0% found this document useful (0 votes)
1K views237 pagesGraetzer G. Lattice Theory.. First Concepts and Distributive Lattices (Dover, 2009) (ISBN 048647173X) (600dpi) (T) (237s) MAa
Uploaded by
Anon NobdyCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
1K views237 pagesGraetzer G. Lattice Theory.. First Concepts and Distributive Lattices (Dover, 2009) (ISBN 048647173X) (600dpi) (T) (237s) MAa
Uploaded by
Anon NobdyCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
LATTICE THEORY
First Concepts and Distributive Lattices
GEORGE GRATZER
University of Manitoba
DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC.
Mineola, New York Copyright
Copyright © 1971, 1999 by George Gratzer
All rights reserved.
Bibliographical Note
This Dover edition, first published in 2009, is an unabridged republication of
the work originally published in 1971 by W. H. Freeman and Company, San
Francisco.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Gratzer, George A.
Lattice theory : first concepts and distributive lattices / George Gratzer —
Dover ed.
p.cm.
Originally published: San Francisco : W.H. Freeman, 1971.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-486-47173-0
ISBN-10: 0-486-47173-X
1. Lattice theory. 2. Lattices, Distributive. I. Title.
QAI171.5.G73 2009
511.3'3—de22
2008046925
Manufactured in the United States of America
Dover Publications, Inc., 31 East 2nd Street, Mineola, N.Y. 11501 CONTENTS
PREFACE vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xi
TABLE OF NOTATION xiii
FIRST CONCEPTS
DAwapone
. Two Definitions of Lattices 1
. How to Describe Lattices 11
. Some Algebraic Concepts 18
. Polynomials, Identities, and Inequalities 31
. Free Lattices 38
. Special Elements 56
Further Topics and References 61
Problems 66 vi
CONTENTS
2 DISTRIBUTIVE LATTICES
. Characterization Theorems and Representation
Theorems 69
. Polynomials and Freeness 80
. Congruence Relations 87
. Boolean Algebras R-generated by Distributive
Lattices 102
. Topological Representation 117
. Free Distributive Product 128
|. Some Categorical Concepts 139
Further Topics and References 151
Problems 155
3 > DISTRIBUTIVE LATTICES WITH
PSEUDOCOMPLEMENTATION
14.
15.
16.
17.
Introduction and Stone Algebras 159
Identities and Congruences 166
Representation Theorems 175
Injective and Free Stone Algebras 183
Further Topics and References 190
Problems 192
BIBLIOGRAPHY 193
INDEX
207 PREFACE
In the first half of the nineteenth century, George Boole’s attempt to
formalize propositional logic led to the concept of Boolean algebras.
While investigating the axiomatics of Boolean algebras at the end of the
nineteenth century, Charles S. Peirce and Ernst Schréder found it useful
to introduce the lattice concept. Independently. Richard Dedekind’s re-
search on ideals of algebraic numbers led to the same concept. In fact,
Dedekind also introduced modularity, a weakened form of distributivity.
Although some of the early results of these mathematicians and of
Edward V. Huntington are very elegant and far from trivial, they did not
attract the attention of the mathematical community.
It was Garrett Birkhoff’s work in the mid-thirties that started the general
development of lattice theory. In a brilliant series of papers he demon-
strated the importance of lattice theory and showed that it provides a
unifying framework for hitherto unrelated developments in many mathe-
matical disciplines. Birkhoff himself, Valére Glivenko, Karl Menger, John
yon Neumann, Oystein Ore, and others had developed enough of this
new field for Birkhoff to attempt to “‘sell” it to the general mathematical viii PREFACE
community, which he did with astonishing success in the first edition of
his Lattice Theory. The further development of the subject matter can
best be followed by comparing the first, second, and third editions of the
book (G. Birkhoff [1940], [1948], and [1967]).
Distributive lattices have played many roles in the development of
lattice theory. Historically, lattice theory started with (Boolean) distribu-
tive lattices; as a result, the theory of distributive lattices is the most
extensive and most satisfying chapter in the history of lattice theory. Dis-
tributive lattices have provided the motivation for many results in general
lattice theory. Many conditions on lattices and on elements and ideals of
lattices are weakened forms of distributivity. Therefore, a thorough knowl-
edge of distributive lattices is indispensable for work in lattice theory.
Finally, in many applications the condition of distributivity is imposed on
lattices arising in various areas of mathematics, especially algebra.
The realization of the special role of distributive lattices moved me to
break with the traditional approach to lattice theory, which proceeds from.
partially ordered sets to general lattices, semimodular lattices, modular
lattices, and finally distributive lattices. The goal of the present volume is
to provide a detailed presentation of the theory of distributive lattices.
General lattices will be discussed in the companion volume of the present
one, which is now in preparation.
Chapter | includes a concise development of the basic concepts of lattice
theory and a detailed development of free lattices. Diagrams are emphasized
because I believe that an important part of learning lattice theory is the
acquisition of skill in drawing diagrams. This chapter lays the foundation
for the material included in both first and second volumes. Chapter 2,
which develops the theory of distributive lattices, comprises the most
substantial part of the present book. The last decade witnessed the birth
of a new field in lattice theory: distributive lattices with pseudocomple-
mentation. Chapter 3 discusses the basic results of this field and focuses on
one of the major preoccupations of twentieth-century mathematicians:
structure theory.
The exercises, which number more than 500, form an integral part of
this book. Only exercises marked by an * could be left out by the reader
without any loss in comprehension of the subject matter. The Bibliography
contains only works that are referred to in the text. The sixty-seven
original research problems, as well as the “ Further Topics and References”
included at the end of each chapter, should be of help to those who are
interested in further reading and research in lattice theory. PREFACE ix
Finally, the reader will note that the symbol @ is placed at the end of a
proof; if a theorem or lemma contains more than one statement, the
proof of a part is ended with P. The abbreviation “iff ” stands for “if and
only if.” More difficult exercises are marked by *. “Theorem 10” refers
to Theorem 10 of the same section, whereas “Theorem 15.10” refers to
Theorem 10 of section 15. Similarly, “exercise 2.6” means exercise 6 of
section 2. References to the Bibliography are given in the form “‘J. Jakubik
[1957],” which refers to a paper (or book) by J. Jakubik published in 1957.
Such references as “[1957a]” and “[1957b]” indicate that the Bibliography
contains more than one work by the author published in that year.
“R.S. Pierce [a]”’ refers to a paper by R. S. Pierce that had not appeared
in print at the time the manuscript of this book was submitted for
publication.
Winnipeg, Manitoba
September 1970 George Gratzer ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
An individual takes the responsibility and gets (he hopes) the credit for
writing a book, but in reality ventures of this kind often require the co-
operation of a group of people.
The first version of this book was developed as a set of lecture notes for
my course on lattice theory at the University of Manitoba in the academic
year 1968-1969. The undergraduates and graduate students who took this
course and many of my colleagues who attended helped by criticizing my
lectures and by simplifying proofs. The lecture notes were also read by
Dr. P. Burmeister, who offered many helpful remarks.
A rewritten version of the lecture notes was read by R. Balbes, M. I.
Gould, K. M. Koh, H. Lakser, S. M. Lee, P. Penner, C. R. Platt, and R.
Padmanabhan, who coordinated the work of this group. ] rewrote a
substantial part of the manuscript as a result of the changes they suggested.
Tam very thankful to the whole group, and especially to Dr. Platt and Dr.
Padmanabhan, for their untiring work.
I would like to thank K. D. Magill, Jr., for the opportunity to conduct a xii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
course on lattice theory at the State University of New York at Buffalo
in the summer of 1970, and the students of this class, especially J. H.
Hoffman, for their valuable observations.
Last but not least, the manuscript was read for the publisher by B.
Jénsson; all his suggestions were gratefully accepted.
The typing and retyping of the manuscript were done with unusual
skill and patience by Mrs. M. McTavish. The rest of the secretarial work
was capably handled by Mrs. N. Buckingham.
The galley proofs were read by R. Antonius, J. A. Gerhard, K. M. Koh,
W. A. Lampe, R. Quackenbush, I. Rival, and the group coordinator,
R. Padmanabhan. E. Fried assisted me in compiling the Index.
Thanks are also due to the National Research Council of Canada for
sponsoring much of the original research that has gone into this book and
to Professor N. S. Mendelsohn, who relieved me of all teaching and ad-
ministrative duties to allow me time to conduct research, to supervise
the research of graduate students, and to prepare the manuscript of this
book. TABLE OF NOTATION
SETS POSETS
SYMBOL EXPLANATION SYMBOL — APPEARS ON PAGE(S)
e membership sign < sy)
s inclusion = 2
c proper inclusion Sp 8
uyU union Sa 9
aN intersection Sv 9
@ empty set < 8
7 set difference ~< 12
x, Il Cartesian product > 12
|A| cardinality of the set I 2
A inf 3
pt, p-% composition of maps: sup 2
x(pf) = Cp A 3
pt inverse of a map V 2
Ag Agp-* = {x | xp € A} A 19
P(X) set of all subsets of X [a, b] 20
w first infinite ordinal; (a, 5] 20
n < w means n = 0, [a, b) 20
2. (a, 6) 20
No first infinite cardinal y 10
m,n,... lower-case German pm 52
letters stand for 0 56
cardinals 1 56 xiv
LATTICES
SYMBOL APPEARS ON PAGE(S)
6
9
58
BIT 112
Bt 92
BF 92
SPECIAL LATTICES
AND ALGEBRAS
B 177
Bea 165
By 58
BIC] 109
BIL] 115
C, 19
E, 17
F(P) 40
F(P") 52
F(P) 39
TABLE OF NOTATION
SYMBOL _— APPEARS ON PAGE(S)
F(X) 52
F(t) 40
TM, 13, 69
Ms 13, 69
S, 168
CLASSES OF LATTICES
AND ALGEBRAS
Amal (K) 191
B 139, 140
B.; 178
Bo 179
B, 179
By 179
D 39, 139
Dan 146
Do, 140
L 39
M 39
CONG RUENCES
o 24
‘ 24
O(a, 5) 87
@(H) 87
eo] 87
OT) 100
0/0 172
Ox® 28
[a]© 24
SUBSETS AND FAMILIES OF
SUBSETS OF LATTICES
(al 21
[2) 23 TABLE OF NOTATION
SYMBOL APPEARS ON PAGE(S) SYMBOL APPEARS ON PAGE(S)
[a,b] 20 y® 124
(a, 6] 20
[a, 6) 20
(a, b) 20 ASSOCIATED ALGEBRAS
- i A) 64
D(L) 162 E(L) 64
Fe 163 Eo,1(L) 64
[#7] 20, 138
(H] 21
[4/) 23 PROPERTIES
[4k 105
[H]s 141 i a
H(P) 72
c 107 @ 50
J(L) 2 (ID) 107
AL) 76, 119 eae ie
r(a) 72,75, 119 n
rt) 119 (MID) 107
S@) 61 (P1)-(P4) 1
S((L)) 107 P(m, n) 139
S(L) 161 Poo, a(m, n) 139
xn 133 Pa(m, m) 139
xv 133 (Sl) 121
(S2) 121
(S83) 123
OPERATIONS (s4) ee
anb 4
oe : MISCELLANEOUS
avb 58
x+y 84, 92 @) 134
a 58 GeoaJ) 134
. 58 Stk, n) 64
a* 184 Salk, n) 64
H 175
TOPOLOGY I 175
po 32
x 125 Ss 195
SL) 119 2% CHAPTER 1
FIRST CONCEPTS
1. Two Definitions of Lattices
Whereas the arithmetical properties of the set of reals, R, can be expressed
in terms of addition and multiplication, the order theoretic, and thus the
topological, properties are expressed in terms of the ordering relation <.
The basic properties of this relation are as follows.
For all a,b,c € R we have:
(Pl) asa (reflexivity)
(P2) as bandb < a imply that a = (antisymmetry)
(P3) a with ac A, be B. If A = B, we
write A? for A x A. Then a binary relation p on A can simply be defined as
a subset of A, The elements a, b (a,b € A) are in relation with respect to p if
€ p. For € p, we will also write a pb, or a = b(p). Binary
relations will be denoted by small Greek letters or by special symbols.
This formal definition can be compared with the intuitive one: A binary
relation p on A is a “rule” that decides whether or not a p b for any given
a,b < A. Of course, any such rule will determine the set {(a, b> |apb,
a,b A}, and this set determines p, so we might as well regard p as being
identical with this set.
A partially ordered set consists of a nonvoid set A and a binary
relation p on A, such that p satisfies properties (P1)-(P3). Note that these
can be stated as follows: For all a,b,c € A, (a, a> € p; , , € p imply that € p.
If p satisfies (P1)(P3), p is a partial ordering relation, and it will usually
be denoted by <. Also, a > b will mean b < a. Sometimes we will say
that A (rather than that also satisfies (P4) is called a chain (also called fully
ordered set, linearly ordered set, and so on).
If is a poset, a,b € A, then a and b are comparable if a < b or
b < a. Otherwise, a and b are incomparable, in notation a || 6. A chain is,
therefore, a poset in which there are no incomparable elements.
Next we define inf and sup in an arbitrary poset P (that is, ) the
same way as it is done for reals.
Let H ¢ P, ae P. Then ais an upper bound of H, if h < aforallhe H.
An upper bound a of H is the least upper bound of H or supremum of H if,
for any upper bound b of H, we have a < b. We shall write a = sup H, or
a= \V H. (The notations a = |.u.b. H, a = > H are also common in the
literature.) This notation can be justified only if we show the uniqueness of
the supremum. Indeed, if aj and a, are both suprema of H, then a < ay,
since a, is an upper bound, and ap is a supremum. Similarly, a, < ag; thus
ay = a, by (P2). Section 1 Two Definitions of Lattices 3
The concepts of ower bound and greatest lower bound or infimum are
similarly defined; the latter is denoted by inf H or A H. (The notations
g.l.b. H, [] H are also used in the literature.) The uniqueness is proved as
in the preceding paragraph.
The adverb “‘similarly” at the end of that paragraph can be given a very
concrete meaning. Let be a poset. The notation a > 6 (meaning
b < a)can also be regarded as a definition of a binary relation on P. This
binary relation > satisfies (P1)-(P3); as an example, let us check (P2). If
a > band b > a, then by the definition of > we have b < aanda < b;
using (P2) for < we conclude that a = 8. (P1) and (P3) are equally trivial.
Thus > is also a poset, called the dual of . Now, if ® is a
“statement” about posets, and if in ® we replace all occurrences of < by
>, we get the dual of ®.
Duaity PrincipLe. Jf a statement ® is true in all posets, then its dual is
also true in all posets.
This is true simply because ® holds for iff the dual of ® holds
for , which is also a poset.
As an example take for ® the statement: “If sup H exists it is unique.”
We get as its dual: “If inf H exists it is unique.”
It is hard to imagine that anything as trivial as the Duality Principle
could yield anything profound, and it does not; but it can save a lot of
work,
A poset satisfy the first definition and let H ¢ L be nonvoid and
finite. If H = {a}, then sup H = inf H = a follows from the reflexivity of
< and the definitions of sup and inf. Let H = {a, b, c}. To show that sup H
exists, set d = sup {a, 5}, e = sup {d, c}; we claim that e = sup H. First of
all,a < d,b < d,andd < e,c < e; therefore (by transitivity) x < e, for
all x € H. Secondly, if f is an upper bound of H, then a < f, b < f, and
thus d < f;alsoc < f,sothate,d < f;thereforee < f, since e = sup {d,c}.
Thus e is the supremum of H.
If H = {@,..., G,-1}," = 1, then
sup {... sup {sup {ao, 4}, ag}. .., dy—s}
is the supremum of H, by an inductive argument whose steps are analogous
to those in the preceding paragraph.
By duality (in other words, by applying the Duality Principle), we con-
clude that inf H exists. @
With regard to H = @ (the void set), we will point out in the exercises
that inf @ and sup @ need not exist in a lattice.
This simple proof can be varied to yield a large number of equally
trivial statements about lattices and partially ordered sets in general. Some
of these will be stated as exercises and used later. To make the use of the
Duality Principle legitimate for lattices, note:
If is a lattice, so is its dual ).
Thus the Duality Principle applies to lattices.
We will use the notations
a A b = inf {a, b}
and
av b= sup {a, b}
and call A the meet and v the join. In lattices, they are both binary
operations, which means that they can be applied to a pair of elements Section 1 Two Definitions of Lattices 5
a, b of L to yield again an element of L. Thus A is a map of L? into L and
so is V, a remark that might fail to be very illuminating at this point.
The previous proof yields that
(-++(G@o V a1) V da)+++) V daa = Sup {Ao,..., n-1}
and there is a similar formula for inf. Now observe that the right-hand side
does not depend on the way the elements a, are listed. Thus A and v are
idempotent, commutative, and associative—that is,
(L1) aha=a,aVa=a (idempotency)
(L2) antb=bAaavb=bva (commutativity)
(L3) nbnac=anr(baAc),
(av b)vc=av(bve) (associativity)
As always in algebra, associativity makes it possible to write
Gy A ay A *** A Gn
without using parentheses (and the same for v).
There is another pair of rules that connect A and Vv. To derive them,
note that if a < b, then inf {a, b} = a; that is, a A b = a, and conversely.
Thus
as biffanb=a.
By duality (and by interchanging a and 5) we have
as, which is an
algebra—that is, a set equipped with operations (in this case, two binary
operations)? Note that < is simply a subset of L?, whereas A and v are
maps from L? into L. The answer is simple: We want such a characteriza-
tion because if we can treat lattices as algebras, then all the concepts and
methods of universal algebra will become applicable. The usefulness of
treating lattices as algebras will soon become clear.
An algebra is called a Jattice if: L is a nonvoid set, A and v
are binary operations on L, both A and v are idempotent, commutative,
and associative, and they satisfy the two absorption identities. The follow-
ing theorem states that a lattice as an algebra and a lattice as a poset are
“equivalent” concepts. (The word “equivalent” will not be defined.)
THEOREM 1.
(i) Let the poset 2 = is a lattice.
(ii) Let the algebra 2 = bea lattice. Seta < biffan b=a.
Then 2° = is a poset, and the poset 2 is a lattice.
(iii) Let the poset 2 = be a lattice. Then (2°)? = &.
(iv) Let the algebra 2 = be a lattice. Then (2”)* = &.
REMARK. (i) and (ii) describe how we pass from poset to algebra and
back, whereas (iii) and (iv) state that going there and back takes us back to
where we started.
PROOF.
(i) This has already been proved. DB
(ii) We set a < b to mean a A b =a. Now SJ is reflexive since A is
idempotent; < is antisymmetric since a < b, b is a poset. To prove that isa
lattice we will verify that a A b = inf {a, b} and a v b = sup {a, b}.
(This is not a definition.) Indeed, a A b < a, since
(an b)Aa=anr(bAa)=ad(anb)
=(arnavnb=anb,
using associativity, commutativity, and idempotency of A ; similarly,
aNb, then the
dual of 2? is (
is a poset.
Let @ denote the void set. If inf 2 = a, then x < a for all elements x
of the poset. Find an example of a poset in which inf @ does not exist.
Formulate and prove exercise 7 for sup 2.
Lattices as Posets
Prove that the following are examples of posets:
@) Let A = P(X), the set of all subsets of a set X; let Xo < X, mean
Xo © X; (set inclusion).
(ii) Let A be the set of all real valued functions defined on X; for
Sige A set f < g iff f(x) < g(x) for allxe X.
(iii) Let A be the set of all continuous concave real valued functions
defined on the real interval; define f < g as in (ii).
(iv) Let A be the set of all open sets of a topological space; define < as
in (i).
(v) Let A be the set of all human beings; a < b means that a is a
descendant of b.
Which of the examples in exercise 9 are lattices? For those that are
lattices, compute a A b,a V b.
Show that every chain is a lattice.
Let A be the set of all subgroups (normal subgroups) of a group G; for
X,YeA set X < Y to mean X¥¢ Y. Prove that is a lattice;
compute ¥ A Yand Xv Y.
Let be a poset in which inf H exists for all H < P. Show that
is a lattice. (Hint: For a,b¢P let H be the set of all upper
bounds of {a, 5}. Prove that sup {a, b} = inf H.) Relate this to exercise
12,
Semilattices as Posets
A poset is a join-semilattice (dually, meet-semilattice) if sup {a,b}
(dually, inf {a, b}) exists for any two elements. Section 1 Two Definitions of Lattices 9
16.
17.
18,
19,
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
Prove that the dual of a join-semilattice is a meet-semilattice, and
conversely.
Let A be the set of finitely generated subgroups of a group G, partially
ordered under set inclusion (as in exercise 12). Prove that is a
join-semilattice, but not necessarily a lattice.
Let C be the set of all continuous strictly convex real valued functions
defined on the real interval [0, 1]. For f,g€ C set f < g iff f(x) < g(x)
for all x €[0, 1]. Prove that is a meet-semilattice, but not a
join-semilattice.
Show that the poset be an algebra with one binary operation °. The algebra
is a semilattice if © is idempotent, commutative, and associative.
Let be a join-semilattice. Show that the algebra is a
semilattice when a v b = sup {a,b}. State the analogous result for
meet-semilattices.
Let the algebra be a semilattice. Define the binary relations
Sa, Sv on A as follows: a <, 6 iff a= ach, a <,b iff b=acob.
Prove that is a poset, as a poset it is a meet-semilattice, and
aA b=a0b;that isa poset, as a poset it is a join-semilattice,
anda v b = ac b; and that the dual of is .
Theorem 1 for Semilattices
Prove the following statements:
(i) Let the poset & = be a join-semilattice. Set a v b =
sup {a, 5}. Then the algebra U* = is a semilattice.
(ii) Let the algebra & = bea semilattice. Seta < biffacob = b.
Then YU = be a join-semilattice. Then (21°)? = W.
(iv) Let the algebra & = be a semilattice. Then (*)* = .
Formulate and prove Theorem I for the meet-semilattices.
Lattices as Algebras
Prove that the absorption identities imply the idempotency of A and v.
(Hint: simplify a v [a A (a V a)] in two ways to yield a = a V a.)
Let the algebra be a lattice. Define a <, b iff a Ab =a;
a sybiffa v b = b, Prove thata <, biffa isa lattice iff and are
semilattices and a = a A b is equivalent to b = a V b. Verify that if
and is a lattice iff it satisfies
a=(bAa)va
and
{arn bac] vd}ve={(bAc)Aal Vv Ifvd) Ad]
(see J. A. Kalman [1968]. The first definition of lattices by two identities
was found by R. Padmanabhan in 1967, Notices Amer. Math. Soc. 14,
No. 67T-468, and published in full in R. Padmanabhan [1969]. J. A.
Kalman’s two identities are slightly improved versions of those of
R. Padmanabhan. R. N. McKenzie [a] proved the existence of a single
identity characterizing lattices.)
Miscellany
Let p be a binary relation on the set A. The transitive extension of p is a
binary relation f defined by the following rule: af b iff there exists a
sequence @ = Xo, X%1,...,%n = b with x p X41 for i = onl
Show that for a reflexive relation p, the transitive extension is a partial
ordering relation iff f is antisymmetric. Express this condition in terms
of p.
Let p be a reflexive and transitive binary relation (quasi-ordering relation)
on the nonvoid set A. Call B < Aa block if B# 2,apb, and b pa for
any a,b € B, and for ae B, be A, ap b, and b pa imply that be B. Let
P be the set of all blocks and set B, < Bz (B,B2 € P) if by p bz for some
(thus for all) b; € Bi, bz € Ba. Prove that is a poset.
Let A be a set of sets. Let a p b mean that there is a one-to-one map from
a into b. What is ? (Notation is that of exercise 28.)
Let the binary operation © on the set A be associative. Give a rigorous
proof of the statement that any bracketing of ap °-++°a@,-1 will yield
the same element.
Suppose that in a poset b V c,a V (6 V c), anda V b exist. Prove that
(a v b) Vv cexists and thata V (bV oc) =(av b) Vc.
Prove that if a A 6 exists in a poset, so does a V (a A b).
Let H and K be subsets of a poset. Suppose that sup H, sup K, and
sup (H U K) exist. (HU K is the set union of H and K.) Under these
conditions verify that (sup H) Vv (sup K) exists and equals sup (H U K).
In a poset P define the comparability relation y: For a,be P, ayb if
a with x < y. In the preceding example we get < = {<0, 0), <0, a>,
<0, b>, <0, 1, , , <8, 1, C1, D}-
Obviously, all pairs of the form can be omitted from the list,
since we know that x < x. Also, if x < y and y < z, then x < z. For
instance, when we know that 0 < aanda < 1, we do not have to be told
that 0 < 1. To make this idea more precise, let us say that in the poset
, a covers b (b is covered by a) (in notation, a >- b (b-~< a)) if
a > band for no x, a > x > b. The covering relation of the preceding
example is simply:
—< = {0, a>, (0, b>, be a finite poset. Then a < b iff a =b or there
exists a finite sequence of elements Xo, ..., Xn-1 Such that Xy) = a, Xn-1 = 5,
and X,-~< X;41,for0 we have a = x)~<
Xy—<+++—< Xq-1. Indeed, x; < x;4, by assumption. Thus if x;-< 41
does not hold, then x; < x < x4, for some x € P, and H U {x} will be a
chain of m + 1 elements between a and }, contrary to the maximality of
the number of elements of H. @ Section 2 How to Describe Lattices 13
Rs
Figure 2.2
The diagram of a poset represents the elements with small
circles o; the circles representing two elements x, y are connected by a
straight line if one covers the other; if x covers y, then the circle represent-
ing x is higher up than the circle representing y. The diagram of the lattice
discussed previously is shown in Figure 2.1. Sometimes the “‘diagram”
of an infinite poset is drawn. Such diagrams are always accompanied
by explanations in the text. Note that in a diagram the intersection of two
lines need not indicate an element. A diagram is planar if no two lines
intersect. A diagram is optimal if the number of pairs of intersecting lines
is minimal. Figures 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3 are planar diagrams; Figure 2.4 is
an optimal but not planar diagram; Figure 2.6 is not optimal. As a rule,
optimal diagrams are the most practical to use.
The methods we will use will be combinations of previous ones. The
lattice N, of Figure 2.2 has five elements: 0, a, b, c, i,andb < a,c V b =i,
@ A c =o. This description is complete—that is, all the relations follow
from the ones given. M, has five elements: 0,a,b,c,i and aA b=
anc=bAc=0,avb=ave=bve=i.
In contrast, we can start with some elements (say, a, b, c), with some
relations (say, b < a), and ask for the “most general” lattice that can be
formed, without specifying the elements to be used. (The exact meaning of
“most general” will be given in Section 5.) In this case we continue to
form meets and joins until we get a lattice. A meet (or join) formed is
identified with an element that we already have only if this identification is
forced by the lattice axioms or by the given relations. The lattice we get
from a, b, c, satisfying b < ais shown in Figure 2.3.
To illustrate these ideas we give a part of the computation that goes into
the construction of the most general lattice L generated by a, b, c with 14 FIRST CONCEPTS
Figure 2.3
b be a poset, a,be P, a < b, and let C denote the set of all
chains H in P with smallest element a, largest element b. Let Ho < Mi
mean Ho & Ay for Ho,HieC. Show that is a poset with
smallest element {a, 5}.
The poset is said to satisfy the Ascending Chain Condition if any
increasing chain terminates, that is, if x,¢Q, i= 0,1,2,..., and
Xo SX S++: < x, < +--+, then for some m we have Xm = Xm41 =°+**+
The element x of Q is maximal if x < y (ye Q) implies that x = y.
Show that the Ascending Chain Condition implies the existence of
maximal elements and that, in fact, every element is included in a
maximal element.
Dualize exercise 6. (The dual of maximal is minimal and the dual of
ascending is descending.)
If is a lattice and x is a maximal element, then y < x for all
y € Q. Show that this statement is not, in general, true in a poset.
Give examples of posets without maximal elements and of posets with
maximal elements in which not every element is included in a maximal
element.
Let be a poset with the property that for every a,b € P, a < b,
any chain in P with smallest element a and largest element 3 is finite.
Show that the poset formed from b,
avc=bvcatc=bac.
*22. Describe the most general lattice generated by a,b, c,d, such that
a> b >. (The diagram is given in Ju. I. Sorkin [1952]; the lattice has
twenty elements.)
*23. Show that the most general lattice generated by a,b, c,d, such that
a> b,c > d, is infinite. (This lattice is described in H. L. Rolf [1958].)
24. Let N be the set of positive integers, L = { | ne N,i = 0, 1}. Set
< ifn < mandi < j. Show that L is a lattice and draw the
“generalized diagram” of L.
25. Draw the diagrams of all lattices with, at most, six elements.
To dispel a false impression that may have been created by Sections 1 and 2,
namely, that the proof that a poset is a lattice is always trivial, we present
exercises 26-36 showing that the poset 7, defined in exercise 34 is a lattice.
This is a result of D. Tamari [1951], first published in H. Friedman and D.
Tamari [1967]. The present proof is based on S. Huang and D. Tamari [a].
26. Let 7, denote the set of all possible binary bracketings of xo X1 +++ Xn}
for instance, To = {xo}, T: = {Xo ¥1)}, To = {((%o ¥1)x2), (xo(%1 X2))},
Ts = {(Xo(x1(%2 x5))), (Xo((x1 X2)%3)), (Xo X1)(X2 X3)), ((Xo(%1 ¥2))X3),
(((%o x1)X2)Xs)}. Give a formal (inductive) definition of T,.
27. Replacing consistently all occurrences of (A-B) by A(B) in a binary
bracketing, we get the right bracketing of the expression. For instance,
the right bracketing of ((xo(x: x2))xa) is xo(x1(%2)\(xa) and of
(Co x1)(X2 Xa)
is xo(x1)(x2(xa)). Give a formal (inductive) definition of right bracketing
and prove that there is a one-to-one correspondence between binary and
right bracketings.
28. Show that in a right bracketing of xo x: - ++ x,, there is one and only one
opening bracket preceding any x, 1 {l,..., m} defined as follows: For 1 < i < n there is, by
exercise 28, an opening bracket before x;; let this bracket close following
x4; set E(i) = j. Show that E has the following properties: (i) i < E(i)
for 1 Ty
defined as follows: If E = ---(A(BC))---, where the first variable in
Band C is x, and x;, respectively, then Eo, = ---((AB)C)---; if Eis not
of such form, then Zo, = E. Let X and Y denote the bracketing functions
associated with E and Eo,, respectively. Show that X(k) = Y(k) for
k#i,isk Y.
33. Show the converse of exercise 32.
34. For E,FeéT, define E < F to mean the existence of a sequence E = Xo,
X,,..., X_ = F, XE T,, O < i < k such that X41 can be gotten from
X, by some application of the semiassociative law for 0 < i < k. Let
E < F mean E = F or E < F. Show that < is a partial ordering.
Verify that Figure 2.10 is the diagram of 73 and 7;. Is the diagram of Ts
optimal? (No)
Ts
qT,
Figure 2.10
*35. Let X,YeE, and X >- Y. Let Eand F be the binary bracketings asso-
ciated with X and Y, respectively. Show that F = Eo, for some i.
36. Show that 7, is a lattice for each m > 0. (In fact, T, = En.)
3.
Some Algebraic Concepts
The purpose of any algebraic theory is the investigation of algebras up to
isomorphism. We can introduce two concepts of isomorphism for lattices.
The lattices 25 = (Lo; <>, 21 = are isomorphic, (in symbol,
2 = &,), and the map y: Lop > L, is an isomorphism if ¢ is one-to-one
and onto, and
a < bin & iff ap < bp in Q.
The lattices 2g = , 21 = are isomorphic (in Section 3 Some Algebraic Concepts 19
symbol, 2p ~ &,), and the map y: Ly > L, is an isomorphism if p is one-
to-one and onto, and if
(a a b)p = ap A bp
and
(a v b)p = ag V bg.
It is easy to see that the two concepts coincide under the equivalence of
Theorem 1.1. However, when we generalize these to homomorphism
concepts, we get various new nonequivalent notions. In order to avoid
confusion, each will be given a different name.
From now on we will abandon the precise notation and
for lattices and posets; we will simply write italic capitals, indi-
cating the underlying sets, unless for some reason we want to be more
exact.
Note that the first definition of isomorphism can be applied to any two
posets Lo, L;, thus yielding an isomorphism concept for arbitrary posets.
Having this concept of isomorphism, we can restate the content of Lemma
2.1: The diagram of a finite poset determines the poset up to isomorphism.
Let ©, denote the set {0,..., — 1} ordered by O< 1<2<-:-<
n—1. Then G, is an n-element chain. If C = {xo,..., Xn-1} is an n-
element chain, x9 < x, <-++ < X,-1, then p: i> x, is an isomorphism
between ©, and C. Therefore, the n-element chain is unique up to
isomorphism.
The isomorphism of posets generalizes as follows:
The map ¢: Po —> P; is an isotone map (also called monotone map) of the
poset Po into the poset P,, if a < bin Py implies that ap < bp in Py.
A homomorphism of the semilattice into the semilattice ¢S,; ->
is a map 9: SoS, satisfying (a-b)p = ap-by. Since a lattice 2 =
isa semilattice both under A and under V, we get two homo-
morphism concepts, meet-homomorphism (A-homomorphism) and join-
homomorphism (V-homomorphism). A homomorphism is a map that is
both a meet-homomorphism and a join-homomorphism. Thus a homo-
morphism of the lattice Lo into the lattice L, is a map of Lo into
L, satisfying both (@ A b)p = ap A bp and (a Vv b)p =ap Vv bp. A
one-to-one homomorphism will also be called an embedding. (The list
of homomorphism concepts will be further extended in Section 6.)
Note that meet-homomorphisms, join-homomorphisms, and (lattice)
homomorphisms are all isotone. Let us prove this statement for meet-
homomorphisms. If p: Lp > Ly, (a A b)p = ap A b¢ for all a,b € Lo, and 20 FIRST CONCEPTS
Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3
if x,y €Lo,x < yin Lo, thenx = x A y; thus xp = (x A y)p = xp A yo,
and xp < ypinL,. Note that the converse does not hold, nor is there any
connection between meet- and join-homomorphisms.
Figures 3.1-3.3 are three maps of the four-element lattice L of Figure
2.1 into the three-element chain €3. The map of Figure 3.1 is isotone but is
neither a meet- nor a join-homomorphism. The map of Figure 3.2 is a
join-homomorphism but is not a meet-homomorphism, thus not a
homomorphism. The map of Figure 3.3 is a homomorphism.
The second basic algebraic concept is that of a subalgebra:
A sublattice 8 = of the lattice 2 = is defined on
a nonvoid subset K of L with the property that a,b K implies that
anb,av be K(A, VY taken in 2), and the A and the v of & are re-
strictions to K of the A and the v of &.
To put this in simpler language, we take a subset K of a lattice L such
that K is closed under A and Vv. Under the same A and v, Kisa lattice;
this is a sublattice of L.
The concept of a lattice as a poset would suggest the following sub-
lattice concept: Take a nonvoid subset K of the lattice L; if the partial
ordering of L makes K a lattice, call K a sublattice of L. This concept is
different from the previous one and will not be used at all.
Let A,, A€ A, be sublattices of L. Then (1) (A, | A € A) (the set theoretic
intersection of A,, A A) is also closed under A and Vv; thus for every
HCL, H# @, there is a smallest [H] < L containing H and closed
under A and Vv. The sublattice [H] is called the sublattice of L generated
by H, and H is a generating set of [H].
The subset K of the lattice L is called convex, if abe K, ce L, and
a 1}. Using (i), it is clear that Jp is an ideal, and obviously
H ¢& |. Finally, if H ¢ J and J is an ideal, then J, S J, and thus I,
is the smallest ideal containing H; that is, J = Io. D
(iii) This proof is obvious directly, or by application of (ii). @ 22 FIRST CONCEPTS
Let I(L) denote the set of all ideals of L and let (LZ) = I(L) Vv {2}.
We call I(L) the ideal lattice and I,(L) the augmented ideal lattice of L.
CoroLiary 2. I(L) and I,(L) are posets under set inclusion, and as posets
they are lattices.
In fact, 1 v J = UJ], if we agree that (2] = @. From (ii) of Lemma 1
we see that for LJeI(L), xel v J iff x < i Vv j for some iel, jeJ. It
does not matter that we consider only two ideals in this formula. In general,
V Gl AeA) = (OG) Ae AD];
that is, any nonvoid subset of J(L) has a supremum. Combining this
formula with Lemma 1(ii), we have:
Corottary 3. Let I,, Ae A, be ideals and let I = \/ (I, | Ae A). Then
Gel iff i 1 and for some
Me eel.
Now observe the formulas:
@aA®l=@ab, @dvGl=Ev 4.
Since a # b implies that (a] # (6), these formulas yield:
Coroxiary 4. L can be embedded in I(L) and also in I,(L), and a —> (a] is
such an embedding.
Let us connect homomorphisms and ideals (recall that ©, denotes the
two-element chain with elements 0 and 1).
Lema 5.
(i) Lis a proper ideal of L iff there is a join-homomorphism ¢ of L onto ©,
such that I = Op~? (the complete inverse image of 0, that is,
I= {x | xp = 0}).
(ii) I is a prime ideal of L iff there is a homomorphism 9 of L onto ©. with
T= 097}.
PROOF.
(i) Let Ibe a proper ideal and define » by xp = Oifxel,xp = lifx¢J;
obviously, this gp is a join-homomorphism. Conversely, if p is a Section 3 Some Algebraic Concepts 23
join-homomorphism of L onto ©, and J = 0p~', then for a,b € I, we
have ap = by = 0; thus (a v b)p = ap v bp = 0 v 0 = 0, that is,
av bel. Ifael,xeL, x < a, then xp < ap = 0, that is, xp = 0;
thus xe J. Finally, p is onto, therefore] #L. DP
(ii) If J is prime, take the p constructed in the proof of (i) and note that p
can violate the property of being a homomorphism only with a,b ¢ I.
However, since J is prime, a A b¢J; consequently (a A b)p = 1 =
ap A bg, and so ¢ is a homomorphism. Conversely, let ¢ be a homo-
morphism of L onto G, and let J = Op~?. If a,b ¢ J, then ap = by = 1,
thus (a A b)p = ap A bp = 1, and thereforea A b¢I;Jisprime. @
By dualizing, we get the concepts of dual ideal (also called filter),
principal dual ideal, [a) (principal filter), the dual ideal [H) generated by H,
proper dual ideal, prime dual ideal (prime filter, or ultra filter), the lattice
QL) of dual ideals ordered by set inclusion, and D(L) = AL) {a}
ordered by set inclusion. Note that in A(L) (and Z(L)) the largest element
is L; if L has 0 and 1, then L = [0) is the largest and {1} = [1) is the
smallest element of A(L). Furthermore, for a,b € L we have
Ia) A (5) = [av 8), and [a) v [5) =[a nd).
Lemma 6. Let I be an ideal and let D be a dual ideal. If 1 D # @, then
IQ Dis a convex sublattice, and every convex sublattice can be expressed
in this form in one and only one way.
PROOF. The first statement is obvious. To prove the second, let C be a
convex sublattice and set J =(C], D=[C). Then CCID. If te
I D, then te J, and thus by (ii) of Lemma I, t < c for some c € C; also,
te D; therefore, by the dual of (ii) of Lemma 1, t = d for some de C. This
implies that t € C since C is convex, and so C = IN D.
Suppose now that C has another representation, C = J, N D,. Since
Coch, we have (C] ¢ I. Let ae J, and let c be an arbitrary element
of C. Then avcel, and ave>ceD,, soavece D,, thus
avcel,OD,=C. Finally, a < av ceC; therefore, ae(C]. This
shows that J, = (C]. The dual argument shows that D, = [C). Hence the
uniqueness of such representations. @
1 In the literature, filter means one of the following four concepts: (i) dual ideal;
i) proper dual ideal; (iii) dual ideal of the lattice of all subsets of a set; (iv) proper
dual ideal of the lattice of all subsets of a set. Further variants allow the empty set as
a filter under (i) or (ii). 24 FIRST CONCEPTS
An equivalence relation © (that is, a reflexive, symmetric, and transitive
binary relation) on a lattice L is called a congruence relation of L if
ao = 6,9) and a, = 6,(@) imply that ap A a, = by A b,(@) and
a V a; = by V b,(O) (Substitution Property). Trivial examples are , +,
defined by x = y(w) iff x = y; x = y(0) for all x and y. For ae L, we write
[a]® for the congruence class containing a, that is, [a]© = {x | x = a(@)}.
Lemma 7. Let © be a congruence relation of L. Then for every ae L,
[a]© is a convex sublattice.
proor. Let x,y e[a]@;then x = a(@)and y = a(@). Therefore,x A y =
ana=a(0), and x Vv y=av a= a(O), proving that [a]O is a
sublattice. If x < ¢ < y, x,y € [a]©, then x = a(®) and y = a(O).
Therefore, t=tAy=tAa(O), and t=tVx=(tAa)vx=
(t A a) V a = a(Q), proving that [a] is convex. @
Sometimes a long computation is required to prove that a given binary
relation is a congruence relation. Such computations are often facilitated
by the following lemma (G. Gratzer and E. T. Schmidt [1958e]):
LemMA 8. A reflexive and symmetric binary relation © on a lattice L is a
congruence relation iff the following three properties are satisfied for
x,y,z, EL:
(i) x = p(O)ifx ra y=x Vv yO).
(ii) x < y < z, x = y(), and y = z(O) imply that x = 2(@).
(iii) x < yandx = y(Q) imply that xNt=yAt(O) and xvt=
y Vv t(0).
PRooF. The “only if” part being trivial, assume now that a symmetric
and reflexive binary relation © satisfies conditions (i)-(iii). Let b,c € [a, d]
anda = d(Q);weclaim that b = c(@). Indeed, a = d(@) anda < dimply
by (iii)thath Ac =av (bAc)=dv(bAc)=d(®).Nowbacsd
and (iii) imply thathAc=(bAQA(VA=dAVE=bV CO);
thus by (i), b = c(®).
To prove that @ is transitive, let x = y(©) and y = z(®). Then by (i),
xAy=x V y(Q), and by(iii),y Vz=(YV¥VADIV(VAXHM=EQVIV
(y V x) =x V y V 2(@), and similarly, x A y A z= y A 2(O). There-
fore, xAYAZ=YAZ=B=YVZ=XVYV HAO) and XxAYAZS
yAz [x]O (xeL)
is a homomorphism of L onto L/®.
REMARK. The lattice K is a homomorphic image of the lattice L if there is
a homomorphism of L onto K. Lemma 10 states that any quotient lattice
is a homomorphic image.
PROOF. The proof is trivial. @
THEOREM 11 (THE HOMOMORPHISM THEOREM). Every homomorphic image
of a lattice L is isomorphic to a suitable quotient lattice of L. In fact, if
gy: LL, is a homomorphism of L onto L, and if © is the congruence
relation of L defined by x = y() iff xp = yo, then
Loz hy;
an isomorphism (see Figure 3.5) is given by
ws: [x]0 > xe, xeL. Section 3 Some Algebraic Concepts 27
L. -
onto
x
Jo ae
yew
Figure 3.5
PROOF. It is easy to check that @ is a congruence relation. To prove that
is an isomorphism we have to check that ¢ (i) is well defined, (ii) is one-
to-one, (iii) is onto, and (iv) preserves the operations.
(i) Let [x]© = [y]. Then x = y(); thus xp = yg, that is,
(£41 ©)¢ = Cy] ®)y.
Gi) Let ([x] ©) = ([y] 9), that is, xp = yp. Then x = y(@), and so
[x] = []9.
iii) Let ae L,. Since ¢ is onto, there is an x€L with xp = a. Thus
([x]0)$ = a.
(iv) (X10 A [y] OW = (x A y]O)b = (& A yp = x9 A Yo
= ((:19)4 A (19).
The computation for v is identical. @
The final algebraic concept introduced in this section is that of direct
product. Let L, K be lattices and form the set L x K of all ordered pairs
with ae L, be K. Define A and v in L x K “componentwise”:
A ay, by> = Ka A a, b A by
V = Ka V a,b V bid
This makes L x K into a lattice, called the direct product of L and K (for
an example, see Figure 3.6).
Lemma 12. Let L, Ly, K, K, be lattices, L =~ L,, K ~ K,. Then
LxK2zl,xki2z~kixl.
REMARK. This means that L x K is determined up to isomorphism if we
know L and K up to isomorphism, and the direct product is determined up
to isomorphism by the factors, the order in which they are given being
irrelevant. 28 FIRST CONCEPTS
Gy x Ms
Figure 3.6
PROOF. Let p: L—>L, and : K-» K, be isomorphisms and for aeL,
beK define . Then x:L x KL, x K, is an iso-
morphism. Of course, L, x K, ~ K, x L, is proved by showing that
(aE L;, b € K,) is an isomorphism. @
If L,, ie J, is a family of lattices, again we first form the Cartesian
product of the sets [] (Z, | i € J), which is defined as the set of all functions
f: I> U(G| ied) such that f(i) € L,, for all ie J. We then define A and
Vv “componentwise”; that is, f A g = h, f V g = k means:
AG) A BD = HO, fA) V GD = KG, for alliel.
The resulting lattice is the direct product [](Z, | i¢ J). If L, = L for all
ie I, we get the direct power L'. Letting n denote the set {0,..., — 1},
L" is (L x L) x --+) x L (at least up to isomorphism). In particular, if
ase
an-times
we identify f: 2» L with ¢f(0), f(1)>, then we get L? = L x L.
A very important property of direct products is:
THEOREM 13. Let L and K be lattices, let © be a congruence relation of L,
and let © be a congruence relation of K. Define the relation © x ® on
Lx Kby
= (® x ) iffa = c(®) andb = d(®).
Then ® x ® is a congruence relation on L x K. Conversely, every con-
gruence relation of L x K is of this form.
PROOF. The first statement is obvious. Now let ¥ be a congruence relation
on L x K. For a,beL define a = b(®) if = and then meeting with
, we get = (¥); thus = for some Section 3 Some Algebraic Concepts 29
ceK is equivalent to = for all ce K. Similarly, define for
a,b € K, a = (®) iff = (¥) for any/for all ce L. It is easily
seen that © and © are congruences. Let = (@ x ®); then
= = (¥). Joining the two with y=aAc
and x = b A d, we get = (¥). Finally, let (a, b> = (¥).
Meeting with , we get = Li, : Ly — Ly be (lattice) homomorphisms. Show that if
py is the identity map on Lo and #9 is the identity map on Zi, then @ is
an isomorphism and ¢ = p~*. Furthermore, prove that if p: Lo > Li, 30
10.
11.
12.
14,
15.
16.
19.
*20.
21.
22.
23.
FIRST CONCEPTS
yw: L,;—L2 are isomorphisms, then so are gp? (the inverse map,
p73: Li > Lo) and py.
A one-to-one and onto homomorphism is an isomorphism. Is a one-to-
one and onto isotone map an isomorphism?
Find a general construction of meet-homomorphisms and join-homo-
morphisms that are not homomorphisms.
Find a subset H of a lattice L such that H is not a sublattice of L but H
is a lattice under the partial ordering of 'L restricted to H.
Show that a lattice is a chain iff every nonvoid subset of L is a sublattice.
Prove that a sublattice generated by two distinct elements has two or
four elements.
Find an infinite lattice generated by three elements.
Verify that a nonempty subset J of a lattice L is an ideal iff, for a,b € L,
av béTis equivalent to a,be I.
Prove that if L is finite, then L and J(L) are isomorphic. How about
I(L)?
Is there an infinite lattice L such that L ~ J(L), but not every ideal is
principal? (There is no such lattice; see D. Higgs [1971].)
Prove the completeness of Jo(L) without using Lemma 14.
Prove that C(L) is complete by showing the following description of
infinite joins: Let H ¢ C(L), ® = VV H. Then x = y(®) iff there exists
a finite sequence x A y = Zo, Z1,..-,2Zn-1 = X V y, such that z <
2 S+++ S Zq-1, and z = %4:(,) for 0 < i < mand for some 0, € H.
Let y: L— K be an onto homomorphisn, let J be an ideal of L, and let
J be an ideal of K. Show that Ip is an ideal of K, and Jp~* = {a| aeL,
ag & J} is an ideal of L.
Is the image P¢ of a prime ideal under a homomorphism ¢ prime again?
Show that the complete inverse image Pp~! of a prime ideal P under an
onto lattice homomorphism ¢ is prime again.
Show that an ideal P is a prime ideal of L iff L — P is a dual ideal—in
fact, a prime dual ideal.
Let H be a subset of the lattice L such that a,be¢ H implies that
av beH. Then
(H] = {t| t < A for some he H};
that is,
(41 = U@)|he A).
Show that if K is a sublattice of L, then K is isomorphic to a sublattice of
IL).
Verify that the converse of exercise 19 is false even for some finite K.
Prove that if Its (see Figure 2.2) is isomorphic to a sublattice of J(L), then
Ms is isomorphic to a sublattice of L.
Find a lattice L and a convex sublattice C of L that cannot be represented
as [a]© for any congruence relation © of L.
State and prove an analogue of Lemma 8 for join-congruence relations. Section 4 Polynomials, Identities, and Inequalities 31
24.
#25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
*31.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
41.
42.
43.
44,
45,
46.
Describe © v © for join-congruences.
Find a lattice L such that L y L/® for all © # w, and there are
infinitely many © # w.
Describe the congruence lattice of Is.
Describe the congruence lattice of an n-element chain.
Describe the congruence lattice of the lattice of Figure 2.3, and list all
quotient lattices.
Construct a lattice that has exactly three congruence relations.
Construct infinitely many lattices L such that each lattice is isomorphic
to its congruence lattice.
Can an L in exercise 30 be infinite?
Generalize Lemma 12 to the direct product of more than two lattices.
Show that 9%, ~ L x K implies that L or K has only one element.
Show that J(L) is conditionally complete: Every nonvoid set H with an
upper bound has a supremum, and dually. J(Z) is complete iff ZL has a
smallest element.
Let L and K be lattices, let p: L > K be an onto homomorphism, and
let K have a smallest element 0. Then Op~? is called the ideal kernel of the
homomorphism 9. Show that the ideal kernel of a homomorphism is an
ideal of L.
Find an ideal that is the ideal kernel of no homomorphism.
Find an ideal that is the kernel of more than one (infinitely many)
homomorphisms.
Prove that every ideal of a lattice L is prime iff L is a chain.
Under what conditions is L x K planar?
Let L and K be lattices and let p: L — K be one-to-one and onto satis-
fying {(@ A b)9, (a V b)p} = {ap A by, ap V bg} for all abe L. Let
Ae Sub (L). Show that Ag € Sub (K); that in fact A —> A@ is a (lattice)
isomorphism between Sub (L) and Sub (XK).
Prove the converse of exercise 40.
Generalize Theorem 13 to finitely many lattices.
Show that the first part of Theorem 13 holds for any number of lattices
but that the second part does not.
Show that the second statement of Theorem 13 fails for (Abelian)
groups.
For a set X, let E(X) denote the set of all equivalence relations on X
partially ordered under set inclusion. Show that E(X) is a (complete)
lattice.
Show that C(L) is a sublattice of E(L).
4. Polynomials, Identities, and Inequalities
From variables xp, x;,...,%n,-.-, we can form polynomials in the
usual manner using A, V, and, of course, parentheses. Examples of 32 FIRST CONCEPTS
polynomials are: Xo, Xa, Xo V X05 (Xo A Xa) V (Xa A Xo); (Xo A X1) V
(Xo A Xa) V (x1 A X2). A formal definition is:
DEFINITION 1. The set P™ of n-ary lattice polynomials is the smallest set
satisfying (i) and (ii):
(i) ,EP™,0 1, for
some n-ary polynomial p, and for ho, ..., hn-, € H.
PROOF. First we must show that if a = p(ho,...,4n-1), 4¢H, then
a €[H], which can be easily accomplished by induction on the rank of p. Section 4 Polynomials, Identities, and Inequalities 33
Then we form the set {a | a = p(to,.--, An-1), 2 = 1, A, € H} and observe
that it contains H and that it is closed under A and V. Since it is contained
in [H], it has to equal [H]. @
Corotiary 4. |[H]| < |H| + Xo.
PRoor. By Lemma 3, every element of [H] can be associated with a finite
sequence of elements of HU{(,), A, V}, and there are no more than
|| + No such sequences. @
Derinition 5. A Jattice identity (inequality) is an expression of the form
P=4 (p
