Technological University of the Philippines – Manila

Ayala Boulevard, Ermita Manila

College of Engineering – Electrical Engineering Department

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS 1
LABORATORY MANUAL

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 RULES IN PERFORMING AN EXPERIMENT
AND MAKING A LABORATORY REPORT

1. Read the experiment manual carefully prior to scheduled day of the experiment until you
have a clear understanding of what it is all about and what is expected of you in the form of
results.
2. Designate a group leader for the particular experiment. This position should be changed after
every experiment. The group leader will be the one responsible for ensuring the proper
execution and in making necessary connections in the experiment using the simulation
software. The group can work interactively by creating a group in the simulation software
(procedures on how to create a group will be discuss on next lesson) and sharing the circuit
to the group.
3. Obtain measurements immediately. Assign a member that will read and record the
measurements.
4. Verify correctness of your data before ending the experiments.
5. All results of laboratory work and sample calculation of data should be included.
6. For graphical presentation of results, the independent variable should be shown as the
abscissa and the dependent variable as the ordinate. Each graph must have a title and
sufficient additional information, such as the value of other variables which are kept
constant.

THE PRELIMINARY REPORT

The preliminary report is item V of the final report and has a maximum credit of 30
points. It should be accomplished in a separate data and result sheet and be submitted after the
experiment conducted. The preliminary report should contain the following:

 Experiment No.
 Experiment Title
 Name of the Group Leader
 Members of the group who were present during performance of the experiment
 Date performed
 Experiment Results
 Instructor
 Grade and comments for the Preliminary Report

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THE FINAL REPORT

The final report should:

 Be accomplished on 8.5” x 11” bond paper

 Be computer printed or handwritten using standard engineering letters with:
 One-inch margins on all sides
 Single spacing
 Graphical representations drawn neatly in ink and labelled properly
 The final report contents should be as follows:
I. Objectives
II. Theory
III. Materials and Equipment
IV. Procedures
V. Data and Results (The Preliminary Report)
VI. Sample Computations and Graphical Representations
VII. Analysis and Conclusion
VIII. Answer to Guide Questions
 Submission of final report: Be submitted a week after the performance of the
experiment. No late reports will be accepted.
 Cover page of the title report should contain the following
- Experiment No and Title
- Name, Subject, Year and Section
- Date performed and date submitted
- Instructor
- Grade
- Remarks

POINTERS IN MAKING CONCLUSIONS

 Conclusion should be stated with reference to the objectives of the experiment.

 Each conclusion should be supported by specific references from the experiment
results.
 Constructive criticism of the equipment and test methods should be given with
positive recommendations for improvement
 A discussion that could have been written without doing the experiment is not a set of
conclusions.

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 INTRODUCTION TO MULTISIMLIVE
A web-based simulation software application
Note: This lesson is just inserted to the original Electrical Circuits 1 laboratory manual for the purpose of
giving the students a technical knowledge about the simulation software that they can use to simulate
all the experiments written in this manual. Simulation replaces the actual experiments since the latter
cannot be done due to pandemic.

NI MultisimLive is a simulation software that every engineers, students and professors

can use to define and simulate circuits. It is very easy-to-use, and there is now available web-
based application called MultisimLive that allows users to capture and simulate designs
anywhere with an internet connection so no need to worry about downloading and installing the
software.

For this subject Electrical Circuits 1 Laboratory, we will simulate all the experiments
included in this manual. This will help you to fully grasps the theory behind on every electrical
principle presented in your Electrical Circuits 1 Lectures.

This lesson will guide you on how to capture and simulate a simple circuit in
MultisimLive. Although there are lots of simulation software or apps that we can use but for the
reason of cost and availability, we will utilize the MultisimLive since this software is free.

I. OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, you are able to:
1. Understand and be familiar with the interface of NI MultisimLive simulation
software.
2. Learn how to use NI Multisim simulation software.
3. Sketch schematic wiring diagram and run it using simulation software.

II. LESSON CONTENTS

1. Example Circuits
2. Step 1: Create Circuit
3. Step 2: Place Components
4. Step 3: Wire Components
5. Step 4: Place Measurement Instruments
6. Step 5: Run a Simulation
7. Downloading Schematic Image
8. Saving your Circuit
9. Collaborate to community and share your circuits

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MULTISIMLIVE FEATURES

Below are some of the features of MultisimLive

 Create Circuit Schematics on any OS
 Interactive Circuit Simulation with No Installation
 It is shareable and can be kept private. Share your designs or explore circuits created
by others, all within the Multisim Live community.
 Complete Circuits Teaching Solution. It enables any students to build their
engineering intuition whether in the classroom, or the engineering laboratory.
 Take print out of circuit or save as image for preparing study materials.

CREATING YOUR ACCOUNT

To begin with, you need to first create an account to MultisimLive. Just type or copy this
link https://www.multisim.com/ to your web browser and then create your account.
Upon completion, it is strongly advised to view the tutorial links provided at the end of
the lesson for comprehensive information to make it easier to understand and utilized the
software.

EXAMPLE CIRCUIT

For this introductory example, simulate the simple circuits given in your lesson 1 activity.

Please take note the following values that obtained in solving the circuit:
Voltage drop across R1: V1 = 1.5v
Voltage drop across R2: V2 = 5v
Voltage drop across R3: V3 = 2.5v
The total current IT = 0.5mA

When we run our simulated circuit, let us see if the we will obtain the same answer.

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STEP 1: CREATE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM.

 Create an account and sign in

 Start a new design with the Create Circuit button that can be found on the upper right
corner of MultisimLive browser.

 MultisimLive opens showcasing the default capture and simulation environment.

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 There are two fundamental tasks in the design of a circuit: the placement of components
and the wiring of these components to create a complete design

STEP 2: PLACE COMPONENTS

The components that we need to place in the circuit are DC source, resistors, wires, and
ground. Take note that without a power source and ground your simulation cannot run.

PALETTE  In the right side of the MultisimLive environment you can find a
Palette. It
contains components and objects such as probes and connectors. The
Palette contains a subpalette. Tap a subpalette to show more choices.

PLACING THE DC SOURCE

 Tap the Source subpalette and tap DC Voltage and tap on the
workspace.

 Tap the DC voltage to the workspace as shown below.

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 We can set the properties of the placed component (like the value of the voltage to 9v or any
values) by selecting the placed component.

Change DC_mag which means DC Voltage magnitude to 9V.

When selecting the component, the following buttons that appear means:

Tap to flip horizontally. Tap to delete.

Drag and release to place a duplicate. You

Tap to rotate 90 degrees
can also tap this button and then tap on the
clockwise.
workspace.

PLACING THE RESISTORS

 Tap the PASSIVE subpalette and tap Resistor and tap on the workspace.

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  Drag the resistors to the workspace and placed it in the desired schematic location. Tap
the Duplicate button to easily add same components. Tap Rotate button to get the desired
position of the components.
 Change the value of the resistors (as required to the given circuit problem) by selecting the
resistor then the properties

PLACING THE GROUND

 Tap the SCHEMATIC CONNECTORS subpalette and tap Ground and place it on the
workspace. The ground is normally connected to the (-) side or the low side.

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STEP 3: WIRING THE COMPONENTS

WIRING AIDS

Wire spool

Connection / wiring point (black

diamond)
These appear during wiring

 To begin wiring, move the mouse to tap a component's wiring point (black diamond)
and tap another component's wiring point.
 The connection is automatically made, and the new wire is selected.
 Zoom in (to easily tap the wiring point) and pan as required while wiring.

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 This will be now the wired components

STEP 4: PLACE MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS

You are now ready to run an interactive MultisimLive simulation; however, you need a way
to visualize the data. MultisimLive provides instruments to visualize the simulated
measurements.

1. To run a simulation, place at least one probe. Go to ANALYSIS AND ANNOTATION

subpalette and click voltage (voltmeter).

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 Base on the given circuit problem, we will be needing a voltmeter and ammeter
instruments to measure the voltage across the resistors and the current flowing in the circuit.

2. Since we are going to measure first the voltage across R1, place your voltmeter to the positive
side of R1.

As you can see in the image above, once you place the voltmeter and select it, the following
buttons appear.

Tap to place a
Drag and release to place a duplicate.
negative voltage
You can also tap this button and then tap Tap to delete.
reference for a
on the workspace.
selected voltage probe.
Click the negative voltage reference either in analysis annotation subpallete or the V- button
as like above.

Placing voltmeter to R1 Next placing voltmeter to R3

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 Then placing voltmeter to R2 Last placing ammeter in series to the circuit

What will happen if I will not place a negative voltage reference?

Answer: Your voltmeter will automatically use the ground as your reference. Therefore, the
measurement that your voltmeter will read is from the point of primary reference to the ground.
So, if you want to measure the voltage across resistor, you must place the probes (like what we
do in the actual multimeter that have two probes) as shown above.

STEP 5: RUN A SIMULATION

It is simple to begin running and visualizing simulation in Multisim.

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 1. Select one of the simulation types from the toolbar, for example, Interactive.

TYPES OF SIMULATION
 Interactive simulation - use to emulate an oscilloscope. Performs a time-domain
(transient) simulation and runs until paused or stopped.
 Transient simulation - use to measure the circuit's response as a function of
time. Stops after a set time.
 AC sweep - use to measure the frequency response of a linear circuit. For designs
with AC components, for example, an AC voltage source.
 DC operating point - use to measure the DC operating point, also known as the
bias point, of a circuit. This is the steady-state voltage or current at a specified
pin of an active device with no input signal applied.

Note: Simulation settings options change depending on the selected simulation type. Default
values are usually acceptable.

2. More detailed Simulation settings are available in the configuration pane.

Change simulation settings (optional). Tap [?] to show help for the settings. Changes to
simulation settings will be reflected in the next simulation runs.

3. Run simulation by tapping either   in the toolbar, or   in the
Simulation settings.

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 Let’s now run and find the measurements value.

Voltmeter at R1 reads 1.5v

Voltmeter at R2 reads 2.5v
Voltmeter at R3 reads 5.0v
The ammeter reads -500 μA or -0.5mA

Why the value of the current is negative? Since the direction (blue arrow) of the current is
from (+) to (–) it gives a negative value but if we let the current flows from (-) to (+), the value
of the current will now be (+)0.5mA as shown on next page.

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 The measurements shown are equal to the values that we have computed previously.

SHOWING THE DATA PLOTTER (GRAPHER)

When you run an interactive simulation, you must tap   to switch to the
grapher. You can do this when a simulation is running, paused, or stopped.
Interactive simulation emulates an oscilloscope. It performs a time-domain (transient)
simulation and runs until paused or stopped. Probes are needed to show graph data. 
You can press pause / stop button if you want to view the graph in a freeze mode.

This is the simulation graph of the given circuit. Since the source is DC, it gives a constant
voltage and current over time. The left side shows the voltage magnitude in Volts (V) and the
right side is the current magnitude in Ampere (A). The green line corresponds to voltage across
R1, the gray line to the voltage across R2 and blue line to the voltage across R3. The dotted line
is the current flowing in the circuit.

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HOW TO SEE PARTICULAR VALUES ON THE GRAPH

Hover the cursor over a specific point on a trace to see its value. For touchscreen devices, tap a
specific point on a trace. The displayed value remains until you tap elsewhere.

Tap   to open the configuration pane. For interactive simulation, this contains Trigger,
Plots and Axes sections. You can also double tap on the grapher. 

PLOTS

Use this section to show or hide traces on the grapher. In the example below, both PR2 and PR4
are selected. To hide a trace, deselect its checkbox.

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AXES

Use this section to change the horizontal and vertical ranges of the display. Tap [?] toshow inline
help on the available settings.

Note: If you cannot able to see the actual graph or waveform especially if the source is AC,
make sure that your minimum and maximum setting for the current and voltage is appropriate.
For example, your source is 220v, make sure that your minimum range will show -220v and your
maximum range will show 220v.

Click the link below for further information about Trigger, Plots and Axes sections.
https://www.multisim.com/help/simulation/grapher/interactive-simulation/

SPLIT

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 You can tap the split to show both the schematic and the grapher.

DOWNLOADING SCHEMATIC IMAGE AND THE GRAPHER IMAGE

Tap   and select Export and then Schematic image (if you want to download the
schematic diagram) or Grapher Image (if you want to download the graph).

You can also select   and then Schematic image or Grapher image. A .png image of the
schematic is downloaded to the location specified in your browser.

You can download it with grid or without grid. Just deselect the grid box found on the
document configurations.

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 Downloaded Schematic Diagram

With Grid

Without Grid

Downloaded Graph Image

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SAVE YOUR CIRCUIT

 Name and save your circuit by clicking the File menu and write file name.
 Once saved, the URL of your circuit can be used to share your circuit

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COLLABORATE WITH A COMMUNITY

 Create a group from the Groups page

 Add group members by inviting them

Add circuits to your group

 Select a circuit from your My Circuits page

 Click the Share button to your groups

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 SHARING YOUR CIRCUIT

Tap   and select Go to then tap Circuit details.

When Circuit details was clicked, the image below was shown

Embedding linked images

1. Click    from the circuit's details page. The Embed Linked Image dialog box displays. 
2. Click one of the following to select a link style:
HTML - to display HTML markup code.

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 Markdown - to display markdown code. This must be supported by the web page. 
Image URL - to display a URL for the image.
3. Click Copy text. 
4. Paste the link into a web page using its supplied tools. 
5. Click on the image that appears to go to the circuit's details page in Multisim Live.

Embedding simulatable circuits 

1. Click   from the circuit's details page.

The Embed Circuit dialog box displays. 
2. Click Copy text.
3. Paste the link into the web page using its supplied tools. 

III. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

For comprehensive tutorial, click the link below
https://www.multisim.com/help/getting-started/

For quick video tutorials, click the links below

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eo5_ZDVSTno
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aJtBNfr24Ag
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6rvt5DpgkBk

IV. ACTIVITY
Simulate the given circuit below and submit the following:
1. Downloaded schematic and graph.
2. Measured values of the following:
Voltages across R1, R2 and R3.
Total current flowing IT and branch currents I1, I2 , I3.
3. Submit copy of your circuit by sharing the link either on your MS notebook or my email
add: [email protected]
Note: If send via email, you must include your Name_Yr & Section_Subject_Title
(Lesson 9: Simulated Circuits) on the email’s subject title.

Circuit Problem#2

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V. REFERENCES

[1] NATIONAL INSTRUMENTS, "Get Started," 2020. [Online]. Available:

https://www.multisim.com/get-started/. [Accessed 31 August 2020].

[2] National Instruments, "Tutorial," 2020. [Online]. Available:

https://www.multisim.com/help/getting-started/. [Accessed 31 August 2020].

[3] APDahlen, "Introduction to AC Circuits using Multisim Live," 21 March 2020. [Online].
Available: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eo5_ZDVSTno. [Accessed 31 August 2020].

[4] L. Eng, "Simple AC Circuit design using Multisim live," 22 March 2020. [Online]. Available:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aJtBNfr24Ag. [Accessed 31 August 2020].

EXPERIMENT ONE

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Introduction to Electrical Measurements & Resistor Color Coding

Below are the things to note on Experiment 1

 Due to pandemic, we will just conduct a simulation of the experiment. Hence, some of the
written objectives on Experiment 1 will not be achieved. Also, modification is needed since
some of materials and electrical instruments is not available like the real resistors,
potentiometer and multitester. So, some part of the experiment will be omitted.

 Read all the contents especially the theory part.

IMPORTANT

 In item IV Procedures, Run 1, since you cannot buy resistors outside, just read the resistors
below and record your answer in Table 1.2. In the table, just leave blank the rows of
measured value and %difference since you do not have actual resistors to be measured by
ohmmeter.

RESISTOR COLOR CODING.

Write the value of the resistor on Table 1.2.

2. Green-Red-Gold-Silver 3. White-Violet-Black
1. Yellow-Violet-Orange-Gold

4. Brown-Green-Grey-Silver-Red 5. Brown-Black-Brown-Gold 6. Red-Red-Yellow-Gold

 Also leave Table 1.3 blank.

 Complete Table 1.4.
 Submit your group preliminary report after you conducted the experiment and your
individual final report a week after you conducted the experiment.
 Every report must have cover page. Read rules in making experiment and preliminary report
to know what the cover page must contain.

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 EXPERIMENT ONE
Introduction to Electrical Measurements & Resistor Color Coding

I. OBJECTIVES
1. To determine the value of resistors from their color code and compare them to
ohmmeter reading.
2. To measure the resistance across each combination of two of the three terminals of a
potentiometer and observe the range of resistance change as the shaft is varied
throughout its entire range.
3. To be familiar with the connection, use and operation of the DC voltmeter and
ammeter.

II. THEORY
Resistance is the measure of the opposition to the flow of charge through a material. The
unit of resistance is OHM, given by the symbol, the Greek letter omega. For carbon resistors,
the resistance values are indicated by a standard color code adopted by manufacturers. This code
involves the use of color bands on the body of the resistor. This is used for 1/4w, 1/2w, 1w, 2w,
and 3w resistors. A carbon resistor is shown in Fig.1.1. Note the color bands. The first band tells
the first significant figure. The second tells the second significant figure. The third band is the
multiplier and the fourth band is the tolerance. The absence of a fourth band in carbon resistor
means a ±20% tolerance. In the case of resistor whose value is less than one ohm, the multiplier
is silver (band or dot), while for resistor whose value is greater than one but less than ten ohms,
the multiplier is gold. Refer to Table 1.1.

FIGURE 1.1 RESISTOR COLOR CODE

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 Wire wound, high wattage resistor is usually not color coded but has its value and
wattage rating printed on its body. Wire wound resistors with brown color are insulated while
those with black body color are not insulated. In writing the values of resistors, the following
designations are employed: K is a multiplier which stands for 1,000 and M stands for 1,000,000.

In addition to fixed-value resistors, variable resistors are used extensively in electronics.

There are two types of variable resistors, the rheostat and the potentiometer. Volume controls
used in radio and the contrast and brightness controls of television receivers are typical examples
of potentiometers.

A rheostat is essentially a two-terminal device whose schematic symbol is shown in

Figure 1.2. It has a maximum value of resistance specified by the manufacturer and its minimum
value is usually equal to zero. The arrowhead in Figure 1.2 indicates a mechanical means of
adjusting the rheostat so that the resistance, measured between points A and B can be set to any
intermediate value within the range of variation.

The schematic symbol for a potentiometer is shown in Figure 1.3. This is essentially a
three-terminal device. The resistance between points A & B is fixed and point C is the variable
arm of the potentiometer. The arm is a metal contactor which moves along the uninsulated
surface of the resistance element, selecting different lengths of resistive surface. Thus, the longer
is the surface of the resistance between points A and C, the greater is its resistance between
points. Similarly, the resistance between points A and C varies as the length of the element
included between points A and C.

A potentiometer maybe used as a rheostat if the center arms and one of the end terminals
are connected into the circuit, and the other end terminal is left disconnected. Another method of
converting a potentiometer into a rheostat is to connect a piece of hook wire between the arm and
one of the end terminals, for example C connected to A. The points B and C now serve as the
terminals of a rheostat.

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MEASURING RESISTANCE

One of the functions of a VOM (Volt-ohmmeter-milliammeter) is to measure resistance.

Each manufacturer provides operating instructions for the use of this particular instrument.
Hence, it will be necessary to refer to the instruction manual before using any VOM. A student
should be thoroughly familiar with the operation of the ohmmeter function before he attempts to
use it in this experiment.

To measure resistance, the function switch should be set to ohms. Next, the student
should adjust to their settings the ohm zero controls of the meter. He is now ready to measure
resistance. If the meter reading is zero, the points are said to be “short-circuited” while if the
meter pointer does not move, the points are said to be “open-circuited.”

Usually the ohm-scale is non-linear, that is, the arc distance between consecutive
graduations is not equal. Thus, the arc distance between 0 and 1 is much greater than the distance
between 9 and 10, through each arc represents in this case a change of 1 ohm. Note that the ohms
scale becomes fairly crowded to the right of the 100 ohms division. If a resistance greater than
100 ohms is to be measured with some degree of accuracy, the meter range should be switched to
x10, x100, x1K, or x10K depending on the actual resistance to be measured. In the x10 range,
any reading made on the basic scale must be multiplied by 10. In the x100 range, the reading
must be multiplied by 100, and so on for the rest of the ranges.

TABLE 1.1 RESISTOR COLOR CODE CHART

COLOR SIGNIFICANT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE

FIGURE
BLACK 0 1 -
BROWN 1 10 -
RED 2 100 -
ORANGE 3 1000 -
YELLOW 4 10000 -
GREEN 5 100000 -
BLUE 6 1000000 -
VIOLET 7 10000000 -
GRAY 8 100000000 -
WHITE 9 1000000000 -
GOLD - 0.1 ±5%
SILVER - 0.01 ± 10 %
NO COLOR - - ± 20 %

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DC VOLTAGE AND CURRENT MEASUREMENTS

Difference of potential or voltage is the work necessary to move a unit charge of

electricity from one point to the other of an electric circuit. The rate of flow of electric charge is
called current. The mechanical analogy of voltage and current in a hydraulic system are
pressure and the rate of water flow, respectively. Current will not flow if the potential difference
is not existing, as water cannot flow if there is no pressure in a hydraulic system. Voltage and
current are ordinarily measured by a voltmeter and an ammeter, respectively.

Direct Current instruments work on the principle of motor action. When a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, force is developed on the conductor. The
direction of force is governed by the law of electromagnetic induction. Current flow in the
moving coils through the spiral springs. The permanent magnets produce the magnetic flux that
caused force to be developed in the moving coil when it rotates. The pointer is pivoted on
jeweled bearings. The scales are calibrated to indicate voltage or current. The zero adjusting
screw adjusts the position of the pointer to exactly zero on the scale. The antiparallax mirror
enables one to read the meter accuracy. For correct reading, the pointer and its shadow on the
mirror should coincide.

Voltage is ordinarily measured by a voltmeter. In a voltmeter, a very high resistance is

connected in series with the moving coil to limit the current. Thus, when a voltmeter is
connected across the lines or devices, the current that it takes is very small and, in most cases,
negligible compared to the current in the circuit.

When measuring current in a line, an ammeter is used. The construction of the moving
coil assembly of an ammeter is similar to that of the voltmeter. Shunt resistors of very small
values are connected across the moving coil to bypass most of the current which should
otherwise flow through the coil. The resistance of an ammeter is therefore very small. Because of
this, ammeters cannot be connected across a source of voltage.

As a general rule, a voltmeter must be connected across the lines or devices, while an
ammeter must be connected in series with the load. The polarity of the meters must be
considered when taking DC measurements. A wrong polarity will move the pointer backward
and may cause the pointer to be bent. The instruments must be handled with care since these are
delicate. Rough handling may affect the accuracy of the meter. If the quantities to be measured
are not yet approximated, the meter must be set at its highest range. The range of a voltmeter
maybe extended by connecting an additional resistor in series with the instrument. In the case of
an ammeter, the range is extended by connecting resistors across the instruments.

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III. MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
1 Analog VOM
5 Assorted Color-Coded Carbon Resistor (1w)
1 10K Potentiometer
1 Breadboard
1 Variable DC Power Supply
Connecting Wires

IV. PROCEDURES
RUN I: THE COLOR-CODED CARBON RESISTOR

1. Determine the value of each resistor from their color codes. Fill in the information
required for Table 1.2.
2. Using the VOM, zero adjust the ohmmeter and measure the resistance of each resistor
with the ohmmeter. Record the readings in Table 1.2.
3. Compute the percentage difference between the color coded value and the measured
value and record them in Table 1.2. They should agree within the tolerance range of
the resistor.

RUN II: THE POTENTIOMETER

1. Examine the potentiometer. Orient it so that the rotatable shaft comes out toward you.
Call the terminals of the potentiometer A, B and C as in Fig 1.3. Measure and record
in Table 1.3 the total resistance between A and B (Rab). Vary the arm of the
potentiometer while keeping the ohmmeter connected across AB. Does the total
resistance vary?
2. Connect the ohmmeter terminals across AC. Turn the potentiometer control
completely clockwise. Measure and record the resistance between AC (Rac) and
between BC (rbc). Compute and record the value of Rac + Rbc.
3. Now observe how the resistance Rac varies as the potentiometer is turned from its
clockwise position to complete counterclockwise position. How does Rbc varies over
this range? Record the clockwise and counterclockwise values for Rac and Rbc.
Compute and record Rac + Rbc in each case.
4. Set the control one quarter of the way clockwise. Measure and record Rac and Rbc in
Table 1.3. Compute and record Rac + Rbc.
5. Set the control three-quarters of the way clockwise. Measure and record Rac and Rbc
in Table 1.3. Compute and record Rac + Rbc.

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 RUN III: CONNECTING THE VOLTMETER AND AMMETER

1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 1.4. Choose an appropriate value of resistor.
2. Adjust the DC supply voltage to 20V. Measure and record the value of voltage and
current in Table 1.4 as indicated by the voltmeter and the ammeter.
3. Repeat step 2 for the other four remaining resistors.

Figure 1.4 EXPERIMENTAL CIRCUIT

IV. DATA AND RESULTS

TABLE 1.2

RESISTOR
1 2 3 4 5 6
1st color
2nd color
3rd color
4th color
tolerance
coded value
measured
values
%
difference

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 RESISTOR
7 8 9 10
1 color
st

2nd color
3rd color
4th color
tolerance
coded value
measured
values
%
difference

TABLE 1.3
STEP POTENTIOMETER Rab Rbc Rca Rac + Rbc
SETTING Computed Value
1 vary over its range X X X
2 Completely CW X
3 CW to CCW X
4 ¼ CW X
5 ¾ CW X

TABLE 1.4
RESISTANCE
VOLTAGE
CURRENT

V. COMPUTATIONS

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VI. CONCLUSION

VII. GUIDE QUESTIONS

1. Give the color code of the following carbon resistors.
a. 0.73-ohm c. 5.6 ohms
b. 490 ohms d. 62,000 ohms

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 2. An ammeter and a voltmeter of suitable ranges are to be used to measure the current and
voltage of an electric lamp. If mistakes were made and meters interchanged, what will
happen?

3. An ammeter has a resistance of 0.0075 ohm reads up to 15A. What resistance shunt is
needed to make a full-scale deflection of 150A?
4. A 50mV meter has a resistance of 10 ohms. A multiplier has been inserted to produce a
voltmeter of range 5V. How can the multiplier be modified so that the new meter will
have a range of 15V?
5. How does a potentiometer differ from rheostat?

Use the space below for your solution in questions #3 and #4.

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Use the space below for your solution in questions #3 and #4.

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 EXPERIMENT TWO
Ohm’s Law

I. OBJECTIVES
To demonstrate Ohm’s Law and to show its various forms.

II. THEORY
Electrical resistance is the opposition to the flow of electric current in a circuit
and is dependent on many factors. Copper wire, though considered a good conductor of
electric current, does offer some resistance. A German physicist, George Simon Ohm
(1787-1854) discovered that the ratio of voltage to current was constant for a given metal
conductor of specified length and cross-sectional area. The ratio is known as resistance
and is expressed in units of ohm, in his honor. Ohm’s Law is often referred to as the
foundation of circuit analysis and can be expressed by the formula:

E equation 1
R=
I
where:

E= the potential difference from one end of the element to the other
(measured in volts)
I= the current through the element (measured in amperes)
R= resistance of the element (in ohms)

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 The other useful expressions can be derived from equation 1, they are:

E equation 2
I=
R

equation 3
E=IR

In order to produce a current, a voltage must first exist across the element. Early
experimenters in electricity recognized the fact that an electric current was a movement
of charges along a conductor. The direction of the flow of current was not known and
unfortunately, it was arbitrarily chosen to be a positively charged body to a negatively
charged body (positive to negative) and this convention has been so firmly established
that it is still in use.

Thus, the conventional direction or positive direction of current flow taken to be

from positive to negative current even though it is not known that the direction of
electron flow, which actually constitutes an electric current, is from negative to positive.

Electric power systems of which this program is a part use “conventional current
flow” for electric current. In this “conventional system,” current flows from a positive to
a negative terminal.

III. MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

2 Digital multimeter / VOM
3 Carbon resistors (1W)
1 33
1 22
1 Breadboard
1 Regulated DC Power Supply
Connecting Wires

IV. PROCEDURES
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 2.1. Be careful to observe instrument
polarities. Make certain that the power supply switch is open, and the variable output
control of the regulated power supply is turned fully counterclockwise.
2. Turn on the power supply. Slowly advance the voltage output control clockwise until
the voltmeter across the 33 load indicates 30V. Measure the current flowing
through the load and record the results in Table 2.1.

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 3. Repeat Procedure 2 for each of the voltage listed in Table 2.1. Return the voltage to
zero and turn OFF the switch of the power supply after each measurement. (Do not
disconnect your circuit.)
4. Using the values of E and I from the table in Procedure 3, calculate the ratios of E to I
in each case. Record your calculations in Table 2.2.
5. Using the results in Table 2.2, get the average value of E/I. Note that the ratio
between the voltage applied across the resistor and the current flowing through it is a
constant value, called resistance.
6. You will now verify that the alternate form of Ohm’s Law (I = E/R) is valid. Use the
same circuit as shown in Figure 2.1. Turn on the power supply and adjust for 15V as
indicated on the voltmeter across the 33 resistor. Measure and record the current
through the 33. Return the voltage to zero and turn off the switch of the power
supply.
7. You will now verify that the other alternate form of Ohm’s Law (E = IR) is valid. Use
the same circuit shown in Figure 2.1, however, this time use 22 resistor. Turn on the
power supply and adjust the output voltage until the ammeter indicates 0.45A.
Measure and record the voltage across the 22 resistor. Return the voltage to zero
and turn off the power supply.

Figure 2.1 EXPERIMENTAL CIRCUIT

IV. DATA AND RESULTS

VOLTS (V) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
AMPS
TABLE 2.1

VOLTS (V) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

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 E/I
TABLE 2.2

V. COMPUTATIONS

Use this space for computations

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VI. CONCLUSION

VII. GUIDE QUESTIONS

1. Plot the recorded currents at the listed voltages of Table 2.1 on a graphing paper. Is
the current directly proportional to the voltage?
2. From the result of Procedure 6, does the measured value of current I = E/R = 15/33?
3. From the result of Procedure 7, does the measured value of voltage E = IR = (0.45)
(22)?
4. An experimenter accidentally touches a 240V DC line. If his skin resistance is 10k,
what value of current flows through his body?
5. Birds are known to perch on 2300V bare transmission line without apparent harm.
Explain the reason behind this.

Use the space below for your answer in questions 1 to 4.

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Use the space below for your answer in questions 1 to 4.

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 EXPERIMENT THREE
Series and Parallel Circuits

I. OBJECTIVES
1. To calculate and measure the equivalent resistance of resistors connected in
series and parallel.
2. To verify experimentally the characteristics of series and parallel circuits.

II. THEORY
In any electrical or electronic circuit, we often encounter one or more elements
connected in series, in parallel and in series-parallel arrangement or in a more complex
combination.

Two or more elements are considered to be in series when they are connected
end-to-end as shown in Figure 3.1. The following characteristics apply to series circuits:

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 Figure 3.1 SERIES CIRCUIT

1. The current flowing through a series circuit is always the same at every point
in the circuit.
IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = …….. In
2. The total resistance is always equal to the sum of the individual values of
resistance in the circuit.
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + …….. Rn

3. The voltage applied across the circuit is always equal to the sum of the voltage
drops across the individual elements.
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + …….. Vn
Two or more elements are considered to be in parallel when they are connected
between the same two junction points or nodes as shown in Figure 3.2. The following
characteristics apply to parallel circuits.

Figure 3.2 PARALLEL CIRCUIT

1. The voltage across any element is the same and is equal to the applied voltage source.
VT = V1 = V2 = V3 = …….. Vn
2. The circuit current divides to flow through each branches or the total current is equal
to the sum of the current in each element.
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + …….. In
3. The formula for finding the effective resistance is given by:

1 1 1 1 1
= + + +…
R T R 1 R2 R3 Rn

III. MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

1 Regulated DC Power Supply
1 Digital multimeter / VOM
1 Breadboard
2 Carbon Resistors (1W)
1 100

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 1 150
1 220
Connecting wires

IV. PROCEDURES
SERIES CIRCUIT

1. Connect the resistors in series as shown in Figure 3.3. Set the DC power supply to
10V.
2. Turn ON the power supply. Measure the current I and the voltage across each resistor.
Record the results in Table 3.1.
3. Turn OFF the power supply. Using your multimeter, measure the total resistance of
the circuit.
4. Using the measured value of the total resistance, calculate the total current, I = V T /
RT. Use this current to calculate the voltage drop in each resistor. Record the results in
Table 3.1.
5. Compute the percent difference between the measured and the computed values of
current and voltage. Use the measured values as the true values.

PARALLEL CIRCUIT

6. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 3.4. Set the DC power supply to 10V.
7. Turn ON the power supply and measure the total voltage and the current in each
resistor. Record the results in table 3.2.
8. Turn OFF the power supply. Using your multimeter measure the total resistance of
the circuit.
9. Using the measured value of the total resistance, calculate the voltage, V T = ITRT. Use
this voltage to calculate the current in each resistor. Record the results in Table 3.2.
10. Compute the percent difference between the measured and computed values of
voltage and currents. Use the measured values as the true values. Record the results in
Table 3.2.

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 Figure 3.3

Figure 3.4

V. DATA AND RESULTS

V1 V2 V3 VT IT RT

Measured
values
Computed
values
%differenc
e
TABLE 3.1

I1 I2 I3 IT VT RT V1 V2 V3
Measured
values
Computed
values
%differenc
e
III. TABLE 3.2

VI. COMPUTATIONS

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Use this space for computations

VII. CONCLUSION

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VIII. GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. What is the effect on the total resistance of the following:
a. Increasing the number of resistors in series.
b. Decreasing the number of resistors in series.
c. Increasing the number of resistors in parallel.
d. Decreasing the number of resistors in parallel.

2. A 12V generator has internal resistance of 0.05. Two loads are connected in parallel
to its terminals, one drawing a 12A current and the other dissipating energy at the rate
of 200W. What is the terminal voltage of the generator at this load?

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 3. Three resistors are connected in series to a 120V generator. The first has a resistance
of 50, the second passes a current of 0.5A and the third has a voltage drop of 50V
across it. Calculate the resistance of the second and the third resistor.

4. What disadvantage does the “series string” type of Christmas tree lamp possess as
compared to the 110V parallel type of Christmas tree lamp?

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 5. Explain why the kitchen light becomes a bit dimmer when a toaster is turned on.

EXPERIMENT FOUR
Power in DC Circuits

I. OBJECTIVES
3. To determine the power dissipated in a resistive DC circuit.
4. To show that the power dissipated in a load is equal to the power supplied by
the source.

II. THEORY
When an electric current pass through a resistive material, electrical energy is
converted into heat and other forms of energy. The rate of conversion of energy is known
as Power. The law of conservation of energy requires that the power dissipated by any
number of resistance elements must equal the power supplied by the source.

When electric energy is supplied to a resistor it is immediately converted into

heat, with the result that the resistor warms up. The greater electric power supplied, the
higher the temperature will become, until a point is reached where either the resistor or
nearby components will burn out. In order to maintain an acceptable temperature,
resistors that have to dissipate large amounts of power are made physically large, while
those that dissipate little energy can be made smaller.

It is therefore clear that the physical size of a resistor depends not on its resistance
value but almost exclusively upon the power which it has to dissipate. This is why 100W

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 lamps are physically larger than 60W lamp. The increased size offers better cooling both
by convection and by radiation.

In DC circuits, power can be calculated by getting the product of the current and
the voltage. However, the resistance offered by the load, since it controls current through
the load, is a factor in power calculations. When either voltage and current is known and
the load resistance in given power can be calculated by substituting Ohm’s Law
equivalent of the unknown value. The formula for calculating power is,

P = EI
By Ohm’s Law:
I=E/R and E = IR
Substituting the above equation for I and E in the power equation:

P = E2 / R and P = I2R

III. MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

2 Regulated DC Power Supply
2 Digital multimeter / VOM
3 Breadboard
3 Carbon Resistors (1W)
2 100
2 150
2 220
Connecting wires

IV. PROCEDURES
1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 4.1 being careful to observe the correct meter
polarities. Make certain that the power supply switch is in OFF position and that the
voltage output control is turned fully counterclockwise.
2. Turn ON the power supply and adjust the voltage output control until the voltmeter
across the load resistor indicates 30V. Measure the current through the load resistor.
3. Return the voltage to zero. Calculate the power dissipated by the load resistor using
the three equations given in the theory section. Are the three the same?
4. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 4.2. Note that the three resistors are connected
in series.
5. Turn ON the power supply and adjust for a source voltage V T = 15V as indicated by
the DC voltmeter.

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 6. Measure the current and the voltage across each resistor. Record the results in Table
4.1. Turn OFF the power supply.
7. Calculate the power dissipated in each resistor using P = VI. Calculate the total power
dissipated by summing the three powers.
8. You will now determine the dissipated powers without knowing the voltage drops
across the resistors. Turn ON the power supply and adjust again for a source voltage
VT = 10V. Measure and record the current.
9. Return the voltage to zero and turn OFF the power supply.
10. Using formula P = I2R, calculate the power dissipated in each resistor and the total
power dissipated. Are they the same with that the results in Procedure 7?
11. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 4.3. Note that the three resistors are connected
in parallel.
12. Turn ON the power supply and adjust the voltage output until it indicates 10V.
13. Measure the current in each resistor and record the results in Table 4.2. Turn OFF the
power supply.
14. Calculate the power dissipated in each resistor using the formula P = VI. Calculate
the total power dissipated by summing the three powers.
15. You will now determine the dissipated powers without knowing the current in each
resistor. Turn ON the power supply and adjust again for a source voltage VT = 10V.
16. Return the voltage to zero and turn OFF the power supply.
17. Using formula P = V2/R, calculate the power dissipated in each resistor and the total
power dissipated. Are they the same with the results in Procedure 14?

Figure 4.1

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 Figure 4.2

Figure 4.3

V. DATA AND RESULTS

R1 R2 R3 PT

VOLTAGE

POWER PROCEDURE 7
(P=IV)
PROCEDURE 10
P = I2 R
TABLE 4.1

R1 R2 R3 PT

CURRENT

POWER PROCEDURE 14
(P=IV)
PROCEDURE 17
P = V2 / R
TABLE 4.2

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VI. COMPUTATIONS

Use this space for computations

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VII. CONCLUSION

VIII. GUIDE QUESTIONS

1. Round 12-gauge copper wire has a resistance of 1.6 / 1000ft. Calculate the power
lost in the 12-gauge copper wire conductor 200 feet long carrying a current of 10A.
What is the voltage between the two ends of the conductor?
2. A l ampere fuse has a resistance of 0.2. It will melt of “blow” when the
instantaneous current through it is large enough to create a power loss of 5 watts.
What is the value of this melting current?
3. An earth “ground” at the base of the transmission line tower has a resistance of 2. If
a lightning stroke of 20kA strikes the tower, what would be the power dissipated in
the “ground”? What would be the voltage drop across the “ground”?
4. The shunt field winding of a DC motor has a resistance of 240. Calculate the power
loss when the voltage is 120V.

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Use this space for your answers in guide questions

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 EXPERIMENT FIVE
Delta – Wye Transformations

I. OBJECTIVES
5. To familiarize the students with the theoretical method of transforming delta
networks to wye network, or vice-versa.
6. To prove experimentally that the delta network can be transformed inti its
equivalent wye network, or vice-versa.

II. THEORY
The wye and delta networks derived their names from their shapes. The delta, as
shown in Figure 5.1, consists of three elements which are interconnected forming a
triangle similar to the Greek letter delta, while the wye shown in Figure 5.2, also
consisting of three elements, are interconnected to form the capital letter Y.

The delta and wye networks are equivalent since they can be transformed to
replace the other. For a particular delta network to be equivalent to a wye network, the

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 resistance and consequently the voltage between the corresponding pairs of terminals and
consequently the current in each terminal must be equal.

If we ignore terminal 3, the resistance between terminals 1 and 2 must be the

same for both networks. For the wye circuit of Figure 5.2, the circuit is a simple series
circuit giving:

R12 = R1 + R2
For the delta network, there are two branches in parallel between terminals 1 and
2, giving:

R A ( R B + RC )
R12=
R A +(RB + R C )

Therefore,

R A ( RB + R C )
R1 + R2 ¿
R A +( R B + RC )  equation (1)

Similarly,

R C ( R A + R B)
R2 + R3 ¿
R C +(R A + RB )  equation (2)

And

R B ( R A + R C)
R3 + R1 ¿
R B +(R A + RC )  equation (3)

Subtracting equation (2) from equation (1) gives:

R A RB −RB RC
R1−R 3 ¿  equation (4)
R A + R B + RC

Adding equation (3) and equation (4):

2 R A RB
2 R1 ¿
R A + R B + RC

For which,

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 R A RB
R1 ¿
R A + R B + RC

Likewise,

R A Rc
R2 ¿
R A + R B + RC

And,

R B RC
R3 ¿
R A + R B + RC

These are the delta to wye transformation equations. In using them, we must be
careful to associate the numerical values of the original delta circuit with their proper
counter parts in the transformation equations. Note that there is a simple pattern for the
three equations.

R
¿ product of thetwo delta arms connected ¿ one terminal ¿
∑ of the three delta arms
We can also reduce equations 1, 2 and 3 algebraically to solve the equivalent delta
circuit from a given wye circuit. The wye to delta transformation equations are usually
stated as:

R 1 R 2 + R2 R 3 + R 3 R 1
RA ¿
R3

R 1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R 1
RB ¿
R2

R 1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R 1
RC ¿
R1

Again, the three equations have a pattern,

R ¿
∑ of products of each pair of Y armstaken two at a time
opposite Y arms

III. MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

3 1K potentiometers
4 Breadboard

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 3 Regulated DC Power Supply
3 Digital multimeter / VOM
3 Carbon Resistors (1W)
3 33
3 22
3 10
Connecting wires

IV. PROCEDURES
1. Adjust the settings of potentiometers RA, RB, and RC to 150, 200 and 100
respectively.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 5.3.
3. Turn on the power supply. Measure the currents I1 , I2, and I3 and the voltages V1 and
V2. Record the results in Table 5.1.
4. Turn off the power supply.
5. With the given values of RA, RB, and RC, compute for the equivalent values of RAB,
RBC, and RCA. Record these values in Table 5.2.
6. With no changes made to the settings of the potentiometers, measure the resistance
between each pair of terminals of the wye network (Figure 5.5). Record the results in
Table 5.3.
7. Adjust RAB, RBC, and RCA to the computed values of Step 5.
8. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 5.4
9. Turn on the power supply. Measure the currents I1, I2, and I3 and the voltages V1 and
V2. Record all the results in Table 5.1.
10. Turn off the power supply.
11. With no changes made to the settings of the potentiometers, measure the resistance
between each pair of terminals of the delta network (Figure 5.5). Record the results in
Table 5.3.
12. Compute for the percent difference between the two sets of measured values. Use the
averages of each pair of measured values as the “correct” values.

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 Figure 5.3 Figure 5.4

Figure 5.5

V. DATA AND RESULTS

I1 I2 I3 Iave V1 V2
Wye
Delta
Computed
% difference
Table 5.1

RA RB RC RAB RBC RCA

Table 5.2

R12 R23 R31

Wye network
Delta network

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 % difference
Table 5.3

VI. COMPUTATIONS

Use this space for computations

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VII. CONCLUSION

VIII. GUIDE QUESTIONS

1. In the Wheatstone Bridge Circuit shown below, R1 and R4 have a resistance of 300
each and R2 and R3 have a resistance of 150 each. If the source voltage is 100V, what
current flows through the galvanometer if its resistance is 50?

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 2. Use delta-wye transformations to determine what voltage must be applied to the input
terminals of the lattice network shown below in order to draw 2A current from the source
when a 20 load is connected to the output terminals.

EXPERIMENT SIX
Kirchhoff’s Laws

I. OBJECTIVES
1. To familiarize the students with Kirchhoff’s Laws
2. To verify experimentally Kirchhoff’s Current and Voltage Laws.
3. To apply Kirchhoff’s Laws in analyzing complex electric circuits.

II. THEORY
The solution to complex circuits is facilitated by the applications of Kirchhoff’s Laws.
These laws were formulated and published by the physicist GUSTAV ROBERT KIRCHHOFF
(1824-1887) and became the basis of all other modern network laws and theorems. These laws
are applicable to circuits containing one or more sources of voltages or currents.

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 Two laws apply to Kirchhoff namely: Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) and Kirchhoff’s
Current Law (KCL).

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of the voltage rises and voltage
drops around a closed loop or path in an electric circuit is zero. An equation maybe written
based on any closed path or loop. To do this, we can move from one node to the next one until
we finally reach the starting node. Each time we move from one node to another, a voltage rise
or drop must be considered. If the first node is at a lower potential than the next one, then we
have a voltage rise. If the first node is at a higher potential thana the next one, then it is
considered as a voltage drop. Kirchhoff’s law is based on the fact that there cannot be a potential
difference at a single node. To get the potential difference between any two nodes, we have to
consider the potential differences of all the elements between any two nodes.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that the algebraic sum of currents entering the3 node is
equal to the sum of the currents leaving it. If we consider the current entering a node to be
positive while the currents leaving it as negative, then Kirchhoff’s current provides that the
algebraic sum of the current entering and the current leaving a node is zero. Current cannot be
retained at a node. Current entering a node must leave through the other nodes.

III. MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

2 Regulated DC Power Supply
1 Digital multimeter/VOM
1 Breadboard
6 Carbon Resistors (1W)
1 1000
1 150
1 220Ω
1 33Ω
1 22Ω
1 10Ω
Connecting wires

IV. PROCEDURES
1. Using the two regulated DC power supply, connect the circuit as shown in Figure 6.6.
Make certain that the power supply switch is in the off position and that the voltage
output is turned fully counterclockwise.
2. Turn on the power supply and adjust E1 and E2 to give an output of 12V and 15V,
respectively.
3. Using a voltmeter, measure the individual current drawn by each resistor and record
these values in Table 6.1.

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 4. Using a ammeter, measure the individual current drawn by each resistor and record
these values in Table 6.2. (Observe correct meter polarity in connecting the ammeter).
5. Using the circuit in Figure 6.1, compute for the individual branch currents and
voltage drops across each resistor using Kirchhoff’s Laws. Record the results in
Table 6.1.
6. Compute for the percent difference of the branch currents and voltage drops for each
resistor. Record the results in Table 6.1 and 6.2.

Figure 6.1

V. DATA AND RESULTS

VOLTAGE V1 V2 V3 V4 V5
MEASURED
COMPUTED
% DIFFERENCE
Figure 6.1

CURRENT I1 I2 I3 I4 I5
MEASURED
COMPUTED
% DIFFERENCE
Figure 6.2

VI. COMPUTATIONS

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Use this space for computations

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VII. CONCLUSION

VIII. GUIDE QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by difference in potential? Show that it is possible for two or more
emf’s to exist within a circuit without there being any difference of potential between
the circuit terminals.
2. If the assumed direction of a current in a network is in error, how is this fact indicated
in the result?
3. Write the loop equations for the circuit shown in the Figure below and calculate the
branch currents.

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Use this space for your answer in guide questions

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 EXPERIMENT SEVEN
Superposition Theorem

I. OBJECTIVES
1. To study and apply Superposition Theorem in the solution of an electric circuit.
2. To verify experimentally principle of Superposition.

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II. THEORY
Some circuits require more than one voltage or current source. For example, certain
types of amplifiers require both a positive and a negative voltage source for proper operation.
The analysis of those circuits can be simplified by the application of the Superposition theorem.

The Superposition method is a way to determine currents and voltages in a circuit that has
multiple sources by taking one circuit at a time. The other sources are replaced by their internal
resistances. (Recall that the ideal voltage sources has zero internal resistance while an ideal
current source has an infinite resistance). In this experiment, all sources will be treated as ideal
in order to simplify the coverage.

The general statement of the Superposition Theorem is as follows:

“In any linear resistive circuit containing two or more independent

sources, any circuit voltage (or current) may be calculated as the algebraic sum of all
individual voltages (or currents) caused by each independent source acting alone, i.e.
with all other independent sources replaces by their internal resistance.”

The steps in applying Superposition method are as follows:

1. Select a single voltage or current source and disable all others. This means
shorting other voltage sources and opening other current sources.
2. Find the currents due to the voltage or current source selected.
3. Repeat the above steps for each current and voltage sources, recording resultant
values of currents until all sources have been used.
4. To find the actual current or voltage, add and or subtract the currents or voltages
due to each individual source. If the currents are in the same direction or the
voltages are of the same polarity, add them. If the currents or voltages are of
opposite directions or polarities, subtract them with the direction of the resulting
current or voltage the same as the larger of the subtracted quantities.

III. MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

2 Regulated DC Power Supply
1 Digital multimeter/VOM
1 Breadboard
6 Carbon Resistors (1W)
1 100
1 150
1 220Ω
1 33Ω

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 1 22Ω
1 10Ω
Connecting wires

IV. PROCEDURES
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 7.1.
2. Turn on the power supplies. Measure the currents I1, I2 and I3 and record them in
Table 7.1. Turn off the power supplies after completing the measurements.
3. Disconnect the power supply E1, and short circuit its terminals as shown ini figure
7.2.
4. Turn on the power supply E2. Measure the currents I1, I2, I3 and record them in Table
7.1. Turn off the power supply after completing the measurements.
5. Reconnect the power supply E1. Disconnect the power E2 and short circuit its
terminals as shown in Figure 7.3.
6. Turn on the power supply E1. Measure the currents I1, I2 and I3 and record them in
Table 7.1. Turn off the power supply after completing the measurements.
7. Using the circuit in Figure 7.1, calculate or compute for the components and the
actual currents in each branch using method of superposition. Record the results in
Table 7.1.
8. Compute for the percent difference between the measured and the computed values.
Use the calculated or computed values as the correct values.

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 Figure 7.1

Figure 7.2

Figure 7.3

V. DATA AND RESULTS

I’ I’’ IT
COMPUTED MEASURED COMPUTED MEASURED COMPUTED MEASURED % Diff
I1
I2
I3

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 Table 7.1

VI. COMPUTATIONS

Use this space for computations

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VII. CONCLUSION

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VIII. GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. What advantages does Superposition Theorem have over Kirchhoff’s Law equations
in network solutions?
2. What factors tend to limit the application of the Superposition Theorem in network
analysis.
3. Using Superposition Theorem, determine the current drawn by each resistor for the
circuit shown below.

Use this space for your answers in guide questions

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 EXPERIMENT EIGHT
Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem

I. OBJECTIVES
1. To study the equivalent circuit of a complex electrical network using Thevenin’s and
Norton’s Theorems.
2. To understand the experimental procedures for determining the Thevenin’s and
Norton’s equivalent circuit.

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 3. To determine the current or voltage in an electric circuit using Thevenin’s and
Norton’s Theorem.

II. THEORY
Thevenin’s Theorem states that a linear network terminating on two nodes a and b and
containing a number of voltage and current sources maybe replaced by a single voltages source
and a series resistor (refer to Figure 8.1a). The series resistor has a resistance equal to that
measured between a and b with the voltage sources short circuited and the current sources open
circuited. The voltage is equal to the open circuit voltage measured between a and b.

Norton’s Theorem, on the other hand, states that the any complex network maybe
replaced by an ideal current source in parallel with a resistor (refer to Figure 8.1b). The value of
the current is equal to the current drawn by a short circuit applied across a and b of the original
circuit. The shunt resistor has a value equal to that of the series resistor of the Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit. The quotient of the open circuit voltage between a and b (the voltage of the
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit) and the current drawn by a short-circuiting path between a and b
(current of the Norton’s equivalent circuit) is equal to the equivalent resistance.

These two theorems will in many cases be applicable to and greatly simplify the circuit to
be analyzed. The use of either of these theorems enables us to replace an entire circuit as seen at
a pair of terminals by an equivalent circuit made up of a single resistor and a source, thus making
them an even more powerful solution tool. They are utilized whenever we need only the
performance characteristic of an electric circuit with respect to a pair of nodes.

Figure 8.1a Figure 8.1b

Thevenin’s equivalent Norton’s equivalent
III. MATERIALS AND
circuit.
EQUIPMENT
circuit
3 Regulated DC Power Supply
1 Digital multimeter/VOM
2 Breadboard
7 Carbon Resistors (1W)
2 100
1 150
2 220Ω
2 33Ω
1 22Ω

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 2 10Ω
Connecting wires

IV. PROCEDURES
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 8.2.
2. Turn on the power supplies. Measure the current I in the 150 Ω resistor and record this
on Table 8.1.
3. Turn off the power supplies. Disconnect the 150 Ω resistor from the circuit.
4. Turn on the power supplies. Measure the open circuit voltage E TH across terminals a
and b and record the results in Table 8.1. Turn off the power supplies.
5. Place an ammeter to terminals a and b. Observe proper meter polarities. The positive
must be connected to the terminal with a higher potential.
6. Turn on the power supplies. Measure the current the short circuit current I N across
terminals a and b record the result in Table 8.1. Turn off the power supplies.
7. Disconnect the power supplies E1 and E2 and place short circuits across their terminals.
8. Using the digital multimeter, measure the resistance Ro between terminals a and b.
' E TH
9. Compute I = . Compute for the percent difference between I and I’. Record
( Ro +150)
the results in Table 8.1.
'' I N Ro
10. Compute I = . Compute for the percent difference I and I’’. Record the
(R o +150)
results in Table 8.1.
11. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 8.3.
12. Turn on the power supplies. Measure the current I in the series 33 Ω and 22 Ω resistors
and record this on Table 8.2.
13. Turn off the power supplies. Disconnect the 33 Ω and the 22 Ω resistors from the
circuit.
14. Turn on the power supplies. Measure the open circuit voltage E TH across terminals a
and b and record the result in Table 8.2. Turn off the power supplies.
15. Place an ammeter across terminals a and b, observing its proper polarities.
16. Turn on the power supplies. Measure the short circuit current I N across terminals a and
b. Record the results in Table 8.2. Turn off the power supplies.
17. Disconnect the power supplies E1 and E2 and place short circuits between their
terminals.
18. Using the digital multimeter, measure the resistance Ro between terminals a and b.
ETH
19. Compute I ’ = . Compute for the percent difference between I and I’.
( Ro +33+ 22)
Record the results in Table 8.2.

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 '' I N Ro
20. Compute I = . Compute for the percent difference between I and I’’.
( R o +33+22)
Record the results in Table 8.2.

Figure 8.2

Figure 8.3

V. DATA AND RESULTS

I ETH IN Ro I’ % diff. I’’ % diff.

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 Table 8.1

I ETH IN Ro I’ % diff. I’’ % diff.

Table 8.2

VI. COMPUTATIONS

Use this space for computations

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VII. CONCLUSION

VIII. GUIDE QUESTIONS

1. When do we use Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems?
2. Determine the voltage drop across the 50 Ω resistor in the circuit shown below using
the method of Thevenin.

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 3. Use Norton’s Theorem to solve Problem 2. Are the results the same? Explain.

Use this space for your answers guide questions

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 EXPERIMENT NINE
Maximum Power Transfer in DC Circuits

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I. OBJECTIVES
1. To study the effects of variable load on the power transferred from the
source to the load.
2. To determine the resistance needed for maximum power transfer.

II. THEORY
Every source of electric power regardless of whether it is an audio or radio frequency
generator, hi-fi amplifier, battery, DC or AC power supply, or other circuit that drives an external
load such as a speaker, has an internal resistance. Different types of sources have quite different
internal resistance. Values may vary from fractions of an ohm for regulated power supplies to
thousands of ohms for some types of audio generators. The internal resistance of a source is
commonly called its output resistance or more correctly its output impedance (impedance is a
combination of resistance and reactance and will be covered in later laboratory experiments.)

In an electric circuit, power is delivered by the source to the load. As you have learned, the
power delivered is P=EI or I2R, where R is the resistance of the load. Load power, therefore,
depends on load current and load resistance. Since current increases when load resistance
decreases, you may think that the smaller the load resistance was made, the larger the power will
be. This would be the case, were it not for the internal resistance of the source. The source
resistance is in series with the load resistance, so it also affects the current, and thus the power
delivered to the load.

The combined effect of the load and source resistance is such that maximum power is
delivered to the load when the load resistance is equal to the source resistance. When the two
resistances are equal, they are said to be matched. This situation is referred to as maximum
power transfer. It is described by the power transfer theorem, which states that maximum power
is delivered to a load when the load resistance equals the internal resistance of the source.

III. MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

1 Regulated DC Power Supply
1 Digital multimeter/VOM
3 Breadboard
1 1K Potentiometer
4 Carbon Resistors (1W)
3 100
1 150
3 220Ω
3 33Ω
Connecting wires

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V. PROCEDURES
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 9.1. Measure the resistance R ab and record the
reading in Table 9.1.
2. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 9.2. Adjust the value of the variable resistor R L to
the value of Rab obtained in Procedure 1.
3. Turn ON the power supply. Measure the current and the voltage in R L. Record the
readings in Table 9.1.
4. Turn OFF the power supply. Compute for the power dissipated in R L and record the
result in Table 9.1.
5. Adjust the value of RL to one-half that of Rab.
6. Turn ON the power supply. Measure the current and voltage in RL. Record the results
in table 9.1.
7. Turn OFF the power supply. Compute for the power dissipated in R L. Record the result
in Table 9.1.
8. Adjust the value of RL to twice that of Rab.
9. Turn ON the power supply. Measure the current and the voltage in R L. Record the
results in Table 9.1.
10. Turn OFF the power supply. Compute for the power dissipated in R L. Record the result
in Table 9.1.
11. Repeat Procedure 1-13 for the circuit shown in Figures 9.3 and 9.4.

Figure 9.1

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 Figure 9.2

Figure 9.3

Figure 9.4

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V. DATA AND RESULTS
RL = Rab RL = ½ Rab RL = 2Rab
Rab V I P V I P V I P

Table 9.1

VI. COMPUTATIONS

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Use this space for computations

VII. CONCLUSION

VIII. GUIDE QUESTIONS

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 1. In operating electronic equipment, it is customary to make the load resistance equal to
the internal resistance. Why would we do this for electronic apparatus but not in the
case of a power generating unit?
2. A power supply with an internal resistance of 25 Ω delivers power to a 50 Ω load
connected across its terminals. If the voltage delivered by the supply without a load is
15V, what is the power dissipated by the load?
3. A power supply with an internal resistance of 10 Ω delivers power to a resistive load.
If the no load voltage at the output of the supply is 50V, determine the load resistance
RL if the power delivered to the load is at maximum. What is the maximum power
equal to?

Use space for this guide questions

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 EXPERIMENT TEN
RC Time Constant

I. OBJECTIVES
1. To study the process of charging and discharging a capacitor.
2. To determine the time constant of a series RC circuit experimentally.

II. THEORY
When a direct-current voltage is suddenly applied across a series connection of resistor
and capacitor, maximum current will be drawn. This current will drop rapidly and its waveshape
will follow that of the negative exponential curve. With no initial charge on the capacitor, the
current is given by the expression:
−t
E RC
i= e
R

The current in the circuit is decreased as the capacitor acquires a charge. If the capacitor
would have acquired a full charge, i.e. q = EC, the current would have dropped to zero. Since as
time t approached infinity, the capacitor behaves like an open circuit. The rate of charging is
dependent upon the values of R and C. It is not a function of the voltage E. The product RC is
called the time constant. Time constant is the time at which the exponent of e is unity ( e−1 ¿.
With R and C having units of ohms () and farad (F), respectively, the RC time constant would
have a unit of seconds.

After one time constant, the current would have dropped to 36.8% of the initial current.
The charge on the capacitor would be 63.2% of full charge. A discharging capacitor would lose
its charge at the rate determined by the time constant.

Theoretically, the time required to charge a capacitor is infinite. The exponential

expression e−t / RC will never become zero. However, it is generally accepted that our visual
perception can detect a movement of the needle of an analog meter up to five time constant only.
Another means of getting time constant is based on the knowledge that the current will be equal
to 36.8% of the maximum (initial) current after one time constant. This experiment will be based
on this approach.

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III. MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
1 Battery (9V)
1 Digital multimeter/VOM
4 Breadboard
1 Stopwatch
1 SPST switch
1 100k resistor (1W)
2 Electrolytic capacitors (12V)
1 22µF
1 47µF
1 10µF
Connecting wires

IV. PROCEDURES
1. Short-circuit each capacitor one at a time to ensure that it has no initial charge. With the
digital multimeter, measure the resistance of the analog voltmeter.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 10.1. Note that E is a 9V battery. Using a power
supply will not give correct results.
3. Keep your stopwatch ready. At the instant the switch is closed, start the stopwatch.
4. Take note of the initial reading of the voltmeter and record this on Table 10.1. Multiply
this value by 36.8% and record the result in Table 10.1. (You only have few seconds to
do this.)
5. Record the elapsed time in Table 10.1. This is equal to the time constant obtained through
the process of discharging the capacitor.
6. Allow the capacitor to acquire a full charge, then open the switch.
7. Without discharging the capacitor, connect the circuit shown in Figure 10.2.
8. Keep your stopwatch ready. At the instant the switch is closed, start the stopwatch.
9. Take note of the initial reading of the voltmeter and record this on Table 10.1. Multiply
this value by 36.8% and record the result in Table 10.1 (You only have few seconds to do
this.)
10. Keep your eyes on the voltmeter. At the instant the voltmeter reads 36.8% of the initial
voltmeter reading, turn-off the stopwatch.
11. Record the elapsed time in Table 10.1. This is equal to the time constant obtained through
the process of discharging the capacitor.
12. Compute for the time constant using the formula:
τ =( Rm+100 k ) C

Where: Rm is the resistance of the meter

C is the value of the capacitor used
13. Use the computed value as the correct value.

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 14. Repeat Procedures 2-13 for the other two capacitors.

Figure 10.1 Charging a Capacitor

Figure 10.2 Discharging a Capacitor

V. DATA AND RESULTS

C = 22µF Vmax 36.8%Vmax Elapsed time RC (computed) % Diff.
Charging
Discharging
C = 47µF Vmax 36.8%Vmax Elapsed time RC (computed) % Diff.
Charging
Discharging
C = 10µF Vmax 36.8%Vmax Elapsed time RC (computed) % Diff.
Charging
Discharging

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VI. COMPUTATIONS

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VII. CONCLUSION

VIII. GUIDE QUESTIONS

1. A series RC circuit is energized by a constant voltage E by means of closing a switch at
t = 0. Assuming that the capacitor is completely discharged, derive the expression for the
resulting current and the voltage across the resistor and capacitor at any time t.
2. Graph the resulting equations in (1).
3. A 100k resistor is connected in series with the parallel combination of a 10µF and a
40µF capacitor across a 100V DC source. What is the time constant of the circuit? At
what time will the charge across the capacitors be equal to 75% of its final value?

Use this space for your answers in guide questions

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