Coring And Core Analysis

Zagazig University
Faculty of Sciences
Geology Department

1
 Coring And Core Analysis

Zagazig University
Faculty of Sciences
Geology Department

Students names :
1. Moaz ahmed galal

2. Mohamed El-Said Mahjoub

3. Mohamed Abdellatif Yousef

4. Mohamed Mohamed Helmi

Under supervision Dr : Emad Eysa

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 Coring And Core Analysis

Zagazig University
Faculty of Sciences
Geology Department

An overview :coring and core analysis

Student name : Moaz Ahmed Galal

Under supervision Dr : Emad Eysa

3
 Coring And Core Analysis

Zagazig University
Faculty of Sciences
Geology Department

An overview :coring and core analysis

Student name : Mohamed El-Said Mahjoub

Under supervision Dr : Emad Eysa

4
 Coring And Core Analysis

Zagazig University
Faculty of Sciences
Geology Department

An overview :coring and core analysis

Student name : Mohamed Abdelatif youssef

Under supervision Dr : Emad Eysa

5
 Coring And Core Analysis

Zagazig University
Faculty of Sciences
Geology Department

An overview :coring and core analysis

Student name : Mohamed mohamed Helmi

Under supervision Dr : Emad Eysa

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 Coring And Core Analysis

content

Abstract ……………………………….………………..10

Chapter1…………………………………………………10

1.1Introduction………………………………………….10

1.2Core defenation………………………………………12

1.3Core types……………………………………………12

1.4Cores and logs………………………………………..14

1.5Logs are acquired while drilling (LWD)……………..16

Chapter 2 ………………………………………………18

2.1 Core Analysis Planning and Design………………..18

2.2 Best Practice in Core Analysis……………………..18

2.1.1Coring, Core Handling and Core Processing………19

2.2.2Sample Preparation…………………………………19

2.2.3 routine core analysis………………………………..19

2.2.4Special Core Analysis………………………………19

2.3Core Sampling Methodology………………………….20

2.3.1Communications During Sample Analysis………….21

2.3.2roper Coring and Wellsite Core Handling Procedures.22

2. 4 Wellsite Sampling……………………………………24

2.4.1Sampling Methods…………………………………..24
2.4.2Core Transportation………………………………….24
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 Coring And Core Analysis
2.4.3Coring Report………………………………………..27

2.5 Laboratory Tracking………………………………….28

Chapter 3 :Conventional Core Analysis………………….29
3.1 Introduction…………………………………………..29

3.2POROSITY…………………………………………….30

3.2.1 POROSITY DEFINITIONS…………………………30

3.2.2 Porosity Measurements on core plugs……………….30

3.3 PERMEABILITY………………………………………33
3.3.1 PREMEABILITY DEFINITIONS…………………..33
3.3.2 Darcy’s Law………………………………………….33

3.4Fluid Saturation…………………………………………36

3.4.1 Fluid Saturation definitions…………………………..36

3.4.2 FLUID SATURATION MEASUREMENTS………..37

Chapter 4 : Special Core Analysis………………………….40

4.1 Capillary Pressure ……………………………………...40

4.1.1 Introduction …………………………………………..40
4.1.2 Laboratory Measurements …………………………….41
4.1.2.1 porous plate (PP)…………………………………….41
4.1.2.2 Mercury Injection ………………………………….42
4.1.2.3 Centerifuge ………………………………………….43
4.1.3 Experiments …………………………………………….44
4.2 Wettability ………………………………………………..46

4.2.1 Introduction……………………………………………..46

4.2.2 Classification of wettability ……………………………46

4.2.3 Measurements of wettability…………………………….47

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 Coring And Core Analysis
4.2.3.1 Contact Angle………………………………………….48

4.2.4 Experiments………………………………………………49

4.3 Relative permeability ……………………………………….52

4.3.1 Introduction ……………………………………………….52

4.3.2 Measurement of Relative Permeability ……………………53

4.3.2.1 Steady state ………………………………………………53

4.3.2.2 Unsteady state ……………………………………………55

4.3.3 Experiments ……………………………………………….57

References……………………………………………………….60

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 Coring And Core Analysis

Abstract
Formation evaluation is the analysis of subsurface formation characteristics, such
as lithology, porosity, permeability, and saturation by methods such as wireline well
logging and core analysis.
• Coring: Get unaltered formation sample, bring it to the surface with its native fluid,
preserve both and transport to a laboratory for detailed analysis.
– Conventional Coring- Used of core bit and BHA
– Wireline Cores: Sidewall core guns and Rotary sidewall coring tool
Data gotten from cores are; (These are direct measurements done on the core
samples)
• Routine core analysis: Porosity, Permeability, Lithology, grain density, Fluid
saturation etc.
• Special core analysis: Relative permeability, pore-size distribution, mineralogy,
SEM, CT-Scan, Electrical properties, mechanical properties, Capillary pressure, etc.

Chapter 1
1.1.Introduction
What is petrophysics? Petrophysics, as understood in the oil and gas industry,
is the characterization and interaction of the rock and fluid properties of Reservoirs :
1. determining the nature of an interconnected network of pore spaces – porosity;
2. the distribution of oil, water and gas in the pore spaces – water saturation;
3. the potential for the fluids to flow through the network – permeability.
Petrophysical interpretation is fundamental to the much of the work on the
subsurface carried out by geologists, geophysicists and reservoir engineers and
drillers to characterize the subsurface successfully requires physical samples,
electrical, chemical, nuclear and magnetic measurements made through surface
logging, coring and drilling and wireline tools (sondes).
Terms such as ‘formation evaluation’ and ‘log analysis’ are often used to capture
specific parts of the petrophysical workflow, but should not be seen as synonyms.
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 Coring And Core Analysis
‘Rock physics’, which sounds as though it might be similar, is usually reserved for
the study of the seismic properties of a reservoir; similar concepts apply but at larger
scale.Petrophysics has many applications in oil and gas industry and take many
informations from it . as it illustrated in figure 1 .

Figure1.1: applications of petrophysics .

The evaluation, analysis and interpretation of these petrophysical data is as much an

art as a science, as it requires an understanding of geology, chemistry, physics,
electronics, mechanics and drilling technology.
At its simplest, petrophysics determines the porosity and water saturation of a
reservoir, then estimates the permeability of the rock and the mobility of the fluids
in place.
The acquisition and interpretation techniques applied in formation evaluation have
been developed over the last century primarily by the oil and gas industry, but the
principles are equally relevant in coal mining, hydrogeology and environmental
science.
The type of data acquired is generic and can be used in a number of different
analytical ways; indeed, as computing power and microelectronics have developed

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 Coring And Core Analysis
over the last 30 years, more high‐resolution data can be collected and used for ever
more detailed interpretation.
However, measurements can be influenced by a number of variables, including the
borehole environment; borehole diameter, temperature, pressure and drilling fluid,
all affect the quality and type of data acquired
1.2. Core definition
Cores are direct samples from the reservoir rocks that can be tested, analyzed, and
viewed by the researcher. Cores are a fundamental source of information for
exploration, evaluation, development, and production of any hydrocarbon field.
Cores are a unique source of some data types such as rock textural parameters or
permeability. Some others, such as porosity, are calibrated against core analysis
results.
1.3 Core Types
A: Conventional Core (rotary) is the most direct way to determine reservoir
properties and to provide accurate input data for a geological model.
CHARACTERISTICS
• 30 samples in one run
• Samples caught over selected intervals
• Can be run with Coiled tubing
Advantages:
• Relatively cheap
• Covers selected intervals
• Fair information about geology Fair
• information about geology
• Possibility to conduct limited petrophysic analyses

LIMITATIONS
• Limited utility of the samples
• Sidewall coring systems have been
• Small samples
• •Samples taken from the invaded zone only

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 Coring And Core Analysis

B: Side wall core:

The side wall cores are pulled out of hole by a short steel cable connected to the tool
developed to obtain core samples after a well has been drilled and logged. The tools
can be precisely positioned in zones of interest using gamma logs or SP logs as
guides. Percussion or rotary drilled samples provide small bits of formation
material, suitable for geological and engineering studies. Other systems such as the
new Side track Coring System® cut a more conventional type of core angled off to
the side of the hole. Sidewall cores are an excellent cost effective way to increase
knowledge of formations. However, sidewall cores should not be used in lieu of
whole cores since the discontinuous sampling could lead to misinterpretation of the
geological sequence Samples sometimes heavily damaged
BENEFITS:

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 Coring And Core Analysis
• Cheap,
• Covers a long interval
• Fair information about geology

• LIMITATIONS
• High probability for Junk in hole
• Doesn’t work in hard or unconsolidated rocks
• Samples heavily damaged during percussion Side Wall Core
• Very small samples taken from the invaded zone

1.4Cores and logs

The two primary sources of reservoir information acquired during drilling of a well
are cores and logs. Coring can be an expensive and time‐consuming process that is
usually reserved for potential reservoir sections.
When the top reservoir is reached, signalled by a rapid increase in drilling rate and
the presence of hydrocarbon shows, drilling is halted and the drill string recovered
and the bit replaced with a core barrel.
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 Coring And Core Analysis
Core barrels are usually made up of 30ft lengths of pipe with a special coring head
and retrieval mechanism, the catcher. There are in fact an inner and an outer barrel
that can rotate independently; the inner barrel is the repository for the core as it is
being cut. Upon retrieval at the surface, the core is stabilized and sent to shore for
analysis; on occasion, some samples are evaluated at the well site, but this is
becoming less and less common.

Figure 1.2/3: shows how logs are taken from the reservoir and different types of
logs.

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 Coring And Core Analysis
1.5 Logs are acquired while drilling (LWD)
And also at the end of a hole‐section on wireline. LWD and wireline logs represent
among the most important data types available to a reservoir geoscientist or
petrophysicist because they provide a continuous record of borehole measurements
that can be used to interpret the environment of deposition of a sequence,the
petrophysical properties and also the fluid distribution in the reservoir; in other
words, to answer the questions do these rocks contain oil and gas and will it flow?
However, the log measurements are greatly influenced by a number of variables,
including the borehole environment, the rocks themselves and the type of fluid used
to drill the well.

figure 1.4: showing logging while drilling and its drill string

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 Coring And Core Analysis
1.6 Value of information
Acquiring petrophysical data, be they logs or core, is expensive; the formation
evaluation programme for a well can be several hundred thousand dollars or can run
into millions. The value of the information must always be seen in terms of where
you are in the project cycle and also the use to which the data will be put. Sometimes
too much data can result in indecision just as much as an incomplete data set, and
when dealing with brownfield developments where only an older log set is available,
it may be more important to calibrate the basic data than to run the most
sophisticated tools. The key decision making data sets are as follows:
● Logs to establish lithology, porosity and fluids.
● Cores to confirm lithology and calibrate the log‐derived properties and to establish
a depositional environment; in an exploration well, cores may be replaced by image
and scanner tools, but cores should be acquired in subsequent appraisal wells.
● Pressure measurements and fluid samples.
● Production data to establish that the reservoir will flow, recover fluids and test the
limits of the hydrocarbons connected to the well. With a good, well‐distributed,
basic data set, a robust reservoir description will be possible even if some of the
‘bells and whistles’ beloved of specialist disciplines are not available; any additional
information should not be ignored but recognized as single points in the overall
population and should not bias the interpretation.

1.7 Core analysis:

A core analysis project starts from the coring plan, coring, and core preservation,
and continues with three main phases including routine, geological, and special core
analysis. Some additional stages are also included such as geomechanics or
geochemistry. Various experts are involved in a core planning task. They consider
all variables including requirement, cost, and risk to decide the different aspects of
coring and core analysis. After coring, cores are transferred to the laboratory. Core
analysis starts with the core gamma logging and whole core CT-scanning. Basic
petrophysical parameters using single-phase fluid are measured on the cores in the
routine stage. This step also includes core handling and preparation for routine,
special, and geological analysis. Geological analysis includes thin section
preparation, microscopic and macroscopic studies, and rock typing. Final data are
compared with the wire line logs and distributed to the interwell space. Dynamic
data are provided using multiphase fluid tests in a special section. All data are
integrated to reconstruct the rock and fluid distribution within the reservoir.

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 Coring And Core Analysis

Chapter 2
Core Preparation
2.1 Core Analysis Planning and Design

Coring and core analysis are often poorly planned. On too many occasions,
the engineer or geoscientist simply copies and pastes from previous programs
without any real understanding of the data that the tests will acquire, or how
applicable or representative the data will be. However, they still want control of the
core analysis program and are often reluctant to take advice from the core analysis
vendor as they feel they may be oversold tests they do not think they need. This is
compounded by the traditional master (client)– servant (laboratory) relationship
where the “customer is always right”. A deficient or ill-considered test program
results in under-utilisation, poor appreciation and mis-application of the resultant
core data. Proper design, planning and supervision of a core analysis program can
do much to reduce the data redundancy rate. Petrophysicists, geologists, reservoir
engineers and drilling and completions engineers all have a role to play in the
planning team, which must include the laboratory that will carry out the work.

Engaging the test laboratories through regular meetings and lab visits during
the planning, design and data acquisition phases of ongoing projects means they
become more aligned with the client stakeholder objectives and better understand
how important their data really are in field development planning and decisions.

2.2Best Practice in Core Analysis

The first challenge in the design of a core analysis program is to obtain
representative core material for the laboratory to test. Hence, the coring program
should be planned in detail taking into consideration core retrieval from reservoir to
surface, surface handling, preservation and transportation to the laboratory. Once
the core is in the laboratory, different methods are available to obtain a variety of
measurements, each test having defined strengths and weaknesses. The advantages
and drawbacks/issues associated with each principal core analysis test will be
explained in detail, as a precise understanding of these tests and methods is
important for the evaluation and integration of the core data with the log-reservoir
simulation data. This book sets out to provide what the authors believe to represent
current best practice in core analysis. It provides a practical overview of core
analysis, from coring at the wellsite through laboratory testing to results and data
prsentation. It is dedicated to the description and understanding of the various
techniques and procedures required for the analysis of both siliciclastic and
carbonate reservoirs in commercial core analysis and rock mechanics laboratories.
Certain commercial entities, equipment, or materials may be identified in
this book in order to describe an experimental procedure or concept. This is
not to imply recommendation or endorsement by the authors, nor is it
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 Coring And Core Analysis
intended to imply that the entities, equipment, or materials are the best available for
the purpose.
2.2.1 Coring, Core Handling and Core Processing
Obtaining high-quality, undamaged core is an essential prerequisite for
representative and reliable core analysis data. Even the best petrophysical
measurements will prove futile if the core has been damaged or altered before the
tests are actually performed. Full details and explanations of the principal coring
systems, and recommendations on avoiding core damage at wellsite and during
transportation to the test laboratory, are provided.

2.2.2 Sample Preparation

For most core analysis tests, the core samples must be initially cleaned and dried to
remove oil and water, as well as evaporated salts, mud filtrate and wettability
contaminants. Selection of the most appropriate sample preparation method depends
on the lithology, petrography, potential reservoir wettability and possible wettability
contamination from drilling mud, as well as the objectives of the analysis. Details
of the principal core/plug cleaning and drying methods and equipment, and typical
cleaning solvents are explained. Specialist sample preparation for porosity
measurements, wettability conditioning and preservation of authigenic clays and
halite cements are described.

2.2.3 Routine Core Analysis

Routine—or basic or conventional core analysis—principally involves
measurements of fluid saturations on core, and porosity and absolute permeability
measurements using single-phase fluids normally at ambient conditions on dry
cores. The data are principally used to charactarise the reservoir properties and for
log–core integration. Recommended test equipment, test procedures and data
reporting requirements are provided for the principal RCA tests.

2.2.4 Special Core Analysis

The methods and procedures to prepare and characteriSe test fluids used in
SCAL (oil, water and gas), and how to select representative test samples and
representative stress conditions, are described.

The principal core analysis tests which are commonly grouped under the generic
description of SCAL are explained in detail. These include:

. Porosity at stress;

. Formation resistivity factor;

. Resistivity index;

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 Coring And Core Analysis
. Cation exchange capacity tests (wet chemistry cation exchange capacity
and multiple salinity Qv);

. Drainage and imbibition capillary pressure tests using mercury injection

(low and high pressure), porous plate and centrifuge methods;

. Contact angle, Amott and United States Bureau of Mines (USBM)

wettability tests;

. Water–oil, gas–oil and gas–water and water–gas relative permeability tests

using unsteady-state, steady-state and centrifuge techniques;

. Nuclear magnetic resonance tests to calibrate log responses

2.3 Core Sampling Methodology

There are three methods for collecting radiation data while performing a survey. A
direct measurement is obtained by placing the detector near or against the surface
or in the media being surveyed and reading the radioactivity level directly. Scanning
is an evaluation technique performed by moving a portable radiation detection
instrument at a constant speed and distance above the surface to semi-quantitatively
detect elevated areas of radiation. Sampling is the process of collecting a portion of
an environmental medium as representative of the locally remaining medium. The
collected portion of the medium is then analyzed to determine the radionuclide
concentration. This chapter discusses issues involved in collecting and preparing
samples in the field for analysis, and in evaluating the results of these analyses. In
addition, a general discussion on laboratory sample preparation and analysis is
provided to assist in communications with the laboratory during survey planning.
Samples should be collected and analyzed by qualified individuals using the
appropriate equipment and procedures. This manual assumes that the samples taken
during the survey will be submitted to a qualified laboratory for analysis. The
laboratory should have written procedures that document its analytical capabilities
for the radionuclides of interest and a Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC)
program that documents the compliance of the analytical process with established
criteria.
The method used to assay for the radionuclides of concern should be recognized as
a factor affecting analysis time.
Commonly used radiation detection and measuring equipment for radiological
survey field applications is described in Chapter 6 and Appendix H. Many of these
equipment types are also used for laboratory analyses, usually under more
controlled conditions that provide for lower detection limits and greater delineation
between radionuclides.

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 Coring And Core Analysis
Laboratory methods often involve combinations of both chemical and instrument
techniques to quantify the low levels expected in the samples. This chapter provides
guidance to assist the MARSSIM user in selecting appropriate procedures for
collecting and handling samples for laboratory analysis.
More detailed information is available in documents listed in the reference section
of this manual.

2.3.1 Communications Before and During Sample Collection

In most situations, the sample collection and shipping containers are supplied by the
laboratory; therefore, the laboratory should be notified well in advance of the
sampling trip so that these items will be available to the sampling team during the
survey.
The main purpose of communications with the laboratory during sample collection
is to inform the laboratory of modifications to the survey design specified in the
planning documents (e.g., QAPP and SOPs). The laboratory should have a copy of
the survey design in their possession prior to samples being collected.
Modifications to the survey design are often minor deviations from the SOPs caused
by site specific conditions and usually affect a small number of samples. For
example, a rock outcropping covered by a thin layer of soil may restrict the depth
of the surface soil sample to 5 cm (2 in.) instead of the 10 cm (4 in.) specified in the
SOP. The mass of the samples collected from this area of the site is one-half the
expected sample mass, and the laboratory needs to be informed of this deviation
from the SOP.
In other situations, there may be an extensive modification to the number or types
of samples collected at the site that will affect the analytical methods, detection
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 Coring And Core Analysis
capabilities, analytical costs, or even the assumptions used to develop the DCGL.
For example, a large portion of the site may have been converted to a parking lot. A
large pile of material that may represent the former surface soil will be sampled as
well as soil collected from beneath the parking lot surface. The number of samples
to be analyzed has doubled compared to the original SOW.
If the expected timing of receipt of samples at the laboratory changes due to sample
collection schedule deviations, the laboratory should be notified. Most laboratories
require prior notification for samples to be received on weekends.

2.3.2Communications During Sample Analysis

The laboratory should communicate with the Project Manager and field personnel
during sample analysis. The laboratory should provide a list of missing or damaged
samples as soon after the samples are received as practical. This allows the Project
Manager to determine if resampling is required to replace the missing or damaged
samples. The Project Manager may also request notification from the laboratory
when samples are spilled or lost during analysis. Preliminary reports of analytical
results may be useful to help direct sampling activities and provide early indications
of whether the survey objectives defined by the DQOs are being met. However, if
preliminary results have not been verified or validated, their usefulness is limited.

2.4Proper Coring and Wellsite Core Handling Procedures

Coring and wellsite core handling should follow the best possible practices because
the value of all core analysis is limited by this initial operation. The objectives of
any coring and core preservation program should be to obtain rock that is
representative of the formation while minimizing physical alteration of the rock
during coring and handling. Core analysis is an important component of formation
evaluation and is especially advantageous when complex reservoirs are to be
developed (see Table 1). The major problems encountered during coring, handling,
and preserving reservoir rocks are
(1) designing a bottom hole coring assembly and drilling-fluid program to minimize
mud invasion and maximize drilling parameters,
(2) selecting a nonreactive core preservation material and method to prevent fluid
loss or the absorption of contaminants (e.g., wettability altering drilling fluid
components), and
(3) applying appropriate core handling and preservation methods based on rock
type, degree of consolidation, and fluid type.
Different rock types may require additional precautions in ‘obtaining representative
core data. Double-tube core barrels have effectively replaced rubber-sleeve coring
methods for unconsolidated and fractured rock. Disposable inner barrels made of
fiberglass or aluminum work best because of their low friction coefficients and
ability to prevent jamming. Full-closure core catcher systems have contributed to
obtaining better core recoveries of intact unconsolidated rock. Coring technology
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 Coring And Core Analysis
has advanced significantly in the last 3 years to maximize recoveries in most rock
types while minimizing core damage. Low-invasion coring equipment is widely
available and has proved critical when advanced.
reservoir studies are to be conducted for petrophysical and reservoir engineering
purposes (e.g., electrical properties relative permeability testing, and capillary
pressure measurements).
There is no one best method for handling and preserving cores. Core preservation
is an attempt to maintain core, before analysis, in the same condition that existed
when it was removed from the core barrels In the process of cutting, recovering, and
bringing the core to the surface, the fluid content of the rock is altered by
unavoidable changes in pressure and temperature; pressure retained cores attempt
to minimize this effect. Experience can help determine the most satisfactory
preservation method for the rock type in question. The core preservation method
should depend on the composition, degree of consolidation, and distinguishing
features of the rock.
The techniques required to preserve cores for testing may depend on the length of
time for transportation, storage, and the nature of the test(s) to be performed.
Rock types that require special procedures for coring and wellsite preservation are
unconsolidated rocks to include those containing both heavy and light oil, vuggy
carbonates, evaporites, fractured rock, rocks rich in clay minerals, shale, low-
permeability rock (tight gas sand), coal, and diatomite.
Preferred methods to presetve cores for laboratory analysis include mechanical
stabilization; environmentally controlled preservation through chilling, freezing,
and regulated humidity control (freezing is probably the most common and most
controversial method for preserving unconsolidated rocks); storage in heat-sealable
plastic iaminates or plastic bags; use of dips and coatings; sealing in disposable inner
core barrels; and containment in specialized sealed devices, such as anaerobic jars.
Totally unconsolidated rock is best handled frozen because mechanical alteration is
likely during handling and preparation before analysis. The full effect of freezing
on a core’s petrophysical properties is unknown; however, plug preparation of
unfrozen unconsolidated rock is wrought with many difficulties (e.g., plunge
cutting).
Unconsolidated frozen core should be packed with a surface ice cake to reduce fluid
evaporative losses by sublimation. Consolidated rocks should never be frozen
because freezing may cause irreversible structural damage to the core. The
fundamental objective of core analysis is to obtain data representative of in-situ
reservoir rock properties. Coring, handlling, and preservation should be conducted
in a manner that prevents both loss of interstitial fluids and contamination with
foreign fluids.
To obtain reliable core analysis, speed is essential in removing, laying out, labeling,
and preserving the core. Sampling of core material at the wellsite should be limited
to plugging for invasion or nettability studies. Core should never be washed and
must be protected from temperature extremes, moisture, and dehydration. A
multidisciplinary team must be assembled to ensure representative core analysis
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 Coring And Core Analysis
results. This team should include drilling engineers, resewoir engineers,
geoscientists, and other individuals involved with laboratory testing, Suitable
acquisition and testing protocol must be adopted to obtain meaningful data. A
properly designed program will benefit not only the near-term user but also future
users of the core material.

2.4.1 Wellsite Sampling

2.4.1.1 Reasons for Sampling

In general, sampling of core recovered at the wellsite is not recommended if the core
has to be removed from the liner or exposed to wellsite ambient conditions during
the sampling process. If sampling of the core at wellsite is required, the exposure
time of the core should be minimised.

There are a number of reasons why wellsite samples may be required.

These include:
. samples for lithological description and/or mineralogical analysis,

. water saturation (Dean-Stark) and water resistivity analysis sample,

. fast-track measurement of basic rock properties,

. geomechanics testing,

. wettability studies,

. oil fluorescence observations,

. in situ stress estimation from strain recovery measurements,

. coal or shale gas methane desorption analysis.

However, reasons for sampling must be critically reviewed—in many cases it

may be better to wait until the core arrives back in the laboratory if core atmospheric
exposure causes issues or the sampling process complicates the logistics and
economics of core handling at wellsite. Unless there are very strong technical and
business cases, analysis is better performed in the laboratory rather than at wellsite.

2.4.1.2 Sampling Methods

All samples or core sections removed from the core must be recorded and
locations identified using rigid spacers. Hammering to obtain samples should
be avoided. Ideally, samples should be taken at natural breaks in the core or
using a trimsaw and sealed/preserved pending analysis. In some cases, plug
samples may be required to be taken and the core analysis contractor should
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 Coring And Core Analysis
have appropriate plugging equipment (and plugging fluids) on site. It is
always better to take plugs at the end of liner cut sections rather than plugging
through the liner.
In this case, the plug holes must be filled with nonadsorbent filler and the holes in
the liners sealed. The liners are then topped up with drilling mud, oil or kerosene
and then sealed for shipment.
If transportation logistics dictate that plug samples for Dean-Stark water saturation
analysis and extraction of formation water from core for water resistivity (Rw) and
compositional analysis cannot be taken after core receipt in the lab, then plugs can
be taken and sealed/preserved quickly at wellsite and then shipped back to the lab
for analysis. Wellsite plugging is also recommended if the core is to be subsequently
stabilised with foam as the exothermic reaction causing the foam to set can
evaporate water in the pore space, or if the core is to be frozen (to prevent
atmospheric water condensation).

Fig.2.2
Although sample site and lithology selection can be aided by wellsite core gamma
logging, essentially wellsite plugs are taken ‘blind’. Plugging 100 or 1.500 diameter
samples from the center and potentially least invaded part of the core, at the ends of
each liner section, is a better option as there is no need to subsequently seal plug
holes drilled through the liner. The plugs are cut parallel to the liner long axis, away
from the halo of mud invasion, as indicated in Fig.2.2
These plugs should not be used for permeability measurements as their bedding
plane orientation will not be known at this stage. Plugs cut through the liner sections,
perpendicular to the core long axis, may not be parallel to bedding if bedding is
oblique to the core axes. In this case, permeability measurements could prove
misleading. For un stabilised core caught in clam shell liners, the liners can be
opened to expose the plugging sites.

2.4.2Core Transportation
As for core handling on the rig, the liner sections must be supported during
handling and lifting. Cutting liners into shorter lengths generally makes for
easier handling and avoids flexing damage.
The core liner sections should be shipped in specialist core containers which are
designed to avoid transfer of shock loads to the core sections either using spring-

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 Coring And Core Analysis
loaded devices or completely cushioning the liner sections using pre-shaped layers
of hard or soft foam (Figs.2.3 and 2.4).
Shock tabs (Fig.2.5) or accelerometer monitoring systems should be placed on or
within containers before transportation to indicate whether the container has been
subject to shock load (e.g. dropped) and potentially damaged during transport.
This also sends a warning message to all people involved in core handling that
potential damage may have occurred before the core begins to be processed by the
laboratory. Garcia et al. (2010) carried out an extensive study to under
stand the shock distribution inside core containers during transportation.
They found that the hardness and shape of foam inserts for storing liner sections
was critical to preventing damage, and that more fragile samples should be stacked
in the container starting from top to bottom and stowing them equally spaced within
the container. Any empty space should be filled with foam pillows.

FIGURE 2.3 Core Care liner Transportation Service. Image courtesy of Baker
Hughes.

FIGURE 2.4 Core liners in transport container awaiting shipment. Used with
permission from NOV.

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 Coring And Core Analysis

FIGURE 2.5 Shock tag mounted on transport container. Image courtesy of Baker
Hughes.

2.4.3Coring Report
One of the difficulties faced by many geoscientists and engineers who are reviewing
or auditing legacy core analysis data is that the reports rarely include details of the
coring operation. It therefore becomes a forensic exercise to trace the provenance
of the core and how it was cored, handled and transported. As core damage due to
inappropriate handing or chemical alteration by drilling mud can have a significant
impact on the core analysis results, it is essential that this information is readily
available with the routine and/or SCAL report (for example, as an Appendix) and
not ‘buried’ in an end of well report or daily drilling report. This information will
be invaluable in qualifying the interpretation of the core analysis data. The
information that needs to be recorded includes:
1. well identification and location,
2. type of well (vertical, deviated, sidetrack, etc.),
3. well inclination,
4. core orientation details (if run),
5. drilling mud details (type, water content if OBM, mud weight, YP and PV, pH)
6. core and bit type,
7. details of coring assembly including liners,
8. coring parameters (drilling and circulation rates, WOB, runs, etc.),
9. cored intervals and total core recovered,
10. core diameter,
11. core tripping out of the hole rates (per 90 ft. stand),
12. core liner cutting equipment and methodology,
13. core stabilisation method,
14. wellsite sampling methods and sample details,
15. well logs and mud logs (if available) over cored interval,
16. wellsite core gamma-ray log (if run),
17. difficulties encountered: jamming, lost recovery, mud losses to formation, etc.,
18. core transportation log,
19. any other relevant information

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 Coring And Core Analysis

2.5 Laboratory Tracking

When the samples are received by the laboratory they are prepared for
radiochemical analyses. This includes the fractionation of the sample into aliquots.
The tracking and Chain-of-Custody documentation within the laboratory become
somewhat complicated due to the fact that several portions of the original sample
may exist in the laboratory at a given time. The use of a computer based Laboratory
Information System (LIMS) can greatly assist in tracking samples and fractions
through the analytical system.
The minimal laboratory tracking process consists of the following:
. transfer of custody on receipt of the samples (original Chain-of-Custody form is
retained by the laboratory and submitted with the data package for the samples)
. documentation of sample storage (location and amount)
. documentation of removal and return of sample aliquots (amount, date and time,
person
removing or returning, and reason for removal)
. transfer of the samples and residues to the receiving authority (usually the site from
which
they were taken)
The procedure for accomplishing the above varies from laboratory to laboratory,
but the exact details of performing the operations of sample tracking should be
contained in a SOP.

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Chapter 3

Conventional Core Analysis

3.1 Introduction
There is no strict discrimination between routine core analysis (RCA), which is
often referred to as basic or conventional core analysis (CCA), and special core
analysis (SCAL). One lab’s RCA capabilities might reflect another lab’s SCAL
capabilities. Generally, RCA is accepted to be lower cost and faster turnaround than
SCAL. It involves fluid saturation measurements and petrophysical measurements
on dry samples normally at ambient or nominal stress and temperature conditions,
whereas most SCAL measurements are made on plugs which have been conditioned
and tested to reflect reservoir-appropriate saturations and often reservoir conditions.

Data Application
Routine core analysis

Porosity Storage capacity

Permeability Flow capacity

Saturations Define the mobile hydrocarbons (productive zones

and
contacts), type of hydrocarbons

Lithology Rock type and characteristics (fractures, layering etc.)

Table 3.1: Routine core analysis

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3.2POROSITY
3.2.1 POROSITY DEFINITIONS
Porosity is a measure of the space available for storage of fluids in a rock. the total
porosity is the ratio of all pore space to bulk volume. It includes all pores that are
filled with water or hydrocarbon, regardless of their size and degree of connectivity,
and therefore includes clay microporosity (CBW) as well as isolated pores (e.g.
vuggy systems in carbonates). Effective porosity is the ratio of interconnected pore
volume to the bulk volume and has many determinants, Thus only the effective
porosity contains fluids that can be produced from wells. For granular materials
such as sandstone.

3.2.2 Porosity Measurements on core plugs

From the definition of porosity, it is evident that the porosity of a sample of

porous material can be determined by measuring any two of the three quantities:
Bulk volume, pore volume or grain volume. The porosity of reservoir rock may
be determined by
-Core analysis
-Well logging technique
-Well testing
a.Pore Volume Measurement
All the methods measuring pore volume yield effective porosity. The methods
are based on either the extraction of a fluid from the rock or the introduction of
a fluid into the pore spaces of the rock. One of the most used methods is the
helium technique, which employs Boyle’s law. The helium gas in the reference
cell isothermally expands into a sample cell. After expansion, the resultant
equilibrium pressure is measured. The Helium porosimeter apparatus is shown
schematically in Fig.

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 Coring And Core Analysis

PRESSURE GAUGE
P2 P1
CHAMBERS
Sample Reference
Chamber Volume
PRESSURE
V2 V1 REGULATOR

Valve Valve

To gas pressure source

Schematic diagram of helium porosimeter apparatus.

Helium has advantages over other gases because:

-its small molecules rapidly penetrated small pores,

- it is inert and does not adsorb on rock surfaces as air may do.

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 Coring And Core Analysis
The schematic diagram of the helium porosimeter shown a reference volume V1,
at pressure p1, and a matrix cup with unknown volume V2, and initial pressure
p2. The reference cell and the matrix cup are connected by tubing; the system
can be brought to equilibrium when the core holder valve is opened, allowing
determination of the unknown volume V2 by measuring the resultant equilibrium
pressure p. (Pressure p1 and p2 are controlled by the operator; usually p1 = 100
and p2 = 0 psig). When the core holder valve is opened, the volume of the system
will be the equilibrium volume V, which is the sum of the volumes V 1 and V2.
Boyle’s law is applicable if the expansion takes place isothermally. Thus the
pressure-volume products are equal before and after opening the core holder
valve:

P1V1 = P1V2

V2=V1+(V SAMPLE – V BULK +V PORE)

Another method of pore volume determination is to saturate the sample with

a liquid of known density, and noting the weight increase (gravimetric
method).

b.Bulk Volume Measurement

the bulk volume may be computed from measurements of the dimensions of a
uniformly shaped sample
Usualy the core sample take the shape of the cylinder ,we can calculate the volume
of it by this formula .

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3.3 PERMEABILITY
3.3.1 PREMEABILITY DEFINITIONS
Permeability is a property of the porous medium and it is a measure of capacity of
the medium to transmit fluids .
There are three principle definitions of permeability in core analysis:
1. Absolute permeability: The permeability to a single phase where only that phase
fills the pore space (e.g. air, oil or brine).
2. Effective permeability: The permeability to one phase when two or three phases
are present in the pore space. For example, oil permeability (Ko) and water
permeability (Kw) at some specific water saturation.
3. Relative permeability is the ratio of effective permeability of a particular fluid at
a particular saturation to absolute permeability of that fluid at total saturation. If a
single fluid is present in a rock, its relative permeability is 1.0.
3.3.2 Darcy’s Law
In 1856, Henry Darcy, a hydraulic engineer working in Dijon, France, published the
first definition of the fluid conductivity of a porous medium. His experiments were
simple, yet elegant, and, with some modification, are essentially the same as used in
every core analysis laboratory today. All his experiments were carried out by
flowing water through tubes filled with sorted sand—from which he derived his final
equation describing fluid flow. By considering a cylinder of porous media (Fig.
5.23), Darcy’s equation for horizontal, rectilinear, steady-state and incompressible
flow can be defined as:

Absolute Permeability Measurement of Water

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3.3.3PERMEABILITY MESUREMENTS

Schematic diagram of permeameter.

Hassler type core holder

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Description:
The objective of this experiment is to measure the absolute permeability of water
using a method based on the Darcy theory.
Procedure:
1. load the core plug in the core holder
2. apply confining pressure
3. apply vacuum using vacuum pump for 24 hr to remove the air from the sample
4. core sample should be saturated with deaired brine for 1 hr at least.
5. we use backpressure regulator at the exit of the flow to adjust the pressure
difference.
6. Measure three flow rates under three driving pressures.
7. when the flow rate and pressure drop are stable, liquid permeability(K) can be
determined

Slope = k / u
u is viscosity and calculated in the lab .

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3.4Fluid Saturation
3.4.1 Fluid Saturation definitions
Fluid saturation is how much each fluid is present in pore spaces of a rock. This will
affect the ability of each fluid flow through porous media. This is one of critical
values for reservoir engineering since many engineering calculations need fluid
saturation values

Fluid saturation is expressed in terms of volume of fluid divided by total pore

space.

Gas saturation (Sg) = Vg ÷ Vp

Oil saturation (So) = Vo ÷ Vp
Water saturation (Sw) = Vw ÷ Vp
Where;
Vg = volume of gas in pore space
Vo = volume of oil in pore space
Vw = volume of water in pore space

Total saturation of fluid is equation to 1, therefore this can mathematically be

expressed like this.

Sg + So + Sw = 1

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3.4.2 FLUID SATURATION MEASUREMENTS
Two methods to determine fluid saturation are 1) core sample and 2) wireline
logging. Core sample is a direct method because it is a physical measurement.
However, wireline logging is an indirect method because the values are derived from
mathematical models.
The two principal methods used to determine fluid saturations on core by extraction
of the fluids are:
-The retort method (also referred to as the summation of fluids porosity method).
-The Dean–Stark extraction method.
Historically, the retort was the more common method. It provides direct
measurements of water, oil and gas saturation, is rapid and is cheaper than Dean–
Stark.
The principal disadvantages are that gas and liquid saturations are measured on
different samples, possible oil volume errors introduced by hydrocarbon cracking,
the release of clay and hydrated water at higher temperatures and its poorer accuracy
(compared to Dean–Stark).
For these reasons, retort fluid saturations are not now considered to be a best
practice method and the method is not recommended for core fluid saturation
determination on conventional reser
Dean-Stark Distillation-Extraction
Principles of Analysis
This procedure is appropriate for plug samples and for rotary sidewall cores. The
distillation extraction (Dean-Stark) method of determining fluid saturation depends
upon the distillation of the water fraction, and the solvent extraction of the oil
fraction from the sample. The sample is weighed and the water fraction is vaporized
by boiling solvent. The water is condensed and collected in a calibrated receiver.
Vaporized solvent also condenses, soaks the sample, and extracts the oil. The sample
is oven dried and weighed. The oil content is determined by gravimetric difference.
Soxhlet Extraction
A Soxhlet extraction apparatus is the most common method for cleaning sample, and
is routinely used by most laboratories. As shown, toluene is brought to a slow boil
in a Pyrex flask; its vapors move upwards and the core becomes engulfed in the

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toluene vapors (at approximately 1100C). Eventual water within the core sample in
the thimble will be vaporized. The toluene and water vapors enter the inner chamber
of the condenser, the cold water circulating about the inner chamber condenses both
vapors to immiscible liquids. Recondensed toluene together with liquid water falls
from the base of the condenser onto the core sample in the thimble; the toluene soaks
the core sample and dissolves any oil with which it come into contact. When the
liquid level within the Soxhlet tube reaches the top of the siphon tube arrangement,
the liquids within the Soxhlet tube are automatically emptied by a siphon effect and
flow into the boiling flask. The toluene is then ready to start another cycle.
A complete extraction may take several days to several weeks in the case of low API
gravity crude or presence of heavy residual hydrocarbon deposit within the core.
Low permeability rock may also require a long extraction time.

Schematic diagram of Soxhlet (a) and Dean-Stark (b) apparatus.

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Vacuum oven
A vacuum drying oven is most often used for delicate drying processes, such as
drying tiny parts or removing flammable solvents. The low pressure environment
also minimizes oxidation during drying

Sw = Vformation water / Vpore

-The sample is cleaned in soxhlet extraction device using methanol to remove the
salt water
-Then the sample is dried in vacuum oven at 80 to 100 c
and weight the sample (W2)

the oil saturation is determined indirectly from the mass of the sample before and
after distillation,and the measured water volume.
Woil =(W1 - W2 – W formation water )
Voil = Woil / p oil
So = Voil / Vpore
Hypothetically, we can calculate gas saturation
S gas= 1- ( S oil+S water)

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Chapter 4
Special Core Analysis

4.1 Capillary Pressure

4.1.1 Introduction
The ability of a formation to retain water is an important reservoir property and
is a function of capillary sizes (i.e. the conduit sizes created between the matrix of
the rock), rock texture, wettability, fluid properties (interfacial tension, IFT), density
differences between fluid pairs and formation saturation history. Capillary pressures
in a reservoir determine the saturation distribution,and hence the total in-situ
volumes of fluids (oil/water/gas). Accurate knowledge of the capillary pressure
distribution is one of the primary factors in the reliable estimation of hydrocarbon
reserves.
In carbonate reservoirs, there is often a high degree of large- and small scale
heterogeneity. This makes accurate appraisal of the capillary pressure distribution,
in carbonate reservoirs, highly problematical. However, since heterogeneity has a
strong impact on capillary pressure behaviour, reliable laboratory measurements of
the small-scale heterogeneity (at the cm scale), as well as realistic up-scale
modelling are an essential component to better understanding reservoir fluid
distribution.
The key features of drainage and imbibition capillary pressure cycles are shown in
Fig. 4.1 for a water-wet rock.

FIGURE 4.1 Primary drainage and imbibition capillary pressure curves.

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Conventionally, water is referenced as the wetting phase since, for most reservoirs,
the depositional environment is believed to have been water-filled.
Thus, water-phase desaturation from 100% saturation to Swirr is referred to as
the primary drainage cycle, and water phase increasing from Swirr to Srn-w is
referred to as the primary imbibition cycle, no matter the rock wettability. Strictly
however, in an oil-wet rock, water phase decreasing is the imbibition cycle, so the
definitions can be confusing. This is a throwback to the early days in the industry
when all reservoir rocks were assumed to be water wet or made to be water wet by
cleaning before carrying out the tests.

4.1.2 Laboratory Measurements of Capillary Pressure:

Capillary pressure laboratory measurements are part of SCAL and can be measured
using the Porous Plate (PP) technique, Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure
(MICP), and centrifuge.

4.1.2.1 Porous Plate Technique (PP)

We use a porous plate (which is a low permeability water-wet ceramic disc, this
disc will retain the oil in the core and will let the water pass through the outlet)
to distinguish between the two phases (Figure 4.2). The inlet pressure will be
the oil pressure and the outlet pressure will be the water pressure. Capillary
pressure is the difference between the non-wetting phase and the wetting phase
pressures. In this system, we have a water-wet core sample; thus, the capillary
pressure will be the oil pressure minus the water pressure. We can start with a low
capillary pressure and wait until we reach equilibrium, which is achieved when no
further water is produced, and then we can calculate the water saturation by weighing
or using volumetric balance. We increase the capillary pressure in steps until we
reach the irreducible water saturation. Measurements using the porous plate
technique are very time-consuming, depending on the capillary pressure selected and
the permeability of the core. It may take few hours to several weeks for one data
point. However, the porous plate is the most accurate method among other capillary
pressure measurement techniques, which can also use reservoir fluids.

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Figure 4.2: Schematic showing the porous plate experimental set-up to measure
capillary pressure. The back pressure regulator is placed at the outlet to control the
outlet pressure.

4.1.2.2 Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure (MICP)

In this technique, the core sample is placed inside a pressure chamber and mercury
is injected through a pump to the core sample (Figure 4.3). Mercury acts as the non-
wetting phase while air acts as the wetting phase. We inject mercury to the core and
calculate the volume of mercury injected as well as the pressure. The volume of
mercury injected can be converted to a non-wetting phase saturation. The wetting
phase saturation will be one minus the non-wetting phase saturation. The number of
data points will depend on how frequently the measurements are taken. MICP is the
fastest method to measure capillary pressure experimentally; however, it does not
use reservoir fluids and will require an additional step of conversion that will be
addressed in the following section. Moreover, introducing mercury to a core sample
damages the core, making it unusable for further analysis. Finally, MICP is not fully
representative of the reservoir condition, as mercury can saturate 100% of the core
sample without obtaining a representative irreducible saturation as in reservoirs.
MICP data are usually used to characterize the rock samples by obtaining the throat
radius distribution, which will be covered in the following section.

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Figure 4.3: Schematic showing the experimental set-up and procedure of the
mercury inject capillary pressure (MICP).

4.1.2.3 Centrifuge
In this method, we can measure the drainage and waterflood capillary pressure
curves as shown in Figure 4.4. For drainage, we place a core sample filled with the
wetting phase in a cell surrounded by the non-wetting phase (Figure 4.4a). We
centrifuge the cell at several speeds starting from low to high. At each speed, we
measure the amount of fluid displaced during the process until we see no further
production at high speeds. At each point, we convert the rotation speed to pressure
using specific equations. For water flood capillary pressure curve, the cell will be
reversed compared to drainage as the oil phase is usually less dense than water
(Figure 4.4b). The centrifuge method is considered as an intermediate method
between the porous plate and the MICP. Moreover, in the centrifuge method, we can
use reservoir fluids, and the time required to generate a capillary pressure curve lies
between that for the MICP and porous plate method. However, the accuracy of the
method is not as high as in the porous plate method.

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Figure 4.4: Schematic of the centrifuge laboratory method where (a) is the
position to measure water displacing oil capillary pressure while (b) is the
position to measure the oil displacing water capillary pressure.

4.1.3 Experiments
A. Capillary Pressure Measurement using Porous Plate Method (Exp. 4)
Description:
The porous plate method is the most accurate measurement of capillary pressure in
homogeneous and heterogeneous cores. Several plugs can be measured at a time.
The limitation is that the capillary discontinuity may distort the results.

Fig. 4.5 shows the capillary pressure apparatus used in our laboratory.
Procedure:
1. Put the saturated core onto the porous plate in the cell.

2. Adjust the pressure regulator and give the cell the pressure difference
according to a measuring plan.

3. After 3 days, stop the pressure supply and take off the cores from the cell.

4. Weigh the core and calculate the water saturation corresponding to the
capillary pressure.

5. Repeat 1-4 each 3 days until no appreciable water is produced.

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Fig.4.5: The capillary pressure apparatus.

Calculations and report:
1. Calculate and fill the data form.
2. Plot capillary pressure curve (Sw-Pc) and pore size histogram (distribution).

Where
Pc(i) = capillary pressure of i ͭʰ measurement, cm of water, reading of U-
manometer
Wwet = core weight of i ʰͭ measurement, g
Sw(i) = (Wwet(i)-Wdry)/Wwater, i ͭʰ water saturation of Pc(i)
Wwater = Wsat-Wdry, g
r(i) = 2_g-w/Pc(i), radius corresponding to Pc(i)
σg-w = 70.0 dynes/cm, interfacial tension of gas-water
Pc(i) = 981.Hwater, dynes/cm2
σW(i)/Wwater = (Wwet(i-1)-Wwet(i))/Wwater, fraction of the capillaries of r(i) in
total porevolume.

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4.2 Wettability
4.2.1 Introduction
Wettability is a fundamental property of the interactions between the reservoir rock
components and the pore filling fluids. Wettability is a controlling factor on the
location of the reservoir fluids within its porous structure and upon the flow and
subsequent distribution of fluids during the dynamic process of production. It is
therefore an essential factor during laboratory experimentation, since it will have a
controlling influence on all laboratory tests attempting to imitate reservoir
characteristics and processes, especially capillary pressure and relative permeability.
It is necessary to attempt to ensure that core material has reservoir representative
wettability during laboratory analyses; else the resultant data could be meaningless.
The authors recommend reading the 6 part literature survey by Anderson (Anderson
1986a,b,c, 1987a,b,c) as a good introduction to the basics of wettability and its effect
of core analysis. There are a number of methods for quantitatively determining the
wettability of the rock/fluid system. The most common methods are:
. contact angle;
. Amott method (often called Amott–Harvey);
. U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM).
4.2.2 Classification of Wettability
In an oil-water reservoir, wettability can be divided into four categories:
1) Water-wet, where the rock surface prefers to be coated with water and thus the
rock has a high affinity towards water, allowing water to spread on the surface
(Figure 4.6a). This means that the contact angle will be less than 90° as the water
spreads on the surface.
2) Intermediate-wet or neutral-wet, where the surface has an almost equal tendency
to be coated by one of the fluids (either oil or water) (Figure 4.6b). This means that
the contact angle is around 90° as the surface has equal affinity towards both oil and
water.
3) Oil-wet, where the rock prefers to be in contact with oil, opposite to the water-
wet case (Figure 4.6c). In this case, the contact angle will be greater than 90° as the
surface prefers to be in contact with oil over water.
4) Mixed-wet, where parts of the rock prefer to be in contact with oil and the other
parts prefer to be in contact with water (Figure 4.6d). Mixed wettability can also be
referred to as fractional wettability and the contact angle will vary depending on the
region of the rock.

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Figure 4.6: Schematic showing contact angle measurement on a solid surface for
(a) water-wet, (b) intermediate-wet, (c) oil-wet, and (d) mixed-wet cases.

Clean reservoir rocks or minerals (quartz [sandstone] or calcite [carbonate]) tend to

be water-wet and coated with water layers. Once these minerals stay in contact with
crude oil for a sufficient time due to oil migration, the heavy polar components of
the crude oil (resins and asphaltene) precipitate on the surface,forming an oil layer
that makes the rock more oil-wet. Similarly, when our skin is coated with oil or paint,
it becomes difficult to be displaced by water as the surface becomes oil-wet. In this
case, the only way to remove the oil from the skin is to apply soap which will lower
the surface tension between the oil and the skin and will become miscible with the
oil which will then make it easy for the water to displace the oil. This application of
using soap is similar to the injection of surfactant (like soap) in the reservoir as part
of the Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) process to extract oil in the reservoir by
lowering the surface/interfacial tension.
Table 7.2 summarizes the expected contact angle values depending on the
wettability state.

4.2.3 Measuring Wettability

Wettability can be measured directly or indirectly. Direct measurements include
contact angle and Amott index.

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4.2.3.1 Contact Angle
The apparatus to measure the contact angle consists of a high resolution camera
attached to a computer (Figure 4.7). The camera is set to be in a linear position to
the sample which is to be measured. Before taking the measurements, the camera
needs to be calibrated for focus and set in a central position using a calibration tool.
Once calibrated, a fluid droplet is placed on the intended surface. To process the
data, a software used for this experiment will identify the contact angle based on the
interface of the droplet. If the interface is not detected by the software, then a manual
identification of the interface is required.
Table 7.3 shows expected contact angle values for specific fluid pairs on a clean
glass surface.

Figure 4.7: Schematic of the experimental apparatus to measure the contact angle.
In this system, the contact angle of a water droplet surrounded by air is measured.

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4.2.4 Experiments
1). Contact Angle Measurement using Imaging Method (Experiment 5) Contact
angle measurement is a classical method widely used in chemical engineering to
derive the wettability in three-phase system (gas/liquid/solid, or liquid/liquid/solid).
The method was introduced into petroleum engineering more than 50 years ago. This
method is used to determine reservoir formation wettability. The imaging method is
easily carried out in the laboratory and gives you a clear understanding of wetting
mechanism in oil-water- rock system.
Generally, sandstone formation and carbonate formation are represented by small
polished quartz and carbonate blocks, respectively. A small drop (2-3 mm3) of water
is laid on the smooth surface of rock which has previously been submerged in an oil-
filled transparent cell. Then, the enlarged image of the water drop is obtained by
photographing.The dimensions of the drop image are used to calculate the contact
angle in the system.

Fig. 4.10: Interfacial tensions for water-oil-solid system at equilibrium.

Definition:
Fig. 4.10 shows two liquids, oil and water, in contact with a solid. In petroleum
engineering the contact angle, θ, is measured through the denser liquid phase
(water), and ranges from 0 to 180. In a three phase system, where the three
interfacial forces are in thermodynamic equilibrium:

and then,

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Because the measurements of solid/liquid interfacial tensions (αso, αsw) are
impractical in the core laboratory, Eq. (8.5) is useless to calculate contact angle θ.
Generally, the image method is used to obtain the picture of the contact angle or
pendant drop. Fig. 4.11 is the set-up of an image system applied in our laboratory.

Fig. 4.11: The image system set-up.

Procedure:
1. Fill the cell with oil phase and then put a polished quartz or carbonate cube
into the cell
2. Carefully inject several water drops onto the cube surface with a medical
syringe.
3. Adjust the imaging system until a drop is in focus (a clear outline of the image
appears on the screen).
4. Take image picture and measure the dimension of the drop image.
Calculations and report:

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Equation:

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4.3 Relative Permeability

4.3.1 Introduction
When dealing with more than one fluid in a porous medium, the concept of single-
phase permeability is no longer valid to characterize the flow in that system and thus
an extension of Darcy’s law is required. Relative permeability is defined as the
relative ease for one fluid to flow in the presence of another fluid. A hydrocarbon
reservoir, as discussed before, can have oil and water, gas and water, and gas, oil,
and water present at its pore spaces. Therefore, relative permeability is considered
to be a transport property that helps in estimating oil production when another fluid
is injected. Moreover, relative permeability is a function of pore geometry, saturation
history, wettability, and fluid saturation , which is mainly used to study the
effectiveness of waterflooding as a displacement process in reservoirs, for example.
In addition, laboratory measurements of relative permeability are part of SCAL.
When discussing relative permeability, three parameters need to be discussed:
. Relative permeability (kr), which is a measure of the relative ease of one fluid to
flow in the presence of another immiscible fluid.
. Absolute permeability (k), which is a measure of the ease of one fluid to flow in a
porous medium.
. Effective permeability, which is the fluid conductance capacity of a porous
medium to a particular fluid when more than one fluid is present in the porous
medium. kw, ko, kg are the effective permeability of water, oil, and gas,
respectively.
In terms of equations:
The relative permeability of water (krw) is defined as the effective permeability of
water (kw) divided by the absolute permeability (k):
krw =kw/k
Similarly, the relative permeability of oil (kro) is defined as the effective
permeability of oil (ko) divided by the absolute permeability:
kro =ko/k
To estimate the flow rate when more than one fluid is present in the porous
medium, we need to extend Darcy's law from single-phase flow to multiple phases
by incorporating the 2 previous equations to replace the single-phase permeability
for linear flow as follows:
q =kAΔP/μL
where q is the flow rate [m3/s], k is the absolute permeability [m2], A is the cross
sectional area [m2], ΔP is the difference between the inlet pressure and the outlet
pressure [Pa], μ is the viscosity [Pa.s], and L is the core length [m].

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Then, Darcy's law for two-phase flow can be written as:
qw =kwAΔPw/μwL =kkrwAΔPw/μwL
qo =koA ΔPo/μoL =kkroAΔPo/μoL

where kr is the relative permeability, and subscripts w and o denote water and oil,
respectively. Note that the same concept is applicable for radial flow.
4.3.2 Measurement of Relative Permeability
Relative permeability measurement is part of SCAL measurements and can be
generally measured using the steady-state and unsteady-state laboratory methods.
4.3.2.1 Steady State (SS)
In general,for the steady-state approach, both fluids are injected simultaneously;
the flow rate and pressure drop are measured to find the relative permeability (Figure
4.12). Then, we can calculate relative and effective permeability. After that, the
injection rates are changed to obtain a new set of relative permeability points. The
time required between each set of injection rates is between a few hours to days
depending on the absolute permeability in order to reach a steady state regime and
thus be able to obtain a new set of relative permeability points.
Briefly, the first step would be to saturate the core 100% with water to measure
its absolute permeability. Then, oil is injected to drain the water out of the rock
to reach the irreducible water saturation. After that, both oil and water are injected
simultaneously while water is injected at a low flow rate and oil is injected at a higher
rate. The system needs to reach a steady-state regime before any reading can be
taken.
The water saturation is usually measured using volumetric measurement, weighing,
electrical resistivity, or X-ray imaging to monitor the saturation inside the core. After
the system reaches the steady state and the data are recorded, the water flow rate is
slightly increased while the oil flow rate is decreased. The incremental change in
flow rate depends on the time available to perform the experiment. More data points
will require lower incremental changes in flow rate. The incremental increase in
water flow rate will continue until only water is flowing in the system and thus the
residual oil saturation is achieved. Steady-state relative permeability is considered
more accurate than the unsteady-state method which is covered in the following
section; however, the steady-state method is more time-consuming.
Several models can be used to express relative permeability curves that are mainly
used to smooth experimental data or represent relative permeability in
geological models. The most commonly used models are the Corey models:

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Figure 4.12: Schematic of a steady-state waterflood relative permeability

experiment. where all the parameters in these equations are given in Table 9.1.

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4.3.2.2 Unsteady State (USS)

In an unsteady-state measurement (also referred to as displacement method), as
shown in 4.13, the rock or the core is saturated with one fluid (water or oil), and then
the other fluid is injected to displace the first fluid. During the unsteady-state
displacement, the time is recorded for flow rates of both fluids.
Applying this method is cheap and relatively quick; however, this method requires
analytical interpretation of the results. That is because relative permeability is not
measured directly, which makes the results less reliable than the steady state method.

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Figure 4.13: Schematic of an unsteady-state waterflood coreflood relative

permeability experiment.

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4.3.3 Oil-Water Relative Permeability Measurements, Unsteady state Method

Description:
The measurements of absolute and relative permeabilities for oil and water are one
of the most important tasks in core laboratories. Generally, the tested sample plug is
saturated initially with a wetting phase using vacuum pump and the absolute
permeability for the wetting phase is measured. Then the relative permeability
measurements are conducted under two-phase flow, steady or unsteady method.
Based on the data collected in the two measurements the absolute and relative
permeabilities are calculated.

The unsteady state method is also called Welge’s method because the calculation is
based on the theory of the improved Buckley and Leverett’s mechanism of fluid
displacement in porous media. Our experiments will be carried out on Berea
sandstone plugs with oil and water under unsteady state method, a constant pressure
driving method.
Fig. 4.14 shows the set-up for relative permeability measurements used in our
laboratory.

Fig. 4.14: Relative permeability apparatus.

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Procedure:
1. Weigh a dry Berea plug, Wdry, measure its diameter, D, and length, L, with
calliper. Saturate the core with 36 g/l NaCl brine and weigh, Wsat.
2. Mount the core in core holder.

3. Displace water by oil under a constant driving pressure, 1 bar.

4. Collect data: Vw(o), water production from start of oil-driving to the first oil
drop produced. Vw(i) and Vo(i) are water and oil productions during the time
period.ΔT(i) = 60 seconds.

5. Calculate the oil and relative permeabilities from i = 2.

6. Weigh the core and calculate the residual water saturation, Swr(end) and
compare it with the Swr(prd), calculated from production data.
Basic Equations:
1

(fw)2=water fraction flowing at outlet face

Wi=cumulative injection in pore volumes
So,avr=average oil saturation in core
Sw=water saturation at outlet face

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So=oil saturation at outlet face
I2-phase=injectivity of water with two phases present (both water and oil)
ΔVt=total volume of water + oil produced in each time step
ΔVw=volume of water produced in each time step
Kro=oil relative permeability at So
Krw=water relative permeability at Sw
ΔT=time step
Calculations and report:
Calculate absolute (water) injectivity Iabs =Vw/(ΔT.A. ΔP)
Liquid data:
A = cross-section area of the core.
σw = 1.020 g/cmᵌ, ϻw = 1.04 cp
σo = 0.785 g/cmᵌ, ϻo = 1.36 cp

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