UNIT 3 RAINFALL AND ITS

MEASUREMENTS
Structure
3.0 Objectives

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Types of Rainfall

3.2.l Convective Rainfall
3.2.2 Orogrophic Rainfall
3.2.3 Cyclonic Rainfall
3.2.4 Thunderstorms

3.3 Characteristics of Rainfall

3.3.1 Physical Characteristics of Rainfall
3.3.2 Seasonal Characteristics of Rainfall
3.3.3 Annual Rainfall Variation

3.4 Rainfall Measurement and Estimation

3.4.1 Measurement of Point Rainfall
3.4.2 Rain Gauge Network
3.4.3 Estimation of Average Rainfall

J 3.5 Let Us Sum Up

3.6 lCeywords

3.7 Suggested Reading

3.8 Model Answers to Check Your Progress

3.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:

• explain types and characteristics of rainfall;

• outline the procedure to measure rainfall depth;

• take decision regarding the optimum number of rain gauges for a given
area;

• determine the missing rainfall data for a given location; and

• estimate the average rainfall depth for a given area.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units, you have studied the hydrologic cycle, different forms of
precipitation and rainfall intensity-duration frequency relationship. You have also
learnt about the factors influencing rainfall and runoff. You were also exposed to
the hydrological losses, their characteristic features, concept and importance of
water balance equation. 5
Rainfall and Runoff Rainfall, a main component of hydrologic cycles, is the main source of fresh water
Measurement
on earth. There are four main types of rainfall namely convective, orographic,
cyclonic and thunderstorm rainfall. India has a monsoonal type of climate where
75 to 80% of the total rainfall is confined to three to four months (July to
September) "vith considerable variation in different parts of the country and very
little rainfall occurs in remaining months of the year. Rainfall depth is generally
measured by non-recording type of rain gauges however recording type rain
gauges also help in determiningthe rainfallintensityfor differentdurations.Depending
upon the size, topography and location of the area the optimum number of rain
gauges need to be installed for a representative value of different segments of the
area. A long term (monthly/daily) rainfall record is essential for design of water
harvesting structures. The missing rainfall data of a particular station due to fault or
damage can be estimated t ' using the data of neighbouring stations. The average
rainfall for the given area c.. be determined by different methods. Proper location
of rain gauges is essential .ccurate measurement of depth of rainfall.

In the next unit, you will b. ... .osed to runoff phenomenon, its types and different
methods of runoff measure, nJestimation.

3.2 TYPES OF i,/~~FALL

Moisture is always present in the atmosphere and adiabatic cooling of the moist
air through lifting to higher altitudes is the main reason of condensation and
consequently formation of clouds and rainfall.

There are mainly four types of rainfall namely convective, orographic cyclonic and
thunderstorm depending on the factors reponsible for lifting the air mass. Let us
learn about them one by one.

3.2.1 Convective Rainfall

During summer air in contact with earth's surface gets heated, expands rises due
to less density. Air from cooler surroundings flows to replace it and in turn gets
heated and rises and sets up a convective cell. The warm air continues to rise,
undergoes cooling resulting in rainfall. This type of rainfall has the following
characteristics:
• Dependi~g upon moisture content, cooling and other factors, the rainfall
intensity may vary from light to thunderstorms;
• Covers limited areal extent;
• Found close to equator; and
• Rain drops freeze to form hail due to upward wind currents more than 150
kmIhr.

3.2.2 Orographic Rainfall

The moist air masses may be lifted to higher altitudes due to the presence of
mountain-range barriers. Dynamic cooling occurs resulting in orographic rainfall
on the side of blowing wind (Fig. 3.1). Rainfall is heavier on the windward and
lighter on the leeward side. In India, orographic features are responsible for heavy
rainfall in Himalayan region and west coast. Orographic rainfall results in medium
to high intensity rainfall for longer duration.
6
 Rainfall and its
Measurements

Windward
side
Regions of
heavy
rain Leeward
side

Sea

Fig. 3.1: Schematic diagram of Orographic precipitation

3.2.3 Cyclonic Rainfall

A cyclone is a large low-pressure region with circular wind motion. Cyclonic rain
is caused by depressions and originates where warm tropical air meets cold polar
air with warm air overriding the cold air. The interface between two distinct air
masses is called a Front and it is accompanied by abrupt changes in temperature,
pressure and humidity. Under certain favourable conditions when a warm air mass
and cold air mass meet, the warmer air mass is lifted over the colder one with the
formation of a front as shown in Fig.3.2.

Cloud cevelooment
because of frontal lifting
of warm moist air

Receding warm
air ahead of
cold front
Direction of
frontal movement ~

(A) Cold Front

7
Rainfall and Runoff
Measurement

.(B) Warm Front

Fig.3.2: Schematic diagram showing (A) Cold and (B) Warm Front

The ascending wanner air cools adiabatically with the consequent formation of
clouds and precipitation. Two types of fronts are generally recognized namely
warm front and cold front. Warm front is formed in warm air moving gradually
upward over a wedge of cold air, where warm air replaces colder air. The
resulting precipitation is light to moderate with larger bases than cold fronts a
nearly continuous until after passage of warm front and may usually extend up to
500 km ahead of the surface front. The cold front is formed in the warm air which
is forced upward by an advancing wedge of cold air and generally of showery
nature occurring near the surface front. Two types of cyclones are recognized:
tropical cyclones and extra trooical cvclones.

@!/
----. t .,..--
<{}> Indicates a ~

~:epressure / \ ~

Arrows showing rushing of air In the N-hemisphere air particles turn

particles towards the low pressure towards right and in the S-hemisphere
zone they turn towards left due to Coriolis
Force. Hence, cyclones are caused.
Tropical Cyclone

A tropical cyclone, also called cyclone in India, hurricane in USA and typhoon in
South-East Asia, is a wind system with an intensely strong depression with MSL
pressures. Characteristics of tropical cyclones are:
1 During summer months, tropical cyclones originate in the open ocean at
around 5-100 latitude and move at speeds of about 10-30 kmfhr to higher
latitudes in an irregular path.
1 They derive their energy from the latent heat of condensation of ocean water
vapour and increase in size as they move on oceans.
1 While they move on land, the source of energy is cut off and the cyclone
dissipates its energy very fast. Hence, the intensity of the storm decreases
8 rapidly.
 Tropical cyclones cause heavy damage to life and property on their land path Rainfall and its
1
Measurements
and intense rainfall and heavy floods in streams are its usual consequences.
1 Tropical cyclones give moderate to excessive precipitation over very large
areas, of the order of 103 km2 for several days.
Extra Tropical Cyclone
Extra Tropical Cyclone, sometimes called mid-latitude cyclones or wave cyclones.
They occur in the middle latitudes of the Earth having following characteristics:

These are cyclones formed in locations outside the tropical zone.

1 Associated with a frontal system.
1 They possess a strong counter-clockwise wind circulation in the northern
hemisphere.
1 The magnitude of precipitation and wind velocities are relatively lower than
those of a tropical cyclone.

1 The duration of precipitation is usually longer and the aerial extent also is
longer.

3.2.4 Thunderstorms
An air mass moving from ocean to land results in increase fraction over land.
While moving towards land, these air masses rise gradually resulting in condensation
and rainfall over a limited area. Sometime these storm result in highly intense
rainfall.

3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF RAINFALL

Important characteristics of rainfall are given below:
3.3.1 Physical Characteristics of Rainfall
• Size and shape of raindrop: Rainfall occurs when moisture in the atmosphere
condenses into drops. Raindrops occur about in any shape up to
approximately 9 mm mean diameter after which they tend to break up.
However, they do tend, if turbulence does not interfere, toward an A free falling raindrop
achieves its terminal
aerodynamically stable shape (tear-drop) because this affords the least surface
velocity when the
resistance to movement. downward force of gravity
• Intensity vis duration vis area: These are usually inversely related, i.e., equals the upward force
of buoyancy of air.
high intensity storms are likely to be of short duration and low intensity
storms can have a long duration. We can expect a less intense rainfall (amount
also) over a large area than we can over a small area.
• Intensity vis drop size and terminal velocity: High intensity storms have
a larger drop size than low intensity storms. The terminal velocity of raindrops
is proportional to the square of the diameter of the drops and so it increases
as the drop size increases up to about 10 metre per second. Storms with
large drop sizes have a high erosion potential.

3.3.2 Seasonal Characteristics of Rainfall

From the climatic point of view, Indian subcontinent can be considered to have
two major rainfall seasons: south-west monsoon rainfall (June-September) and
winter season rainfall (December-February).
150r8c BW MUKESH
Rainfall and Runoff Southwest Monsoon
Measurement
The south-west monsoon is the principal rainy season of India when over 75% of
the annual rainfall is received in major part of the country. The south-west monsoon
is the principal source of rain in the country. As shown in Fig.3.3, the monsoon
originates in the Indian Ocean and appears in the southern part of Kerala by the
end of May. The onset of monsoon is accompanied by high south-westerly winds
at speeds of 37-74 km/hr and low-pressure regions at the advancing edge extending
from the Bay of Bengal to Raiasthan. The precipitation pattern over the country is
generally determined by its position. The.monsoon winds increase from June to
July and begin to weaken in September. The withdrawal of the monsoon, marked
by a substantial rainfall activity starts in September in the northern part of the
( country. The weather is generally cloudy with frequent spells of rainfall and time
gaps between the rainfall events.

N --.--~".. ;-;-----------------1
.• ", . • I
:r ". 4,.. ". ",. •• L- _
~ -' I
'-'
,.' •• r ,
1 I fJ

LEGEND
- Normal nitt~ ()f Onll t

. - Nurm I DiJ!( 01 Wlthordl/rl

.'<t'{> ~__ _<2!!!~.-_._~
1~ ..•.._..__..._._~

0<: N

Fig. 3.3: South-west monsoon onset in India

• Winter Season: During December to February a few low pressure pockets

are created in the Bay of Bengal resulting in some rainfall in the eastern
coasts of southern India. During this time western disturbances travel eastward
and cause precipitation in the form of snow and rain in Jarnmu and Kashmir
and some parts of north India.
10
 Rainfall and its
3.3.3 Annual Rainfall Variation Measurements

A considerable aerial variation exists for the annual rainfall in India with high
rainfall with a magnitude of 200 cm in Assam and north-eastern parts and the
Western Ghats, and scanty rainfall in eastern Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat,
Maharashtra and Karnataka. The average annual rainfall for the entire country is
estimated as 119 cm. High rainfall regions have least variability where as low
rainfall regions of Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan have more variability.
I Let us now check your progress.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Compare your answers with those given at the end of unit.
b) Use the space below for your answers.
1) What do you understand by front? Name types of fronts .

.
2) Differentiate between convective and cyclonic rainfall.

3) Explain the characteristics of monsoonal rainfall in India.

. .
...............................................................................................................

4) What is average annual rainfall of India? Which regions do receive maximum

annual rainfall?

5) How are drop size, terminal velocity and rainfall intensity related?

..................................................................................... , , .

3.4 RAINFALL MEASUREMENT AND

ESTJl\IIATION-
The rainfall data is a prerequisite for the study of water resources and design of
water harvesting structures. Therefore, its correct measurement is essential ..Since 11
- .
Rainfall and Runoff most estimates are based on rainfall data, information regarding the depth and
Measurement
intensity of rainfall is of great importance. The amount of rainfall is expressed as
mm: millimeters depth in rnillimeters. Intensity of rainfall is the rate at which it occurs at a given
time. It is expressed as mm per hour. Rainy day is defined as the day on which
2.5 mm or more rainfall is recorded and less than 0.1 mm is considered as a
trace.
3.4.1 Measurement of Point Rainfall
Rainfall is generally measured through a rain gauge which essentially consists of a
cylindrical-vessel assembly kept in the open to collect rain. The rainfall catch of
the rain gauge is affected by its exposure conditions. Rain gauges are of recording
type and non-recording type.
Non-recording Rain Gauge
Most common type of non-recording rain gauge extensively used in India is the
Symon's gauge (Fig.3.4). It consists of a circular collecting area of 127 mm
diameter connected to a funnel. The rim of the collector is set in a horizontal plane
at a height of 305 mm above the ground level. The funnel discharges the rainfall
catch into a receiving vessel. The funnel and receiving bottle are located in a
metallic container and water measured with a graduated measuring cylinder, with
accuracy up to 0.1 mm. Rainfall is collected in the bottle taken out at 8:30 A.M.
and put in a graduating measuring cylinder which gives the depth of the rainfall. If
the rainfall on a particular day is very heavy, than more number of measurements
are taken and summed up to given the rainfall depth for the day.

T
f+-127--1 ~

Funnel -~.-i,'"-/ 1
(
J~ 'l
8
M
s
~

I I
I
I
GL

[ Concrete Block 600 x 600 x 600 J

Fig. 3.4: Symons's type rain gauge (All dimensions are in mm)

Recording Type Rain Gauge

The recording type rain gauges provide a continuous record of rainfall over time
and yield the important information such as duration of the storm, intensity and
cumulative rainfall. The recording type of rain gauges are commonly installed
along with non-recording type rain gauge for checking and calibration. In a recording
type rain gauge, there is a clock-driven mechanical system by which rainfall at a
given time is recorded on a graph paper by a pen. The curve of cumulative rainfall
with time thus obtained is called mass curve (Fig.3.5). The slope of the curve at
any point of time shows rainfall intensity. The following are some of the commonly
12 used recording type rain gauges.
(i) Float, Rainfall and its
Measurements

(ii) Weighing, and

(iii) Tipping bucket.

,-- - -1 /. -I 'ffV"

I -- I , ""'f
,-';r'
I .-, -
: I
I

] :
- f,' , 1-'-- ,
- .,J . --- ,~ -

f _- I t -
_. ,~ ~ !='"

7
- f ,
: 1/
,.-
.. I

u
1";
'-c--
!!I
:
. ..- - .:1,. - , . : -- r- ~,
i

~ -. .__ .
I

J
!-~ ..V '!'""

-. 1 . I

·I-~
£~ '-;- -, , -, -,

,I 1(1
-'r

~ ,. , -
V' ..1\ .~.
,~

I ,
\ - . , ••! _ ••• 'V"
-->,'

Fig. 3.5: Mass curve

Float type
This type of recording rain gauge also known as natural-syphon type gauge, rain
is collected through a funnel leading into a float chamber causing a float to rise
(Fig.3.6). A pen fitted on the stem of the float traces the rainfall on the graph
paper fitted round a clock driven drum. The drum rotates once either in 1 day or
in 7 days depending upon the design after which a new chart is fitted round the
drum. The receiver also consists of a siphon chamber. When the float and the pen
rise to the maximum level, the water from the float chamber is siphoned off. The
pen immediately reaches the zero level ofthe graph paper and continues to rise if
the rainfall continues.

1---- 203mm --.l

Ring

750 mm
/
Base ccuer
J
R(;VClh"'1~j drum
.~
(Clock-c.r-ven)
Filter
Chart movmed

Pen
", Clock mechanism

Float chamber

Syphan
Float
Syphon chamber

Base

G.L.

~ru------------------~~
Fig. 3.6: Float Type Rain Gauge 13
Rainfall and Runoff Weighing Bucket Type
Measurement
In this type of rain gauge, a bucket is supported by spring or a lever balance
(Fig.3.7). Movement of the bucket is transmitted to a pen which traces the record
of the increasing weight of the bucket and its contents on a clock driven graph
paper enough for one week. The catch of the funnel empties into a bucket
mounted on a weighing scale. In some instruments of this type the recording unit is
so constructed that the pen reverses its direction at every preset value so that a
continuous plot of storm is obtained.

Receiving Funnel

Metal Cover
Catch bucket

Spring balance
Revolving drum
(Chat mounted)

Clock mechanism

Fig. 3.7: Weighing Bucket Type Rain Gauge

Tipping Bucket Type

The tipping bucket rain gauge (Fig.3.8) comprises of a pair of buckets pivoted
under a funnel in such a way that when one bucket receives 0.25 mm of rainfall it
tips, discharging its contents into a reservoir and bringing the other bucket under
the funnel. A recording mechanism represents the time of occurrence of each tip.
The tipping bucket rain gauge is suited to the measurement of rainfall intensity/or
short periods. The catch from the funnel falls onto one of a pair of small buckets.
These buckets are so balanced that when 0.25 mm of rainfall collects in one
bucket, it tips and brings the other one in position. The water from the tipped
bucket is collected in a storage can. The tipping actuates an electrically driven pen
to trace a record on clockwork-driven chart. The water collected in the storage
can is measured at regular intervals to provide the total rainfall and also serve as a
check. It may be noted that the record from the tipping bucket gives data on the
intensity of rainfall. Further, the instrument is ideally suited for digitizing of the
output signal. _ Su crnj-,

r Receiver
Funnel
Tipping Bucket

Measuring Tube

14
Fig. 3.8: Tipping Bucket Type Rain Gauge
 Rainfall and its
3.4.2 Rain Gauge Network Measurements

A catchment should have a large number of gauges to have a representative value

of areal distribution of rainfall. Economy, topography, accessibility and rainfall
variability are important factors for deciding the optimal number of rain gauges.
The present density of rain gauge in India is 630 km2 per gauge. The World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) has recommended rain gauge densities under
different conditions (Table 3.1). However, rain gauge densities in India are in
variance with WMO recommendations in view of practical considerations.

Table 3.1: Rain Gauge Density in an area

S.No. Type of Region Area for One Station, km2

Ideal Acceptable

WMO Recommendations (1969)

1. Flat regions of temperate,
Mediterranean and tropical zones 600-900 900-1CXXl

2. Mountainous regions of temperate

Mediterranean and tropical zones 100-250 250-1CXXl
3. Small mountainous regions with
irregular rainfall 25 -

4. Arid and polar zones 1500 lfU:" -

Indian Standards
1. Plain Area 520 -

2. Region of average elevation, 1000 m 260-390 -

3. Predominantly hilly area with heavy

rainfall 130 -

Estimation of Missing Data

A long term consistent rainfall data of a Particular rain gauge(s) is a pre-requisite
for the design of water harvesting structure. Failure of any rain gauge or non-
recording of a particular rainfall even result in short break in the record of rainfall
at the given station. These gaps need to be filled before analyzing the rainfall data.
It is assumed that the rain gauge station of missing data and the surrounding
stationshave identicalmeteorologicalconditions.The following methods are generally
used for filling the missing data:

(i) Arithmetic Mean Method

This method is used under the following conditions:
• The normal annual rainfall of the missing station is within 10% of the normal
annual rainfall of the surrounding stations.

• Data of at least three surrounding stations called index stations are available
within the catchment.

• Index stations should be evenly spaced around the missing station and should
be as close as possible.
The missing rainfall data of station x can be computed by simple arithmetic
average of the index stations. ]5
Rainfall and Runoff
Measurement

n
Where,

= Rainfall of index stations

Rx = Rainfall of missing station

N = Number of index stations

The normal rainfall means average of 30 years of latest rainfall data e.g. when the
average rainfall during the month of July is computed it is called the normal rainfall
for the month of July.

ii) Normal Ratio Method

This method is used when the normal annual rainfall of the missing station exceeds
by more than 10% of the normal annual rainfall of the surrounding stations. The
rainfall of the missing station can be computed as follows:

Rx = Nx
n
(~+ + +
NI
R2
N2
Rn
Nn
J
Where,

= Actual rainfall of index stations

= Normal rainfall of index stations

Nx = Normal rainfall of missing stations

Rx = Actual rainfall of missing station

N = Number of index stations

Example

The normal annual rainfall at stations A, B, C and D in a catchment are 925, 691,
803 and 621 mm respectively during the year 1977. The station C was out of
order and annual precipitations for station A, Band D were recorded as 891, 740
and 752 mm respectively. Estimate the rainfall at station C in the year 1977.

Solution

Variation in normal annual rainfall of station C with respect to normal annual

rainfall of surrounding stations A, Band D is more than 10%. Therefore, the
normal ratio method is applicable.

s, = Nx(~+ R2 + + Rn]
n NI N2 Nil

16
 Rainfall and its
R = 803(891 + 740 + 752) Measurements
c 4 925 691 621

Rc = 200.75 (0.963+1.071+1.211)

Rc = 200.75 (3.245)

Rc = 651.42 mm

The rainfall of missing station C is 651.42 mm

_0,

3.4.3 Estimation of Average Rainfall

Most of the hydrologic analysis requires average depth of precipitation over the
area under consideration. Depending on the accuracy and objective of analysis
following methods are generally used for converting point rainfall measured on
daily, monthly or yearly basis to average rainfall:

(i) Arithmetic Mean Method

In case, rainfall measured at various stations in the catchment indicates minor

variations, arithmetic mean method gives fairly accurate value of average rainfall
over the catchment area. This method however is not used frequently. The average
,rainfall can be computed using the following relation:

R = (RI +R2 +R3 + +RJ

n
Where,

R = mean precipitation over the catchment.

RI' R2······: Rn= point rainfall values for 'n' number of stations.

Limitations

1 It does not take into accounts topographic and other influences.

1 No rain gauge station located outsides the boundaries of the catchment is

considered.

(ii) Thiessen Polygon Method

In this method, the rainfall recorded at ea~h station is given weightage on basis of
an area closest to the station (Fig. 3.9). All the stations in an around the catchment
are considered and a linear variation in the rainfall between two stations is assumed.
The following steps are involved to estimate the mean rainfall.

1) All the gauges in an around the catchment are accurately marked on a map
drawn to the scale.

2) Consecutive stations are joined to form a network of triangles.

3) Perpendicular bisectors for each of the sides of the triangle form a polygon.
It is based on the hypothesis that, for every point in the area, the best
estimate of rainfall is the measurement physically closest to that point. This
concept is implemented by drawing perpendicular bisectors to straight lines 17
Rainfall and Runoff connecting each two rain gauges.
Measurement , This yields, when the watershed boundary
is included, a set of closed areas. R is given by.
R= (AIRI + ~R2 +~R3 + + A"Rn)
Al +~ +A3 + +A"

Where,

R = mean precipitation over the catchment.

RI' R2••••••• Rn = point rainfall valuesfor 'n' number of stations.

A I' A2 An = area of each polygon

1- __
---.:~

Fig. 3.9: Thiessen Polygons

Limitations

• New polygons need to be drawn in case of addition or removal of a rain

gauge;

• Orographic features are not considered;

• A linear rainfall variation is considered which may not represent actual

meteorological and catchment characteristics; and

• Topographic and other barriers are not considered.

Example

The rainfall recorded in the month of July at different stations and the area of each
polygon are given below in a basin of 600 km2

18
 Rainfall and its
Station 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Measurements

Rainfall, cm 40 20 30 42 55 42 45 33 50 20

Area of
Polygon,
km2 25 35 95 55 70 00 so 00 25 45
Solution

Station 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

RainfallR,
cm 40 20 30 42 55 42 45 33 50 20

Area of
Polygon
(A), km2 25 35 95 55 70 00 <xl 00 25 45

A xR,km2.cm HID 700 2850 2310 3850 3360 4050 2640 1250 9:X)

R = (A)R) + ~R2 + ~R3 + + A"Rn)

A)+~+A3+·······+A"

- 22910an
R = = 38.18 cm
600
(ill) Isohyetal Method

Rainfall amounts from a set of gauges are plotted on a map of the region. Lines
connecting all points of equal rainfall are then connected to create isohyetal map
(Fig 3.10). The resulting map represents the actual rainfall pattern over the
watershed. Obviously, this works best when there are a large number of Rain
gauges. Following are the steps to determine the average rainfall. This method
gives better results than previous two methods.

• All the gauges in an around the catchment are accurately marked on a map
drawn to the scale;

• Depth of rainfall recorded at each station is marked;

• Isohyets are drawn by interpolating the distances between stations. Closely

spaced isohyets (contours) indicate higher rainfall gradient;

• Area between successive isohyets is measured by a planimeter; and

• Average rainfall between two successive isohyets heights multiply by the area
covered by them is computed by all the isohyets.

Sum of the products over the entire basin divided by the total area gives average
rainfall.
Rainfall and Runoff
Measurement
Isohyetals

14/\. 15.4
c·

10

E
•
152,
_ . Station Rainfall

12

Fig. 3.10: Isohyetals of a storm

Where,

R = Mean precipitation over the catchment.

R r R2 Rn = Point rainfall values for 'n' number of stations.

A l' A2 An = Area of each polygon.

Limitations

• A large number of rain gauges are required for accurate results.

• Thorough knowledge of topography of basin helps to draw isohyets more

accurately.

• For each storm, separate .isohyets need to be drawn.

It is now time for another Check Your Progress.

Check Your Progress 2

Note:' a) Compare your answers with'those given at the end of unit.
b) Use the space below for your answers.

1) Under what conditions is arithmetic mean method used?

................................................................................................................

20
2) Rainfall recorded on 15 July 2008 at eight rain ~auges in a basin are 100, Rainfall lIod it
Measurem,.t
120, 70, 50, 130, 96, 78 and 126 mm respectively. Compute mean
rainfall of the basin.

3) List the limitations of Thiessen polygon method .

................................................................................................................

3.5 LET US SUM UP

• Rainfall is the main source of fresh water on earth. Convective, orographic,
cyclonic and thunderstorm are the main types of rainfall depending on the
factors responsible for lifting the air mass.

• India is a monsoonal type of climate where 75 to 80% of the total rainfall

occurs during July to September.

• Recording type rain gauge records rainfall on a regular basis which helps in
determining rainfall intensity whereas non-recording type rain gauge measures
only daily rainfall.

•. An optimum number of rain gauges need to be installed to get a representative

value of rainfall depending upon the size, topography and location of the
area.

• The missing rainfall data of a particular station due to fault or damage can be
. estimated by using the data of neighboring stations.

• Proper location of rain gauges is essential for accurate measurement of depth

of rainfall.

• Arithmetic mean, Thiessen polygon and isohyetal methods are generally used
to estimate average rainfall of an area/sub area, depending on the accuracy
and number of rain gauges available in the area.

3.6 KEYWORDS
Adiabatic Cooling •. It refers to changes in temperature caused by the
expansion (cooling) or compression (warming) of a
body of air as it rises or descends in the atmosphere,
with no exchange of heat with the surrounding air.

Cold Front It is formed in the warm air which is forced upward

by an advancing wedge of cold air and generally of
showery nature occurring near the surfaces front.

2t
Rainfall and Runoff
Measurement
Cyclone A large low-pressure region with circular wind motion.

Cyclonic Rain Rain caused by depressions and originates where warm

tropical air meets cold polar air with warm air overriding
the cold air.

Extratropical Cyclone: These are cyclones formed in locations outside the

tropical zone.

Front It is the interface between two distinct air masses.

Under certain favourable conditions when a warm air
mass and cold air mass meet, the warmer air mass is
lifted over the colder one with the formation of a front.

Isohyet Line joining points of equal rainfall magnitude.

Mean Rainfall Average of rainfall from a number of rain gauges.

Monsoon A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing which refers to the

big seasonal cloud blowing wind from the Indian Ocean
and Arabian Sea in the south-west bringing heavy
rainfall to the region.

Precipitation It denotes all forms of water reaching the earth from

the atmosphere.
I

Rainfall Most important form of precipitation.

Rain Gauge The instrument (non-recording or recording) used for

measurement of rainfall.

Terminal Velocity Velocity acquired by a free falling raindrop when the

downward force of gravity equals the upward force of
buoyancy of air.

Thunderstorms An air mass moving from ocean to land rise gradually

resulting in condensation and rainfall over a limited
area.

Tropical Cyclone Also called cyclone, it is a wind system with an intensely

strong depression with MSL pressures.
Warm Front Warm air moving gradually upward over a wedge of
cold air, where warm air replaces colder air, resulting
in the form of light to moderate precipitation.

3.7 SUGGESTED READING

ICAR (2006). Handbook of Agriculture. Directorate of Information and
Publication of Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi,
pp. 1346.

Michael, A.M. (2008). Irrigation Theory and Practices. Vikas Publishing House
Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 768.

Murty, Y.Y.N. (2004) Land and Water Engineering, Kalyani Publishers, New
Delhi, pp. 594. .
22
 Mutreja, KN. (1990). Applied Hydrology. TataMcGraw-HillPublishing Company Rainfall and its
Measurements
Ltd. New Delhi, pp. 959.

Punmia, B.e. and Pandey, B.B.L. (1995). Irrigation and Water Power
Engineering. Laxmi Publication Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 985.

Raghunath, H.M. (1990). Hydrology-Principles Analysis and Design. Willy

Eastern Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 482.

Reddy, P.J. (1990). A Text Book of Hydrology. Laxmi Publication Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, pp. 985.

Sharma, R.K (1993). A Text Book of Hydrology and Water Resources. Dhanpat
Rai and Sons Publisher, New Delhi.

Singh, 'VP. and Yadav, R.N. (Eds.) (2003). Watershed Hydrology. Allied
Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 447.

Singh, Rajvir (2000). Watershed Planning and Management. Yash Publishing

Home, Bikaner, pp. 470.

Subramanya. K (2006). Engineering Hydrology, Tata Mc-Graw-Hill Publishing

Company Limited, New Delhi, pp. 392.

3.8 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
t 1) The interface between two distinct air masses is called a Front. Two types
of fronts are generally recognized namely Warm front and Cold front.

2) Convective Rainfall: During summer air in contact with earth surface gets
heated, expands and rises due to less density. Air from cooler surrounding
flow to replace it and in turn gets heated and rises and sets up a convective
cell. The warm air continues to rise, undergoes cooling resulting in rainfall.

Cyclonic Rainfall: A cyclone is a large low-pressure region with circular

wind motion. Cyclonic rain is caused by depressions and originates where
warm tropical air meets cold polar air with warm air overriding the cold air.

3) The south-west monsoon is the principal rainy season of India when over
75% of the annual rainfall is received in major part of the country. The south-
west monsoon is the principal source of rain in the country.

4) The average annual rainfall of the country is estimated to be 119 cm. Assam
and north-eastern parts and the Western Ghats receive the highest rainfall.
5) High intensity storms have a larger drop size than low intensity storms. The
terminal velocity of raindrops increases as the drop size increases up to
about 10 metre per second.

Check Your Progress 2

1) The arithmetic mean method is used under the following conditions:

• The normal annual rainfall of the missing station is within 10% of the
normal annual rainfall of the surrounding stations.
23
150r8c sw MUKESH
Rainfall and Runoff • Data of at least three surrounding stations called index stations are
Measurement
available within the catchment.

• Index stations should be evenly spaced around the missing station and
should be as close as possible.

2)

Station 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Rainfall, mm 100 120 70 50 130 96 78 126

R = (RI + R2 + R3 + + RJ
x
n

770
Rx =- = 96.25 mm
8
3) Limitations of Thiessen Polygon Method:

• New polygons need to be drawn in case of addition or removal of a

ram gauge;

• Orographic features are not considered;

• A linear rainfall variation is considered which may not represent actual

meteorological and catchment characteristics; and

• Topographic and other barriers are not considered.

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