;
then, a yellow light indicates an FR 3 schedule is active; after the pigeon pecks a yellow disc 3
times, a green light to indicates a VI 6-s schedule is in effect; if this were the final schedule in the
chain, the pigeon would be reinforced for pecking a green disc on a VI 6-s schedule; however, all
schedule requirements in the chain must be met before a reinforcer is provided.
 Tandem schedules – Reinforcement occurs when two or more successive schedule requirements have
been completed, with no stimulus indicating when a schedule has been completed and the next has
started.
o Example: VR 10, after it is completed the schedule is changed without warning to FR 10, after that it
is changed without warning to FR 16, etc. At the end of the series of schedules, a reinforcer is finally
given.
 Higher-order schedules – completion of one schedule is reinforced according to a second schedule;
e.g. in FR2 (FI10 secs), two successive fixed interval schedules require completion before a response is
reinforced.
Superimposed schedules[edit]
The psychology term superimposed schedules of reinforcement refers to a structure of rewards where two
or more simple schedules of reinforcement operate simultaneously. Reinforcers can be positive, negative, or
both. An example is a person who comes home after a long day at work. The behavior of opening the front
door is rewarded by a big kiss on the lips by the person's spouse and a rip in the pants from the family dog
jumping enthusiastically. Another example of superimposed schedules of reinforcement is a pigeon in an
experimental cage pecking at a button. The pecks deliver a hopper of grain every 20th peck, and access to
water after every 200 pecks.
Superimposed schedules of reinforcement are a type of compound schedule that evolved from the initial
work on simple schedules of reinforcement by B.F. Skinner and his colleagues (Skinner and Ferster, 1957).
They demonstrated that reinforcers could be delivered on schedules, and further that organisms behaved
differently under different schedules. Rather than a reinforcer, such as food or water, being delivered every
time as a consequence of some behavior, a reinforcer could be delivered after more than one instance of
the behavior. For example, a pigeon may be required to peck a button switch ten times before food appears.
This is a "ratio schedule". Also, a reinforcer could be delivered after an interval of time passed following a
target behavior. An example is a rat that is given a food pellet immediately following the first response that
occurs after two minutes has elapsed since the last lever press. This is called an "interval schedule".
In addition, ratio schedules can deliver reinforcement following fixed or variable number of behaviors by the
individual organism. Likewise, interval schedules can deliver reinforcement following fixed or variable
intervals of time following a single response by the organism. Individual behaviors tend to generate
response rates that differ based upon how the reinforcement schedule is created. Much subsequent
research in many labs examined the effects on behaviors of scheduling reinforcers.
If an organism is offered the opportunity to choose between or among two or more simple schedules of
reinforcement at the same time, the reinforcement structure is called a "concurrent schedule of
reinforcement". Brechner (1974, 1977) introduced the concept of superimposed schedules of
reinforcement in an attempt to create a laboratory analogy of social traps, such as when
humans overharvest their fisheries or tear down their rainforests. Brechner created a situation where simple
reinforcement schedules were superimposed upon each other. In other words, a single response or group of
responses by an organism led to multiple consequences. Concurrent schedules of reinforcement can be
thought of as "or" schedules, and superimposed schedules of reinforcement can be thought of as "and"
schedules. Brechner and Linder (1981) and Brechner (1987) expanded the concept to describe how
superimposed schedules and the social trap analogy could be used to analyze the way energy flows
through systems.
Superimposed schedules of reinforcement have many real-world applications in addition to generating social
traps. Many different human individual and social situations can be created by superimposing simple
reinforcement schedules. For example, a human being could have simultaneous tobacco and alcohol
addictions. Even more complex situations can be created or simulated by superimposing two or more
concurrent schedules. For example, a high school senior could have a choice between going to Stanford
University or UCLA, and at the same time have the choice of going into the Army or the Air Force, and
simultaneously the choice of taking a job with an internet company or a job with a software company. That is
a reinforcement structure of three superimposed concurrent schedules of reinforcement.
Superimposed schedules of reinforcement can create the three classic conflict situations (approach–
approach conflict, approach–avoidance conflict, and avoidance–avoidance conflict) described by Kurt
Lewin (1935) and can operationalize other Lewinian situations analyzed by his force field analysis. Other
examples of the use of superimposed schedules of reinforcement as an analytical tool are its application to
the contingencies of rent control (Brechner, 2003) and problem of toxic waste dumping in the Los Angeles
County storm drain system (Brechner, 2010).
Concurrent schedules[edit]
In operant conditioning, concurrent schedules of reinforcement are schedules of reinforcement that are
simultaneously available to an animal subject or human participant, so that the subject or participant can
respond on either schedule. For example, in a two-alternative forced choice task, a pigeon in a Skinner
box is faced with two pecking keys; pecking responses can be made on either, and food reinforcement might
follow a peck on either. The schedules of reinforcement arranged for pecks on the two keys can be different.
They may be independent, or they may be linked so that behavior on one key affects the likelihood of
reinforcement on the other.
It is not necessary for responses on the two schedules to be physically distinct. In an alternate way of
arranging concurrent schedules, introduced by Findley in 1958, both schedules are arranged on a single key
or other response device, and the subject can respond on a second key to change between the schedules.
In such a "Findley concurrent" procedure, a stimulus (e.g., the color of the main key) signals which schedule
is in effect.
Concurrent schedules often induce rapid alternation between the keys. To prevent this, a "changeover
delay" is commonly introduced: each schedule is inactivated for a brief period after the subject switches to it.
When both the concurrent schedules are variable intervals, a quantitative relationship known as
the matching law is found between relative response rates in the two schedules and the relative
reinforcement rates they deliver; this was first observed by R.J. Herrnstein in 1961. Matching law is a rule for
instrumental behavior which states that the relative rate of responding on a particular response alternative
equals the relative rate of reinforcement for that response (rate of behavior = rate of reinforcement). Animals
and humans have a tendency to prefer choice in schedules. [26]

Shaping[edit]
Main article: Shaping (psychology)

Shaping is reinforcement of successive approximations to a desired instrumental response. In training a rat


to press a lever, for example, simply turning toward the lever is reinforced at first. Then, only turning and
stepping toward it is reinforced. The outcomes of one set of behaviours starts the shaping process for the
next set of behaviours, and the outcomes of that set prepares the shaping process for the next set, and so
on. As training progresses, the response reinforced becomes progressively more like the desired behavior;
each subsequent behaviour becomes a closer approximation of the final behaviour. [27]
Shaping is used as an intervention for various desired behaviors for individuals with Autism as well as other
developmental disabilities. When shaping is combined with other evidence-based practices such as complex
functional communication training (FCT),[28] can yield a positive outcomes for the individual. When shaping is
paired with a schedule of reinforcements with efficiency, the target behavior is increased.
Shaping is also used for food refusal.[29] Food refusal is when an individual has a partial or total aversion to
food items. This can be as minimal as a picky eater to severe and can affect the individuals' health. Shaping
has been used to have a higher success rate for food acceptance. [30]

Chaining[edit]
Main article: Chaining

Chaining involves linking discrete behaviors together in a series, such that each result of each behavior is
both the reinforcement (or consequence) for the previous behavior, and the stimuli (or antecedent) for the
next behavior. There are many ways to teach chaining, such as forward chaining (starting from the first
behavior in the chain), backwards chaining (starting from the last behavior) and total task chaining (in which
the entire behavior is taught from beginning to end, rather than as a series of steps). An example is opening
a locked door. First the key is inserted, then turned, then the door opened.
Forward chaining would teach the subject first to insert the key. Once that task is mastered, they are told to
insert the key, and taught to turn it. Once that task is mastered, they are told to perform the first two, then
taught to open the door. Backwards chaining would involve the teacher first inserting and turning the key,
and the subject then being taught to open the door. Once that is learned, the teacher inserts the key, and
the subject is taught to turn it, then opens the door as the next step. Finally, the subject is taught to insert the
key, and they turn and open the door. Once the first step is mastered, the entire task has been taught. Total
task chaining would involve teaching the entire task as a single series, prompting through all steps. Prompts
are faded (reduced) at each step as they are mastered.
Challenging behaviors seen in individuals with Autism and other related disabilities have successfully
managed and maintained by previous studies using a scheduled of chained reinforcements. [31] Functional
communication training is an intervention that often uses chained schedules of reinforcement to effectively
promote the appropriate and desired functional communication response. [32] The purpose of the chaining
procedures when using it paired with functional communication training are to decrease challenging or
inappropriate behaviors with functional or more appropriate ways to express the individual.

Persuasive communication and the reinforcement theory [edit]


Persuasive communication
Persuasion influences any person the way they think, act and feel. Persuasive skill tells about how
people understand the concern, position and needs of the people. Persuasion can be classified into
informal persuasion and formal persuasion.
Informal persuasion
This tells about the way in which a person interacts with colleagues and customers. The informal
persuasion can be used in team, memos as well as e-mails.
Example: "I noticed that you helped out Joe while your equipment was being serviced by the
maintenance crew."[33] OR
"I overheard your explanation to that last customer about how to obtain, use, and the advantages of
having a credit card. I think we may be adding her to our business." [33]
Formal persuasion
This type of persuasion is used in writing customer letter, proposal and also for formal presentation
to any customer or colleagues.
Process of persuasion
Persuasion relates how you influence people with your skills, experience, knowledge, leadership,
qualities and team capabilities. Persuasion is an interactive process while getting the work done by
others. Here are examples for which you can use persuasion skills in real time. Interview: you can
prove your best talents, skills and expertise. Clients: to guide your clients for the achievement of the
goals or targets. Memos: to express your ideas and views to coworkers for the improvement in the
operations. Resistance identification and positive attitude are the vital roles of persuasion.
Persuasion is a form of human interaction. It takes place when one individual
expects some particular response from one or more other individuals and
deliberately sets out to secure the response through the use of communication. The
communicator must realize that different groups have different values. [34]: 24–25 
In instrumental learning situations, which involve operant behavior, the persuasive
communicator will present his message and then wait for the receiver to make a
correct response. As soon as the receiver makes the response, the communicator
will attempt to fix the response by some appropriate reward or reinforcement. [35]
In conditional learning situations, where there is respondent behavior, the
communicator presents his message so as to elicit the response he wants from the
receiver, and the stimulus that originally served to elicit the response then becomes
the reinforcing or rewarding element in conditioning. [34]

Mathematical models[edit]
A lot of work has been done in building a mathematical model of reinforcement.
This model is known as MPR, short for mathematical principles of reinforcement.
Peter Killeen has made key discoveries in the field with his research on pigeons. [36]

Criticisms[edit]
The standard definition of behavioral reinforcement has been criticized as circular,
since it appears to argue that response strength is increased by reinforcement, and
defines reinforcement as something that increases response strength (i.e.,
response strength is increased by things that increase response strength).
However, the correct usage[37] of reinforcement is that something is a
reinforcer because of its effect on behavior, and not the other way around. It
becomes circular if one says that a particular stimulus strengthens behavior
because it is a reinforcer, and does not explain why a stimulus is producing that
effect on the behavior. Other definitions have been proposed, such as F.D.
Sheffield's "consummatory behavior contingent on a response", but these are not
broadly used in psychology.[38]
Increasingly, understanding of the role reinforcers play is moving away from a
"strengthening" effect to a "signalling" effect.[39] That is, the view that reinforcers
increase responding because they signal the behaviours that are likely to result in
reinforcement. While in most practical applications, the effect of any given
reinforcer will be the same regardless of whether the reinforcer is signalling or
strengthening, this approach helps to explain a number of behavioural
phenomenon including patterns of responding on intermittent reinforcement
schedules (fixed interval scallops) and the differential outcomes effect.[40]

History of the terms[edit]


In the 1920s Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov may have been the first to use the
word reinforcement with respect to behavior, but (according to Dinsmoor) he used
its approximate Russian cognate sparingly, and even then it referred to
strengthening an already-learned but weakening response. He did not use it, as it is
today, for selecting and strengthening new behaviors. Pavlov's introduction of the
word extinction (in Russian) approximates today's psychological use.
In popular use, positive reinforcement is often used as a synonym for reward, with
people (not behavior) thus being "reinforced", but this is contrary to the term's
consistent technical usage, as it is a dimension of behavior, and not the person,
which is strengthened. Negative reinforcement is often used by laypeople and even
social scientists outside psychology as a synonym for punishment. This is contrary
to modern technical use, but it was B.F. Skinner who first used it this way in his
1938 book. By 1953, however, he followed others in thus employing the
word punishment, and he re-cast negative reinforcement for the removal of
aversive stimuli.
There are some within the field of behavior analysis [41] who have suggested that the
terms "positive" and "negative" constitute an unnecessary distinction in discussing
reinforcement as it is often unclear whether stimuli are being removed or presented.
For example, Iwata poses the question: "... is a change in temperature more
accurately characterized by the presentation of cold (heat) or the removal of heat
(cold)?"[42]: 363  Thus, reinforcement could be conceptualized as a pre-change
condition replaced by a post-change condition that reinforces the behavior that
followed the change in stimulus conditions.

Applications[edit]
Reinforcement and punishment are ubiquitous in human social interactions, and a
great many applications of operant principles have been suggested and
implemented. Following are a few examples.

Addiction and dependence[edit]


Positive and negative reinforcement play central roles in the development and
maintenance of addiction and drug dependence. An addictive drug is intrinsically
rewarding; that is, it functions as a primary positive reinforcer of drug use. The
brain's reward system assigns it incentive salience (i.e., it is "wanted" or "desired"),
[43][44][45]
 so as an addiction develops, deprivation of the drug leads to craving. In
addition, stimuli associated with drug use – e.g., the sight of a syringe, and the
location of use – become associated with the intense reinforcement induced by the
drug.[43][44][45] These previously neutral stimuli acquire several properties: their
appearance can induce craving, and they can become conditioned positive
reinforcers of continued use.[43][44][45] Thus, if an addicted individual encounters one of
these drug cues, a craving for the associated drug may reappear. For example,
anti-drug agencies previously used posters with images of drug paraphernalia as
an attempt to show the dangers of drug use. However, such posters are no longer
used because of the effects of incentive salience in causing relapse upon sight of
the stimuli illustrated in the posters.
In drug dependent individuals, negative reinforcement occurs when a drug is self-
administered in order to alleviate or "escape" the symptoms of physical
dependence (e.g., tremors and sweating) and/or psychological
dependence (e.g., anhedonia, restlessness, irritability, and anxiety) that arise
during the state of drug withdrawal.[43]

Animal training[edit]
Main article: Animal training

A chicken riding a skateboard


Animal trainers and pet owners were applying the principles and practices of
operant conditioning long before these ideas were named and studied, and animal
training still provides one of the clearest and most convincing examples of operant
control. Of the concepts and procedures described in this article, a few of the most
salient are: availability of immediate reinforcement (e.g. the ever-present bag of
dog yummies); contingency, assuring that reinforcement follows the desired
behavior and not something else; the use of secondary reinforcement, as in
sounding a clicker immediately after a desired response; shaping, as in gradually
getting a dog to jump higher and higher; intermittent reinforcement, reducing the
frequency of those yummies to induce persistent behavior without satiation;
chaining, where a complex behavior is gradually put together. [46]

Child behaviour – parent management training[edit]


Main article: Parent management training

Providing positive reinforcement for appropriate child behaviors is a major focus of


parent management training. Typically, parents learn to reward appropriate
behavior through social rewards (such as praise, smiles, and hugs) as well as
concrete rewards (such as stickers or points towards a larger reward as part of an
incentive system created collaboratively with the child). [47] In addition, parents learn
to select simple behaviors as an initial focus and reward each of the small steps
that their child achieves towards reaching a larger goal (this concept is called
"successive approximations").[47][48] They may also use indirect rewards such
through progress charts. Providing positive reinforcement in the classroom can be
beneficial to student success. When applying positive reinforcement to students, it's
crucial to make it individualized to that student's needs. This way, the student
understands why they are receiving the praise, they can accept it, and eventually
learn to continue the action that was earned by positive reinforcement. For
example, using rewards or extra recess time might apply to some students more,
whereas others might accept the enforcement by receiving stickers or check marks
indicating praise.

Economics[edit]
Main article: Behavioral economics

Further information: Consumer demand tests (animals)

Both psychologists and economists have become interested in applying operant


concepts and findings to the behavior of humans in the marketplace. An example is
the analysis of consumer demand, as indexed by the amount of a commodity that is
purchased. In economics, the degree to which price influences consumption is
called "the price elasticity of demand." Certain commodities are more elastic than
others; for example, a change in price of certain foods may have a large effect on
the amount bought, while gasoline and other essentials may be less affected by
price changes. In terms of operant analysis, such effects may be interpreted in
terms of motivations of consumers and the relative value of the commodities as
reinforcers.[49]

Gambling – variable ratio scheduling[edit]


Main article: Gambling

As stated earlier in this article, a variable ratio schedule yields reinforcement after
the emission of an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule typically
generates rapid, persistent responding. Slot machines pay off on a variable ratio
schedule, and they produce just this sort of persistent lever-pulling behavior in
gamblers. Because the machines are programmed to pay out less money than they
take in, the persistent slot-machine user invariably loses in the long run. Slots
machines, and thus variable ratio reinforcement, have often been blamed as a
factor underlying gambling addiction. [50]

Managing behavior in organizations[edit]


Main article: Managing behavior in organizations

An alternative to traditional pay for performance incentive schemes that is rooted in


reinforcement theory, known as the O.B. Mod Approach, has been proposed as a
practical approach to managing the performance-related behaviors of an
organization's members. . O.B. Mod. and its "reinforce-for-performance" basis has
been shown empirically to yield performance improvements in both manufacturing
and service organizations, though improvements varied by type of reinforcer in both
contexts.[51]

Nudge theory[edit]
Main article: Nudge theory

Nudge theory (or nudge) is a concept in behavioural science, political


theory and economics which argues that positive reinforcement and indirect
suggestions to try to achieve non-forced compliance can influence the motives,
incentives and decision making of groups and individuals, at least as effectively – if
not more effectively – than direct instruction, legislation, or enforcement.

Praise[edit]
Main article: Praise

The concept of praise as a means of behavioral reinforcement in humans is rooted


in B.F. Skinner's model of operant conditioning. Through this lens, praise has been
viewed as a means of positive reinforcement, wherein an observed behavior is
made more likely to occur by contingently praising said behavior. [52] Hundreds of
studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of praise in promoting positive
behaviors, notably in the study of teacher and parent use of praise on child in
promoting improved behavior and academic performance, [53][54] but also in the study
of work performance.[55] Praise has also been demonstrated to reinforce positive
behaviors in non-praised adjacent individuals (such as a classmate of the praise
recipient) through vicarious reinforcement. [56] Praise may be more or less effective in
changing behavior depending on its form, content and delivery. In order for praise
to effect positive behavior change, it must be contingent on the positive behavior
(i.e., only administered after the targeted behavior is enacted), must specify the
particulars of the behavior that is to be reinforced, and must be delivered sincerely
and credibly.[57]
Acknowledging the effect of praise as a positive reinforcement strategy, numerous
behavioral and cognitive behavioral interventions have incorporated the use of
praise in their protocols.[58][59] The strategic use of praise is recognized as an
evidence-based practice in both classroom management [58] and parenting training
interventions,[54] though praise is often subsumed in intervention research into a
larger category of positive reinforcement, which includes strategies such as
strategic attention and behavioral rewards.
Manipulation[edit]
Braiker identified the following ways that manipulators control their victims:[60]

 Positive reinforcement: includes praise, superficial charm,


superficial sympathy (crocodile tears), excessive apologizing, money, approval,
gifts, attention, facial expressions such as a forced laugh or smile, and public
recognition.
 Negative reinforcement: may involve removing one from a negative situation
 Intermittent or partial reinforcement: Partial or intermittent negative
reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt. Partial or
intermittent positive reinforcement can encourage the victim to persist – for
example in most forms of gambling, the gambler is likely to win now and again
but still lose money overall.
 Punishment: includes nagging, yelling, the silent treatment, intimidation,
threats, swearing, emotional blackmail, the guilt trip, sulking, crying,
and playing the victim.
 Traumatic one-trial learning: using verbal abuse, explosive anger, or other
intimidating behavior to establish dominance or superiority; even one incident
of such behavior can condition or train victims to avoid upsetting, confronting or
contradicting the manipulator.
Traumatic bonding[edit]
Main article: Traumatic bonding

Traumatic bonding occurs as the result of ongoing cycles of abuse in which the


intermittent reinforcement of reward and punishment creates powerful emotional
bonds that are resistant to change. [61][62]
The other source indicated that [63] 'The necessary conditions for traumatic bonding
are that one person must dominate the other and that the level of abuse chronically
spikes and then subsides. The relationship is characterized by periods of
permissive, compassionate, and even affectionate behavior from the dominant
person, punctuated by intermittent episodes of intense abuse. To maintain the
upper hand, the victimizer manipulates the behavior of the victim and limits the
victim's options so as to perpetuate the power imbalance. Any threat to the balance
of dominance and submission may be met with an escalating cycle of punishment
ranging from seething intimidation to intensely violent outbursts. The victimizer also
isolates the victim from other sources of support, which reduces the likelihood of
detection and intervention, impairs the victim's ability to receive countervailing self-
referent feedback, and strengthens the sense of unilateral dependency ... The
traumatic effects of these abusive relationships may include the impairment of the
victim's capacity for accurate self-appraisal, leading to a sense of personal
inadequacy and a subordinate sense of dependence upon the dominating person.
Victims also may encounter a variety of unpleasant social and legal consequences
of their emotional and behavioral affiliation with someone who perpetrated
aggressive acts, even if they themselves were the recipients of the aggression.

Video games[edit]
Main article: Compulsion loop

Most video games are designed around some type of compulsion loop, adding a
type of positive reinforcement through a variable rate schedule to keep the player
playing the game, though this can also lead to video game addiction.[64]
Main article: Loot box

As part of a trend in the monetization of video games in the 2010s, some games


offered "loot boxes" as rewards or purchasable by real-world funds that offered a
random selection of in-game items, distributed by rarity. The practice has been tied
to the same methods that slot machines and other gambling devices dole out
rewards, as it follows a variable rate schedule. While the general perception that
loot boxes are a form of gambling, the practice is only classified as such in a few
countries as gambling and otherwise legal. However, methods to use those items
as virtual currency for online gambling or trading for real-world money has created
a skin gambling market that is under legal evaluation.[65]

Workplace culture of fear[edit]


Main articles: Culture of fear, Organizational culture, Toxic workplace,
and Workplace bullying

Ashforth discussed potentially destructive sides of leadership and identified what he


referred to as petty tyrants: leaders who exercise a tyrannical style of management,
resulting in a climate of fear in the workplace.[66] Partial or intermittent negative
reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt.[60] When employees
get the sense that bullies are tolerated, a climate of fear may be the result. [67]
Individual differences in sensitivity to reward, punishment, and motivation have
been studied under the premises of reinforcement sensitivity theory and have also
been applied to workplace performance.
Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

reinforcement learning
 Joseph M. Carew

What is reinforcement learning?


Reinforcement learning is a machine learning training method based on rewarding
desired behaviors and/or punishing undesired ones. In general, a reinforcement
learning agent is able to perceive and interpret its environment, take actions and
learn through trial and error.

How does reinforcement learning work?


In reinforcement learning, developers devise a method of rewarding desired behaviors and
punishing negative behaviors. This method assigns positive values to the desired actions to
encourage the agent and negative values to undesired behaviors. This programs the agent to
seek long-term and maximum overall reward to achieve an optimal solution.
These long-term goals help prevent the agent from stalling on lesser goals. With time, the
agent learns to avoid the negative and seek the positive. This learning method has been
adopted in artificial intelligence (AI) as a way of directing unsupervised machine
learning through rewards and penalties.

Applications and examples of reinforcement learning


While reinforcement learning has been a topic of much interest in the field of AI, its
widespread, real-world adoption and application remain limited. Noting this, however,
research papers abound on theoretical applications, and there have been some successful use
cases.

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