Transistor as a Switch

Transistor switches can be used to switch a low voltage DC device (e.g. LED’s)
ON or OFF by using a transistor in its saturated or cut-off state

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When used as an AC signal amplifier, the transistors Base biasing voltage is

applied in such a way that it always operates within its “active” region, that is
the linear part of the output characteristics curves are used. However, both
the NPN & PNP type bipolar transistors can be made to operate as “ON/OFF”
type solid state switch by biasing the transistors Base terminal differently
operating the transistor as a switch.

Solid state switches are one of the main applications for the use of transistor
to switch a DC output “ON” or “OFF”. Some output devices, such as LED’s only
require a few milliamps at logic level DC voltages and can therefore be driven
directly by the output of a logic gate. However, high power devices such as
motors, solenoids or lamps, often require more power than that supplied by
an ordinary logic gate so transistor switches are used.

If the circuit uses the Bipolar Transistor as a Switch, then the biasing of the
transistor, either NPN or PNP is arranged to operate the transistor at both
sides of the ” I-V ” characteristics curves we have seen previously.

The areas of operation for a transistor switch are known as the Saturation
Region and the Cut-off Region. This means then that we can ignore the
operating Q-point biasing and voltage divider circuitry required for
amplification, and use the transistor as a switch by driving it back and forth
between its “fully-OFF” (cut-off) and “fully-ON” (saturation) regions as shown
below.

Operating Regions

The pink shaded area at the bottom of the curves represents the “Cut-off”
region while the blue area to the left represents the “Saturation” region of the
transistor. Both these transistor regions are defined as:

1. Cut-off Region
Here the operating conditions of the transistor are zero input base current ( IB
), zero output collector current ( IC ) and maximum collector voltage ( VCE )
which results in a large depletion layer and no current flowing through the
device. Therefore the transistor is switched “Fully-OFF”.

Cut-off Characteristics

• The input and Base are grounded ( 0v )

• Base-Emitter voltage VBE < 0.7v
 • Base-Emitter junction is reverse biased
• Base-Collector junction is reverse biased
• Transistor is “fully-OFF” ( Cut-off region )
• No Collector current flows ( IC = 0 )
• VOUT = VCE = VCC = “1”
• Transistor operates as an “open switch”

Then we can define the “cut-off region” or “OFF mode” when using a bipolar
transistor as a switch as being, both junctions reverse biased, VB < 0.7v and
IC = 0. For a PNP transistor, the Emitter potential must be negative with
respect to the Base.

2. Saturation Region
Here the transistor will be biased so that the maximum amount of base
current is applied, resulting in maximum collector current resulting in the
minimum collector emitter voltage drop which results in the depletion layer
being as small as possible and maximum current flowing through the
transistor. Therefore the transistor is switched “Fully-ON”.

Saturation Characteristics

• The input and Base are connected to VCC

• Base-Emitter voltage VBE > 0.7v
• Base-Emitter junction is forward biased
• Base-Collector junction is forward biased
• Transistor is “fully-ON” ( saturation region )
• Max Collector current flows ( IC = Vcc/RL )
• VCE = 0 ( ideal saturation )
• VOUT = VCE = “0”
• Transistor operates as a “closed switch”

Then we can define the “saturation region” or “ON mode” when using a
bipolar transistor as a switch as being, both junctions forward biased,
VB > 0.7v and IC = Maximum. For a PNP transistor, the Emitter potential
must be positive with respect to the Base.

Then the transistor operates as a “single-pole single-throw” (SPST) solid state

switch. With a zero signal applied to the Base of the transistor it turns “OFF”
acting like an open switch and zero collector current flows. With a positive
signal applied to the Base of the transistor it turns “ON” acting like a closed
switch and maximum circuit current flows through the device.

The simplest way to switch moderate to high amounts of power is to use the
transistor with an open-collector output and the transistors Emitter terminal
connected directly to ground. When used in this way, the transistors open
collector output can thus “sink” an externally supplied voltage to ground
thereby controlling any connected load.

An example of an NPN Transistor as a switch being used to operate a relay is

given below. With inductive loads such as relays or solenoids a flywheel diode
is placed across the load to dissipate the back EMF generated by the inductive
load when the transistor switches “OFF” and so protect the transistor from
damage. If the load is of a very high current or voltage nature, such as motors,
heaters etc, then the load current can be controlled via a suitable relay as
shown.

Basic NPN Transistor Switching Circuit

 
The circuit resembles that of the Common Emitter circuit we looked at in the
previous tutorials. The difference this time is that to operate the transistor as a
switch the transistor needs to be turned either fully “OFF” (cut-off) or fully
“ON” (saturated).

An ideal transistor switch would have infinite circuit resistance between the
Collector and Emitter when turned “fully-OFF” resulting in zero current
flowing through it and zero resistance between the Collector and Emitter
when turned “fully-ON”, resulting in maximum current flow.

In practice when the transistor is turned “OFF”, small leakage currents flow
through the transistor and when fully “ON” the device has a low resistance
value causing a small saturation voltage ( VCE ) across it. Even though the
transistor is not a perfect switch, in both the cut-off and saturation regions the
power dissipated by the transistor is at its minimum.

In order for the Base current to flow, the Base input terminal must be made
more positive than the Emitter by increasing it above the 0.7 volts needed for
a silicon device. By varying this Base-Emitter voltage VBE, the Base current is
also altered and which in turn controls the amount of Collector current
flowing through the transistor as previously discussed.

When maximum Collector current flows the transistor is said to be Saturated.

The value of the Base resistor determines how much input voltage is required
and corresponding Base current to switch the transistor fully “ON”.

Transistor as a Switch Example No1

Using the transistor values from the previous tutorials of: β = 200, Ic = 4mA
and Ib = 20uA, find the value of the Base resistor (Rb) required to switch the
load fully “ON” when the input terminal voltage exceeds 2.5v.

The next lowest preferred value is: 82kΩ, this guarantees the transistor
switch is always saturated.

Transistor as a Switch Example No2

Again using the same values, find the minimum Base current required to turn
the transistor “fully-ON” (saturated) for a load that requires 200mA of current
when the input voltage is increased to 5.0V. Also calculate the new value of
Rb.
Transistor Base current:

Transistor Base resistance:

Transistor switches are used for a wide variety of applications such as

interfacing large current or high voltage devices like motors, relays or lamps
to low voltage digital IC’s or logic gates like AND gates or OR gates.

Here, the output from a digital logic gate is only +5v but the device to be
controlled may require a 12 or even 24 volts supply. Or the load such as a DC
Motor may need to have its speed controlled using a series of pulses (Pulse
Width Modulation). transistor switches will allow us to do this faster and more
easily than with conventional mechanical switches.

Digital Logic Transistor Switch

 

The base resistor, Rb is required to limit the output current from the logic
gate.

PNP Transistor Switch

We can also use the PNP Transistors as a switch, the difference this time is that
the load is connected to ground (0v) and the PNP transistor switches the
power to it. To turn the PNP transistor operating as a switch “ON”, the Base
terminal is connected to ground or zero volts (LOW) as shown.

PNP Transistor Switching Circuit

The equations for calculating the Base resistance, Collector current and
voltages are exactly the same as for the previous NPN transistor switch. The
difference this time is that we are switching power with a PNP transistor
(sourcing current) instead of switching ground with an NPN transistor
(sinking current).

Darlington Transistor Switch

Sometimes the DC current gain of the bipolar transistor is too low to directly
switch the load current or voltage, so multiple switching transistors are used.
Here, one small input transistor is used to switch “ON” or “OFF” a much larger
current handling output transistor.

To maximise the signal gain, the two transistors are connected in a

“Complementary Gain Compounding Configuration” or what is more
commonly called a “Darlington Configuration” were the amplification factor
is the product of the two individual transistors.

Darlington Transistors simply contain two individual bipolar NPN or PNP

type transistors connected together so that the current gain of the first
transistor is multiplied with that of the current gain of the second transistor to
produce a device which acts like a single transistor with a very high current
gain for a much smaller Base current.

The overall current gain Beta (β) or hfe value of a Darlington device is the
product of the two individual gains of the transistors and is given as:

So Darlington Transistors with very high β values and high Collector currents
are possible compared to a single transistor switch. For example, if the first
input transistor has a current gain of 100 and the second switching transistor
has a current gain of 50 then the total current gain will be 100 * 50 = 5000.
So for example, if our load current from above is 200mA, then the darlington
base current is only 200mA/5000 = 40uA. A huge reduction from the
previous 1mA for a single transistor.

An example of the two basic types of Darlington transistor configurations are

given below.

Darlington Transistor Configurations

The above NPN Darlington transistor switch configuration shows the

Collectors of the two transistors connected together with the Emitter of the
first transistor connected to the Base terminal of the second transistor
therefore, the Emitter current of the first transistor becomes the Base current
of the second transistor switching it “ON”.

The first or “input” transistor receives the input signal to its Base. This
transistor amplifies it in the usual way and uses it to drive the second larger
“output” transistors. The second transistor amplifies the signal again resulting
in a very high current gain. One of the main characteristics of Darlington
Transistors is their high current gains compared to single bipolar transistors.

As well as its high increased current and voltage switching capabilities,

another advantage of a “Darlington Transistor Switch” is in its high switching
speeds making them ideal for use in inverter circuits, lighting circuits and DC
motor or stepper motor control applications.

One difference to consider when using Darlington transistors over the

conventional single bipolar types when using the transistor as a switch is that
the Base-Emitter input voltage ( VBE ) needs to be higher at approx 1.4v for
silicon devices, due to the series connection of the two PN junctions.

Transistor as a Switch Summary

Then to summarise when using a Transistor as a Switch the following
conditions apply:

Transistor switches can be used to switch and control lamps, relays or

even motors.
When using the bipolar transistor as a switch they must be either
“fully-OFF” or “fully-ON”.
Transistors that are fully “ON” are said to be in their Saturation
region.
Transistors that are fully “OFF” are said to be in their Cut-off region.
When using the transistor as a switch, a small Base current controls a
much larger Collector load current.
When using transistors to switch inductive loads such as relays and
solenoids, a “Flywheel Diode” is used.
 When large currents or voltages need to be controlled, Darlington
Transistors can be used.

In the next tutorial about Transistors, we will look at the operation of the
junction field effect transistor known commonly as an JFET. We will also plot
the output characteristics curves commonly associated with JFET amplifier
circuits as a function of Source voltage to Gate voltage.

Read more Tutorials inTransistors

1. Bipolar Transistor
2. NPN Transistor
3. PNP Transistor
4. Transistor as a Switch
5. Junction Field Effect Transistor
6. The MOSFET
7. MOSFET as a Switch
8. Transistor Tutorial Summary
9. Darlington Transistors
10. FET Current Source
11. Open Collector Outputs

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Agwu

Good one

Please you should help me with the PDF

Posted on September 13th 2022 | 10:46 am

Reply
Tusiime Godwin

Good work

Posted on July 19th 2022 | 6:14 am

Reply
Eztron

high quality tutorial. Looking for components to build Lithium charge

controller; switch off at adjustable voltage 3.7 to 4, dvm included.

Posted on May 11th 2022 | 2:10 pm

Reply
Alaa naeem

Thanks

Posted on April 17th 2022 | 3:49 pm

Reply
Usman Abdulkadir Abdullateef

Very interested, I really appreciate it

Posted on September 25th 2021 | 8:56 pm

Reply
Martin

Want to learn more about transistor

Posted on July 27th 2021 | 9:54 am

Reply
Sylvester Hassan

I find it very interesting

Posted on July 26th 2021 | 6:19 pm

Reply
someone

Plagiarized. Copied word to word from this website and document. Shame on
you for not giving credit to the original authors.

https://www.google.com/url?
q=https://www.pitt.edu/~qiw4/Academic/ME2082/Transistor%2520Basics.pdf&sa=U&ved=2ahUKEwif8sOUu6jxAhWV7XMBHRnpCS0QFjAAegQICRAB&u

Posted on June 21st 2021 | 10:15 am

Reply
Wayne Storr

Actually Mr Anonymous, if you bother to look closer you will find that the
University of Pittsburgh have copied and plagiarised our website content.
Even the links point back to this website.

We will contact them about this issue and feel sorry for the students paying
money to be taught by people who have no knowledge of their subjects.

Posted on June 21st 2021 | 10:51 am

Reply
Gayatri shankar sawake

Super

Posted on June 02nd 2021 | 6:05 am

Reply
Brijesh Kumar

Very well explained.

Thanks

Posted on April 23rd 2021 | 9:41 am

Reply
Angars4real

Well explanatory

Posted on March 08th 2021 | 6:32 am

Reply
Abdurrashid Khalid

Great

Posted on March 07th 2021 | 1:25 pm

Reply
Venkatesh Kathroth

Super

Posted on February 26th 2021 | 10:02 am

Reply
Hamish Steel

Interesting!

Posted on January 26th 2021 | 12:42 pm

Reply
Muneeba

Nice all data and easy explain.

Posted on January 17th 2021 | 4:22 pm

Reply
Shruti Priyadarshi

This is such a nice tutorial for a quick revision.

My question is – why transistor switches can be used to switch low voltage DC
device?

Posted on December 26th 2020 | 5:28 am

Reply
Ahmad farooq

Transistor or semiconductor work for low voltage

Posted on March 26th 2021 | 4:55 pm

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‫فوزية محمد‬

Very good

Posted on November 19th 2020 | 7:50 pm

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Edmund

That great we’ll understood

Posted on November 17th 2020 | 7:40 am

Reply
V Ramasami

It is needed for technicians…. good

Posted on November 10th 2020 | 3:27 pm

Reply
devotee

Thank you. It helps to work with sharp tools and this is like a leather strap to a
straight razor.

Posted on October 24th 2020 | 1:13 pm

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