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SOLUTION (15.1)
Known: A 100-hp spur gear reducer is shown in Figure 15.28 of Sample Problem
15.5D. The efficiency of the spur gear reducer is 98%.
Find: Calculate the output horsepower, input torque and output torque.
Schematic and Given Data:

Figure 15.28

Analysis:
T!n
HP = HPout = (.98)(100) = 98 hp
63, 000

63, 000 HP (63, 000)(100)

Tin = = = 1750 lb in
n 3, 600

" HP %
eff = $ out ' x 100
# HPin &

63, 000 HP (63, 000)(98)

Tout = = = 6860 lb in
n 900

Comment: If a 100-hp output was required with an efficiency of 98%, the input
horsepower would need to be 100/(.98) = 102.04-hp. ■

15-1
SOLUTION (15.2)
Known: A gear speed reducer with a 10 to 1 speed reduction ratio has an output torque
of 50 lb•in. at an output speed of 100 rpm. The required input torque is 6 lb•in. and the
input speed is 1000 rpm.
Find: Determine the efficiency of the speed reducer. Once the reducer reaches a steady
state temperature, what happens to the energy lost by the reducer?
Schematic and Given Data:

Analysis:
1. The speed reducer has an efficiency = Powerout / Powerin = [(50)(100)] / [(6)(1000)]
= 0.834 = 83.4%. ■
2. Energy is lost from the speed reducer by conductive, connective and radiative heat
transfer. ■

15-2
SOLUTION (15.3)
Known: A pair of gears with a known gear ratio and a specified center distance have a
module of 2 mm.
Find: Determine the number of teeth in each gear.
Schematic and Given Data:

dp m = 2 mm
Ng
c = 130 mm =4
Np
dg Speed ratio
4:1

Assumptions:
1. The gears are spur gears.
2. The gears have teeth of standard involute profile.
3. The gears mesh along their pitch circles.
Analysis:
1. A gear ratio of 4:1 indicates a 4:1 ratio in the gear diameters. Hence dg = 4dp.
2. Center distance, c = (dg + dp)/2. Hence,
dg + dp = 260 mm.
3. Substituting dg = 4dp in part 2, we obtain
5dp = 260 mm. Hence, dp = 52 mm.
4. The module, m = dp/ Np and Np = 26. ■
5. Since the gear ratio is 4:1, the number of teeth on the gear, Ng = 4Np.
Therefore, Ng = 104. ■

Comments:
1. If the gear teeth were not of involute profile it would still be possible to have a
constant speed ratio provided it is ensured that the pitch point is stationary.
2. It should be evident that meshing gears must have the same module.
3. If a larger module for the gear was chosen, then the number of teeth would be
smaller on both the pinion and gear (other parameters being kept the same).

15-3
SOLUTION (15.4)
Known: A spur gear has a module of 4 mm.
Find: Calculate the thickness of the spur gear tooth measured along the pitch circle.
Schematic and Given Data:

Tooth
thickness t
Circular pitch

Pitch
circle

Assumption: The gear has teeth of standard involute profile.

Analysis:
1. From Eq. (15.4), m = d/N and from Eq. (15.6), p/m = π.
m = 4 mm. Hence, p = 0.7854 mm.
2. Tooth thickness, t = p/2: t = 0.3927 mm. ■

15-4
SOLUTION (15.5)
Known: A pinion with 32 teeth and 8 diametral pitch meshes with a gear having 65
teeth.
Find: Calculate the standard center distance.
Schematic and Given Data:

dp
Np = 32
P = 8

dg
Ng = 65

Assumptions:
1. The gears are spur gears.
2. The gears have teeth of standard involute profile.
3. The gears mesh along their pitch circles.
Analysis:
1. From Eq. (15.3): P = N/d = Np/dp = Ng/dg
2. P = 8, Np = 32. Hence, dp = 4.0 in.
3. Ng = 65. Hence, dg = 8.125 in.
dg + dp
4. The center distance, c = = 6.0625 in. ■
2
Comments:
1. If the gears did not mesh at the theoretical pitch circles the measured (actual)
center distance would not be equal to the sum of the theoretical pitch circle radii of
the gears.
2. It should be evident that meshing gears must have the same diametral pitch.

15-5
SOLUTION (15.6)
Known: A spur gear has a size 8 diametral pitch.
Find: Calculate the thickness of the spur gear tooth measured along the pitch circle.
Schematic and Given Data:

Tooth
thickness t
Circular pitch

Pitch
circle

Assumption: The gear has teeth of standard involute profile.

Analysis:
1. From Eq. (15.5); pP = !
P = 8. Hence, p = 0.3927 in.
2. Tooth thickness, t = p/2 : t = 0.1963 in. ■

15-6
SOLUTION (15.7)
Known: A pair of gears with a known gear ratio and at a specified center distance have
a diametral pitch of 6.
Find: Determine the number of teeth in each gear.
Schematic and Given Data:

dp

P = 6
Ng
c = 5 in. =2
Np
dg Speed ratio
2:1

Assumptions:
1. The gears are spur gears.
2. The gears have teeth of standard involute profile.
3. The gears mesh along their pitch circles.
Analysis:
1. A gear ratio of 2:1 indicates a 2:1 ratio in the gear diameters. Hence dg = 2dp.
2. Center distance, c = (dg + dp)/2. Hence,
dg + dp = 10 in.
3. Substituting dg = 2dp in part 2, we obtain
3dp = 10 in. Hence, dp = 10/3 in.
4. Diametral pitch, P = Np/dp, and Np = (10/3)(6) = 20. ■
5. Since the gear ratio is 2:1, the number of teeth on the gear, Ng = 2Np.
Therefore, Ng = 40. ■

Comments:
1. If the gear teeth were not of involute profile it would still be possible to have a
constant speed ratio provided it is ensured that the pitch point is stationary.
2. It should be evident that meshing gears must have the same diametral pitch.
3. If the diametral pitch were chosen to be higher, then the number of teeth would be
greater on both the pinion and gear (other parameters being kept the same).

15-7
SOLUTION (15.8a) – also see (15.8b) on next page
Known: A pinion with 20 teeth and 6 diametral pitch meshes with a gear having 55
teeth.
Find: Calculate the standard center distance.
Schematic and Given Data:

dp
Np = 20
P = 6

dg
Ng = 55

Assumptions:
1. The gears are spur gears.
2. The gears have teeth of standard involute profile.
3. The gears mesh along their pitch circles.
Analysis:
1. From Eq. (15.3): P = N/d = Np/dp = Ng/dg
2. P = 6, Np = 20. Hence, dp = 3.33 in.
3. Ng = 55. Hence, dg = 9.17 in.
dg + dp
4. The center distance, c = = 6.25 in. ■
2
Comments:
1. If the gears did not mesh at the theoretical pitch circles the measured (actual)
center distance would not be equal to the sum of the theoretical pitch circle radii of
the gears.
2. It should be evident that meshing gears must have the same diametral pitch.

15-8
SOLUTION (15.8b)
Known: A spur gear has a 6 diametral pitch.
Find: Calculate the thickness of the spur gear tooth measured along the pitch circle.
Schematic and Given Data:

Tooth
thickness t
Circular pitch

Pitch
circle

Assumption: The gear has teeth of standard involute profile.

Analysis:
1. From Eq. (15.5); pP = !
P = 6. Hence, p = 0.5236 in.
2. Tooth thickness, t = p/2 : t = 0.262 in. ■

15-9
SOLUTION (15.9)
Known: A pair of gears with a known gear ratio and at a specified center distance have
a diametral pitch of 4.
Find: Determine the number of teeth in each gear.
Schematic and Given Data:

dp

P = 4
Ng
c = 6 in. =3
Np

dg Speed ratio
3:1

Assumptions:
1. The gears are spur gears.
2. The gears have teeth of standard involute profile.
3. The gears mesh along their pitch circles.
Analysis:
1. A gear ratio of 3:1 indicates a 3:1 ratio in the gear diameters. Hence dg = 3dp.
2. Center distance, c = (dg + dp)/2. Hence,
dg + dp = 12 in.
3. Substituting dg = 3dp in part 2, we obtain
4dp = 12 in. Hence, dp = 12/4 = 3.0 in.
4. Diametral pitch, P = Np/dp, and Np = Pdp = (4)(12/4) = 12. ■
5. Since the gear ratio is 2:1, the number of teeth on the gear, Ng = 3Np.
Therefore, Ng = 36. ■

Comments:
1. If the gear teeth were not of involute profile it would still be possible to have a
constant speed ratio provided it is ensured that the pitch point is stationary.
2. It should be evident that meshing gears must have the same diametral pitch.
3. If the diametral pitch were chosen to be a larger number, then the number of teeth
would be greater on both the pinion and gear (other parameters being kept the
same).

15-10
SOLUTION (15.10)
Known: A pair of spur gears provide a given speed ratio at a specified center distance
and have a module of 4 mm.
Find: Determine the numbers of teeth and the pitch diameters of the gears.
Schematic and Given Data:

Np dp
m = 4 mm
! p/! g is 3:1

c = 168 mm

dg

Ng

Assumption: The spur gears mesh at the pitch circles.

Analysis:
1. For c = 168 mm., dp + dg = 336 mm.
2. For 3:1 speed ratio, dg = 3dp ; Hence 4dp = 336 mm,
dp = 84 mm; dg = 252 mm. ■
3. From Eq. (15.4): m=d/N, we have for m = 4, Np = 21; Ng = 63. ■

Comments:
1. The assumption to have spur gears meshing at the pitch circles ensures that the
given center distance is the theoretical center distance and is equal to the sum of
the pitch radii of the gears.
2. If the module were chosen to be larger, then the number of teeth would be smaller
on both the pinion and gear (other parameters being kept the same).

15-11
SOLUTION (15.11)
Known: A pinion of known pitch and number of teeth rotates at 2000 rpm and drives a
gear at 1000 rpm.
Find: Determine the number of teeth on the gear, theoretical center distance and
circular pitch.
Schematic and Given Data:

2000 rpm

dp Np = 20
P = 8

dg
1000 rpm
Ng

Assumptions:
1. The gears are spur gears.
2. The gears have teeth of standard involute profile.
3. The gears mesh along their pitch circles.
Analysis:
1. A 2:1 speed ratio requires a 1:2 ratio in number of teeth. Hence, Ng = 40 ■

dg + dp
2. dg = 40 = 5 in., dp = 20 = 2.5 in. Theoretical center distance, c = :
8 8 2
c = 3.75 in. ■

3. Circular pitch, p = ! : p = ! in. ■

P 8
Comments:
1. If the gear teeth were not of involute profile it would still be possible to have a
constant speed ratio provided it is ensured that the pitch point is stationary.
2. If the gears did not mesh along the pitch circles the speed ratio would not be
constant and also the center distance would not be equal to the sum of the pitch
circle radii of the gears.
3. It should be evident that meshing gears must have the same diametral pitch.

15-12
SOLUTION (15.12)
Known: A pair of spur gears provide a given speed ratio at a specified center distance
and have a diametral pitch of 8.
Find: Determine the numbers of teeth and the pitch diameters of the gears.
Schematic and Given Data:

Np dp
P=8
! p/! g is 4:1

c = 7.5 in.

dg

Ng

Assumption: The spur gears mesh at the pitch circles.

Analysis:
1. For c = 7.5 in., dp + dg = 15 in.
2. For 4:1 speed ratio, dg = 4dp ; Hence 5dp = 15 in.,
dp = 3 in.; dg = 12 in. ■
3. For P = 8, Np = 24 ; Ng = 96 ■

Comments:
1. The assumption to have spur gears meshing at the pitch circles ensures that the
given center distance is the theoretical center distance and is equal to the sum of
the pitch radii of the gears.
2. If the diametral pitch were chosen to be higher then the number of teeth would be
more on both the pinion and gear (other parameters being kept the same).

15-13
SOLUTION (15.13)
Known: A pinion with known module and number of teeth rotates at 2400 rpm and
drives a gear at 800 rpm.
Find: Determine the number of teeth on the gear, circular pitch and theoretical center
distance.
Schematic and Given Data:

N p = 24
dp m = 2 mm
2400 rpm

dg Ng = ?
800 rpm

Assumption: The spur gears mesh along their pitch circles.

Analysis:
1. For the 3:1 velocity ratio, Ng = 24(3) = 72 ■
2. p = πm = 2π mm ■
3. d = Nm ; Hence dp = 48 mm, dg = 144 mm

4. c = 48 + 144 = 96 mm ■
2
Comments:
1. Similar to the diametral pitch, the module must be the same for a pair of meshing
gears.
2. If the module were a higher value the pitch diameters of the gears and the
theoretical center distance would have been higher (other parameter values
remaining the same).

15-14
SOLUTION (15.14)
Known: A pair of spur gears of known velocity ratio, center distance, diametral pitch,
and pressure angle are given.
Find: Draw a full-size layout of the spur gears and label the following: (a) pitch circle,
(b) base circle, (c) pressure angle, (d) addendum (for both the pinion and the gear), (e)
dedendum (for the pinion only)
Assumption: The gears mesh along their pitch circles.
Schematic and Given Data and Analysis:

Pinion axis
r p = 2"
(e) Dedendum

(d) Addendum
(b) Base circles

o
(a) Pitch 20 o
(c) Pressure angle = 20
circles

o (d) Addendum
20

Interference does exist.

Gear addendum should
r g = 8" be cut back this much.

Gear axis

For velocity ratio = 4, d g = 4dp

For c = 10 in., d g + dp = 20 in.
Therefore, d p + 4d p = 20 in.
and dp = 4 in., dg = 16 in.
1 1
Addendum = P = 5 = 0.2 in.
1.25
Dedendum = P = 0.25 in.

Note: This drawing is not drawn to scale.

15-15
SOLUTION (15.15)
Known: For a pair of standard 20˚ full-depth spur gears the diametral pitch, velocity
ratio, number of teeth on the pinion and its direction of rotation are given.
Find: Draw a full-size layout of the spur gears in the region of tooth contact and show
the following: (a) pitch circle, addendum circle, dedendum circle, and base circle of the
gear, (b) interference, (c) path of contact, (d) angle of recess for the pinion and the gear.
Assumption: The gears mesh along their pitch circles.
Schematic and Given Data and Analysis:

Center of pinion

Angle of recess
(c)

(d)

Gear addendum
Addendum reduction needed
to eliminate interference
circle
Pitch circle Angle of recess
Base circle
Center of gear
Dedendum
circle

Np
dp = = 24 teeth = 6 in. = d p
P 4 teeth/in.
dg = (d p )(velocity ratio) = 6 in.(2) = 12 in.= dg
Addendum = 1/P = 1/4 in.
Dedendum = 1.157/P = 0.289 in.

Note: This drawing is not drawn to scale.

15-16
SOLUTION (15.16)
Known: A pair of involute gears of known base circle diameters with (a) center
distance = 120 mm and (b) center distance = 100 mm is given.
Find: Determine the pressure angles of the gears for cases (a) and (b), and the ratio of
pitch diameters.
Schematic and Given Data:

rp
r bp r bp = 60 mm
Pressure Angle = !

c
rg rbg = 120 mm

rbg

Assumption: The spur gears mesh along their pitch circles.

Analysis:
1. Let rbp and rbg represent pinion and gear base circle radii, respectively.
r bp r bg
rp = and rg =
cos φ cos φ
30 60
In case (a), c = rp + rg = 120 mm = + ;
cos φ cos φ
cos φ = 0.75, φ = 0.7227 rad = 41.4o ■

2. Similarly, in case (b), cos φ = 90 = 0.9, φ = 0.4510 rad = 25.8o ■

100
3. dg/dp = dbg/dbp = 120/60 = 2 (for any center dist.) ■

Comments:
1. With fixed base radii, reduction in center distance resulted in a reduction in
pressure angle.
2. Changes in the pressure angle for the gear pair did not affect the ratio of pitch
diameters since the pressure angle must be the same for meshing gears and the
ratio of base diameters is fixed in this case.

15-17
SOLUTION (15.17)
Known: A gear has a known outside diameter, diametral pitch and pressure angle.
Find: Determine the pitch diameter, the circular pitch, the addendum, the dedendum of
the gear, and the number of gear teeth.
Schematic and Given Data:

Outside diameter
of gear = 3.000 in.
Circular pitch

Addendum
circle
Dedendum Pitch
a circle
Addendum circle
Dedendum d

Assumptions:
1. The gear is a spur gear.
2. The gear has teeth of standard involute profile.
Analysis:
1. Addendum, a = 1/P = 0.05 in.
Pitch diameter, dp = [(outside diameter) - 2a]
dp = 3.0 - (2)(0.05) = 2.9 in. ■
2. Module, m = 1/P = 0.05 in. = 1.27 mm. From Eq (15.5), circular pitch, p = πm.
Therefore, p = 3.99 mm. ■
3. Dedendum, d = 1.25 a = 1.25(0.05) = 0.0625 in.
Hence, d = 0.0625 in. ■
From Eq (15.4), the number of gear teeth, N = dp/m
Therefore, N = 58. ■

15-18
SOLUTION (15.18)
Known: A pair of mating gears of known pressure angle, numbers of teeth, and center
distance is given. The pinion has stub teeth and the gear has full involute teeth.
Find: Calculate the contact ratio and the diametral pitch.
Schematic and Given Data:

dp
Np = 18
! = 20 deg.

c = 10 in.

dg
Ng = 36

Assumptions:
1. The gears are spur gears.
2. The gears mesh along their pitch circles.
Analysis:
1. The ratio of the number of teeth, Ng/Np = 36/18 = 2/1. Hence, dp/dg = 2/1.
Center distance, c = (dp + dg)/2
Therefore, dp = 20/3, dg = 40/3
2. Diametral pitch, P = N/d = 2.7 ■
3. For full deep involute teeth, the gear addendum, a = 1/P = 0.37. The addendum
circle radius of the gear rag = rg + a = 7.037 in. From the textbook, the addendum
for a 20o stub system is 0.8/P. The addendum of the pinion, ap = 0.296 in. The
addendum circle radius of the pinion, rap = rg + ap = 3.63 in.
4. The base circle radius of the gear, rbg = rpg cos φ = (20/3) cos 20˚ = 6.26 in. The
base circle radius of the pinion, rbp = (10/3) cos 20 = 3.33 cos 20˚ = 3.13
5. From Eq. (15.10), the base pitch, pb = (πdb/N), pb = 1.09 in.
6. From Eq. (15.9), contact ratio,

r2ap - r2bp + r2ag - r2bg - c sin !

CR = pb
2 2 2 2 o
= 3. 63 - 3. 13 + 7. 037 - 6. 26 - 10 sin 20 = 1. 498
1. 09
Hence, CR = 1.5 ■

15-19
SOLUTION (15.19a) – also see (15.19b)
Known: For a given pair of mating gears, the pressure angle, diametral pitch and the
numbers of teeth are known.
Find:
(a) Determine the arc of approach, arc of recess, arc of action, base pitch and the
contact ratio.
(b) Estimate the addendum, dedendum, circular pitch, tooth thickness and the base
diameter for the pinion and gear.
Schematic and Given Data:
Gear 2 O3
Driven

!
Pressure
angle = 20˚
ur
ua
B = point of initial Tooth
C D thickness t
contact
p
C = Point of final
contact Circular pitch p
AB
"
#
Approach ! Recess
angle angle
Addendum Pitch
Pressure
a angle circle
Addendum
circle Gear 1
O2 Driver

Dedendum
Np = 17 Dedendum d
! = 20˚ circle
P = 32
Ng = 84

Assumptions:
1. The gears are spur gears.
2. The gears mesh along their pitch circles.
3. The gears have teeth of standard involute profiles.
4. Interference (contact below the base circle) does not occur.
Analysis:
1. Diametral pitch, P = Ng/dg. Hence, dg = 2.625 in. Since Ng/Np = dg/dp = 84/17, dp
= 0.53125 in. Center distance, c = (dg + dp)/2 = 1.57813 in.
2. Addendum, a = 1/P = 0.03125 in. ■
Dedendum, d = 1.25a = 0.039 in. ■
From Eq. (15.5), circular pitch, p = 0.098 in. = 2.5 mm. ■

15-20
3. Tooth thickness, t = p/2 = 1.25 mm. ■
4. Base circle diameter of the gear, dbg = dg cos φ
dbg = 2.625 cos 20˚ = 2.47 in. ■
Base circle diameter of the pinion, dbp = dp cos φ
dbp = 0.53125 cos 20˚ = 0.49921 in. ■
5. From Eq. (15.10), base pitch, pb = (πdb)/N). Therefore, pb = 0.092 in. ■
6. Addendum circle radius of the gear, rag = 1.34 in.
Addendum circle radius of the pinion, rap = 0.296 in.
From Eq. (15.9); contact ratio,

r2ap - r2bp + r2ag - r2bg - c sin !

CR = pb
2 2 2 2 o
= 0. 296 - 0. 249 + 1. 34 - 1. 235 - 1. 5781 sin 20 = 1. 525
0. 092 ■
7. Arc of action = (CR)p = (1.525)(0.098) = 0.15 in. ■
Comment: Although an assumption was made that interference (contact below the
base circle) would not take place, a calculation needs to be performed to determine
whether there will be interference when standard full-depth teeth are used. Following
SAMPLE PROBLEM 15.1, we first determine the base circle radii of pinion and gear.
From Eq. 15.11, rbp = (0.53125/2) cos 20o = 0.2496 in. and rbg = (2.625/2) cos 20o =
1.2333 in. Substitution in Eq. 15.8 gives rap(max) = 0.59467 for the pinion and rag(max) =
1.34624 for the gear. The limiting outer gear radius is equivalent to an addendum of
rag(max) - rg = 0.03374 in., whereas a standard full-depth tooth has an addendum of 1/P
= .03125 in. So, the use of standard teeth should not cause interference.

SOLUTION (15.19b)
Known: For a pair of mating gears, the diametral pitch, center distance and the number
of teeth are given. The center distance is increased by 0.125 in.
Find: Determine the contact ratio and the pressure angle.
Schematic and Given Data:

dp
Np = 17
P = 32

c = 1.7031 in.
dg

Ng = 84

15-21
Assumptions:
1. The gears are physically the same spur gears as in Problem 15.19a.
2. The base and outside diameters of the gear and pinion remain the same as in
Problem (15.19a).
3. The gears mesh along their actual (not theoretical) pitch circles.
4. The gears have teeth of standard involute profile.
Analysis:
1. If the center distance is increase by 0.125 in., the pinion and gear will no longer
mesh -- see the following diagram.
2. If the center distance is increased by 0.0125 in., the gears will mesh along their
actual (not theoretical) pitch circles.

O3

1.5781

.03125

D
p

A
.03125
!
Addendum
Pitch
a circle
Addendum
circle O
2

3. From the analysis of Problem (15.19a) and the given data, center distance, c =
1.5781 + 0.0125 = 1.5906 in.
4. Np/Ng = dp/dg = 17/84. Hence, dg = 4.9412dp.
c = (dp + dg)/2 = 1.5906. Solving for dg and dp, dg = 2.64575 in., dp = 0.53545 in.
5. dbg = 2.4667 = dg cos φ = 2.64575 cos φ. Solving for φ, φ = 21.20o. Therefore,
pressure angle, φ = 21.20o. ■

15-22
6. Addendum circle radius of the gear, rag = 1.34 in.
Addendum circle radius of the pinion, rap = 0.249 in.
From Eq. (15.9); contact ratio,
r2ap - r2bp + r2ag - r2bg - c sin !
CR = pb

2 2 2 2 o
= 0. 296 - 0. 249 + 1. 34 - 1. 235 - 1. 5906 sin 21. 20 = 1. 1394
0. 092 ■
SOLUTION (15.20)
Known: A pair of mating spur gears of known module, pressure angle and numbers of
teeth is given.
Find:
(a) Sketch drawings showing geometric details.
(b) Determine the lengths of path of contact, angles of approach and recess, and
contact ratio.
Schematic and Given Data:

Dedendum circle
Pinion axis Base circle
Pitch circle
Addendum circle
Pressure angle
o
9 Angle of
o
8 approach, A

Angle of
recess, R
o o
Addendum
4 5 circle
Pitch circle

Pressure angle

Base and dedendum

Path of contact circles virtually coincide
(38 mm) in this case.

Gear axis

Note: This drawing is not drawn to scale.

15-23
Assumption: The spur gears mesh along their pitch circles.
Analysis:
1. From Eq. (15.4); dp = m Np = 8(30) = 240 mm
dg = m Ng = 6(60) = 360 mm
addendum = a = m = 8 mm
dedendum = 1.25m = 10 mm
πd bp !(240 cos(0. 35))
2. From Eq. (15.10); pb = =
Np 30
pb = 23.6 mm
contact ratio = length of line of action/pb
from the drawing, CR = 38/23.6 = 1.610. ■

Comments:
1. Increasing the contact ratio of the gear pair for the same numbers of teeth can be
achieved by increasing the diametral pitch for the gears.
2. If the gears have a 6 mm module, then the contact ratio CR can be calculated as
follows.
From Eq. (15.4); dp = m Np = 6(30) = 180 mm
dg = m Ng = 6(60) = 360 mm
addendum = a = m = 6 mm
dedendum = 1.25m = 7.5 mm
πd bp !(180 cos(0. 35))
From Eq. (15.10); pb = =
Np 30
pb = 17.7 mm
contact ratio = length of line of action/pb
from the drawing, CR = 38/17.7 = 2.15.

SOLUTION (15.21)
Known: A pair of standard spur gears of known pressure angle, center distance and
velocity ratio is given. Number of teeth on pinion is specified.
Find:
(a) Determine diametral, circular and base pitches.
(b) Sketch drawings showing geometric details.
(c) Determine if interference results from choice of standard tooth proportions.
(d) Determine length of path of contact from drawing and compute contact ratio.

15-24
Schematic and Given Data:

r ap (max) Pinion axis Base Circle

! 4 in.
r p = 2 in. Pitch circle

Addendum

Dedendum

Addendum
o
" = 20

Dedendum
r ag (max)
20° ! 8.3 in.

r g = 8 in. Path of contact

! 1 in.

Gear axis

Note: This drawing is not drawn to scale.

Assumption: The spur gears mesh along their pitch circles.

Analysis:
1. c = 10 = rp + rg and rg = 4rp ;
hence, rp = 2 in. and rg = 8 in.
P = Np/dp = 20/4 ; hence, P = 5 ■
p = π/5 ≈ 0.6280 in. ■
pb = p cos φ = 0.628 cos 20o = 0.590 in. ■

1
2. Addendum = 1 = in. = 0.2 in.
P 5
Dedendum = 1.25(1/5) = 0.25 in.
3. rap(max) ≈ 4.0 in., rag(max) ≈ 8.3 in. ■
Hence, no interference.
4. Path of contact ≈ 1.0 in. ■
15-25
 CR = Path ofp contact = 1.0/.590 = 1.695
b
Hence, CR = roughly 1.7 ■

SOLUTION (15.22)
Known: A pair of standard spur gears of known pressure angle, center distance and
velocity ratio is given. Number of teeth on pinion is specified.
Find: Compute the contact ratio using equations in Section 15.3 and compare with
graphical results of Problem 15.21.
Schematic and Given Data:

Base circle
r ap (max) Pinion axis
! 4 in. Pitch circle
r p = 2 in.

Addendum

Dedendum

Addendum
o
" = 20

Dedendum
r ag (max)
20° ! 8.3 in.

r g = 8 in. Path of contact

! 1 in.

Gear axis

Note: This drawing is not drawn to scale.

Assumption: The gears mesh along their pitch circles.

Analysis:
1. From Eq. (15.11), rbp = rp cos φ = 2.0 cos 20o = 1.879 in.
rbg = rg cos φ = 8 cos 20o = 7.517 in.

15-26
 From Eq. (15.8),
2 2 2 o
rap(max) = 1. 879 + 10. 0 sin 20 = 3.90 in. ■
2 2 2 o
rag(max) = 7. 517 + 10. 0 sin 20 = 8.26 in. ■
(this agrees with graphical solution)
2. From Eq. (15.9), (with rap = 2.2 and rag = 8.2 from Problem 15.21)
2 2 2 2 o
CR = 2. 2 - 1. 879 + 8. 2 - 7. 517 - 10 sin 20
0. 590
CR = 1.69 (which is more accurate than the graphical solution.) ■
Comment: The contact ratio can be increased by choosing a greater number of teeth on
the gears and/or increasing the diametral pitch.

SOLUTION (15.23)
Known: A two stage spur gear speed reducer is given which uses a countershaft and
identical gear pairs in each stage. Gear and shaft geometry is specified such that input
and output shafts are collinear.
Find:
(a) Determine the rotation speeds of countershaft and output shaft, pitch diameters and
circular pitch of the pinion and gear.
(b) Determine the torques carried by each shaft assuming (i) 100% gear efficiency and
(ii) 95% efficiency of each gear pair.
(c) Determine the radial loads applied to bearings on countershaft.
Schematic and Given Data:

45 teeth
c

P = 5, ! = 25°
15 teeth
Driven
machine
1 kW, 1200 rpm coupled
motor coupled to this
to this shaft shaft
B
a
A b
25
mm

100
45 teeth mm

25
mm

15-27
Assumptions:
1. The gears mesh along their pitch circles.
2. The shafts are all parallel.
3. Friction losses in the bearings can be neglected (given).
4. All the gear radial and tangential load is transferred at the pitch point.
5. Bending deflection of the countershaft is negligible.
6. The location of the bearing loads can be idealized to points due to small bearing
widths.
7. The location of the tooth loads can be idealized to points due to small tooth face
width.
8. The gears are rigidly connected to their shafts.
Analysis:
15 45
1. The pitch diameters: dp = = 3 in., dg = = 9 in. ■
5 5
The circular pitch: p = π/5 = 0.63 in. ■
rpm of (b) = 1200 ✕ 15/45 = 400 rpm ■
rpm of (c) = 400 ✕ 15/ 45 = 133.3 rpm ■
2. In case (i):
From Eq. (1.2),

9549(1 kW)
the torque in shaft (a) = 1200 rpm = 7.96 N•m ■

45
the torque in (b) = Tb = 7.96 ✕ = 23.88 N•m ■
15
45
the torque in shaft (c) = Tc = 23.88 ✕ = 71.64 N•m ■
15
In case (ii):
Tb = (23.88)(0.95) = 22.69 N•m ■

45
Tc = (22.69) (0.95) = 64.65 N•m ■
15
3. rp = 1.5 in. = 38.1 mm, rg = 4.5 in. = 114.3 mm

tangential force on the motor pinion = 7. 96 N m = 209 N

•
.0381 m
radial force on the motor pinion = 209 N • tan 25o = 97.5 N
4. Forces on the countershaft pinion are 3 times as large i.e., ≈ 627 N and
292.5 N

15-28
 292.5 N

97.5 N 627 N

BH B
209 N

A AH
BV

AV

5. For the horizontal plane:

∑MA = 0 : 209(25) + 627(125) - BH(100) = 0
hence, BH = 836.0 N
∑F = 0 : 836.0 - 627 + 209 - AH = 0
hence, AH = 418.0 N
6. For the vertical plane:
∑MA = 0 : 97.5(25) - 292.5(125) + Bv(100) = 0
hence, Bv = 341.25 N
∑F = 0 : 97.5 + 292.5 - 341.25 - Av = 0
hence, Av = 48.75 N
7. The radial loads are:
Ar = 4182 + 48. 752 = 420.83: Ar = 420 N ■
Br = 8362 + 341. 252 = 902.96: Br = 903 N ■

Comments:
1. The effect of power losses in each stage (efficiency 95%) was to decrease the
torque transmitted to the output while keeping the speed ratios the same. Thus,
each stage reduces the torque transmitted by a factor.
2. The effect of considering friction losses in the bearings will also be to reduce the
torque transmitted to the output shaft.
3. Large bending deflections of the countershaft will render our calculation of force
and moment equilibrium inaccurate due to changes in the force directions and
moment arms.
4. If the bearing widths or gear face widths were significant relative to the length of
the countershaft, location of the forces and reactions as point loads would lead to
inaccurate estimates of bearing loads.
5. The pinion of the countershaft has higher tooth loads than the gear of the
countershaft leading to higher radial loads on the bearing closer to the pinion.

15-29
SOLUTION (15.24)
Known: A two stage spur gear speed reducer is given which uses a countershaft and
identical gear pairs in each stage. Gear and shaft geometry is specified such that input
and output shafts are collinear.
Find:
(a) Determine the rotation speeds of countershaft and output shaft, pitch diameters and
circular pitch of the pinion and gear.
(b) Determine the torques carried by each shaft assuming (i) 100% gear efficiency and
(ii) 95% efficiency of each gear pair.
(c) Determine the radial loads applied to bearings on countershaft.
Schematic and Given Data:

62 teeth
c

P = 5, ! = 25°
21 teeth
Driven
machine
1 kW, 1200 rpm coupled
motor coupled to this
to this shaft shaft
B
a
A b
25
mm

100
62 teeth mm

25
mm

Assumptions:
1. The gears mesh along their pitch circles.
2. The shafts are all parallel.
3. Friction losses in the bearings can be neglected (given).
4. All the gear radial and tangential load is transferred at the pitch point.
5. Bending deflection of the countershaft is negligible.
6. The location of the bearing loads can be idealized to points due to small bearing
widths.
7. The location of the tooth loads can be idealized to points due to small tooth face
width.
8. The gears are rigidly connected to their shafts.

15-30
Analysis:
1. The pitch diameters: dp = 21/5 = 4.2 in., dg = 62/5 = 12.4 in. ■
The circular pitch: p = π/5 = 0.63 in. ■
rpm of (b) = 1200 ✕ 21/62 = 406.5 rpm ■
rpm of (c) = 406.5 ✕ 21/62 = 137.7 rpm ■
2. In case (i):
From Eq. (1.2),
9549(1 kW)
the torque in shaft (a) = 1200 rpm = 7.96 N.m ■

the torque in (b) = Tb = 7.96 ✕ 62 = 23.5 N.m ■

21
the torque in shaft (c) = Tc = 23.5 ✕ 62 = 69.4 N.m ■
21
In case (ii):
Tb = (23.5)(0.95) = 22.325 N.m ■

Tc = (22.325) 62 (0.95) = 62.6 N.m ■

21
3. rp = 2.1 in. = 53.34 mm, rg = 6.2 in. = 157.5 mm tangential force on the motor

pinion = 7. 96 N•m = 149 N

.05334 m
radial force on the motor pinion = (149 N)tan 25o = 69.5 N
4. Forces on the countershaft pinion are 3 times as large; i.e., ≈ 447 N and 208.5 N

208.5 N

69.5 N 447 N

BH B
149 N

A AH
BV

AV

5. For the horizontal plane:

∑MA = 0 : 149(25) + 447(125) - BH(100) = 0
hence, BH = 596.0 N
∑F = 0 : 596.0 - 447 + 149 - AH = 0
hence, AH = 298.0 N
6. For the vertical plane:
∑MA = 0 : 69.5(25) - 208.5(125) + Bv(100) = 0
hence, Bv = 243.25 N

15-31
 ∑F = 0 : 69.5 + 208.5 - 243.25 - Av = 0
hence, Av = 34.75 N
7. The radial loads are:
Ar = 2982 + 34. 752 = 300: Ar = 300 N ■
Br = 5962 + 243. 252 = 643.73: Br = 644 N ■
Comments:
1. The effect of power losses in each stage (efficiency 95%) was to decrease the
torque transmitted to the output while keeping the speeds ratios the same. Thus,
each stage reduces the torque transmitted by a factor.
2. The effect of considering friction losses in the bearings will also be to reduce the
torque transmitted to the output shaft.
3. Large bending deflections of the countershaft will render our calculation of force
and moment equilibrium inaccurate due to changes in the force directions and
moment arms.
4. If the bearing widths or gear face widths were significant relative to the length of
the countershaft, location of the forces and reactions as point loads would lead to
inaccurate estimates of bearing loads.
5. The pinion of the countershaft has higher tooth loads than the gear of the
countershaft leading to higher radial loads on the bearing closer to the pinion.
SOLUTION (15.25)
Known: A two stage spur gear speed reducer of specified geometry is given.
Find: Determine the radial loads applied to the countershaft bearings.
Schematic and Given Data:

To driven
machine
36T

24T, P = 6 B
2"
64T

8"
A

2"
18T, P = 9

Coupled to 20 lb-in.
torque motor rotating at 800
rpm

15-32
Assumptions:
1. The gears mesh along their pitch circles.
2. Friction losses in gears and bearings can be neglected (given).
3. The shafts are all parallel.
4. All the gear radial and tangential load is transferred at the pitch point.
5. Bending deflection of the countershaft is negligible.
6. Gear face width and bearing widths are negligible relative to countershaft length.
7. The gears are rigidly connected to their shafts.
Analysis:
o
35.5 tan 25 = 16.58 lb
20 lb 7.11 in. = 35.55 lb
( )
4 in.
B

BH
BV
Dia. = 24/6 = 4 in.
AV
20 lb-in. = 20 lb
1 in. A

Dia. = 64/9 = 7.11 in.

AH

o
20 tan 25 = 9.33 lb

N 18
1. Pitch diameter of input pinion = = = 2 in.
P 9
2. For the horizontal plane:
∑MA = 0 :
20 lb (2 in.) + 35.55 lb (10 in.) - BH(12 in.) = 0
hence, BH = 32.96 lb
∑F = 0 : 20 lb + 35.55 lb - 32.96 lb - AH = 0
hence, AH = 22.59 lb
3. For the vertical plane:
∑MA = 0 :
9.33 lb (2 in.) - 16.58 lb (10 in.) + Bv(12 in.) = 0
hence, Bv = 12.26 lb
∑F = 0 : - 9.33 lb + 16.58 lb - 12.26 lb + Av = 0
hence, Av = 5.01 lb
4. The bearing radial loads are:
Arad = 22. 59 2 + 5. 01 2 = 23.14 lb, hence, Arad = 23.14 lb ■
2 2
Brad = 32. 96 + 12. 26 = 35.17 lb, hence, Brad = 35.17 lb ■

15-33
Comments:
1. The effect of considering friction losses in the gears and bearings is to reduce the
torque transmitted to the output shaft while keeping the speed ratios the same. A
reduction in torque transmitted will result in lower gear tooth loads and hence
lower radial loads on the countershaft bearings.
2. The pinion on the countershaft has higher tooth loads than the gear on the
countershaft because the pinion has a smaller radius while transmitting the same
torque. The higher tooth load on the pinion leads to a higher radial load on the
bearing closer to the pinion.
3. The effect of choosing a smaller diametral pitch for the gears in the second
reduction stage is to provide larger teeth to withstand the higher torques and tooth
loads of the second stage.
4. If load sharing between teeth is considered, the transfer of gear tooth forces is not
strictly at the pitch point and will lead to different radial forces in the bearings.

SOLUTION (15.26)
Known: A two stage spur gear speed reducer of specified geometry is given.
Find: Determine the radial loads applied to the countershaft bearings.
Schematic and Given Data:

To driven
machine
36T

24T, P = 6 B
2"
64T

8"
A

2"
20T, P = 9

Coupled to 20 lb-in.
torque motor rotating at 800
rpm

Assumptions:
1. The gears mesh along their pitch circles.
2. Friction losses in gears and bearings can be neglected (given).
3. The shafts are all parallel.
15-34
4. All the gear radial and tangential load is transferred at the pitch point.
5. Bending deflection of the countershaft is negligible.
6. Gear face width and bearing widths are negligible relative to countershaft length.
7. The gears are rigidly connected to their shafts.
Analysis:
o
32.04 tan 25 = 14.94 lb
l8.02 lb ( 3.56 in. = 32.04 lb
2 in. )
B

BH
BV
Dia. = 24/6 = 4 in.
AV
20 lb-in. = 18.02 lb
1.11 in.
A

Dia. = 64/9 = 7.11 in.

AH

o
18.02 tan 25 = 8.4 lb

N
1. Pitch diameter of input pinion = = 20/9 = 2.22 in.
P
2. For the horizontal plane:
∑MA = 0 :
18.02 lb (2.0 in.) + 32.04 lb (10 in.) - BH(12 in.) = 0
Hence, BH = 29.7 lb
∑F = 0 : 18.02 lb + 32.04 lb - 29.7 lb - AH = 0
Hence, AH = 20.36 lb
3. For the vertical plane:
∑MA = 0 :
8.4 lb (2.0 in.) - 14.94 lb (10 in.) + Bv(12 in.) = 0
Hence, Bv = 11.05 lb
∑F = 0 : - 8.4 lb + 14.94 lb - 11.05 lb + Av = 0
Hence, Av = 4.51 lb
4. The bearing radial loads are:
Arad = 20. 36 2 + 4. 51 2 = 20.85 lb ■
2 2
Brad = 29. 7 + 11. 05 = 31.69 lb ■
Comments:
1. The effect of considering friction losses in the gears and bearings is to reduce the
torque transmitted to the output shaft while keeping the speed ratios the same. A
reduction in torque transmitted will result in lower gear tooth loads and hence
lower radial loads on the countershaft bearings.
15-35
2. The pinion on the countershaft has higher tooth loads than the gear on the
countershaft because the pinion has a smaller radius while transmitting the same
torque. The higher tooth load on the pinion leads to a higher radial load on the
bearing closer to the pinion.
3. The effect of choosing a smaller diametral pitch for the gears in the second
reduction stage is to provide larger teeth to withstand the higher torques and tooth
loads of the second stage.
4. If load sharing between teeth is considered, the transfer of gear tooth forces is not
strictly at the pitch point and will lead to different radial forces in the bearings.
SOLUTION (15.27)
Known: For a single stage speed reducer, gear geometry, overhang and the horsepower
transmitted are specified.
Find: Estimate the forces on the pinion, gear and shafts.
Schematic and Given Data:
N p = 18
n p = 1800 rpm

N=6 Input
! = 20 o 2 in.
c

Output N g = 36
n g = 900 rpm

2 in.

Pitch circle,
Ft pinion
!
F Fr
Fr F
!
Ft

Pitch circle,
gear

15-36
Assumptions:
1. The gears are spur gears.
2. The gears mesh along their pitch circles.
3. Friction losses in the gears and bearings can be neglected.
4. The shafts are parallel.
5. Bending deflection of each shaft is negligible.
6. The gears are rigidly connected to their shafts.
7. The weight of the gear on its shaft can be neglected.
Analysis:
1. Pitch diameter of the input pinion, dp = N/p = 18/6 = 3 in.
Pitch line velocity, V = πdn/12 = π(3)1800/12 = 1413.7 ft/min.
2. From Eq. (15.14), the power transmitted, W = (FtV/33000)
(0. 5)(33000)
Ft = = 11. 67 lb
1413. 7
From Eq. (15.12), Fr = Ft tan φ = (11.67) tan 20o. Hence, Ft = 4.25 lb.
Therefore, the force on the pinion, F = F2t + F2r
Hence, F = 11. 672 + 4. 252 = 12. 42 lb. ■
3. From Newton's third law, the force on the gear tooth equals the force on the
pinion tooth. ■

SOLUTION (15.28)
Known: Three identical spur gears are used to transmit power from a motor to a
machine through an idler with all three gears simply supported between identical
bearings.
Find: Determine the relative loadings on the six bearings.
Schematic and Given Data:

Motor

Driven machine

a
a

15-37
Assumptions:
1. The gears mesh along their pitch circles.
2. Friction losses in the gears and bearings are negligible.
3. All the tooth loads are transferred at the pitch point.
4. The shafts are all parallel.
Analysis:
motor torque.
1. The tangential gear force =
gear radius
let this be equal to 2 (in arbitrary units)
2. For the motor shaft:

tan !
1

tan !

2 tan !

2
bearing radial loads are 1 + tan φ
for φ = 25o, load = 1.10 ■
3. For the idler shaft:

2 tan !
2

2 tan !

15-38
 bearing radial loads = 2.0 ■
4. For the output shaft it is the same as the motor shaft.
5. Conclusion: Idler shaft bearing loads are nearly double those applied to the
other shafts.
Comments:
1. The equal and opposite radial tooth loads on the idler cancel each other and hence
do not contribute to the bearing loads for the idler in this case. However, if the
radii of the input and output gears were not equal the radial tooth loads would be
unequal and would then effect the bearing loads for the idler.
2. Friction losses in the gears and bearings reduce the torque transferred to the driven
gears. A reduction in torque and consequently tooth loads would result in
reduction in bearing loads.
3. A reduced pressure angle of 20o for the gears would reduce the radial loads on the
motor and machine shaft bearings to 1.06 units but retain each idler bearing load at
2.0 units.

15-39
SOLUTION (15.29)
Known: Three spur gears transmit power from a motor shaft to a machine shaft in a
given geometric arrangement. The middle gear acts as an idler and is supported by two
bearings.
Find:
(a) Determine the radial load on idler shaft bearings for a given direction of motor
shaft rotation.
(b) Determine the radial load on the bearings for the motor shaft rotation opposite to
(a).
(c) Give an explanation as to why answers to (a) and (b) are different.
Schematic and Given Data:

1700
rpm
motor
100 lb-in.
16T torque

Diametral pitch, P = 8
Pressure angle, ! = 20°
32T
1"
24T
o To driven
2.0" 90 machine

Assumptions:
1. The gears mesh along their pitch circles.
2. All the gear tooth loads are static and are transmitted at the pitch point.
3. Friction losses in the gears and bearings are negligible.
4. Shaft bending deflections can be neglected.
Analysis:
(a) Pitch diameter of idler = N = 32 = 4.0 in.
P 8

15-40
 o
100 lb tan 20 = 36.4 lb

100 lb-in motor torque

= 100 lb
1.00 in. motor pinion radius

Idler
36.4 lb

100 lb
2 2
136.4 + 136.4 = 192.9 lb

192.9 lb
R B = 96.1 lb

! MB = 0: R A = 192.9 3.0 = 289 lb

( )
A 2.0
B
2.0 in. 1 in.

R A = 289 lb

Bearing radial loads: RA = 289 lb, RB = 96.1 lb ■

(b) Bearing loads are reduced by factor of 90/192.9 to give:
RA = 135 lb, RB = 45 lb ■

36.4 lb

100 lb

36.4 lb

100 lb
2 2
63.6 + 63.6 = 90 lb

(c) Reversing direction of rotation reversed tangential forces causes

tangential and radial components to subtract, rather than add.

15-41
Comments:
1. This problem illustrates the use of gear trains for purposes other than strictly speed
or torque changing. Idlers are frequently used to convey rotary motion short
distances from driver to driven shafts or to drive multiple shafts.
2. The location of bearings for the idler shaft in this problem caused a large radial
load on the bearing closer to the idler and a smaller radial load on the other
bearing. Although location of bearings on either side of the idler could have
equalized the radial loads, such an arrangement may or may not be allowed by
space constraints or accessibility requirements in actual applications.
3. For cases in which the rotation of the shaft is reversed from that shown in the
figure, the explanation in part (c) reveals that the arrangement of the gears can be
changed, putting the driven gear to the left of the idler in the figure to obtain lower
bearing loads.

SOLUTION (15.30)
Known: Three identical spur gears are used to transmit power from a motor to a
machine through an idler. Motor rpm is specified.
Find:
(a) Determine the gear most vulnerable to tooth bending fatigue failure.
(b) Determine the values for V, P, p, Kv, J

Schematic and Given Data:

Driver

Identical gears cut with

best commercial cutter
Idler d p = 8 in.
N = 80
! = 25°

Driver

Assumption:
1. The gears mesh along their pitch circles and transmit all the load at the pitch point.
2. Friction losses can be neglected and load sharing is absent.
Analysis:
(a) The gear most vulnerable to tooth bending fatigue failure is the idler because
it is subjected to 2-way bending; others are bent only 1-way, thus:

15-42
 + +
! !
0 0
Time Time
"! "!

(b) Idler Input and output

π(8)
V= • 1000 : V = 2094 ft/min ■
12
P = 80/8 : P = 10 teeth/in. ■
p = π/10 : p = 0.314 in. ■

50 + 2094
Kv = : Kv = 1.92 ■
50
J = 0.375 (Fig. 15.23b; no load sharing) ■
Comments:
1. Larger diameters and higher rpm for gears produce larger values for Kv.
2. A pressure angle of 20o instead of 25o would reduce the value of the geometry
factor from 0.375 to 0.31.

SOLUTION (15.31)
Known: A pair of mating spur gears of specified geometry, material and manufacturing
quality is given. The pinion is driven by an electric motor of specified rpm and the gear
drives a blower. Design life is specified.
Find: Determine the horsepower rating of the gear set for a safety factor of 1.5 and
99% reliability based only on bending fatigue.
Schematic and Given Data:
1100 rpm

Pinion:
Np = 20 Material: Steel, heat treated to 350 Bhn
Standard full depth teeth
Accurate mounting
P=8
! = 20°
b = 1 in.
Gear: Design life: 5 yrs, 60 hr/wk,
N g = 40 50 wk/yr operation
Top quality hobbing operation for
manufacturing

15-43
Assumptions:
1. The gears mesh along their pitch circles.
2. All the gear tooth loads are transmitted at the pitch point.
3. There is no load sharing between the teeth.
4. The electric motor and blower constitute uniform load driver and driven
equipment.
5. Top quality hobbing operation for manufacturing corresponds to curve C in Fig.
15.24 (to estimate velocity factor Kv).

Analysis:
Ft P
1. From Eq. (15.17): σ = Kv Ko Km
bJ
Kv requires finding the pitch line velocity as,
π d n π(20/8)1100
V= = = 720 fpm
12 12
from Curve C of Fig. 15.24,

50 + 720
Kv = = 1.54
50
from Fig. 15.23(a), J = 0.24 (for the pinion, as it is weaker - and with no
load sharing)
Also, Km = 1.6 (from Table 15.2 - probably best judgment)
and Ko = 1.0 (from Table 15.1- uniform driving and driven torque)
Therefore,
F t (8)
σ = (1. 0)(0. 24) (1.54)(1.0)(1.6) = 82.1 Ft
2. From Eq. (15.18):
Sn = Snʹ′ CL CG Cs kr kt kms
= (250 ✕ 350)(1)(1)(0.66)(0.814)(1)(1.4)
= 65,812 psi
where
Snʹ′ = 250 (Bhn) = 250 ✕ 350 psi for infinite life,
since design life = 5 yr ✕ (50 wk/yr) ✕ (60 hr/wk) ✕ (60 min/hr) ✕ 1100 rpm
= 9.9 ✕ 108 > 106 cycles
CL = 1.0,
CG = 1.0 since P > 5
Cs = 0.66 from Fig. 8.13
kr = 0.814 from Table 15.3
kt = 1 and kms = 1.4 since the pinion is not an idler
3. For SF = 1.5 : 82.1(1.5 Ft) = 65,812
hence, Ft = 534.4 lb
Ft V (534. 4)(720)
W = 33, 000 = 33, 000 = 11.66 hp
Answer : approximately 11.7 hp ■

15-44
Comments:
1. The bending stresses can be reduced for the specified rpm by decreasing P or
increasing b. But these parameters as well as the factors Kv and J are closely
interrelated. Decreasing P for the same number of teeth increases pitch diameter,
which leads to larger pitch line velocity and hence to larger values of Kv and σ.
Decreasing P for the same pitch diameter decreases the number of teeth resulting
in a smaller value of J and a larger value of σ. Increasing the value of b requires
accurate mounting and manufacturing to utilize the entire face width and
ultimately tends to increase the value of Km. Thus choice of suitable values for
gear geometry parameters for specific applications requires balancing the
parameter values with other side effects.
2. In this problem the design life of the gear pair did not enter into the solution except
to determine whether the gears were to be rated for finite or infinite life.

SOLUTION (15.32)
Known: A pair of mating spur gears of specified geometry, material and manufacturing
quality is given. The pinion is driven by an electric motor of specified rpm and the gear
drives a blower. Design life is specified.
Find: Determine the Bhn of gear so that gear and pinion teeth have the same factor of
safety with respect to bending fatigue.
Schematic and Given Data:
1100 rpm

Pinion:
Np = 20 Material: Steel, heat treated to 350 Bhn
Standard full depth teeth
Accurate mounting
P=8
! = 20°
b = 1 in.
Gear: Design life: 5 yrs, 60 hr/wk,
N g = 40 50 wk/yr operation
Top quality hobbing operation for
manufacturing

Assumptions:
1. The gears mesh along their pitch circles.
2. All the gear tooth loads are transmitted at the pitch point.
3. There is no load sharing between the teeth.
4. The electric motor and blower constitute uniform load driver and driven
equipment.
5. Top quality hobbing operation for manufacturing corresponds to curve C in Fig.
15.24 (to estimate velocity factor Kv).

15-45
Analysis:
1. J for gear = 0.285 from Fig. 15.23a
2. From the analysis of Problem 15.31, gear tooth stress is only 0. 24 times pinion
0. 285
stress
3. Since all parameters and factors are identical for the pinion and gear except
Bhn and Cs, (gear Bhn) • Cs could theoretically be

( )
(350 • 0.66) 0. 24 = 194.5. From Fig. 8.13 by trial and error:
0. 285
gear Bhn = 274 (and Cs = 0.71) ■

Comment: The gear material can have a lower strength than the pinion material
because the stress concentrations at the root of the gear teeth are lower than at the root
of the pinion teeth as a result of the gear having a larger diameter.

SOLUTION (15.33)
Known: A spur gear speed reducer is driven by an electric motor and drives a load
involving "moderate shock". The gear teeth are standard full depth and of specified
geometry and material. Required life is 106 pinion revolutions for a specified
transmitted load.
Find: Determine an estimate of the reliability of the speed reducer with respect to
bending fatigue failure.
Schematic and Given Data:
1500 rpm
K m = 1.8
Np = 18 kt = 1
Pinion: 260 Bhn P = 10 Ft = 100 lb
b = 1.0 in. Tooth cut with
! = 20˚ low-cost average
Ng = 36 quality cutting
process

Gear: 235 Bhn

Assumptions:
1. The spur gears mesh at the pitch circles.
2. Load sharing is not expected since the cutting process is of average quality.
3. The effects corrected by the velocity factor, Kv, correspond to the middle of the
range in Fig. 15.24 with manufacture by form cutters.

15-46
4. The pinion is driven by a uniform power motor while the gear drives a load
involving "moderate shock" (given).
5. The tooth fillet radius is approximately equal to 0.35/P (to enable the use of Fig.
15.23 to estimate geometry factor J).
Analysis:
1. From Fig. 15.23(a), with no load sharing, J = 0.24.
From Eq. (15.13a),

π d n ! Npnp !(18)(1500)
V= = 12P = (12)(10) = 706.8 ft/min
12
From Fig. 15.24, with V = 706.8 ft/min, Kv = 2.0
From Table 15.1, Ko = 1.25
2. From Eq. (15.17) applied to the pinion:
F P 100(10)
σ = t Kv Ko Km = 1. 0(0. 24) (2.0)(1.25)(1.8)
bJ
σ = 18,750 psi = 18.75 ksi
3. From Eq. (15.18) applied to the pinion:
Sn = Snʹ′ CL CG Cs kr kt kms
Sn = (65)(1)(1)(0.72)kr(1)(1.4) = 65.52kr ksi
since, Su ≅ 500(Bhn) = 500(260) psi = 130 ksi.
Snʹ′ = Su/2 = 65 ksi and for bending loads, CL = 1.0, for P > 5, CG = 1.0,
from Fig. 8.13, Cs = 0.72.
Therefore 18.75 = 65.52kr ; hence, kr = 0.29
4. Similarly for the gear, J = 0.27, Snʹ′ = 58.75 ksi,
Cs = 0.75; hence, kr = 0.30
5. From Table 15.3, reliability is >> 99.999% ■

Comments:
1. The reliability estimated in this problem is based on considering failure only by
bending fatigue. A more accurate estimate of reliability must consider failure by
surface fatigue also.
2. Increasing the hardness of the gears will result in new choices in transmitting a
higher load and higher rpm or choosing a smaller face width or a larger diametral
pitch (i.e., with finer teeth).
3. The choice of a harder material for the pinion gives approximately the same
reliability for both the pinion and gear in this case. Thus choice of a harder
material for the pinion reflects consistency in the strength design of the gears.

15-47
SOLUTION (15.34)
Known: An identical pair of standard full depth spur gears of given geometry and
material rotate at a given rpm.
Find: Determine an estimate of the horsepower that can be transmitted with 99%
reliability based on tooth bending fatigue.
Schematic and Given Data:

5000 rpm
Identical spur gears:
N = 60
! = 20°
P = 12
b = 1.0 in.
Alloy steel material, case hardness 680 Bhn,
core hardness 500 Bhn.
Tooth profiles finished and ground to
requirement of curve A in Fig. 15.24.

Overload factor, K o = 1.1

Assumptions:
1. The gears are mounted on accurate mountings to mesh along their pitch circles.
2. Loading of the gears involves only mild shock (given).
3. High precision gears with fine ground tooth profiles allow the use of curve A in
Fig. 15.24 to estimate velocity factor Kv (given).
4. Load sharing between teeth can be assumed to estimate geometry factor J (given).
5. The core hardness will be used to estimate the strength of the tooth with respect to
bending fatigue (given).
6. The tooth fillet radius is approximately equal to 0.35/P (to enable use of Fig. 15.23
to estimate geometry factor J).
7. Neither of the spur gears act as idler gears in the described application.
8. The operating temperature for the gears is less than 160 oF.

Analysis:
1. Pitch line velocity,
π d n !(60/12)5000
V= = = 6545 fpm
12 12

2. Velocity factor, Kv = 78 + 6545 = 1.43

78
3. From Fig. 15.23(a), geometry factor, J = 0.451
4. From Table 15.2, the mounting factor,
Km =1.3 and Ko = 1.1 (given)

15-48
5. From Eq. (15.17):
Ft (12)
σ= (1.43)(1.1)(1.3) = 54.4 Ft
(1. 0)(0. 451)
6. From Eq. (15.18):
Sn = (125 ksi)(1)(1)(.73)(.814)(1)(1.4) = 104 ksi
Since,

( )
Snʹ′ =
500
4
= 125 ksi,
CL = 1.0,
CG = 1 for P > 5,
Cs = 0.73 from Fig. 8.13,
kr = 0.814 from Table 15.3,
kt = 1 and kms = 1.4 (for one-way bending).
7. Equating stress σ and strength Sn,
54.4 Ft = 104,000 psi ; hence Ft = 1911.76 lb
Horsepower that can be transmitted,
Ft V 1911. 76(6545 fpm)
W= = = 379 hp. ■
33, 000 33, 000
Comments:
1. The horsepower that can be transmitted was estimated here based only on tooth
bending fatigue, a more accurate estimate of the horsepower rating must consider
the possibility of failure by surface fatigue.
2. Use of the core hardness to estimate the bending strength resulted in a smaller
horsepower rating. This is a conservative assumption since the highest bending
stress occurs on the tooth surface which has a higher hardness.
3. If either gear were acting as an idler the teeth would have been loaded in two way
bending for that gear and the effective bending strength would have reduced by
40% resulting in a lower horsepower rating.

15-49
SOLUTION (15.35)
Known: Three identical standard full depth spur gears of given geometry and material
rotate at a given rpm.
Find: Determine an estimate of the horsepower that can be transmitted with 99%
reliability based on tooth bending fatigue.
Schematic and Given Data:

5000 rpm

Identical spur gears:

N = 60
! = 20°
P = 12
b = 1.0 in.
Alloy steel material, case hardness 680 Bhn,
core hardness 500 Bhn.
Tooth profiles finished and ground to
requirement of curve A in Fig. 15.24.

Overload factor, K o = 1.1

Assumptions:
1. The gears are mounted on accurate mountings to mesh along their pitch circles.
2. Loading of the gears involves only mild shock (given).
3. High precision gears with fine ground tooth profiles allow the use of curve A in
Fig. 15.24 to estimate velocity factor Kv (given).
4. Load sharing between teeth can be assumed to estimate geometry factor J (given).
5. The core hardness will be used to estimate the strength of the tooth with respect to
bending fatigue (given).
6. The tooth fillet radius is approximately equal to 0.35/P (to enable use of Fig. 15.23
to estimate geometry factor J).
7. One of the spur gears acts as an idler gear in the described application.
8. The operating temperature for the gears is less than 160 oF.
Analysis:
1. Pitch line velocity,
π d n !(60/12)5000
V= = = 6545 fpm
12 12

2. Velocity factor, Kv = 78 + 6545 = 1.43

78
3. From Fig. 15.23(a), geometry factor, J = 0.451

15-50
4. From Table 15.2, the mounting factor,
Km =1.3 and Ko = 1.1 (given)
5. From Eq. (15.17):
Ft (12)
σ= (1.43)(1.1)(1.3) = 54.4 Ft
(1. 0)(0. 451)
6. The gear most vulnerable to tooth bending fatigue is the idler because it is
subjected to 2-way bending; others are bent only 1-way, thus kms =1. From Eq.
(15.18):
Sn = (125 ksi)(1)(1)(.73)(.814)(1)(1.0) = 74.3 ksi
Since,

( )
Snʹ′ =
500
4
= 125 ksi,
CL = 1.0,
CG = 1 for P > 5,
Cs = 0.73 from Fig. 8.13,
kr = 0.814 from Table 15.3,
kt = 1
and kms = 1 for the idler (two-way bending).
7. Equating stress σ and strength Sn,
54.4 Ft = 74,300 psi ; hence Ft = 1365 lb
Horsepower that can be transmitted,
Ft V 1365(6545 fpm)
W= = = 270.7 hp. ■
33, 000 33,000
Comments:
1. The horsepower that can be transmitted was estimated here based only on idler
tooth bending fatigue, a more accurate estimate of the horsepower rating must
consider the possibility of failure of the idler gear tooth by surface fatigue.
2. Use of the core hardness to estimate the bending strength resulted in a smaller
horsepower rating. This is a conservative assumption since the highest bending
stress occurs on the tooth surface which has a higher hardness.
3. The input and the output gears would be loaded only in one way bending and the
effective bending strength for each of these gears would be 1.4 times larger
resulting in a higher horsepower capacity for these two gears.

15-51
SOLUTION (15.36)
Known: For a pair of spur gears the pressure angle, modulus, number of teeth, and the
speed of the pinion are given.
Find: Determine graphically the sliding velocity between the teeth (a) at the start of
contact, (b) at the pitch point, and (c) at the end of contact.
Schematic and Given Data:

Base circle
Gear Pitch circle

Addendum
circle

rgB
VpB rgA
VpA
Sliding
Sliding
velocity p B Vp = Vg velocity
= 760 mm/s
= 560 mm/s
A
VpB
! rpB VgA
r pA

Pinion Pitch circle

Base Circle

Addendum circle

Note: This drawing is not drawn to scale.

Assumption: The spur gears mesh along their pitch circles.

Analysis:
1. module, m = d/N
Therefore, rp = 90 mm, rg = 180 mm
2. Addendum, a = m
Therefore, rap = 96 mm, rag = 186 mm

15-52
Case (a): Start of contact
3.

Gear

Slid
r gA

ing
al
norm
mon

vel
C o m

oci
ty =
VpA

760
A

mm
Start of

/s
contact
VgA
r pA

Pinion Figure (a)

4. From Fig. (a): rpA = 82 mm, rgA = rag = 186 mm

210(2!)
Hence, VpA = ωprpA = (82) = 1803 mm/s
60
105(2!)
VgA = ωgrgA = (186) = 2045 mm/s
60
5. From Fig. (a), the sliding velocity is 760 mm/s. ■
Case (b): Pitch point
6. Sliding velocity = 0 [See Fig. 15.26(b)] ■

15-53
Case (c): End of contact
7.

Gear

r gB
al
on norm
m
Com VgB

Slid
ing
B

velo
VpB

city
End of

=
contact

560
r pB

mm
/s
Pinion
Figure (c)

8. From Fig. (c): rgB = 169 mm, rpB = rap = 96 mm

210(2!)
Hence, VpB = ωprpB = (96) = 2111 mm/s
60
105(2!)
VgB = ωgrgB = (169) = 1858 mm/s
60
9. From Fig. (c), the sliding velocity is 560 mm/s. ■

SOLUTION (15.37)
Known: A pair of mating spur gears of specified geometry, material and manufacturing
quality is given. The pinion is driven by an electric motor of specified rpm and the gear
drives a blower. Design life is specified.
Find: Determine the horsepower rating of the gear set for a safety factor of 1.5 and
99% reliability based on surface durability.

15-54
Schematic and Given Data:
1100 rpm

Pinion:
Np = 20 Material: Steel, heat treated to 350 Bhn
Standard full depth teeth
Accurate mounting
P=8
! = 20°
b = 1 in.
Gear: Design life: 5 yrs, 60 hr/wk,
N g = 40 50 wk/yr operation
Top quality hobbing operation for
manufacturing

Assumptions:
1. The gears mesh along their pitch circles.
2. The gear tooth loads are transmitted at the pitch point.
3. Tooth contact surfaces are approximated by cylinders.
4. Surface stresses are unaffected by lubricant and sliding friction.
Analysis:
Ft K K K
1. From Eq. (15.24): σH = Cp
b dp I v o m
o o
φ cos φ R
with I = sin = sin 20 cos 20 • 2 = 0.107
2 R+1 2 2+1
and b = 1 in., Kv = 1.54, Ko = 1.0, Km = 1.6,
dp = Np/P = (20/8) in. (from the analysis of Problem 15.31),
Ft (1. 54)(1)(1. 6)
Therefore, σH = 2300 = 6980.5 Ft
(1. 0)(20/8)(0. 107)
2. From Eq. (15.25): SH = Sfe CLi CR
Sfe = 0.4 (Bhn) - 10 ksi = (0.4)(350) - 10 = 130 ksi
design life = 1100 cyl/min ✕ 60 min/hr ✕ 60 hr/wk
✕ 50 wk/yr ✕ 5 yr = 9.9 ✕ 108 cycles
hence, CLi = 0.8
SH = 130(0.8)(1) = 104 ksi
3. For SF = 1.5 :
104,000 = 6980.5 1. 5 Ft ; Ft = 148 lb
Ft V 148(720)
W= = = 3.23 hp ■
33, 000 33, 000
Therefore, the horsepower rating with respect to surface durability is
approximately 3.2 hp.

15-55
Comment: The horsepower rating of the gear pair is much lower when analyzed with
respect to surface durability than with respect to bending fatigue (Problem 15.31). With
other choices of material and geometry the opposite result can also occur. This problem
illustrates the need for considering both bending fatigue and surface durability in the
design and analysis of gears.

SOLUTION (15.38)
Known: A pair of mating spur gears of specified geometry, material and manufacturing
quality is given. The pinion is driven by an electric motor of specified rpm and the gear
drives a blower. Design life is specified.
Find: Determine the horsepower rating of the gear set for a safety factor of 1.5 and
99% reliability based on surface durability and bending fatigue.
Schematic and Given Data:
1100 rpm

Pinion:
Np = 20 Material: Steel, heat treated to 350 Bhn !!
!!!!for the gear, and heat treated to 400 !!!
!!!Bhn for the pinion.
Standard full depth teeth
Accurate mounting
P=8
Gear: ! = 20°
N g = 40 b = 1 in.
Design life: 5 yrs, 60 hr/wk,
50 wk/yr operation
Top quality hobbing operation for
manufacturing

Assumptions:
1. The gears mesh along their pitch circles.
2. The gear tooth loads are transmitted at the pitch point.
3. Tooth contact surfaces are approximated by cylinders.
4. Surface stresses are unaffected by lubricant and sliding friction.
Analysis:
For surface durability:
For the pinion:
Ft K K K
1. From Eq. (15.24): σH = Cp b dp I v o m
o o
φ cos φ R
with I = sin = sin 20 cos 20 • 2 = 0.107
2 R+1 2 2+1
and b = 1 in., Kv = 1.54, Ko = 1.0, Km = 1.6,
dp = Np/P = (20/8) in. (from the analysis of Problem 15.31),

15-56
 Ft (1. 54)(1)(1. 6)
Therefore, σH = 2300 = 6980.5 F t
(1. 0)(20/8)(0. 107)
2. From Eq. (15.25): SH = Sfe CLi CR
Sfe = 0.4 (Bhn) - 10 ksi = (0.4)(400) - 10 = 150 ksi
design life = 1100 cyl/min ✕ 60 min/hr ✕ 60 hr/wk
✕ 50 wk/yr ✕ 5 yr = 9.9 ✕ 108 cycles
hence, CLi = 0.8
SH = 150(0.8)(1) = 120 ksi
3. For SF = 1.5 :
120,000 = 6980.5 1. 5 Ft ; Ft = 197 lb
Ft V 148(720)
W= = = 4.3 hp
33, 000 33, 000
For the gear:
4. From Eq. (15.24); !H = Cp Ft K K K
bdgI v o m

dg = 40/8. Hence, !H = 4936 Ft

5. From Eq. (15.25); SH = Sfe CLi CR
Sfe = 0.4 (Bhn) - 10 ksi = 0.4(350) - 10 = 130 ksi.
Hence, SH = 130 (0.8)(1) = 104 ksi.
6. For SF = 1.5:
104, 000 = 4936 1. 5 Ft ; Ft = 295. 95 lb
295. 95(720)
W = FtV = = 6. 46 hp
33, 000 33, 000
It is evident that the gear is stronger than the pinion based on surface durability.
Therefore, the horsepower rating with respect to surface durability is approximately 4.3
hp.
For bending fatigue:
For the pinion:
Ft P
1. From Eq. (15.17): σ = Kv Ko Km
bJ
Kv requires finding the pitch line velocity as,
π d n π(20/8)1100
V= = = 720 fpm
12 12
from Curve C of Fig. 15.24,
50 + 720
Kv = = 1.54
50
from Fig. 15.23(a), J = 0.24 (for the pinion - and with no load sharing)
Also, Km = 1.6 (from Table 15.2 - probably best judgment)

15-57
 and Ko = 1.0 (from Table 15.1- uniform driving and driven torque)
Therefore,
Ft (8)
σ= (1.54)(1.0)(1.6) = 70.37 Ft
(1. 0)(0. 28)
2. From Eq. (15.18):
Sn = Snʹ′ CL CG Cs kr kt kms
= (250 ✕ 350)(1)(1)(0.66)(0.814)(1)(1.4)
= 65,812 psi
where
Snʹ′ = 250 (Bhn) = 250 ✕ 350 psi for infinite life,
since design life = 5 yr ✕ (50 wk/yr) ✕ (60 hr/wk)
✕ (60 min/hr) ✕ 1100 rpm
= 9.9 ✕ 108 > 106 cycles
CL = 1.0,
CG = 1.0 since P > 5
Cs = 0.66 from Fig. 8.13
kr = 0.814 from Table 15.3
kt = 1 and kms = 1.4 since the pinion is not an idler
3. For SF = 1.5: 70.37(1.5Ft) = 65,812
hence, Ft = 623.5 lb
Ft V (623. 5)(720)
W = 33, 000 = = 13.6 hp
33, 000
For the gear:
Ft P
4. From Eq. (15.17): σ = Kv Ko Km
bJ
Kv requires finding the pitch line velocity as,
π d n π(20/8)1100
V= = = 720 fpm
12 12
from Curve C of Fig. 15.24,

50 + 720
Kv = = 1.54
50
from Fig. 15.23(a), J = 0.28 (for the gear - and with no
load sharing)
Also, Km = 1.6 (from Table 15.2 - probably best judgment)
and Ko = 1.0 (from Table 15.1- uniform driving and driven torque)
Therefore,
F t (8)
σ = (1. 0)(0. 24) (1.54)(1.0)(1.6) = 82.1 Ft
5. From Eq. (15.18):
Sn = Snʹ′ CL CG Cs kr kt kms
= (250 ✕ 400)(1)(1)(0.66)(0.814)(1)(1.4)
= 75,214 psi

15-58
 where
Snʹ′ = 250 (Bhn) = 250 ✕ 400 psi for infinite life,
since design life = 5 yr ✕ (50 wk/yr) ✕ (60 hr/wk)
✕ (60 min/hr) ✕ 1100 rpm
= 9.9 ✕ 108 > 106 cycles
CL = 1.0,
CG = 1.0 since P > 5
Cs = 0.66 from Fig. 8.13
kr = 0.814 from Table 15.3
kt = 1 and kms = 1.4 since the pinion is not an idler
6. For SF = 1.5 : 82.1(1.5 Ft) = 75,214
hence, Ft = 610.75 lb
Ft V (610. 75)(720)
W = 33, 000 = = 13.325 hp ■
33, 000
It is evident that the gear is stronger than the pinion based on the surface durability.
Therefore, the horsepower rating with respect to bending fatigue failure is
approximately 13.325 hp.
Comments:
1. The horsepower rating with respect to surface durability is much less than with
respect to bending fatigue. This homework problem illustrates the need to
consider both bending fatigue and surface durability in the design and analysis of
gears. It also shows the need for calculating the strengths of both the gear and the
pinion for comparison when the hardness of the gear materials differ, unlike the
case where the hardness of both the materials is the same, and we could carry out
our design calculations for the smaller of the two gears.
2. The bending stresses can be reduced for the specified rpm by decreasing P or
increasing b. But these parameters as well as the factors Kv and J are closely
interrelated. Decreasing P for the same number of teeth increases pitch diameter,
which leads to larger pitch line velocity and hence to larger values of Kv and s.
Decreasing P for the same pitch diameter decreases the number of teeth resulting
in a smaller value of J and a larger value of s. Increasing the value of b requires
accurate mounting and manufacturing to utilize the entire face width and
ultimately tends to increase the value of Km. Thus choice of suitable values for
gear geometry parameters for specific applications requires balancing the
parameter values with other side effects.
3. It is evident that the gear is stronger than the pinion based on surface durability.
Therefore, the horsepower rating based on surface fatigue is 4.3 hp.
4. The horsepower rating of the gear pair is much lower when analyzed with respect
to surface durability than with respect to bending fatigue (Problem 15.31). With
other choices of material and geometry the opposite result can also occur. This
problem illustrates the need for considering both bending fatigue and surface
durability in the design and analysis of gears.

15-59
SOLUTION (15.39)
Known: A pair of mating spur gears of specified geometry, material and manufacturing
quality is given. The pinion is driven by an electric motor of specified rpm and the gear
drives a blower. Design life is specified.
Find: (a) Determine the horsepower rating of the gear set for a safety factor of 1.5 and
99% reliability based on surface durability. (b) Estimate the value to which the gear
hardness can be reduced without making the gear teeth weaker than the pinion teeth
based on surface fatigue.
Schematic and Given Data:
1100 rpm

Pinion:
Np = 20 Material: Steel, heat treated to 350 Bhn !!
!!!!for the gear, and heat treated to 400 !!!
!!!Bhn for the pinion.
Standard full depth teeth
Accurate mounting
P=8
Gear: ! = 20°
N g = 40 b = 1 in.
Design life: 5 yrs, 60 hr/wk,
50 wk/yr operation
Top quality hobbing operation for
manufacturing

Assumptions:
1. The gears mesh along their pitch circles.
2. The gear tooth loads are transmitted at the pitch point.
3. Tooth contact surfaces are approximated by cylinders.
4. Surface stresses are unaffected by lubricant and sliding friction.
Analysis:
Ft K K K
1. For the pinion: From Eq. (15.24): σH = Cp b dp I v o m
o o
φ φ R
with I = sin cos = sin 20 cos 20 • 2 = 0.107
2 R+1 2 2+1
and b = 1 in., Kv = 1.54, Ko = 1.0, Km = 1.6,
dp = Np/P = (20/8) in. (from the analysis of Problem 15.31),
Ft (1. 54)(1)(1. 6)
Therefore, σH = 2300 = 6980.5 F t
(1. 0)(20/8)(0. 107)

15-60
2. From Eq. (15.25): SH = Sfe CLi CR
Sfe = 0.4 (Bhn) - 10 ksi = (0.4)(350) - 10 = 130 ksi
design life = 1100 cyl/min ✕ 60 min/hr ✕ 60 hr/wk
✕ 50 wk/yr ✕ 5 yr = 9.9 ✕ 108 cycles
hence, CLi = 0.8
SH = 130(0.8)(1) = 104 ksi
3. For SF = 1.5 :
104,000 = 6980.5 1. 5 Ft ; Ft = 148 lb
Ft V 148(720)
W= = = 3.23 hp
33, 000 33, 000
Therefore, the horsepower rating with respect to surface durability is
approximately 3.2 hp. ■

Ft K K K
4. For the gear: From Eq. (15.24); !H = Cp
bdgI v o m

sin ! cos ! R o o
I= = sin 20 cos 20 2 = 0. 107
2 R+1 2 2+1
b = 1 in., Kv = 1.54, Ko = 1.0, Km = 1.6,
dg = Ng/P = 40/8 in. (from the analysis of Problem 15.31). Therefore,

148(1. 54)(1)(1. 6)
!H = 2300 = 60049 psi = 60 ksi
1. 0(40/8)(0. 107)
5. From Eq. (15.25); SH = Sfe CLi CR
Sfe = 0.4 (Bhn) - 10 ksi
6. SH = [0.4 (Bhn) - 10 ksi] (0.8) (1) = 0.32 (Bhn) - 8 = 60 ksi. Solving for Bhn,
Bhn = 187.65. ■

Comment: The gear hardness can be reduced to 187.65 Bhn without making the gear
teeth weaker than the pinion teeth based on surface fatigue.

15-61
SOLUTION (15.40)
Known: A spur gear speed reducer is driven by an electric motor and drives a load
involving "moderate shock". The gear teeth are standard full depth and of given
geometry and material. Required life is 106 pinion revolutions for a specified
transmitted load.
Find: Determine an estimate of the reliability of the speed reducer with respect to
surface durability.
Schematic and Given Data:
1500 rpm

Np = 18
Pinion: 260 Bhn P = 10
b = 1.0 in.
! = 20°
Ng = 36
Km = 1.8
kt = 1
Gear: 235 Bhn Ft = 100 lb
Tooth cut with
low-cost average
quality cutting process

Assumptions:
1. The gears mesh at the pitch circles.
2. Load sharing is not expected since the cutting process is of average quality.
3. The effects corrected by the velocity factor, Kv, correspond to the middle of the
range in Fig. 15.24 with manufacture by form cutters.
4. The pinion is driven by a uniform power motor while the gear drives a load
involving "moderate shock" (given).
5. The surfaces at the contact region of the teeth can be approximated by cylinders.
6. The surface stress distribution is unaffected by the presence of the lubricant.
7. Surface loads due to sliding in the tooth contact region are negligible.
Analysis:
1. The pitch diameters of the gears are,
dg = Ng/P = 36/10 = 3.6 in.
dp = Np/P = 18/10 = 1.8 in.
d g 3. 6
2. Ratio of pitch diameters, R = = = 2.
d p 1. 8
3. Pitch line velocity,
π d n π N p n p π(18)(1500)
V= = = = 706.8 ft/min
12 12P 12(10)

15-62
 from Fig. 15.24, with V = 706.8 ft/min, Kv = 2.0
from Table 15.1, Ko = 1.25
o o
2
4. From Eq. (15.23): I = sin 20 cos 20 • = 0.107
2 3
5. From Eq. (15.24):
Ft K K K
σH = Cp
b dp I v o m
100 (2. 0)(1. 25)(1. 8)
= 2300 (1. 0)(1. 8)(0. 107)
= 111,174 psi = 111.2 ksi
6. From Table 15.5, an estimate of surface fatigue strength,
Bhn of gear + Bhn of pinion
Sfe = 0.4 - 10 ksi
2
and from Fig. 15.27, CLi = 1.12
7. Therefore, from Eq. (15.25):
SH = Sfe CLi CR
= 0. 4 235 + 260 - 10 (1.12) CR = 99.68 CR
2
Equating stress and strength 111.2 = 99.68CR ; hence CR = 1.11
8. Interpolating the rough data from Table 15.6 of the text:
CR Reliability
1.25 50%
1.00 99%
0.80 99.9%
A rough approximation of the reliability for
CR = 1.11 is reliability ≈ 80% ■
Comments:
1. The estimate of reliability from the value of CR is very approximate. As the
textbook suggests, data on reliability factors for surface durability are scarce.
2. In comparing the reliability obtained in Problem 15.33 for bending fatigue for the
same speed reducer, we find that the estimate of reliability of the gears is much
lower for surface fatigue. This indicates that the speed reducer is more likely to
fail due to surface damage than bending fatigue.
3. The change in contact pressure distribution due to the presence of a lubricant and
sliding loads on the tooth are not explicitly considered in the Hertz equation used
for calculating maximum stress in the contact region. These considerations are by
implication absorbed in the surface strength data obtained from experiments. It is
thus important to judge if the lubrication and sliding effects in the application are
similar to those in experiments from which this data is obtained.

SOLUTION (15.41)
Known: An identical pair of standard full depth spur gears of given geometry and
material rotate at a given rpm.

15-63
Find: Determine an estimate of the horsepower that can be transmitted for 109 cycles
with 90% reliability based on surface fatigue.
Schematic and Given Data:

5000 rpm
Identical spur gears:
N = 60
! = 20°
P = 12
b = 1.0 in.
Alloy steel material, case hardness 680 Bhn,
core hardness 500 Bhn.
Tooth profiles finished and ground to
requirement of curve A in Fig. 15.24.

Overload factor, K o = 1.1

Assumptions:
1. The spur gears mesh at the pitch circles using accurate mountings.
2. Loading on the gears involves only mild shock (given).
3. High precision gears with fine ground tooth profiles allow the use of curve A in
Fig. 15.24 to estimate velocity factor Kv (given).
4. Load sharing between teeth is expected in these high precision gears but the full
transmitted load will be applied to a tooth to make a conservative estimate of
horsepower.
5. The surfaces at the contact region is approximated by cylinders.
6. The surface stress distribution is unaffected by the presence of lubricant.
7. Surface loads due to sliding in the tooth contact region are negligible.
8. The operating temperature for the gears is below 160 oF.
Analysis:
1. Pitch line velocity,
π d n !(60/12)5000
V= = = 6545 fpm
12 12
2. Velocity factor, Kv = 78 + 6545 = 1.43
78
3. Pitch diameters are, d = N = 60 = 5 in.
P 12
Ratio of pitch diameters, R = 1
4. From Table 15.2, the mounting factor, Km = 1.3
and Ko = 1.1 (given)

15-64
5. From Eq. (15.23): the geometry factor,
o o
I = sin 20 cos 20 1 = 0.080
2 1 + 1
6. From Eq. (15.24): the surface stress,
Ft
σH = 2300 (1. 0)(5)(0. 08) (1. 43)(1. 1)(1. 3) = 5200 F t
7. From Table 15.6: CR ≈ 1.06 for 90% reliability
From Fig. 15.27, CLi = 0.8
8. From Eq. (15.25) and Table 15.5:
SH = [0. 4(680) - 10](0.8)(1.06) = 222.222 ksi
Equating stress and strength 5200 Ft = 222,222 psi : Ft = 1826.3 lb
9. Horsepower that can be transmitted,
Ft V 1826. 3 lb(6545 fpm)
W= = = 362.2 hp ■
33, 000 33, 000
Comments:
1. Comparing the horsepower rating of the drive unit with respect to bending fatigue
estimated in Problem 15.34, it is evident that the horsepower rating determined by
consideration of surface fatigue is more critical. While the horsepower rating is
379 hp with a 99% reliability with respect to bending fatigue failure, the
horsepower rating is only 362 hp with a 90% reliability with respect to surface
fatigue failure. However, the process of failure and its consequence are
substantially different in bending fatigue and surface fatigue. Bending fatigue
failure is sudden and drastic while surface fatigue failure is gradual and provides
easily observable indications of failure.
2. If the surface of the teeth were not made harder than the core, the durability of the
teeth with respect to surface fatigue would be further reduced and the horsepower

rating would drop by a factor of approximately 1.36 = ( core hardness )

surface hardness
to about
266 hp.
3. The horsepower rating is unaffected whether the gears act as idlers or not as far as
surface fatigue failure is concerned. This is in contrast to the case of bending
fatigue where the strength is less by a factor of 1.4 for idler gears due to two way
tooth bending.
4. If the solution of SAMPLE PROBLEM 15.5 is followed rather than the solution of
SAMPLE PROBLEM 15.4, Figure 9.21 gives SH = 120,000 psi, and a smaller
transmitted horsepower rating is calculated (estimated).

SOLUTION (15.42)
Known: A two stage gear speed reducer is given which uses a countershaft and has
identical gear pairs in each stage. Gear and shaft geometry is specified such that the
input and output shafts are collinear.

Find: Determine the relative strengths of the gears for serving in the high-speed and
low-speed positions considering both bending fatigue and surface durability with 107
cycles life for the high speed gear.
15-65
Schematic and Given Data:

45 teeth
c

P = 5, ! = 25°
15 teeth
Driven
machine
1 kW, 1200 rpm coupled
motor coupled to this
to this shaft shaft
B
a
A b
25
mm

100
45 teeth mm

25
mm

Assumptions:
1. The high-speed and low-speed gears are mounted to mesh identically.
2. Load sharing need not be considered.
3. The high speed and low speed gears operate at the same temperature.
4. The countershaft can be considered to be rigid so that both gears have the same
overload conditions determining the value of the overload factor, Ko.
5. The friction in the gears and bearings can be neglected.
Analysis:
1. Pitch line velocity of gear in high speed position is,
πd gn g πd pn p πN pn p π(15)(1200)
Vhigh = = = = = 942.4 ft/min
12 12 12P 12(5)
Pitch line velocity of gear in low speed position is,
!dgng !Ngng !(45)(1200/9)
Vlow = = = = 314.1 ft/min
12 12P 12(5)
Ratio of tangential tooth loads in low-speed and high-speed positions for the
Ft, low Vhigh
gears is, = =3
Ft, high Vlow
2. For bending fatigue, using Eq. (15.17):

σhi sp ( )
σlow sp F t, low
=
F t, high
•
Kv, low
Kv, high

15-66
 ( )
= (3) 1. 10 = 2.8 with Kv from curve A in Fig. 15.24.
1. 18
■

= (3) 1. 26 = 2.12 with Kv from curve D in Fig. 15.24. ■

1. 78
3. Eq. (15.18) for Sn is the same for both applications
Thus for bending fatigue, the low speed application is more severe by factor
of 2.12 to 2.8 depending on the manufacturing accuracy. ■
4. For surface fatigue, using Eq. (15.24):
σH low sp
= 2. 8 = 1.67 with Kv from curve A and ■
σH hi sp
σH low sp
= 2. 12 = 1.46 with Kv from curve D ■
σH hi sp
S H low sp C Li low 1. 03
5. From Eq. (15.25): = ≈ = 1.03 ■
S H hi sp C Li high 1. 0
because the low speed gears accumulate fatigue cycles only a third as rapidly
at the high speed gears and the high speed gear must have a life of 107
cycles.
6. Thus, for surface fatigue, the low speed application is more severe by a

factor of about 1. 46 = 1.42 to 1. 67 = 1.62, depending on manufacturing

1. 03 1. 03
accuracy. ■
Comments:
1. Unlike the surface fatigue strength, the bending strength is unaffected by the fact
that the low-speed gear accumulates fatigue cycles only a third as rapidly as the
high-speed gear. This is because, while the endurance limit for bending stress is
reached at 106 cycles the surface strength continues to decrease well past 107
cycles.
2. Since the surface fatigue stress is proportional to the root of the velocity factor, Kv,
the relative severity of service for the low-speed gear is not as high as in the case
of bending fatigue.
3. If friction forces in the gears and bearings were taken into consideration, the
tangential tooth loads for the low-speed and high-speed gears would not be
precisely in the inverse ratio of their speeds.

SOLUTION (15.43D)
Known: A two stage spur gear speed reducer is given which uses a countershaft and
has identical gear pairs in each stage. Gear and shaft geometry is specified such that the
input and output shafts are collinear. Shafts and mountings correspond to good
industrial practice but not "high precision".

Find: Determine a design of the gears for 107 cycles with 99% reliability and safety
factor of 1.2.

15-67
Schematic and Given Data:

10 Hp Motor Load
2700 rpm 300 rpm
(Light shock) 8 in. (Mod. shock)

Decisions:
1. Choose steel for gear material with pinion material 10% harder than the gear
material.
2. Choose standard full depth teeth with pressure angle, φ = 20o.
3. Select number of teeth for pinion, Np = 20.
4. Choose manufacturing precision between curves C and D in Fig. 15.24 to estimate
velocity factor, Kv.
5. Choose face width for gears as b = 12 .
P
6. The surface hardness and core hardness for the teeth are equal.
7. The tooth fillet radius is 0.35/P (to enable use of Fig. 15.23(a) to estimate J).
Assumptions:
1. The gears are mounted at their theoretical center distance.
2. Friction losses in gears and bearings can be neglected.
3. No load sharing is expected and all tooth loads are transmitted at the pitch point.
4. The operating temperature for the gears is below 160 oF.
5. Surface stress can be estimated by approximating tooth contact region by
cylinders.
6. Surface stress distribution is unaffected by lubricant.
7. Surface stress due to sliding friction is negligible.
Design Analysis:
1. With a center distance of 8 in., the 9:1 reduction requires 3:1 reduction by
each gear set.
Hence, dp = 4 in., dg = 12 in.

2. With 20 pinion teeth, P = 20 , P = 5 ■

4
3. With b = 12 , b = 2.4 in. ■
P
4. Pitch line velocities are,
V = (4/12)π • 2700 = 2827 fpm (high speed set)
and similarly V = 942 fpm (low speed set)
5. With manufacturing precision between curves C and D, from Fig. 15.24,
Kv = 1.7 (low speed) and 2.7 (high speed) ■

15-68
6. Since Ft • Kv is the greatest on the low speed set, we design the gears for
this application.
Ft V F t (942)
W = 33, 000 : 10 = 33, 000 : Ft = 350 lb,
with a safety factor of 1.2, Ft = 350(1.20) = 420 lb
7. Having chosen steel gears with φ = 20o, we find hardness needed for surface
fatigue criterion:
from Eq. (15.24):

σH = 2300 420 (1. 7)(1. 5)(1. 6)

2. 4(4)(0. 12)
= 88,707 psi
where, from Eq. (15.23),
o o
I = sin 20 cos 20 • 3 = 0.12
2 4
since, from Table 15.4a, Cp = 2300 psi,
from Table 15.1, Ko = 1.5,
from Table 15.2, Km = 1.6 and Kv = 1.7.
8. Equating stress and strength,
88.7 ksi = SH = Sfe CLi CR
88.7 = (0.4 Bhn - 10)(1)(1) : hence, Bhn = 247
specify gear hardness as 250 Bhn, pinion hardness as 275 Bhn ■
9. To verify that the above solution is adequate for bending fatigue:
from Eq. (15.17):
420(5)
σ = 2. 4(0. 24) (1.7)(1.5)(1.6) = 14,875 psi
where, from Fig. 15.23(a), J = 0.24,
and Kv = 1.7, Ko = 1.5, Km = 1.6.
from Eq. (15.18):

Sn = 275 (1)(0.85)(0.71)(.814)(1.4) = 47.283 ksi = 47,283 psi

2
1
where, Snʹ′ = (Bhn) ksi
4
CL = 1.0, CG = 0.85, Cs = 0.71

for Su = 275 = 137.5 ksi, kr = 0.814 from Table 15.3,

2
kt = 1, kms = 1.4 from Eq. (15.19)
hence the gears are more than adequate to resist bending fatigue.
10. Design results:
c = 8 in., b = 2.4 in.
Np = 20, Ng = 60 , standard full depth teeth.
P = 5, φ = 20o, steel gears, pinion hardness 275 Bhn, gear hardness 250
Bhn. ■
dp = 4 in., dg = 12 in.

15-69
 Tooth fillet radius = 0. 35 = 0.07 in.
P
Manufacturing precision between curves C and D in Fig. 15.24. Shafts and
mountings of ordinary good engineering practice. ■
Comments:
1. Specifying a higher surface hardness and a lower core hardness for the gear teeth
would have resulted in a more balanced factor of safety for bending fatigue and
surface fatigue.
2. By specifying a material of 250 Bhn using design calculations which required a
hardness of 247 Bhn for the pinion, separate design calculations for the gear were
avoided. The pinion is always more severely stressed than the corresponding gear.
By selecting pinion material 10% harder than the gear an additional factor of
safety is provided.
3. If a larger number of teeth for the pinion were selected, the diametral pitch would
have been larger and a proportionately smaller face width could be selected. These
decisions would result in a higher value of bending stress as well as a higher value
of surface stress thus requiring harder gear material specifications.
SOLUTION (15.44D)
Known: A pair of standard spur gears are to transmit a specified hp from an electric
motor to a machine with minimum size and weight. Case hardened alloy steel gears of
specified Bhn are to be used.
Find: Determine a design of the spur gears for 107 pinion revolutions at full load and
99% reliability and a factor of safety of 1.2.
Schematic and Given Data:

Case hardened alloy steel gears.

Motor Pinion: steel, 660 Bhn
60 hp Gears: steel, 600 Bhn
5200 rpm

Machine
1300 rpm

Decisions:
1. Select curve A in Fig. 15.24 for high precision manufacturing accuracy with
shaved and ground teeth.
2. Select standard full depth teeth with pressure angle, φ = 20o.
3. Choose number of teeth on pinion, Np = 18.
4. Choose face width, b = 14/P.
5. Choose velocity factor, Kv = 1.4, Km = 1.3 (to be verified later).
6. Core hardness of the teeth will be specified from bending fatigue considerations.
7. Choose tooth fillet radius as 0.35/P (to enable use of Fig. 15.22(a) to estimate J).

15-70
Assumptions:
1. No significant shock load is present and thus the overload factor, Ko = 1.
2. The operating temperature of the gear set is less than 160 oF.
3. The gears are mounted at the theoretical center distance.
4. Load sharing between the teeth can be expected since the gears are of high
precision.
5. Surface stress can be estimated by approximating tooth contact region by
cylinders.
6. Surface stresses are unaffected by sliding friction and presence of lubricant.
Design Analysis:
np
1.
1300( )
With Np = 18, Ng = Np ng = 18 5200 = 72 ■
2. Pitch line velocity,

V = πdp(5200)/12 = π ( )
18
P
(5200)/12 =
24504
P
ft/min
3. Tangential tooth load,
(60 hp)(33, 000)
Ft = (1.2) = 96.96P
V
at "design overload"
4. We solve for P with σH = SH at design overload conditions:
Ft K K K
Cp = Sfe CLi CR
b dp I v o m
with I = (sin 20o cos 20o/2)(4/5) = 0.128 from Eq. (15.23)
Kv = 1.4, Km =1.3 (must be checked later)
Ko = 1,

Sfe = 0.4( 600 +2 660) - 10 = 242 ksi

14 18
CLi = 1, CR = 1, Cp = 2300, b = ,d =
P p P
Therefore, 2300 96. 96P (1. 4)(1)(1. 3)
(14/P)(18/P)(0. 128)
= 242,000 from which P = 12.6. We choose
P = 12. (note: choosing P = 14 would require b > 14/P) ■
24504
5. Then, V = = 2042 fpm
12
for which Kv = 1.25 (therefore, decision of Kv = 1.4 is conservative)
6. To solve for b:
96. 96(12)
2300 (1. 4)(1)(1. 3) = 242,000
b(18/12)(0. 128)
b = 0.996 in. specify b = 1 in. ■
12
(note: Km = 1.3 is satisfactory, and b = which is satisfactory)
P

15-71
7. To check contact ratio:
N 9
rp = 1 pp = = 0.75 in. and similarly rg = 3.0 in.
2 12
1
adding addendum = : rap = 0.833 in.,
P
rag = 3.083 in.
from Eq. (15.11): rbp = 0.75 cos 20o = 0.7048 in.

rbg = 3.0 cos 20o = 2.8190 in.

!
from Eq. (15.11): pb = cos 20o = 0.2460 in.
12
center distance, c = rp + rg = 3.75 in. ■
from Eq. (15.9):
2 2 2 2 o
CR = 0. 833 - 0. 7048 + 3. 083 - 2. 8190 - 3. 75 sin 20 = 1.66
0. 2460
CR = 1.66 is satisfactory.
8. To check core hardness for bending fatigue
from Eq. (15.17):
(96. 96 ! 12)(12)
σ= (1.25)(1.0)(1.3) = 66731.3 psi
(1)(0. 34)
where from Fig. 15.23(a), J = 0.34.
Equating this value to Sn in Eq. (15.18),
66731 = Snʹ′ (1)(1)(1)(0.814)(1)(1.4) ;
where CL = 1, CG = 1, Cs = 1, kr = 0.814, kt = 1, and kms = 1.4
Snʹ′ = 58,556 psi
This requires Su = 117 ksi, or approximately 235 Bhn.
We specify core hardness ≥ 235 Bhn
9. Design results:
Case hardened alloy steel gear and pinion.
Pinion: surface hardness is 660 Bhn
Gear: surface hardness is 600 Bhn
Core hardness for gears is at least 235 Bhn.
Np = 18, Np = 72, φ = 20o FD.
P = 12, b = 1 in., c = 3.75 in.,
dp = 1.5 in., dg = 6.0 in.
Tooth fillet radius = 0.35/P = 0.03 in.
Manufacturing accuracy is high precision with shaved and ground teeth. ■
Comment: Choice of a lower surface hardness for the pinion and gear would have
resulted in a lower surface strength and consequently a lower value of diametral pitch.
A smaller diametral pitch implies thicker teeth and a smaller contact ratio leading to
less quieter and less smoother operation. A smaller diametral pitch also implies larger
pitch diameters for the same numbers of teeth requiring a larger center distance.

15-72
SOLUTION (15.45)
Known: A simple planetary gear train is used as an automotive overdrive unit. Speed
ratio when the overdrive is engaged is specified and number of teeth on the planet is
given.
Find:
(a) Determine the number of teeth on the sun and ring.
(b) Determine whether four equally spaced planets can be used.
(c) Determine whether three equally spaced planets can be used.
Schematic and Given Data:

Planet, 20 teeth

Arm, input

Sun, fixed

Ring, output
(With overdrive
engaged)

Overdrive engaged: speed ratio = 1.43

Overdrive disengaged: sun, arm, ring rotate as one unit
speed ratio is 1:1

Assumptions:
1. The gears are mounted to mesh at the pitch circles.
2. The planets are equally spaced (given).

Analysis:
1. From Eq. (g): 1.43 = 1 + S
R
where R = S + 2P = S + 40
S
Therefore, 0.43 = S + 40 , or S = 30.175, or S = 30 teeth ■

R = 70 teeth (exact ratio = 1 + 30 = 1.4286) ■

70

15-73
2. For four planets:

o 1
__
90 = 7 2 teeth
20T o 1
90 = 17__
2 teeth

30T

70T

- 20 tooth planet (top position) engages with ring tooth and with sun tooth in
position shown.
- Bottom position requires planet engagement with ring tooth and sun tooth; Side
position requires engagement with ring space and sun space.
This works with 20 tooth (even number) planets.
Use of four equally spaced planets is workable. ■
3. For three planets:

20T o
120 = 10T

30T o 1
__
120 = 23 3 T

70T

15-74
 An even-numbered planet (as 20T) will not fit the 120o position shown.
Three equally spaced planets is not workable. ■
Comment: It is evident from this problem that if equally spaced planets are chosen
from manufacturing and maintenance considerations, the speed ratios available are
limited by geometric constraints.

SOLUTION (15.46)
Known: There is a need for a planetary gear train providing a speed ratio of 2.0.
Find: Determine an explanation of why it is theoretically impossible to provide a speed
ratio of 2 with a planetary gear train.
Schematic and Given Data:

Planet
Arm

Sun
Ring

Assumptions:
1. The gears mesh at their pitch circles.
2. At least one among ring, arm and sun is fixed with the other gears acting as input
or output.
3. The speed ratio required is exactly 2.
Analysis:
S
1. With the sun fixed: ωR/ωA = 1 + R which can only equal 2 if S = R, and this
requires planets of zero size.
2. With the ring fixed: a vector diagram like Fig. 15.32 shows that again, a ratio of 2
requires planets of zero size.
3. With the arm fixed: (not a true planetary train, as all gear axes are fixed.) A vector
diagram like Fig. 15.32 shows that the ratio is negative, and numerically equal to 2
only if planets have zero size.
Comment: This problem provides an important lesson in design problem solving: it is
sometimes revealing to analyze a configuration of design using a symbolic model to
establish the limits of its performance rather than iteratively choosing values of
parameters to satisfy design requirements or estimate sensitivity.

15-75
SOLUTION (15.47)
Known: A planetary gear train for a bicycle is capable of three operating states:
(i) annulus (ring) is connected to input, sun is fixed and arm is connected to output
(low gear).
(ii) direct engagement between input and output.
(iii) arm is connected to input, sun is fixed and annulus is connected to output (high
gear).
There are four planet gears of specified pitch diameters and numbers of teeth.
Find:
(a) Determine the number of teeth on the annulus and the diametral pitch of the gears.
(b) Determine the ratio of wheel rpm to sprocket rpm for each operating state using
two of the three methods given in text.
(c) Determine an explanation of operation when the bicycle coasts in each operating
state.
Schematic and Given Data:

5 1
3
9
2
8 7 Low (L)
Neutral (N)
6 High (H)
7

(a)

15-76
 4

Hub 4 can
"over-run"
in this
direction
3

Member 2
Pushes here to
Disengage pawl 3

(b)

Assumption: The gears mesh along their pitch circles.

Analysis:
1. Annulus dia. = sun dia. + 2(planet dia.)
Since all the gears must have the same P.
teeth on annulus = teeth on sun
+ 2(teeth on planet)
= 25 + 2(25) = 75 teeth ■
25
P = 5/8 = 40 ■
2. Free Body Diagram Method for Low Gear:
annulus = input, carrier = output
let T = input torque

T/150
T/150 T/150
T/75 T/75
T T/150 T/150
T/75

T/150
T/75
T/75
T/150
T/150

T 4
carrier torque = 4 75 25 = T
3
hence, output speed = 3/4 of input speed ■

15-77
3. Velocity Vector Method for Low Gear:
2V
V

V
output (carrier) ω =
25
2V
input (annulus) ω =
37. 5
! out V 37. 5 3
= ✕ = ■
! in 25 2V 4
From Eq. (15.30):

ω -ω ω -ω
e = - S = R A : - 25 = R A = - 1
R ωS - ωA 75 0 - ω A 3

4
ωR - ωA = 1 ωA hence, ωR (in) = ω (out) , or
3 3 A

! out 3
= ■
! in 4

! !
4. neutral gear : !out = 1.0, and high gear: out = 4/3 ■
in ! in
5. While coasting since the drive is always through a 1-way clutch, the sprocket
stops and the wheel continues to rotate. The 1-way clutch over-runs, causing a
clicking noise:
low gear: pawls 9 is over-run ■
neutral gear: pawls 3 and 9 are both over-run ■
high gear: pawls 3 and 9 are both over-run ■

Comments:
1. The application described in this problem demonstrates the compactness with
which a speed-torque changing transmission can be implemented using planetary
gear trains. A significant advantage of using planetary gear trains over ordinary
spur gear trains in this application is the retention of circular symmetry of the
transmission unit.
2. For applications in which more speed ratios are required it is possible to arrange
sets of planetary gear trains in serial and parallel arrangements.

15-78
SOLUTION (15.48)
Known: A planetary gear train operates with the ring fixed, the sun driven at a given
speed and torque and the arm driving a machine. Gears are of a specified module and
pressure angle. There are two planets with a specified number of teeth.
Find: Determine:
(a) the circular pitch, p of the gears
(b) the free-body diagram of each member in equilibrium.
(c) the output torque
(d) the rpm and direction of rotation of the arm
(e) the pitch line velocity of each gear
(f) the nominal radial loads on bearings supporting each gear.
(g) the torque to be applied to the ring to keep it fixed.
Schematic and Given Data:

Ring fixed
Number of teeth = 70
Sun, input
Torque = 16 N. m

Planets
Number of
teeth = 20 800 rpm
Arm, output

Module, m = 2.0 (mm/tooth)

o
Pressure angle = 20

Assumptions:
1. All gears mesh along their pitch circles.
2. Friction losses in gears and bearings are negligible.
3. All the tooth loads are transferred at the pitch point.
4. Centripetal forces will not be considered in this analysis (i.e., the gears are
considered massless).
Analysis:
(a) From Eq. (15.6): p = πm : p = 2.0π mm ■
(b) Since pitch diameter, d = Nm,
planet diameter = 20(2) = 40 mm
ring diameter = 70(2) = 140 mm
sun diameter = R - 2P = 60 mm

15-79
 97
2
266 3 266 23
97 1
533 3 533 1
2 3
266 3 97
266 23 1
97 37 3
1 N•m
60 53 3 100 140
N•m
16 N•m 2
266 3 97
1
97 533 3
2
266 3

(c) Tout = TA = 53 1/3 N.m ■

(d) ωA = ωA(Ts/TA ) = 800 rpm (16/53.33) :
ωA = 240 rpm clockwise ■
(e) With respect to the arm, the sun rotates 560 rpm.
V = πdn = π(0.06)(560/60) = 1.76 m/s ■
(f) The bearings supporting each planet carry a total
radial load of 533 1/3 N. ■
Bearings supporting the other members carry zero nominal load.
(g) Tbrake = Tr = 37 1/3 N.m ■

Comments:
1. Choice of a higher module for the gears would have resulted in larger diameter
gears and correspondingly smaller tooth loads and smaller radial bearing loads for
the planets (other parameter values remaining the same).
2. If friction forces in the gears and bearings were included then the output torque,
the braking torque as well as the planet radial bearing loads would be lower.
3. Consideration of masses and centripetal forces would tend to reduce the radial
tooth loads between the planets and the sun and increase the radial tooth loads
between the planets and the ring. Further, there will be an additional radial load on
the planet bearings. However, the input, output and ring braking torque would
remain unaffected.

SOLUTION (15.49)
Known: A planetary gear train with double planets, two suns and no ring gear is given.
Numbers of teeth on the planets and one of the suns are specified. One sun is the input
member, the other sun is fixed and the arm is the output member.
Find: Determine the input-output speed ratio.

15-80
Schematic and Given Data:
P1 (40 teeth)
P2 (32 teeth)
Arm

Output

Input
S1 (30 teeth)
S2
P2
P1

Assumption: The gears mesh along their pitch circles.

Analysis:
1. Free body analysis method
For a unit clockwise torque applied to S1, forces on the planet-pair are as follows.
(Let S1, P1, etc. represent relative radii of the members):

O Fo

P2 P1

F2

Unit torque 1
=
S1 S1

Summing moments to zero:

∑Mo = 0 : F2 =
1 P1
S1 P2 ( )
Summing forces to zero:

∑F = 0 : hence, Fo =
1 1 - P1
S1 P2 ( )
Therefore, arm torque = Fo (arm radius)
=
1 1 - P1
S1 P2
(S1 + P1) ( )
15-81
 =
30(
1 1 - 40
32 )
(70) = -0.5833

TA ! S1
For 100 % efficiency, =
TS1 ! A
!A 1
hence, = = -1.714 ■
! S1 -0. 5833
2. Velocity vector solution

Velocity = - P2
P1-P2 Point of zero velocity

P2 P1
S1 + P1
! S1 S1 Arbitrary unit
velocity vector

We assign unit velocity, as shown in the figure.

let P1, S1, etc. represent relative radii.

From known point of zero velocity, we determine planet velocity = - P2

P1 - P2
From ω = V/r :

P2 32
! A = - P1 - P2 • S1 = - 40 - 32 • 30 = -1.714 ■
! S1 S1 + P1 1 30 + 40 1
3. Input-output speed ratio,
!A
= -1.714 ■
! S1
Comments:
1. As this problem illustrates, it is not essential to have a ring gear to achieve speed
changes in planetary gear trains. Here, the ring (an internal gear) is replaced by a
second sun (an external gear) to perform the same function.
2. The use of two suns and two planets allows more flexibility in achieving speed
ratio than if a ring gear were used because the pairs S1, P1 and S2, P2 can be
independently chosen as long as S1 + P1 = S2 + P2.

15-82
SOLUTION (15.50)
Known: A planetary gear train with double planets, two suns and no ring gear is
given. Numbers of teeth on the planets and one of the suns are specified. One sun is
the input member, the other sun is fixed and the arm is the output member.
Find: Determine the input-output speed ratio.
Schematic and Given Data:
P1 (30 teeth)
P2 (24 teeth)
Arm

Output

Input
S1 (28 teeth)
S2
P2
P1

Assumption: The gears mesh along their pitch circles.

Analysis:
1. Free body analysis method
For a unit clockwise torque applied to S1, forces on the planet-pair are as
follows. (Let S1, P1, etc. represent relative radii of the members):

O Fo

P2 P1

F2

Unit torque 1
=
S1 S1

Summing moments to zero:

∑Mo = 0 : F2 =
1 P1
S1 P2 ( )
15-83
 Summing forces to zero:

∑F = 0 : hence, Fo =
1 1 - P1
S1 P2 ( )
Therefore, arm torque = Fo (arm radius)

=
S1 (
1 1 - P1
P2 )
(S1 + P1)

= 1 1 - 30 (58) = - 0.5178
28 24
T !
For 100% efficiency, A = !S1
TS1 A

! 1
hence, A = = - 1.931 ■
!S1 - 0. 5178
2. Velocity vector solution

- P2
Velocity = Point of zero velocity
P1-P2

P2 P1

S1+P1
! S1 S1 Arbitrary unit
velocity vector

We assign unit velocity, as shown in the figure.

let P1, S1, etc. represent relative radii.
From known point of zero velocity, we determine planet velocity = - P2
P1 - P2
From w = V/r :

!A - P2 - 24
= P1 - P2 • S1 = 30 - 24 • 28 = - 1.931
!S1 S1 + P1 1 28 + 30 1
3. Input-output speed ratio,
!A
= - 1.931 ■
!S1
Comments:
1. As this problem illustrates, it is not essential to have a ring gear to achieve speed
changes in planetary gear trains. Here, the ring (an internal gear) is replaced by a
second sun (an external gear) to perform the same function.

15-84
2. The use of two suns and two planets allows more flexibility in achieving speed
ratio than if a ring gear were used because the pairs S1, P1 and S2, P2 can be
independently chosen as long as S1 + P1 = S2 + P2.

SOLUTION (15.51)
Known: A planetary gear train with double planets, two suns and no ring gear is given.
Numbers of teeth on the planets and one of the suns are specified. One sun is the input
member, the other sun is fixed and the arm is the output member.
Find: Determine the input-output speed ratio.
Schematic and Given Data:
P1 (36 teeth)
P2 (30 teeth)
Arm

Output

Input
S1 (32 teeth)
S2
P2
P1

Assumption: The gears mesh along their pitch circles.

Analysis:
1. Free body analysis method
For a unit clockwise torque applied to S1, forces on the planet-pair are as
follows. (Let S1, P1, etc. represent relative radii of the members):

O Fo

P2 P1

F2

Unit torque 1
=
S1 S1

15-85
 Summing moments to zero:

∑Mo = 0 : F2 =
1 P1
S1 P2 ( )
Summing forces to zero:

∑F = 0 : hence, Fo =
1 1 - P1
S1 P2 ( )
Therefore, arm torque = Fo (arm radius)

=
S1 (
1 1 - P1
P2 )
(S1 + P1)

= 1 1 - 36 (68) = - 0.425
32 30
TA !
For 100% efficiency, T = !S1
S1 A
! 1
hence, A = = - 2.353
!S1 - 0. 425
2. Velocity vector solution ■

- P2
Velocity = Point of zero velocity
P1-P2

P2 P1

S1+P1
! S1 S1 Arbitrary unit
velocity vector

We assign unit velocity, as shown in the figure.

let P1, S1, etc. represent relative radii.
From known point of zero velocity, we determine planet velocity = - P2
P1 - P2
From w = V/r :

!A - P2 - 30
= P1 - P2 • S1 = 36 - 30 • 32 = - 2.353
!S1 S1 + P1 1 32 + 36 1
3. Input-output speed ratio,
!A
= - 2.353 ■
!S1

15-86
Comments:
1. As this problem illustrates, it is not essential to have a ring gear to achieve speed
changes in planetary gear trains. Here, the ring (an internal gear) is replaced by a
second sun (an external gear) to perform the same function.
2. The use of two suns and two planets allows more flexibility in achieving speed
ratio than if a ring gear were used because the pairs S1, P1 and S2, P2 can be
independently chosen as long as S1 + P1 = S2 + P2.

SOLUTION (15.52)
Known: A planetary gear train with double planets, two suns, and no ring gear is given.
Numbers of teeth on planets and suns are specified. The arm acts as the input member,
one of the suns is fixed and the other sun acts as the output member.
Find: Determine the input-output speed ratio.
Schematic and Given Data:
P1 (101 teeth)

Arm P2 (102 teeth)

S2 (99 teeth)

Output

Input
S1 (100 teeth)

P2
P1

Assumption: All gears mesh along their pitch circles.

Analysis:
1. Let the center distance be unity; i.e.,
1 1
(P1 + S1) = (P2 + S2) = 1 ;
2 2
P1 = radius of P1, S1 = radius of S1, etc.
P1 + S1 P1 + S1
2. Rotate input member (arm A) so as to give the unit linear velocity vector
shown; thus
velocity 1
ωin = ωA = = =1
radius 1

15-87
3. Using the velocity vector method,
ωout = ωS1 = V
S1
S1 + P1
where the pitch line velocity of S1 is
P2 - P1
V = P2 + S2 P1 + S1 = P2 - P1
P2 P2
P2 + S2
Thus,
P2 - P1
P2 (P2 - P1)(S1 + P1)
ωout = =
S1 (P2)(S1)
S1 + P1
(102 - 101)(100 + 101)
= = 0.0197
(102)(100)
! out
and = +0.0197 ■
! in
P1 (101)
P2 (102)

1 (unit velocity)

V
1 (unit distance)
S1 (100)

S2 (99)

Comment: Increasing the number of teeth on all the gears while keeping the difference
in number of teeth, S1 - S2 = P2 - P1 = 1, will produce an even lower speed
! out (P2 - P1)(S1 + P1) S1 + P1
ratio: = ≈ = 1 + 1
! in (P2)(S1) (P1)(S1) P1 S1

15-88
SOLUTION (15.53)
Known: A planetary gear transmission has three suns, three planets (all planets
mounted on the same arm), and no ring gear. Numbers of teeth on all gears are
specified. The arm is the input. In each of two operating states, exactly one of two sun
gears is fixed and the third sun gear acts as output.
Find: Determine the transmission ratios for each operating state.
Schematic and Given Data:

P3 (33 teeth) P1 (27 teeth)

P2 (24 teeth)

S1 (27 teeth)
S3 (21 teeth)
S2 (30
Input teeth)
Output

Low brake band Reverse brake band

holds S3 fixed holds S2 fixed

Analysis:
1. Velocity Vector Method for Low Gear:
Assigning unit linear velocity as shown

ωin = ωA = 1 = 1 = 1
S1 + P1 27 + 27 54
on the same basis:

(P3 - P1)/P3 (33 - 27)/33

ωout = ωs1 = vector "V" = =
S1 S1 27

Therefore, speed ratio =

! in
()
= 1
(33)(27)
! out 54 (33 - 27)
= 2.75

Tout
Therefore, transmission ratio = = +2.75 ■
Tin

15-89
 P1 (27 teeth)
P3 (33 teeth)

unit velocity

V
S3 (Fixed)
S1 (27 teeth)

2. Free Body Analysis Method for Reverse Gear:

A given Tin = TA produces the vector Fin shown.

Summing moments to zero gives:

F in (P2)
Fout =
P1 - P2
F in (P2)
correspondingly, Tout = (S1)
P1 - P2
Therefore, Torque ratio,

Tin (P2)(S1)
Tout (P2)(S1)
= S1 + P1 =
Tin Tin (P1 - P2) (S1 + P1)(P1 - P2)
(24)(27)
= = 4.00
(27+ 27)(27 - 24)

The diagram shows a clockwise input torque, producing Fin acting to the right.
Vector Fout acting on the output member (S1) is equal and opposite to vector Fout
shown acting on the planet. Thus Tout is counterclockwise, and the transmission
ratio in reverse gear = -4.00 ■

15-90
 P1 (27 teeth)
T in P2 (24 teeth)
F in =
S1+ P1

FR O
F out
(Reaction
force)
S1 (27 teeth)
S2 (fixed)

Comment: The idea illustrated in this problem can be extended if more operating
states and speed ratios are required, i.e., more sun gears and/or ring gears can be
incorporated and other speed ratios can be obtained by fixing or freeing the
suns/rings.

15-91
SOLUTION (15.54)
Known: The Toyota Prius uses a power split device that incorporates a planetary gear
set to coordinate the use of a gas engine and electric motor.

Find: Search for information on the power split device in the Toyota Prius and describe
how it works.

Analysis: According to the website “How Stuff Works”:

The power split device is the heart of the Toyota Prius. This is a clever gearbox that hooks
the gasoline engine, generator and electric motor together. It allows the car to operate like a
parallel hybrid -- the electric motor can power the car by itself, the gas engine can power the
car by itself or they can power the car together. The power split device also allows the car to
operate like a series hybrid -- the gasoline engine can operate independently of the vehicle
speed, charging the batteries or providing power to the wheels as needed. It also acts as a
continuously variable transmission (CVT), eliminating the need for a manual or automatic
transmission. Finally, because the power split device allows the generator to start the
engine, the car does not need a starter.
The power split device is a planetary gear set (below). The electric motor is connected
to the ring gear of the gear set. It is also directly connected to the differential, which drives
the wheels. So, whatever speed the electric motor and ring gear spin at determines the speed
of the car.
The generator is connected to the sun gear of the gear set, and the engine is connected
to the planet carrier. The speed of the ring gear depends on all three components, so they all
have to work together at all times to control the output speed.
When you accelerate, initially the electric motor and batteries provide all of the power.
The ring gear of the power split device is connected to the electric motor, so it starts to spin
with the motor. The planet carrier, which is connected to the engine, is stationary because
the engine is not running. Since the ring gear is spinning, the planets have to spin, which
causes the sun gear and generator to spin. As the car accelerates, the generator spins at
whatever speed it needs to in order for the engine to remain off.
Once you reach about 40 mph (64 kph), the gasoline engine will turn on. The generator
suddenly changes speed, causing the planet carrier to turn and start the engine. Once the
engine is running, it settles into a constant speed while the generator varies its speed to
match the output speed with the electric motor. If you are really accelerating hard, the motor
will draw extra power from the batteries. Once you are up to freeway speed, the car will
move under a combination of gas and electric power, with all of the electricity coming from
the generator.

15-92