ELEMENTS :

Form & Space

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 a graphic style manual for understanding structure and design

ELEMENTS :
Form & Space

De nnis M. Puha ll a , Ph.D

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 content s:
1 2

6 10 22
In t r oduc t ion Spatial Forces Spatial Order

6 12 24
Examining Form and Space Image Area and the The Language of Form
Implied Forces

26
Mass/Space Elements—
Form Language Components

54
Mass/Space Attributes—
Form Language Features

74
Mass/Space Elements and
Attributes Perceived

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 3 4 5

82 110 130 158

Color Structure Spatial Structure Ordering Strategy Ap p endix

82 112 132 158

Structure Order Strategy Index

93 112 134 166

Munsell Proportion Figure | Ground Contributors
Color Notation Sequencing Studies
System
116 168
Divine Proportion 140 About the Author
94 Structured Sequence of
Intrinsic Color Compositional Studies
Structure 168
Acknowledgments
141
104 Defining a
Implications Proportional System
with
Design Elements

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 i examining form and space

Int roduc tion

“Non c’è niente nella vita così normale che

non possa essere fatto straordinario.”

“There is nothing in life so ordinary that

it cannot be made extraordinary.”

—Italian proverb

Guided by experience, experiment, and observation, empirical

knowledge is central to perception. Perception is the process by
which we acquire information about the world around us using our
five senses. Sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste are the ways we
experience the world. From this epistemological orientation,
Immanuel Kant is the foremost figure. From a Kantian philosophi-
cal tradition, it is representation that makes the object possible,
rather than the object that makes the representation possible.
Therefore, experiencing the world is dependent on a conceptual
structure providing representational properties of experience.
Reasoning connects the world we experience through structure.
The rational structure of the mind reflects the rational structure of
the world and the objects in it. The human mind is an active origi-
nator of experience, rather than just a passive recipient of percep-
tion. The human mind is a blank tablet; perceptual input must be
processed to be recognized or it would just be noise.

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 The focus of Design Elements: Form and Space is Principles of visual language are linked to the
centered on an aesthetic understanding of form study of semiotics. It was de Saussure who saw
in the context of ordering space. The elements language as a system within which words act as
of spatial organization are central to visual inter- arbitrary signs.
pretation and perception. These elements form
a visual language. Semiotics encompasses the theory of signs and
symbolism. It expands the structure and order of
Language systems employ syntax, which govern language to include not only words but also as-
the rules of order in which words or other ele- sorted systems of communication. Language is
ments of structure are combined to form gram- any system that communicates written words,
matical sentences. signs, symbols, images, and music. Therefore,
meaning is constructed through semiotics and
Language construction is also dependent upon logical syntax represented by the formal relation-
hierarchical structuring. Implicit hierarchical ships of its system of parts.
structuring increases the human ability to per-
ceive similarities and differences among things. The inherent ingredients of the mass space
It preserves meaning in writing, speaking, and elements—point, line, plane, and volume—gen-
visual representation. The basis of hierarchical erate the syntax of a visual language system.
structuring refers to the observed degree of Along with the attributes of shape, size, color,
contrast and similarities within each category and texture, they formulate the visual language
of the mass space elements. Based upon their structure within the boundaries of the image
attributes, this results in a perceived area. Understanding the basic premise of spatial
visual hierarchy. structure and organization is critical to defining
an orderly arrangement of parts.

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 i examining form and space

rules of simplicity and avoiding visual noise is

dependent upon identifying objective visual criteria.
The analysis of form and space structure is based
upon the logical and rational underlying compo-
nents of the mass/space elements, their physical
attributes, and our explicit perceptions. Our per-
ceptions are learned and vary according to cultural
preferences rather than being inherent.

Aesthetic value is a complex philosophical Principles of visual organization are anchored

argument derived from human response to objects in the idea that the simplest interpretations of form
or other visual phenomena. Obviously, human re- and space are preferred. German psychologists de-
sponse to visual phenomena is filtered through veloped theories on visual perception in the 1920s.
cultural surroundings and other human sensory These theories are manifested in Gestalt psychol-
conditions. This human response is the conse- ogy, a term that means “unified whole.” The theory
quence of an assumed premise and a degree of of perceptual psychology describes how people
probability relative to that premise. This response tend to organize visual elements into groups or uni-
to visual stimuli amounts to an interpretation of fied wholes when certain principles are applied. The
form that applies subjective criteria, which carries Gestalt principles reinforce the concept that mean-
emotional inferences. ing is learned and constructed though perception.
Thus, the Laws of Gestalt are inextricably tied to
Aesthetic value can be defined in objective terms understanding form and spatial organization.
by analyzing and applying a system of orderly
arrangement—a visual language system. Learning to see clearly and objectively requires
Fundamentally, the human visual condition seeks acute fundamental visual awareness that is not
to order space and to reject chaos. There is a limit clouded by subjective inferences. What we think
to what we can visually process. Applying the we see may differ from the hidden visual truth.

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 principles inspiration
understanding creativity

ordinar y state extra-ordinar y state

modification originality
manipulation ingenuity
alteration inventiveness

The first step in designing something extraordinary is to define the elements

that make it ordinary. Thoughtful manipulation of the ordinary state of form is
a contributing factor in bringing forth new images.

9
Introduction

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 1

“A stone, a tree, or a fi sh has its own

particular type of existence. The
stone is static with latent perpen-
dicular movement of its weight. The
tree can expand in any direction
but cannot change its position. The
fi sh can move and take any position.
Each behaves according to its spe-
cific nature. Similarly, any visible
unit place on a picture-plane germi-
nates a life of its own.”

—György Kepes, Language of Vision

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 Spatial Forces
image area and the implied forces

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1 image area and the implied forces

The image area is defined by the boundary of the picture plane, which is
contained by a regular or a semiregular polygon. Typically, the common
image area, also called format, is a square or rectangle.

With sides of equal length that meet at right angles, the square constitutes
a regular polygon represented by a 1:1 height-to-width ratio. The square is
the elemental polygon that forms the basic geometry of most proportional
systems. It is the basis that determines the height-to-width ratio of a rect-
angle. Since the square resides in a 1:1 height-to-width ratio, it is consider-
ed to be a polygon that resides in a static state. The directional and thus
visual emphasis of the height-and-width dimension remains constant.

Five specific structural forces govern the image area of the square. The
implied divisions of the square and rectangle are constituted in part by
three internal axes—the vertical axis, the horizontal axis, and the diagonal
axis. In addition, the center point of the square is intrinsically evident. The
fifth implied force is the circle residing geometrically congruent to the
internal center points of the square’s four sides.

The ambiguous active/passive dimension of the diagonals is dependent

upon subjective interpretation. Diagonals, which move from an upper-left
position to a bottom-right position, read differently from those that move
from an upper-right position to a bottom-left position. This has to do with
the way individuals have been taught to read. Reading from left to right or
right to left influences the visual active/passive perceptual state.

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 Inherent forces within the image area are visual
components that must be considered.

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The square continues to generate additional

implied forces as represented with a quarter
circle, a congruent square circumscribed
within the circle, and various iterations.

A square is the foundation of a rectangle. A rectangle

generates an implied center point, a vertical, a horizontal
and diagonals—a corner-to-corner relationship that
intersects the center point.

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 The center point of the square is intuitively understood.
Slight variation in the position of the center point is
easily perceived as off center.

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Spatial Forces

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The image area of the photograph Land + Sky + Time is a rectangular composition
in which the width is double the height. Notice how the horizon naturally divides
the image into two equal parts. Also, the photograph is deliberately divided verti-
cally into two equal parts—one gray tone and one sepia tone. The upper-left gray
area forms two squares. The bottom-right sepia area forms two rectangles. These
literal divisions of the space work in harmony with the implied forces of the square
and rectangle. As a result, the divisions within the landscape suggest an orderly
sequence of time in space.

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 Photograph: Land + Sky + Time
D. M. Puhalla

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Spatial Forces

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Design: Victoria Karoleff Design: Lucas Langus

This image is a visual exploration of typographic Employing a 45-degree angle, the image area
elements to define space. Fundamentally, the of the square is divided into two parts form-
square is divided into two rectangles. The major ing implied right-angle triangles. Extending or
division occurs along the inherent center-vertical projecting the edge of the letter i in bold letters
axis of the square, creating two rectangles. The forms another 45-degree angle establishing a
rectangle on the left is divided into a large part triangle in the bottom-left corner and a five-
and a distinct smaller part while the rectangle sided polygon in the upper-right corner. In turn,
on the right remains an uninterrupted black. The the two 45-degree angles form an intersection
vertical and horizontal divisions of space are slightly off the center point of the image area
composed of letterforms. As a result, the divisions of the square. By shifting the intersection point
are implied and less literal. These simple graphic of the two 45-degree angles off center, the di-
divisions of space establish unity through similarity vision of space is less predictable, offers con-
of parts and contrast of scale/size. trast, and is visually stimulating. The shape and
visual texture of the body of text in the upper
left also contrasts the rectangular body of text
in the bottom-right corner.

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 Design: Rachel Mason Design: Rachel Mason

The circle is intrinsically tangent to the midpoints The relationship of the circle to the square may
of the square. This example integrates concentric include one quarter of the circle. This example
circles, which reinforce the implied forces of the uses an implied representation of the arc of a
square. A dynamic interaction between the focal circle to build upon the one preceding concen-
point of circle and the implied center point of the tric circle theme.
square is initiated by placing the circle slightly off
the square’s center point.

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Design: Rachel Mason Design: Lucas Langus

The two examples define angles, which are

not inherently implied in the image area. Each
image employs distinct spacing between the
linear elements, creating more dynamic and
less predictable outcomes.

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 On the cover brochure for the Thirty-Eighth
International Viola Congress, the image area is
defined by a strong vertical rectangle. Internally,
a set of four squares defines a larger square
within the image area rectangle. With the
inclusion of images, typography, symbology,
color, line, and shape elements, the content
drives the message. As in a musical score, the
image reflects an underlying ordering system
of repetition, contrasts, and surprise.

Implica t ions Design: Darrin Hunter

These five implied spatial forces serve as reference points and

must be taken into account before displacing or dividing the
surface area of the square. Literal divisions of the square that
are parallel to the vertical, horizontal, and diagonal are congru-
ent and therefore reside in concert with the implied spatial
dynamics. Divisions that are at an acute or obtuse angle to
the axes are in tension with the implied visual forces. Tension
occurs when attracting forces are pulled in opposing directions.

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“The real voyage of discovery consists

not in seeking new landscapes but in
having new eyes.”

—Marcel Proust

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 Spatial Order
the language of form

23

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the language of form

The language of form is defined by its components. These

components are composed of the mass/space elements and their
visible attributes, which constitute the basic syntax/structure
of form language. The orderly arrangement among these compo-
nents frames the foundation of a structured visual system. A
system of parts formulates a harmonious whole. This language
also constitutes a means by which objective criteria may be
applied to analyze the visual elements within the image area.

Principles of spatial organization are divided into three

categories. The mass/space elements are the foundation of
spatial organization. The second defines the attributes of the
elements. In other words, in order for the mass/space elements
to have a visual presence, they must have certain innate charac-
teristics. The third category establishes a structure, which
addresses the perceptual framework of visual processing.

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 The three categories that comprise the principles of spatial organization also establish
the language of visual form. Additionally, the language of visual form provides the basis
for objective criteria to analyze the strengths and weaknesses of graphic organization.

ELEMENTS ATTRIBUTES PERCEIVED ATTRIBUTES & ELEMENTS

hierarchy
alignment, position, projection, trajectory, orientation, direction, proximity, rotation
sequence/interval
transitions, connections, convergence, terminations
number/density
point color axis
line size balance
plane shape symmetry
volume texture tension
rhythm
closure
fluctuation
afterimage
grouping
focal point

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Ma ss | Space Elements

form language components

elements: point—line—plane—volume

The mass/space elements are the graphic components

used to organize an image area. The elements prog-
ress from simple to complex. That is, a point generates
a line. Lines in turn generate planes and volume within
the image area. These components represent the most
ordinary and fundamental method of organizing or di-
viding space. All graphic devices employed in a com-
position can be extracted and transformed into these
essential mass/space elements.

Undeniably, the mass/space elements are familiar,

commonplace, typical, and fundamentally simplistic.
However, an explanation of these elements is neces-
sary to clarify meaning in a visual context. The har-
monious relationship of parts that form a composition
is dependent upon the order, interaction, and function
of these elements.

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 Point, line, plane, and volume are basic elements of spatial division.

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Point

A point is the simplest component of the elements.

Mathematically, a point has no dimension. Visually,
a point is represented graphically as a dot or mark.
Comparatively, a point is small in relationship to the
image area surface.

A point placed within the image area defines a

position in space. As illustrated earlier, the
implied center of the square is readily apparent
to the human eye. Therefore, a dot placed slightly
off center will appear misplaced or inaccurately
positioned. Generally, the dot is best positioned
decisively on center or decisively off center.
Points reside in harmony or in dissonance with
the implied forces of a square so a point positioned
on center is in harmony within the square. When the
point is positioned on center, the surrounding area
is equally divided, but it is a predictable geometric
location that is visually static. Whereas a point
positioned off center is visually dynamic and
activates newly formed implied proportional divi-
sions of the space. Understanding the proportional
divisions of the space establishes an objective
rationale for a point’s location.

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 Decisive positioning of a point in relation to the implied forces creates a visual rationale for its location.
As with all of the elements, points establish a static or dynamic interaction of parts within the whole.

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Placement of the word contents affords the

opportunity for the letter o to function as a dot
in space. In addition, the o dot serves to interact
with the half circle shape, which is positioned
along the left edge of the composition. Imagine
a straight line running between the o dot and
the half circle. The edge of the implied line
would be tangent to the left edge of the o dot
and the right edge of the half circle. The o dot is
also tangent to the edge of the diagonal of the
image area square. The deliberate and thought-
ful positioning between the dot and half circle Design: Kristin Cullen
activates a visual dynamic in the composition.

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 The original symbol was designed by the artist Martyl in 1947.

Placing a number of points that are close in

proximity and similar in size and shape creates
an implied line. The points along an implied
path are used to create eye movement within
the image area of the composition.

This simple arrangement of points and lines is

easily recognized as a clock. The dots are uni-
formly sequenced to imply movement from one
point to the next. The starkness of the image
Design: Michael Bierut and Armin Vit reflects the intent of the message. Redesign of
Pentagram Design, New York the Doomsday Clock symbol for the Bulletin of
the Atomic Scientists.

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Line

A line is characterized as the path of a moving point. Variable curves are generated by any number
As such, a point transitions and transforms figura- of regular and/or increasing curves that are
tively into line. According to Euclidean geometry, a linked together. They form a smooth uninter-
line continues infinitely in length and has no width rupted line edge, or the edge may turn direction
or height. As a visual graphic representation, a line sharply and create a break point.
segment is a stroke straight or curved that is long in
proportion to its width. Lines may be categorized as Lines positioned parallel, perpendicular, or
straight, regularly curved, and compound curved. diagonally reside in harmony with the implied
forces of the image area. Along these axes,
A regular curved line emerging from the positioning is stable and explicit.
circumference of the circle is an arc. It reaches
its apex at the center point of the arc, and then it However, lines positioned at acute or obtuse
ascends and peaks at the center. From the center angles are not an ordinary visual expectation,
point, the line changes direction and descends to but they can appear visually dynamic. Neither
its endpoint. arrangement is better than the other. Visual
sensitivity to line positioning and spatial division
An increasing curve is generated by no more are significantly important to communicating a
than one fourth of an ellipse or less. As a point visual message. It is also important to note that
moves along the path of an ellipse, the line transi- the relationship of lines can be perceived as
tions from a tight radius to one that successively friendly, compatible, and passive. Angular linear
increases. As the radius increases, it encompasses relationships may be perceived as assertive and
a larger surface area. aggressively active.

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 Line elements are formed from regular geometry. Curved lines are fluid and perceived as relatively
Various configurations of lines generate angular passive. Perhaps this is due to our associations
relationships and curved line segments. Regular with nature and the human body. Even so, curves
curves are directly related to the arc of a circle employ directional emphasis along a path that
and increasing curves are no more than one acts to engage or reject areas within a compo-
fourth of an ellipse. Variable curved lines are sition. Concave lines engage an area of space
the product of numerous regular and variable while convex lines push into the surface area of
curves linked together. the composition.

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Lines residing congruent to the implied forces are in harmony

with those forces. Lines residing at acute or obtuse angles to
the implied forces are in tension with those forces. The convex
and concave direction of the arc of a circle also creates a visual
emphasis. The concave side engages the surface area within it
while the convex side of the arc repels corners and edges.

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 A regular curved arc pushes the straight line outward and pulls the
point inward. A similar thing happens with the variable curved line.
In the previous illustration, the variable curve engages the regular
curve along the top edge. Toward the bottom, the two curves form
a bottleneck as they push outward. If projected, the point would
follow a path that would divide the two curves at their apex. The
apex is the point of a curve that transitions from ascent to descent.

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In this photograph, two concentric circles are

positioned at the midpoint of the right vertical
edge of the composition. As a result, the com-
position is equally divided in half—top and
bottom. To create visual interest, the circle’s
center point occurs outside the image area.
The concave portion of the circles pulls the
right edge of the composition inward. The
structural elements of the valve function as
straight and regular curved lines.

Photograph: Kristin Cullen

Dots and circles are the primary visual components

in this book cover layout. Intersecting lines and
points along the vertical axis engage the primary
circle. Angular linear relationships provide contrast
and assist movement of the eye across the image area.

Design: Lauren Oka

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 By carefully observing type in the environment,
a letter and number in an oval dot are the focal
point of this composition, located on the vertical
center of the image. The white line along the top
of the image is approximately the same thick-
ness as the black line above it. The irregular
shape within the top edge of the white line acts
as a secondary point of interest. As a result, this
simple image generates eye movement and has
a strong visual impact.

Photograph: Kristin Cullen

Consistent control of the line and dot elements

is the basis of the letter characters AIFJR.

Design: Victoria Karoleff

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Design: Laura Frycek Design: Lauren Oka

Type follows the path of straight lines, which The primary structure of this type study consists
are at right angles. Regular curved arcs and of variable curves that are congruently engaged.
variable curved lines are defined with typogra- Additional variable curves act in a contrasting
phy, as well. To a lesser extent, various angular fashion, as they appear to push against the
type lines are employed to provide contrast to congruent line paths.
the compositional structure.

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 Photograph: Kristin Cullen

The vertical railing and the space between the rails form lines.
The sequence of lines that appear behind the rails increase in
their width as they move from left to right. Circular dots serve as
containers for the letterforms. The type interrupted by the verti-
cal railing also moves left to right. Together, line, dots, and type
create left to right eye movement in the composition.

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Design: Lynda Lucas

Entopic is Greek for “within the eye.” Entopic patterns are These patterns are directly associated with dots, angular lines,
geometric patterns that become visible only when the eyes are parallel lines, concentric circles, grids, and filigrees. This informa-
closed. They originate inside the brain and are commonly seen tion graphic is a two-page example of multiple pages. “Information
when dreaming, pushing on the eyelids, experiencing migraines, Graphics” provides a visual explanation of simple entopic forms
trances, or hallucinogenic drugs. These fundamental patterns and how they were used and interpreted.
are found in every human culture across space and time, from
cave paintings to surrealism, and are considered the DNA of
alphabets, art, and visual communication.

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 Design: Laura Frycek

These images represent a method of integrating line and shape

elements to represent figures in a concise and meaningful way.
Circular shapes and line are the focal elements employed in this
paper toy of animal likenesses. The visual scale of line and shape
remains consistent throughout each image.

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Plane

A two-dimensional surface area generated by The square, circle, and triangle are rudimentary shapes that form
connected straight and/or curved lines creates planes. They tend to appear in a parallel position in relation to the
a plane. A plane can take the form of any shape surface of the image area. They also serve to generate a multitude
and resides on the picture plane. Regular or of additional regular and irregular configurations.
semiregular polygons formulate a plane as well
as a closed curved configured circle and ellipse.
Each shape is innately structured with implied
visual forces as established in the square.

Design: Michael Bierut and Jennifer Kinon

Pentagram Design, New York

Letterforms are specifically integrated into rectangular shapes

for Saks Fifth Avenue “Think About It” campaign.

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 Design: Lippincott, New York

Vale Mining identity, Wana identity, and GLAAD media-award

brochures, are examples that focus on the variable curve as a
primary visual element incorporating restrained geometric shapes.

Wana is Morocco’s global telecom company offering fixed line,

mobile, and Internet services. Every aspect of the brand design
was carefully and deliberately crafted. The Wana symbol, a
dynamic star, references the Moroccan flag and connects with
the Moroccan spirit.

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Volume

The amount of three-dimensional space a shape or

object occupies may seem irrelevant here since a
two-dimensional graphic space has no depth.
However, creating depth illusion is an important factor
that contributes to visual stimulation. Understanding
the visual power of volume is particularly important for
a variety of graphic design applications. In addition to
print media, other graphic applications include pack-
aging, time-based media—motion graphics, websites,
environmental graphics, and wayfinding systems. All
of these applications must consider three-dimensional
use of volume and space. Even some color systems are
organized in a three-dimensional color space.

Volume portrayed on a two-dimensional surface

is perceived through cognitive processing. On a
two-dimensional surface, the visual characteristics
of objects influence our perceptual depth cues. Size,
shape, color, layering, transparency, overlapping,
and angles are commonly used to communicate depth Planar and angular relationships on a
on a two-dimensional surface. two-dimensional picture plane create the
illusion of a three-dimensional space.
There are three types of volume—a clearly
circumscribed mass, a negative volume,
and a virtual volume. Understanding the na-
ture of the three types helps the designer
control variables and avoids visual confu-
sion.

A clearly circumscribed mass is a convex

solid. These objects have no concave com-
ponents. Consequently, these objects define
a positive surface area. The Platonic and
Archimedean solids are examples of a
continuous convex surface.

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 Illustration: Matt Puhalla

The five Platonic solids are a clearly circumscribed

mass defined by regular polygons, which are formed
by one shape type. A clearly circumscribed mass is a
convex solid. These objects have no concave compo-
nents. Consequently, these objects define a positive
surface area. The Platonic and Archimedean solids
are examples of a continuous convex surface. These
solids are regular convex polyhedra that are defined
by one type regular polygon—square, equilateral tri-
angle, pentagon. They are composed of the tetrahe-
dron, hexahedron, octahedron, dodecahedron, and
the icosahedrons. The Archimedean solids are
semiregular convex polyhedra composed of two
or more types of regular polygons. There are thirteen
Archimedean solids.

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A negative volume consists of a concavity or a

void. A solid with a surface impression defines
a negative area. Cups and bowls are objects that
define a negative space.

Points, lines, and planes in space define a virtual

volume. For example, a table with a top and four
legs occupies an area of space. Yet the space be-
low the top surface and between the four legs is
empty. The empty space is considered to be a part
of the whole volume the table defines.

Design: Branden Francis

Planes, edges, and points define the total surface

area of a cube. Since the cube is implied, the object
is indicative of a virtual volume.

Design: Matt Puhalla

MNML Design, Chicago

These tea vessels are examples of negative volume.

Each component fits within the other.

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 Design: Matt Puhalla

Aspects of a virtual volume are portrayed in this

slat chair. Lines and planes define a mass area in
space. Notice how the area of the seat and back
are defined by implied surfaces along the contour.
The metal tubular frame acts as a line contoured
along straight and curved paths. This technique
gives the chair a light and airy feeling.

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Design: Kristin Cullen

This image is a detail of an interior spread for the

design journal, Visible Language. Words inhabit
space from all directions, including the gutter,
without altering authors’ words or altering the
text. The design takes full advantage of book
space by using the parts of a book that are typi-
cally unused. Changes in size and orientation
communicate spatial positioning and volume.

The Light Years poster for the Architectural League of Design: Michael Bierut
New York employs the use of layering and transparency, Pentagram Design, New York
producing the illusion of light, space, and volume.

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 The goal of this tactile puzzle is intended to get
the viewer intimately involved with the design.
Touching is as important as looking. Note the
use of geometric typographical elements that
differ in their depth dimension.

Design: Lindsay Quinter

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Design: Chermayeff & Geismar, New York

The office tower at 9 West 57th Street in New York City is a giant ski-slope of a
building designed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill. This huge, red 9 sits on the
sidewalk on city property and marks the building’s main entrance. It has become
a dynamic New York landmark. The volume of the number in the environment
makes a powerful visual statement.

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 For over thirty years, this dimensional letter concept and
related dimensional station call letters have served as a
theme to identify WGBH, the Boston-based PBS televi-
sion station. The visual articulation of volume provides a
dimensional quality appropriate for motion graphics and Design: Chermayeff & Geismar, New York
print media.

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Design: Chermayeff & Geismar, New York

The Chase logo used abstract geometric The AMESCO metal mark is another example of
elements for its identification. Radical for its a three-dimensional transformation from a two-
time, the Chase symbol has survived a num- dimensional mark. The company represents five
ber of subsequent mergers and has become generations of metal and steel traders. The sym-
one of the world’s most recognizable trade- bol incorporates three capital A’ s. Additionally, the
marks. In this example, the geometry of the symbol suggests strength, structure, and building.
two-dimensional image is transformed into
three-dimensional planes, which allows the
form to remain a single color consistent with
the two-dimensional logo.

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 Design: Chermayeff & Geismar, New York

Packaging by its very nature is volumetric. These packages

of Liz Claiborne for men incorporate squares and rectangles
in three-dimensional visual units.

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Ma ss | Space At tributes

form language features

attributes: shape—color—texture—size

The mass/space elements are described by their

visual and physical attributes and distinguishing
features. The attributes are characterized by shape,
color, texture, and size. It is the attribute of an ob-
ject that signals identity and gives meaning to form.
Multiple shapes, colors, textures, and sizes are
found in nature and the built environment.

Shape
Shapes are self-contained outlines or surfaces that
are defined by regular polygons or variable-sided
polygons and closed curved configurations. Shapes
innately create visual stimuli that incorporate the
attributes of color, texture, and size/scale. Shapes,
like planes, are parallel to the image area that rest
flat on a two-dimensional surface but may also have
a 3-D appearance. Even shapes with the most com-
plex configuration are usually derivatives of simple
basic geometry.

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 The equilateral triangle, square, pentagon, hexagon,
and octagon are regular polygons having equal
sides and angles. Each polygon in the illustration
shares the same centered vertical dimension, but
the polygons do not appear to be similar in size.
When the circumference of a circle is centered on
a regular polygon, the points of the polygon are
always tangent to the circle.

This illustration shows the construction of a

pentagon as it relates to a circle. The first six
steps are necessary to determine the length of
the side of the pentagon. Once that is deter-
mined, the line is placed tangent to the inside of
the circle’s circumference. As shown, the five-
pointed star is derived from the five points of the
pentagon. The last drawing shows a 180-degree
rotation of two pentagons that form a ten-sided
regular polygon.

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Regular polygons form tile tessellations consisting of two or more

types of regular polygons. In this example, the square and equilat-
eral triangle define the tessellation.

Organic shapes with an irregular contour are derived from basic

polygons, circles, and ellipses. The underlying geometric shapes
have axes, which give directional emphasis to the organic form.

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 This illustrates how a complex form is derived from a
simple triangle and circle, which allows for exploration
and variation. Using a square that could fold and connect
into a much larger, more complex form is the basis for
this information graphic. The possibilities of creating flat
and dimensional structures offer many alternatives. The
design of the spreads fits within the square grid. The form
was designed to separate content and provide order to the
incorporation of photography, patterns, and other elements.
Consideration is given to each spread individually as well
as each part of the whole piece. The intent was to create an
interactive piece so the viewer could fold it in multiple ways
and view different spreads next to each other.

Design: Jen Vitello

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These images utilize tessellations derived from
closed curved shapes. The organic shapes sug-
gest a structure that is indicative of continued
growth and expansion.

The Tennessee Aquarium is focused on the

abundant freshwater fish, bird, and animal life
of Tennessee’s rivers and their tributaries.
This Lisbon Aquarium is dedicated to the sea
life of the open ocean and houses a vast array
of marine creatures.

Design: Chermayeff & Geismar, New York

The strong triangular red/white shape in the

2006 DAAP Works poster is a segment of a five
pointed star. The angles that form this triangle
are echoed in the structural design of the com-
position. It also serves as a visual cue leading
the eye to the text-based content of the poster.
Note how the white shape directs the viewer to
the word, “daapWorks.”

The composition also incorporates spatial depth

through the use of layering and perspective.
Circular/dot shapes derived from the typeface
Dr. No by Ian Anderson provide contrast to the
sharp angles. Design: Kristin Cullen

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 The combination of geometric The geometric logo for Argentinian
and organic shapes function broadcaster Artear was inspired
as a harmonious whole in this by the Argentinian sun. It is made
nonprofit finance logo. The of interlocking elements around
angular structure on the left an open center. The logo is also
and right sides suggest a similar to the flag of Argentina.
two- and three-dimensional
spatial configuration.

Design: Steff Geissbuhler, C&G Partners, New York

Founded as Universal Press Alhurra (Arabic for “the free

Syndicate, Andrews McMeel one”) is an Arabic-language
Universal diversified and satellite TV network. The mark
began publishing humor, self- is defined by three lines of
improvement books, syndi- color and two linear negative
cated columns, and cartoons. spaces. The linear elements
The mark uses the letter U for function as a whole to define
Universal. Two added eyes to the overall shape.
the letter U make it into a face.
The letter U is defined by two
rectangles and a segment of
an arc of a circle.

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This system of symbol signs was designed for use in airports,

transportation hubs, and at large international events. They
were produced through a collaboration between the American
Institute of Graphic Artists (AIGA) and the U.S. Department of
Transportation (DOT ). The symbol signs are an example of how
public-minded designers can address a universal communica-
tion need. AIGA appointed a committee of five leading design-
ers of environmental graphics, who evaluated the symbols and
made recommendations for adapting or redesigning them.
Based on their conclusions, a team of AIGA member designers
produced the symbols.

These symbols are deliberately constrained and consistent

in geometric shape relationships. Note the similarity of circle
shapes, line weights, and angles. The symbols are intended
to be legible in small or large format.

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 Design: AIGA Symbol Sign Commission

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Color

Points, lines, and planes also have a color attribute.

It encompasses three properties or dimensions—
hue, value, and chroma.

Hue is the generic family name of color. For

example, a blue hue is the root of all blues that
appear light, dark, bright, or dull.

The value of a color is characterized by its

relative lightness or darkness. A color appears
light if it is placed in the context of a color that is
darker. Generally, light colors that appear to have
white in them are called tints, while colors that
appear to have black in them are called shades.

The third property of color is chroma, or purity.

Chroma has two distinguishing characteristics—
saturation and brightness. Colors at full saturation
cannot be made more colorful. Desaturated colors
appear to have a gray tone. A tone is a derivative of
a fully saturated color that has been modified with
gray. As colors appear grayer they become dull or
less bright. The terms brightness and intensity
are often used interchangeably. However, consider
the possibility that brightness is dependant upon
our perception of a color while intensity is depen-
dent upon the wavelength of a color. One deals HUE
with cognitive processing and the other deals with Hue is a property of color that represents the generic
scientifically measured calculations. names of family groups within the visible spectrum.

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 VALUE
Each hue is represented in different light to
dark values along the vertical column. These
modified colors are referred to as tints (with
white) and shades (with black).

HUE and CHROMA—SATURATION VALUE and SATURATION

Each vertical band of color is a derivative of one One red-orange hue is represented in a different
hue family that has been modified with a light value within each vertical column. Along each
gray at the top of the illustration and a darker horizontal row, the color is the same in value but
gray at the bottom. These modified colors are it contrasts in saturation, or chroma. The same
referred to as tones. hue is represented in visually uniform units of
contrast in chroma. As the saturation changes in
tone, the brightness changes from bright to dull.

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Design: Chermayeff & Geismar, New York

Fully saturated primary and secondary colors

form the palette for these examples. No alterations
have been made to modify the value or saturation of
each hue.

The colors in the NBC peacock progress in an orderly

sequence derived from the visible spectrum. The
peacock has since become one of the world’s most
highly recognized trademarks.

The International Tchaikovsky Competition graphic

identity system encompasses a color structure that
includes two primary colors—blue and red. The
secondary colors—green, orange, and purple are
also included. The visual hierarchy of the red and
orange dominate as they alternate between the less
dominant blue, green, and purple.

Drawing on the dynamism and beauty of classical

performance, this symbol elegantly suggests a
number of musical associations: the five lines on a
staff, the curves in a clef, the radiation of sound
waves, and the lyrical flow of music.

Design: Chermayeff & Geismar, New York

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 Design: Chermayeff & Geismar, New York

The Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles,

is an institution known for its playful and memo-
rable identity. It’s made up of the three most
basic geometric forms of contemporary art—the
square, the circle, and the triangle. Keeping with
the simplicity of form, fully saturated primary
and secondary colors are employed. They evoke
contemporary art and design by pushing the
boundaries of legibility.

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Texture

Not only does the surface appearance of points,

lines, and planes have color, they also assume tex-
ture. Controlling the variables of size, repetition,
density, value, and shape can make a flat surface
look dimensional, while texture on a three-dimen-
sional surface elicits a tactile experience.

Texture is an attribute of form that is literal in a

three-dimensional object and nonliteral in a two-
dimensional representation. Textures are the visual
and/or tactile quality of a surface.

Patterns may be perceived as texture if the units

are small enough. A pattern is a graphic device that
employs regular unit repetition. Once the scale of
the unit forming a pattern is visually distinctive, it
ceases to be a texture.

The physical structural characteristics of textures

are given to a material in relation to size, shape,
position, and proportion. They appear to be inter-
woven and derived from patterns, tessellations, or
interlaced organic shapes. Generally, high-density
regular or irregular units form textures.

Like color, texture assists perception and memory

functions because it provides visual and tactile
feedback, which affect the way, an image or object
is understood and interpreted.

Textures in this example are created

through lines and dots that vary in density.

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 Design: Michael Bierut and Joe Marianek
Pentagram, New York

Variations of textured surface are applied to the

logo for the Museum of Arts and Design (MAD).
Iterations of each logo evoke a particular visual
characteristic and emotional response related
to its color and texture. The texture and color
content establish a purposeful context, which
gives the logo meaning .

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The density of the dots forms a light-to-dark
texture that functions as a surface background
in this Universe information booklet. In the fol-
lowing image, the larger white dots maintain
their identity and define concentric circles. As
the dots decrease in size they become dense,
creating the appearance of linear textural ele-
ments. Controlling the density, color, and size,
dots form textures that define a background
surface—circles, chevrons, and lines.

Design: Christina Cahalene

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 This image relies on contrast of texture, color, and
size relationships. The organic configuration of
grass communicates a visual textural field against
the stark blue sky. In order to show differences,
the basic geometric shapes of the house reinforce
the comparison of opposite elements—organic
and geometric; smooth and coarse.

Photograph: D. M. Puhalla

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These are exquisite examples of textures that define objects and letterforms.
The illustrator captures the essence of a word in a specific context.

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 Illustrations: Yulia Brodskaya
Brodskaya Illustrations, United Kingdom

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Size

As textures are dependent upon the density of

small units, size or scale is a critical consideration.
The size of objects is dependent upon several vari-
ables. Size depends upon context. Point, line,
planes, shapes, color, value, texture, and position
are factors that control the appearance of size. The attribute of size may also give an object weight.
On a two-dimensional surface, weight is a nonliteral
In order for a point to appear as a point/dot, it must representation of form: It is perceived. The visual
be placed in a context that makes it appear small. characteristic of size relationships makes objects
Otherwise, the point or dot becomes a shape. The appear light or heavy. Larger objects tend to weigh
length and width of lines provide visual spatial more than smaller ones.
cues. On a picture surface, large shapes appear
closer than smaller lines; thick lines appear closer However, the weight of an object is dependent upon
than thinner lines. additional factors. Generally, darker objects appear
heavier than lighter objects. Perhaps this visual phe-
A progressive sequence from small to large has the nomenon may be the result of our perceptual
potential to signify or imply movement. Typically, no experiences in the context of our environment.
contrast in the size relationship of objects creates a
static image having no visual directional movement. Consider the Sun shining on objects below, creating
a light-to-dark gradation from top to bottom. The
Color and value play a significant role in the appear- bottom of that object is dark, as it is shielded from
ance of size relationships. Light, bright colors tend light above; the gravitational pull of that object gives
to make objects appear larger, while dark, dull ob- it weight and anchors it to the ground below. The
jects tend to appear smaller. visual feedback suggests a heavy feel at the bottom.

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 Size affects spatial and directional movement. Without contrast
in size, linear elements appear static. A sequential variation in the
width or length of a line provides eye movement and spatial depth.

The motion of sound waves is implied when sequential changes

in size are applied.

The dots in the center of the square are all the same size. Changes
in color contrast make them appear different in scale.

The size of objects suggests the illusion of weight. The ordinary

orientation of weight is at the bottom. When the weight is posi-
tioned at the top, the image may appear top heavy. Since light
normally comes from the top, the bottom of an image is in shade
and shadow that gives the object a weighted bottom. Both size
and color affect weight.

The square format in these images is the same size. Note the
change in appearance of each square. Squares with vertical
divisions appear as vertical rectangles while squares divided
horizontally appear as wide rectangles. This vertical and
horizontal visual effect also depends on the number of units
employed within the square.
Design: Michael Bierut, Pentagram, New York

The Architectural League of New York changes location in the

city. Announcing the change of address, typographic contrast in
scale, weight, and direction conveys a message of spatial move-
ment. The space in this example changes in depth given the
changes in size and light/dark relationships. Large, bold, black
type advances forward while the smaller type with a lighter gray
value resides deep in space.

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Ma ss | Space Elements and At tributes Perceived

Perceptual Structure
In visual design and spatial organization, the Gestalt
Laws that innately influence visual order are symme-
try, proximity, similarity, closure, and figure–ground
How we perceive and process the elements and their (Law of Prägnanz). Additionally, it is important to
attributes are significant factors that contribute to recognize other terms that clarify Gestalt Principles
aesthetic value. Achieving compositional harmony and assist in the analysis of compositional organiza-
is about seeing and perceiving the parts that define tion. These terms constitute the intrinsic properties
the whole. of a visual system. Intrinsic properties include axis,
alignment, grouping, connections, terminations, con-
Seeing is more than looking. Learning to see is a vergence, number, sequence, rotation, position, ori-
process based upon acquired knowledge. We ana- entation, balance, proportion, hierarchy, focal point,
lyze and interpret visual images in a context. What is weight, tension, rhythm, fluctuation, and afterimage.
seen emanates from the interaction of discreet parts
within the context of the whole. Truly seeing the ele- The intrinsic visible properties may also serve as a
ments described by their attributes requires freeing checklist establishing objective criteria for analyzing
our vision from subjective thinking and blinded sen- compositional order. Attaining a coherent visual lan-
sibilities. Seeing with clarity requires objectivity and guage is dependent upon a logical relationship of
thoughtful visual perception. the parts that form the whole.

Creating a visually dynamic composition is depen- The order of the elements, along with their visual
dent upon many factors. Conscientious awareness attributes, affects visual interpretation and reaction
of how the elements and attributes within a struc- to the images. While the elements and attributes are
ture interact is a fundamental factor that influences visually represented as a literal function, perceptions
visual perception. Theories of visual perception are of how they interact are conditional. Some are literal;
grounded in Gestalt Principles—a psychological others function as a nonliteral representation, and
term meaning “unified whole.” Understanding these some are reciprocal. For example, axis, alignment,
principles provides a perceptual structure and a ra- and position are literal properties that have a factual
tional explanation for organizing form and space. visual representation in a composition.

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 Weight, tension, and rhythm are nonliteral. The One of the most intriguing and visually stimulating
visual representation of these properties is figura- components of perceptual structure is closure.
tive or metaphorical. In a two-dimensional space, According to Gestalt psychology, closure is a
as presented earlier, weight is an expression of a visual phenomenon that occurs when shapes are
set of conditions that makes an object appear to be not entirely or literally connected. If the proximity
heavy or light. Therefore, weight is a nonliteral, of points or line endings is controlled and positioned
intrinsic property. appropriately, the image will imply a connection.

When a mutual action occurs between two elements, This visual phenomenon intensifies the white
it has a reciprocal function. The Gestalt Principle of areas that are not joined. The closure affect is
figure and ground reversal functions as a reciprocal not only recognizable in regular shapes, such as
arrangement of parts. The figure/ground phenome- squares, circles, and triangles, it is also found in
non occurs when an object appears to be visually pictograms, logos, ligatures, and other forms of
conspicuous (figure) while the other appears sec- graphic represen-tation. Closure and other visual
ondary (ground). The ground serves as a space upon intrinsic properties do not happen in a vacuum.
which a figure resides. When the figure becomes the They function in conjunction with one another
ground and the ground becomes the figure, both simultaneously. Closure, for example, depends
objects mutually support each other. upon similarity, position, proximity, and cognition.

Structuring form is a complex undertaking and The perceptual function of closure occurs by
understanding the power of perceptual functions reducing the graphic representation of familiar
is useful for organizing visual components. In order forms to essential minimal elements. Efficient use
to analyze an image or composition objectively, rath- of point, line, and shape allows the eye to connect
er than subjectively, the viewer must understand the point and line trajectories. Closure intensifies the
way the elements, attributes, and perceptual struc- activity of the negative area, allowing the viewer
ture function as a whole. These three categories are to be actively involved with forming the shape of
the components that form a dynamic, coherent, and the image.
substantive visual language system.

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perceptual structure

literal

hierarchy transitions
focal point connections
convergence
terminations

axis
—visual, geometric

number/density
sequence/interval

proximity
Gestalt Law of Proximity—spatial proximity of elements are perceived as a totality

position
alignment, rotation, projection, trajectory orientation

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 mass/space elements and attributes perceived

nonliteral reciprocal

after image + simultaneous contrast GESTALT L AW OF FIGURE / GROUND

tension positive + negative
weight + balance

closure
Gestalt Law of Closure—a perceived sensation, completing a disconnected figure

similarity/grouping
Gestalt Law of Similarity—similar elements and attributes grouped into collective entities

continuity
Gestalt Law of Continuity—perceived continuing visual patterns

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The perceptual function of closure defines a square, circle, and
triangle. The affect of closure produces a striking visual phe-
nomenon. When corners are not connected, perceptual functions
produce a visual glow whiter than the page itself. The shapes de-
fined by a series of points appear whiter than the surface they rest
upon. The same phenomenon occurs when the trajectory of line
endings form a predictable path.

fighter plane
Design: Joseph Howell

hummingbird mark
Design: Lucas Langus

sailfish mark
Design: Lauren Oka

egret mark
Design: Laura Frycek

The explicit forms in these images are defined by integrating the

principle of closure. Note that the trajectory of line or point end-
ings align with neighboring edges to form the shape. The proxim-
ity of the point and line endings is a critical factor that links the
interrupted parts. With too much interrupted space, the image
would not hold together. Within each image, similar line weights,
shapes, and curves form a unified whole. Each animal figure
communicates the essence of its natural state.

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 The Peace Corps image is a linear representation
of closure. There are fifty lines (twenty-five black
strokes, not including the solid olive branch,
and twenty-five white spaces) to represent the
fifty United States, in which the Peace Corps
was founded and remains based. The line weight
changes progressively, creating a dark-to-light
value field for the white dove of peace. The
Design: Jesse Reed shapes that form the dove also share a similarity
in curved form.

The edges of the top and bottom ellipse that form

the 35-mm film canister are close enough in
proximity to allow the eye to connect the points.
The black color and shape of the film offer a vivid Design: Jesse Reed
contrast to the implied cylinder. The black color
of the film is also indicative of the character of
the film itself. This image was used for a photog-
raphy show poster titled, “We Still Use Film.”

Design: Steff Geissbuhler

C&G Partners, New York

The identity of the Voice of America incorpo-

rates the closure affect and figure–ground
reversal. In addition, the mark turns the V and A
into inverted triangles to suggest the ability to
project in many directions at once.

An event poster with the speaker’s name transforming from

barely recognizable to a literal use of letterforms. Even though
portions of the letterforms are left out, note the speaker’s name
becomes readable in the fourth horizontal line of type.

Design: Mia Pizzuto

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Similar shapes group to form a horizontal line of circles and squares.

Another component of perceptual structure is

a Gestalt principle called similarity/grouping.
Perceptually, elements will be grouped if they
are similar to each other.

Similarity and grouping is dependent upon Contrasting shapes are grouped according to similarity in color
position, proximity, structure, size, shape, texture, and shape to form a horizontal line. Color is such a powerful
and color. When these characteristics of form attribute that it makes it possible to group contrasting shapes
correspond to each other, it is likely the elements along an angular path.
will be visually linked together.

But, these elements have an innate visual hierarchy.

Undeniably, a sequence of squares will group to-
gether if they are placed in close proximity and ap-
pear the same in color and size, but they will not
group with a set of circles that are the same color
and size. However, color is a powerful visual attri-
bute. Different shapes can be grouped if color is
employed thoughtfully.

Similarity in a composition is an essential ingredient.

It is the glue that holds parts together as a harmoni-
ous whole. Similarity may contribute to eye move- An image composed of uniform squares in a regular sequence
ment from one point to another. produces a static field. Too much similarity in size, shape,
orientation, and position is visually predictable. This type of
A word of caution—too much similarity will diminish configuration enables the squares to visually group and form
eye movement and cause a composition to become a field or ground.
static. Contrast in size, shape, or color is a necessity.
On the flip side, too much contrast creates chaos. A In the field of static uniform squares, one red circle becomes
visually dynamic composition establishes a balance a focal point and creates eye movement. The circular shape and
between similar and contrasting elements. position within the field of squares offers decisive visual contrast.

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 Photographs: Jane Park

A regular repetition of austere columns in light and shadow in this photograph sets the stage for a
contrasting element. The strategic placement of a bench and bicycle in the foreground encourages
eye movement and visual interest within the dimensional space.

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“A thimbleful of red is redder than a bucketful.”

—Henri Matisse

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 Color Structure

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The study of color represents an array of theories Generally, color models are an orderly system
dating back to Plato’s Timaeus. Spanning centuries, formed by a set of primary colors in the visible
scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, archi- spectrum. Two types of color models are classi-
tects, philosophers, psychologists, physicists, fied as subtractive and additive.
chemists, engineers, and painters have contributed
theoretical color models. The chronology of color Additive models result from light emitted from a
theory demonstrates varying definitions, methods, color source. Subtractive models are the result of
and organizational strategies. Most of these sys- light reflected from a surface. The two most com-
tems of color organization share a common classi- mon additive and subtractive models are the RGB
fication. Color is defined by its properties in a model (red, green, blue) and the CMYK model
three-dimensional space—hue, value, and chroma. (cyan-magenta-yellow-black).

RGB is an additive color space. In this model CMYK is a subtractive model used in printing.
merging red, green, and blue light produces the Cyan, magenta, and yellow are used to produce
visible spectrum. colors of the visible spectrum.

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 Red, Yellow, Blue ( RYB) system is a subtractive The hues that define a color wheel derived from
model used for pigment mixing. It is commonly pigment progress in an orderly sequence related
known as the standard color wheel of the visible to the visible spectrum. These colors also progress
spectrum. Red, yellow, and blue form the primary in a value sequence of light to dark.
colors; violet (or purple), orange, and green form
the secondary colors. This subtractive system im-
plies that the mixture of two colors cannot produce
a third color that is greater in saturation than the
two parent colors. For example, mixing yellow and
blue to achieve green will result in a third color that
is perceived as a dull, desaturated green rather
than the expected colorful green hue.

RYB color system is a subtractive model. Red, This color wheel illustrates an arrangement of This color wheel illustrates an arrangement of
yellow, and blue are the primary colors of the primary, secondary, and tertiary colors of the primary, secondary, and tertiary colors of the
commonly known color wheel. The secondary red, yellow, and blue color system. red, green, and blue color system.
colors—violet, orange, and green—make up
a secondary triad. In theory, the secondary
colors are produced by mixing equal amounts
of red and blue, red and yellow, and blue and
yellow. Since this is a subtractive process,
this method of mixing produces desaturated
secondary colors.

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3

Colors that reside opposite one another on the

color wheel are called complementary. In this
illustration, the primary and secondary colors
form a complementary pair. Colors that are ab-
solutely balanced in temperature contrast will
yield a chromatic gray color when the pairs are
neutralized. If the colors are not absolutely bal-
anced in temperature contrast, the third neutral
color appears brown. The derivative colors be-
tween the two full chroma hues are desaturated
tonal colors.

Theoretically, the neutral gray should be the

same color since the complementary pairs are Another method of manipulating the saturation
derived from one primary and one secondary level of a fully saturated hue is to modify it with
color. That is true if the secondary colors were a neutral gray. These examples show a fully
actually derived from two primaries. Because saturated color mixed with a neutral gray. Since
pigment mixing is a subtractive process, the yellow is lighter in value and blue is darker in
secondary colors would be desaturated. The value than the neutral gray, the units of con-
grays are different due to the formation of pig- trast are strong. Since the orange is similar in
ments based on chemistry that produces fully value to the neutral gray, the units contrast in
saturated colors. saturation but remain constant in value.

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While color systems purposefully specify colors in
an orderly sequential visual arrangement, their ap-
pearance is dependent upon specific environments.
All colors transform in appearance when the con-
text or environment changes. A color placed upon
a light background will appear dark. When the same
color is placed upon a dark background it will ap-
pear light. Similarly, a color placed upon a back-
ground low in saturation will appear greater in satu-
ration than when it’s placed upon a highly saturated
color background. The perceptual effect is called
simultaneous contrast. Since colors are rarely
seen in isolation, the effect of simultaneous con-
trast causes the appearance of colors to change in
a given palette or harmony.

There are twelve units in this white-to-black

value scale. The center strip is one value of
gray but appears to change in value from dark
to light. Comparatively, light colors make a
color appear dark and dark colors make that
same color appear light.

Value changes affect the appearance of size,

shape, and space. Each rectangular unit in the
twelve-step scale appears concave. The strip
through the center of the value scale appears
convex. This visual effect is due to our conven-
tional expectation of a light source originating
from above, as does the Sun. A light source
above an object will create a shadow under-
neath. In the twelve-step value scale, the dark
edge of each unit is at the top and the light
edge at the bottom. Light from above reflects
from the bottom edge of the rectangle while the
top edge is dark shadow. As the brain assumes
a single light source, value gradation produces
a three-dimensional shape.

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 Simultaneous contrast also affects the appearance of
color brightness in different contexts. White’s illusion
illustrates the fact that the same luminance can elicit
different perceptions of brightness.

White’s illusion is sometimes combined with the

Munker illusion that uses colors instead of gray scale.

The two circle figures are the same color.

Perceptually, they appear to change in hue
family as one appears green and the other
yellow-green. This is due to the figure color
resting on one field of orange that is similar
to its hue family, and the blue field contrasting
the figure’s hue family.

The two circle figures are the same color.

Perceptually, they appear to change in satura-
tion, as one appears more colorful than the
other. This is the result of a color figure posi-
tioned on a desaturated field of color and the
same figure color positioned on a saturated
field of color.

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Another perceptual phenomenon related to simultaneous contrast is the negative
afterimage effect. When viewing a hue for twenty to thirty seconds, the rods and
cones become fatigued. Once this occurs, the inverse, or complement color will
appear when the eyes are shifted to a white surface. Every color has a comple-
mentary color opposite. While the perception of different individuals may vary,
the after-effect images seen is consistent.

Employing gridlike structures of color, line, and shape is a

common practice when organizing space. However, these
structures have visual consequences. These organizational
structures generate disturbing optical effects caused by physi-
ological reactions to visual stimuli in the brain. These effects
present serious challenges for designers to consider when or-
ganizing elements within the image area. The Hermann and
Scintillating grids are two examples that illustrate this point.

In the Hermann Grid, the black-and-white squares on a white

background create the appearance of fluctuating white or gray
shapes at the intersections of the white lines.

In the Scintillating Grid, dots seem to appear and disappear

at the intersections of two lines crossing each other vertically
and diagonally. When focusing on a single intersection, the
dot disappears.

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 The Hermann Grid produces negative afterimages of disappearing The Scintillating Grid produces negative afterimages of
dots in the intersections of lines in the field of white, gray, or black. disappearing dots in the intersections of vertical and diagonal
lines in the white, gray, black, or color fields.

There are five units of color used in this optical color mixture
study. The five colors are shown in the bottom horizontal strip.
In each of the four horizontal bands of color, the same five colors
are used throughout. Comparing the horizontal bands, note the
changes in hue, value, and saturation of the five colors. Since the
blue and green pair is similar in value and saturation contrast,
they appear to blend as one color field.

Design: Kathryn Lee Design: Laura Frycek

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Color systems provide the substance for developing Colors that are equal in value may contrast in
a color harmony. But they do not provide a method of saturation. A fully saturated yellow is light in value.
making color choices. Forming a color harmony or A fully saturated violet is perceived as a dark value.
palette is a matter of exercising restraint by control-
ling the hue, value, and saturation. When comparing two colors for similarity in value,
they must be placed adjacent to each other. Squint
The control of hue is dependent upon the number at the edge where the two colors meet for approxi-
used. More than five hue families tend to create visu- mately twenty seconds. If the edge blurs, the colors
al clutter. Controlling value and saturation are con- are similar in value. If they are not the same in value,
tingent upon decisive contrast. However, ordering the two colors will become noticeably dark and light.
these color variables is incidental to image context
and message. Applying color according to its visual Also important to communicating a message is
importance or dominance is essential for clear com- evoking an emotional response. This process of color
munication. This is accomplished by objective ana- selection correlates to subjective analytical reason-
lytical reasoning—comparing the similarity and con- ing—the feeling that a color combination elicits.
trasting relationships of hue, value, and saturation.

Design: Matt Puhalla

A composition of color shapes is organized to enhance the color in the

leaf. The composition above modifies the value of the colors to be equal.
Contrast is maintained in saturation and hue. In the third composition, the
saturation of the colors is modified to remain similar. Contrast is maintained
in hue and value. The final study illustrates similarity in hue. In this study,
contrast is maintained through value and saturation contrast of a green hue,
creating a monochromatic color harmony.

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 Munsell Color Notation System

Munsell organized color on a vertical center axis.

Each unit of color in the vertical column is percep-
tually uniform in light to dark contrast within the
same hue family.

The chroma axis extends from the central axis at

To assist in the assessment of value and saturation a right angle. The full chroma hue is positioned
contrast, it is helpful to refer to a color system with according to a value equal to the central axis gray
a pragmatic and useful organizational structure. scale. From the central neutral gray scale, the col-
The Munsell Color Notation System employs a color ors are organized in a number of gradients of equal
space based on the three dimensions of color—hue, degrees of saturation contrast. The horizontal rows
value, and chroma. While Albert Munsell designed form units of color uniform in chroma/saturation
this system through extensive user testing around with no contrast in their value.
1910, it is still used today in design, anthropology,
and science. Specifically, the NASA Ames Research Every hue family in the Munsell ordering system
Center applies Munsell principles to understand characterizes an objective color harmony. Color
perceptual color relationships and to assist in the harmonies comprise two fundamentally inseparable
design of color combinations that are legible. ingredients—similarity and contrast.

From the Munsell Color Notation System, two

hues—yellow and blue—are illustrated. The full
chroma yellow is defined as equal to gray at the
ninth unit value and is positioned at the full
chroma unit. The full chroma blue is defined as
equal to the fourth unit value, neutral gray, and is
positioned at the full saturation unit. Within each
of the two hue families, colors are organized as
vertical columns that are structured in value
contrast, top to bottom. Saturation contrast is
confined within the same rows, left to right.

Value or saturation scales generated by software

programs will not produce the appearance of an
evenly graduated scale. Gradations and blends
in software programs are based on precise
mathematical models. However, visually they do
not appear accurate.

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Intrinsic Color Structure

Perceiving and understanding the order and

importance of color interaction has useful applica-
tions. Color adds significance to visual communica-
tion as it accentuates and makes perceptible the
identification of that which is perceived first, as the
main idea, before decoding additional elements in
Interpreting and understanding a visual message the message. Perceived hierarchy represents a se-
involves deliberate control of mass/space elements quence of visual commands in the language of color.
and their attributes. Simply being sensitive to the It’s significant in signaling systems, wayfinding
visual complexities and conditions of color is systems, maps, instrumentation, educational,
fundamental to generating a clear visual message. instructional material, and so on. Effective color
communication permits users to view, retrieve,
Color requires thoughtful application, therefore, access, decipher, interpret, understand, and experi-
it is imperative to place it in a structured context. ence a variety of information systems in a meaningful,
Color serves as an activating stimulus that intensi- valid, and authentic manner.
fies visual consciousness and responsiveness—it
conjures emotions and reinforces visual information Applying rational principles of color organization
processing and meaning. When color is thoughtful- offers credible objective criteria for choosing a color
ly organized and applied, it has been demonstrated palette. Color structures contain patterns of intrinsic
that it substantially improves communication and visual harmony. Color harmonies have an internal
comprehension. The three properties of color have orderly structure composed of a dynamic balance
the potential to form an ordered visual language between similar and contrasting parts. The end
that establish meaning and evoke emotion. result is a congruent and pleasing arrangement
of parts.
As an intrinsic visual attribute of form, color
functions as language and message. Controlling The intrinsic structure of the color’s properties
the visual relationships of hue, value, and satura- provides the foundation of a visual language. The
tion contrast can significantly assist a person’s visual language of color is formed by inherent oserv-
cognitive ability to assign importance to an object. able characteristics of color systems. Interestingly,
these inherent color combinations are found in na-
There are some who hypothesize the mind’s eye ture as well. Innumerable color configurations can
does not readily give a visual ordering to colors, be formulated by eight conventional color harmonies.
but ineffective use of color always generates con- Thoughtful manipulation of the properties within a
fusion and ambiguity. By executing control of hue, conventional color harmony presents a powerful
value, and saturation, the mind’s eye does readily means of communication. Each property of color
perceive visual order. intrinsically governs the rules of order.

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 Th e conve n t iona l colo r ha r monie s in clu d e :

MONOCHROMATIC PRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY COMPLEMENTARY SPLIT COMPLEMENTS ANALOGOUS DIVERGENT

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

The colors represented in this system make up a twelve-step

arrangement of the visible spectrum. This make-up includes
the primary, secondary, and tertiary color groups.

The monochromatic harmonies are broken into two categories

of value and saturation. In a monochromatic harmony, colors
remain within the same hue family. The derivative colors in This color structure illus-
the hue family appear to be mixtures of white or black. This trates tints of the primary
structure establishes contrast in value and no contrast in hue. and secondary colors. White
is the additive color, produc-
The saturation category does something similar. But, rather ing derivatives from the full
than using white or black as modifiers, a gray value is used color to white located at the
instead. As with the value structure, there is a contrast in center point.
saturation and no contrast in hue.

All hues in the visible spectrum may be constituted as a

monochromatic color harmony by employing this method. This color structure illus-
trates shades of the primary
and secondary colors. Black
is the additive color, produc-
ing derivatives from the full
color to black located at the
center point.

Derivative tints and shades of the orange hue

represent a monochromatic harmony.
This color structure illustrates
tones of the primary and sec-
ondary colors. Gray is the ad-
ditive color, producing deriva-
tives from the full color to gray
located at the center point.
Derivative tones of the orange hue form a monochromatic harmony.

Derivative tones and values of the orange hue

form a monochromatic harmony.

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3 Intrinsic Color Structure

Primary Harmony: red–yellow–blue

The primary harmony and its derivative color structure utilize tints, will ultimately move to a chromatic gray color. If the colors
shades, and tones. Note that tones may also be generated from are not precisely opposite, the derivatives will ultimately yield
the mixture of complementary colors. Complements are colors brown. By arranging a complementary pair from each tint,
directly across from each other on the color wheel. If the comple- shade, and tonal category, a multitude of color combinations
mentary pair is precisely opposite each other, the derivative colors can be achieved within the primary color harmony.

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 Secondary Harmony: orange–violet–green

The secondary harmony is defined by its derivative color structure

applying tints, shades, and tones. As with the primary harmonies,
a multitude of color combinations can be achieved within the
secondary color harmony.

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3 Intrinsic Color Structure

Ter tiary Harmony: equally spaced between primary colors

One set of tertiary colors—yellow-orange–red-violet–blue-green is

used. The derivative color structure applies tints, shades, and tones.
By locating derivative colors from the tint, shade, and tonal categories,
the number of combinations is endless within the tertiary color harmony.

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 Ter tiary Harmony: equally spaced between secondary colors

One set of tertiary colors—red-orange–blue-violet–yellow-green is

used. The derivative color structure applies tints, shades, and tones.

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3 Intrinsic Color Structure

Analogous Harmony: adjacent colors in a limited range on the color wheel

This example shows a set of four different analogous

harmonies and their derivative colors. Derivatives
are the result of tints, shades, and tonal mixtures.

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 Complementary Harmony: colors directly opposite one another on the color wheel

Complements yield desaturated colors. All complementary

pairs contrast in absolute temperature—warm and cool.

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3 Intrinsic Color Structure

Split Complementary Harmony: a variation of the complementary color harmony

It uses the two colors adjacent to one of the complementary

pairs while the second color remains the original complement.

Split complements yield a multitude of wonderful desaturated

colors when tints, shades, and tones are applied.

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 Divergent Harmony: a variation of any of the conventional harmonies with one color skewed

In a primary harmony of red, yellow, blue, a violet color might be

substituted for blue. This color grouping would be called a primary
harmony with a divergent blue. Applying this strategy allows a
great deal of flexibility while exercising constraint.

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3
The colors that make a system are also identifi ed
with temperature. These colors tend to be percep-
tually warm or cool. Opposite colors on the color
wheel represent absolute temperature contrast.
For example, red and green are absolutely warm
and cool. However, the neighboring tertiary colors
may shift in temperature. In a system, colors are ar-
ranged in a logical sequence, from one hue to the
next. Red can shift to red-orange on one side and Primary colors of a traffic
red-violet on the other. Comparing a red-orange light clearly merge content
with a red-violet makes derivatives of red warm or and context.
cool. A red-violet color may appear warm when
placed in a blue-violet context. But, the same red-
violet color may appear cool when placed in a red Design: Lisa Bambach
context. The only color that does not shift in its
relative temperature is orange.

Implications

Color structures in themselves have little value Content usually calls for a certain type of response
unless a concern for context and content are from the viewer. Emotional response to color can
taken into consideration. Content is represented be evaluated in relation to color’s three properties.
by a system of meaning. Context is represented by Colors that appear to be soft tend to be composed
a system of joining things together that provides a of light values, low in saturation and low in con-
structural system. trasting hues. Colors appearing energetic are
typically generated by high contrast in hue, value,
If a context requires a visual hierarchy of important and saturation.
to less important, contrasting color relationships
are mandatory ingredients. Since contrast is the key Evaluating the similarities and contrasting color
ingredient, any color structure is capable of creating properties within the harmony is fundamental to
a color hierarchy. Some color harmonies work better creating a system and generating a psychological
than others when decisive contrast is essential. response. Any of the color harmonies can work
Without question, a monochromatic harmony works well if the hue, value, and saturation are applied
well in a context that calls for hierarchical structure. with color knowledge.
If content calls for a context without a hierarchy of
visual importance, different hues of the same value
and saturation are prerequisite ingredients.

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 The colors in the four corners of these stud-
ies contrast in relative or absolute tempera-
ture. In the first example the yellow-green is
cool compared to the red in the upper-right
corner. The yellow-green becomes warm
when comparing it to the bottom-left corner
that is blue.

Within each of the three studies, colors share

Design: Darrin Hunter, Mark Grote, Laura Frycek a similarity in value and saturation. The con-
trasting property is hue. When value and sat-
uration are equal, no one color is more
important than the other.

Arcos de Valdevez, Portugal

One predominate color provides a context for the
letter slot, door handle, lock, and window panes.

Obidos, Portugal
Minimal usage of the blue stripe is a focal point
in an environment of various warm and cool
neutral tones.

Lisbon, Portugal
The blue decorative geometry is a focal point in a
building’s façade composed of gray neutral tones.

Photographs: Diane Lee

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Photograph: Diane Lee

Lisbon, Portugal
The primary color harmony defines the
compositional structure of the image.
The proportional relationships of shape
and color are clearly articulated. The de-
saturated, light value red, a desaturated,
dark value yellow, and a saturated blue
triangle frame the wind-blown clothing.

The primary and secondary colors are

naturally associated with the color wheel
when they are represented at full chroma.
This magazine cover and poster from the
Hirshhorn Museum communicate a mes-
sage clearly in sync with the museum’s
purpose. Note also the division of the
image area is structured in proportional
rectangular shapes.

Design:
Chermayeff & Geismar, New York

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 The three book cover studies illustrate a monochromatic color harmony. Note Design: Katrina Mendoza
the surface area quantity of the hue appears to occupy less than half of the
image area. The monochromatic area serves as a background for the typogra-
phy and graphic content, which resides at the top of the visual hierarchy.

Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museum employs color as a visual means to

define content in the Why Design Now? 2010 National Design Triennial cata-
logue. A color palette classifies categories in the catalogue. Because the colors
share a common degree of saturation and similarity in value, no one area is
more important than any other. The primary and secondary color palette estab-
lishes a context appropriate to the content. The alternating sequence of warm
and cool colors provides enough visual contrast to distinguish each category.
Design: Steff Geissbuhler
C&G Partners, New York

The logo design for the Darien Library is

composed of a monochromatic color har-
mony. Arranging the value and saturation
structure in a consistent sequence suggests
the movement of pages in a book. This struc-
tured approach to color and shape presents
an image of action and a positive message.
Note the implied circle arcs that suggest flat
shapes forming a spatial plane representing
pages of the book.

Design: Michael Bierut and Yve Ludwig

Pentagram Design, New York

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3

Cultural motifs are interpreted through color,

point, line, and shape in these spreads for a
book. Derivatives of the primary colors are
used. The gold-toned gradients are derivatives
of a yellow hue.

The content and contexts communicate the

vibrancy of the women and culture portrayed
as well as contributing to the hopeful tone of
the book. The traditional patterns are used in
dynamic ways to convey the idea of change.
Shapes defined by their interior linear pattern
create a symbol for cycles—one is fading
while the other is strong. The pattern itself
stresses interconnectivity.

Design: Allison Leidy

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 The primary color harmony employed in this book spread uses Design: Lindsey N. Meyer
derivatives of red. These derivative colors produce a gradients
suggesting movement. The red, yellow, blue harmony is lively and
welcoming in its contextual feel.

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 4

“There is no work of art without system.”

—Le Corbusier

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 Spatial Structure
image area and the implied forces

ER
RD
O

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4
Spatial Structure | O RD E R

Proportion

Without proportion, form is meaningless. Our

visual intelligence is dependent upon it. Proportion
accords order, structure, harmony, and gives shape
to the image area. Implicitly and explicitly, propor-
tion defines the division of space within the image
area and establishes visual balance. Proportions
are mathematic and harmonic.

Proportional relationships are inherently integrated

into the context of all objects including nature. In
the built environment, proportional divisions of
space may be easily identified and visually apparent.
In nature, the proportional divisions are hidden
and implied. The division of space is the result of
decision-making processes conditioned by our
visual experiences and interaction with objects.
Raising the level of awareness about hidden and The circle’s rectangle and triangle dates to
implied proportion is a useful contributing determi- classical Greek geometry. It is a proportional
nate in ordering and structuring space. Imposed relationship of parts that are the same in sur-
limitations of spatial divisions create limitless face area. The circle, rectangle, and square
organizational possibilities. are harmoniously balanced and proportionate.
Placing the circle inside the all-important
Proportion is a comparison of one surface area to square is the starting point for this illustration.
another. Proportions are expressed in ratios. Eliminating one tenth of the square creates a
Dividing a square into two equal parts creates a rectangle in proportion to the circle. Extending
proportional relationship among three parts—two lines from the center point of the rectangle’s
rectangles and the square itself. The two rectangles top, left, and right sides creates a triangle in
are proportionally the same. A single rectangle is in proportion to the circle and rectangle.
a 1:2 ratio with the square. Comparisons of dissimi-
lar shapes can be made in terms of proportional
relationships. The circle’s rectangle and triangle
is a good example.

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 Symmetry

Once an image area has been defined as the

compositional whole, the first element placed Translation symmetry is a movement without rotating
within that area divides the space proportionally. or reflecting—it implies direction and distance.
This, and the subsequent divisions that follow, are
critical. Order and unity within the space depends
on the balance of all parts that make the whole.
Balance is directly related to the Gestalt Law of
Symmetry—symmetrical images are perceived
collectively. By its very nature, symmetry implies
balance of parts that form the whole.

Order in symmetry may be visually obvious or

hidden. Bilateral and radial symmetry are the Reflection is bilateral symmetry, which is a mirror image.
most common types in which the order of parts
is predictably regular. It is readily apparent in
design, art, and architecture. Symmetrical
changes are figure transformations that include
repetition and movement. Typically, size remains
constant, while position, number, and orientation
change. Symmetry operations defining repeti-
tion and movement include glide-reflection,
glide-rotation, reflection, rotation, and transla-
tion. Glide reflections involve more than one Rotation symmetry revolves around a central point.
operation. Balance among the parts is visually
stable since the parts are proportionally repetitive.

Glide reflection involves more than one symmetry operation.

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The inherent forces of the square are the foundation Ancient Greek mathematicians observed a golden
of most proportional systems. While letterforms in ratio appearing frequently in the proportions found
themselves tend to be asymmetrical, the bilateral in geometry. The golden ratio or golden section,
symmetry of the square is critical to letterform as it is known, may be described by comparing parts.
design. Letterforms designed using geometry can Literally, the golden section is stated as— the lesser
be traced to the Italian Renaissance. In a manu- part is to the greater part as the greater part is to
script defining the rules governing the construction the whole. Each unit is directly proportional to the
of the Roman alphabet, Felice Feliciano established others. Internally, a rectangle in the golden section
mathematical proportions for letterforms. proportion produces an internal and external spiral.
Consistent, harmonious typographic families share In geometry, a golden spiral is a logarithmic spiral.
the same heights, weights, and general proportions. Its successive growth factor is related to the golden
ratio. Relatively, a golden spiral gets proportionally
While bilateral symmetry balances the space wider for every quarter turn it makes.
with equal-size units, dynamic symmetry creates
the appearance of asymmetrical parts. Dynamic It is generally believed that this proportion system is
symmetry is a system of shapes that appears to aesthetically pleasing to the eye. The golden section
be asymmetrical. It is a proportional division of proportion was employed in the architecture, sculp-
form and space often hidden beneath the object’s ture, and artifacts of the classical Greek period.
surface. Its visual harmony consists of different
parts formed by mathematical relationships
working in unison.

This type of symmetrical order is found in the

natural environment. These organic symmetries
influence our cognitive reasoning, which in turn
affects our aesthetic preferences and processes.
Being willfully aware of the hidden structural order
found in our natural surroundings provides invalu-
able insight into our intuitive subjective inclinations
and tendencies. Luca Pacioli designed letters derived
from the square and circle.

Many fifth-century Greek vessels are in A lowercase a from Adobe Caslon Pro,
the proportion of the golden section. superimposed onto the square and circle

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 The rectangle in the proportion of the golden section begins
with a square. The distance between the center of the base of the
square to the corner creates a line length that is used to establish
the rectangle. By extending this new line from the center of the
base of the square the length of a new rectangle is defined in
proportion to the golden section: The new small rectangle is to
the square as the square is to the large rectangle.

The diagonal of the large rectangle divides the line between the
square and small rectangle, forming a smaller square and rectan-
gle. The new parts are in harmony with the whole. The lesser parts
are to the greater parts as the greater parts are to the whole.

The diagonal of the small rectangle is used to define another

division. Alternating between the two rectangles and dividing
the smallest unit create the new divisions. All units are in har-
mony with the golden section. Note that the two intersecting
diagonals form a right angle.

A quarter arc generates a decreasing spiral. Each segment of the

circle diminishes in its size proportionally as it moves toward the
smallest unit.

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4

Divine Proportion

Numerous artists and architects have proportioned

their works to approximate the golden ratio. Directly
associated with the golden section is a numerical
system known as the divine proportion. Mathemati-
cally, the proportion is known as phi, which equals
1.618. This number is derived from the Fibonocci
numerical sequence.

The Fibonacci sequence is the numerical series

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, and is generated
by the rule: [f1 = f2 = 1, fn+1 = fn+fn–1]. Fibonacci
of Pisa introduced the series in a problem involv- The Fiboncci proportion is a numerical series
ing the growth of a population of rabbits. Each generating numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13. The suc-
number in the sequence is the sum of the two cession of numbers is achieved by adding the
preceding numbers. last two numbers in the sequence.

Examples of the divine proportion can be found in

architecture, art, music, and symbols. The dimen-
sions of the pyramids of Egypt, the Greek Parthenon,
and a few classical revival and contemporary build-
ings employ the divine proportion.

The divine proportion is also considered to be a

fundamental building block in nature. Subsequently,
the world and nature have an underlying proportional
order. Humans, animals, plants, and aspects of the
universe all share a common dimensional proportion
that is found in the phi ratio: 1 to 1.68.

The ratio of each spiral’s diameter in a nautilus

shell is equal to phi—1 to 1.68. Sunflower seeds grow
spirals in which the rotation of each diameter to the
next is 1 to 1.68. Spiraled pinecone petals and leaf The Parthenon is an example of classical Greek
positioning on plant stalks follow the ratio of the architecture in the divine proportion.
divine proportion.

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 These illustrations are examples of the divine proportion
found frequently in nature. In the sunflower example, the
arrangement of seeds is known to be the most efficient
way of filling the space. In addition to the nautilus shell
spiral being in the 1:1.6 proportion, note that the rectangles
that rotate around a point are also in the same proportion.

The interior and exterior of the nautilus shell are directly

related to the spiral and proportion of the 1:1.6 ratio.

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While there is no definitive proof, the golden ratio The field of anthropometry was created in order
also appears in music. Musical works by composers to describe individual human proportion variations.
Mozart, Beethoven, Bartók, Debussy, and Schubert
may have utilized the proportion. This was accom- In addition, the proportion is the root of the
plished through sectional divisions in a musical com- pentagon and five-pointed star. The five-pointed
position and possibly through harmonic structuring. star is one of the most powerful images found in
ancient history as it was considered to be both
Da Vinci’s Vitruvian Man provides the perfect divine and magical by many cultures.
example of his interest in proportion. Da Vinci
demonstrated through Vitruvian Man the structure The late twentieth-century architect and artist,
of the human body in proportional ratios equal to Le Corbusier, developed a proportional system
phi as follows: called Le Modulor. In Le Corbusier’s model, the
height of the human body is divided by the golden
· the distance from the tip of the head to the floor section at the navel. The proportional model em-
divided by the distance from the navel to the floor ploys the square and golden section as a theoreti-
cal modular system.
· from the shoulder to fingertips divided by the
distance from the elbow to fingertips The Le Modulor system was developed to relate
human proportions in the design of products and
· from the hip to the floor divided by the knee architecture. The intent of the proportional model
to the floor is to provide a system of logic, function, and
visual aesthetics.
· divisions of finger joints, toes, and spinal cord

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 The first drawing demonstrates the way a pentagon can
be formed by applying the divine proportion. In the second
drawing, the pentagon generates the five-pointed star.

The architect Le Corbusier developed his proportional system

Da Vinci’s Vitruvian Man is an example of the 1:1.6 ratio applied called Le Modulor in the tradition of DaVinci’s Vitruvian Man. Le
to the proportions of the human figure. Da Vinci illustrated vari- Modulor is an anthropometric scale of human proportions for the
ous parts of the human body in the same proportion. purpose of improving the appearance and function of architecture.

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4
Root rectangles are another means of defining
a rectangle of proportional relevance. Root rect-
angles begin with a square, which produces a
sequence of rectangles that successively increases
in one direction in an arithmetic sequence of rectan-
gular parts. An arithmetic sequence is a succession
of numbers that moves from one term to the next by
adding the same value. For example, a numerical
sequence of [1, 2, 3] or [2, 4, 6] would be an arithmetic
sequence since the value between the subsequent
numbers is constant.

The inherent diagonal of the square is used to

produce the length of the first rectangle.
Successively, the diagonals of each new rectan-
gle generate the next rectangle in a square root
arithmetic sequence.
Successively employing the diagonal of each rectangle will
produce a new rectangle. Each rectangle increases in size in an
arithmetic progression in a square root proportion √2, √3, √4.
At the √4 proportion, the original square is doubled.

The dynamic rectangle in the root 2 proportion is constructed

by using the diagonal of the square. Subdividing the rectangle
into smaller proportional rectangular units is derived from two The root 5 proportion produces a golden section proportion that is
diagonals. As the rectangles get smaller, they remain the same bilaterally symmetrical. The square is centered with two rectangles
root 2 proportion. in the 1:1.6 ratio on either side.

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 The proportions of the root 2 rectangle form the basis of a system
used in standard ISO paper sizes A, B, and C. This ratio is a con-
venient paper size since dividing the format into two equal pieces
will result in a format with the same width/height ratio.

Known as the Van de Graaf Canon, Van de Graaf devised this

construction of a two-page layout based upon the diagonals of
the rectangles. No matter the size of the page, the Van de Graaf
Canon always results in the top left corner of the text block
being one ninth from the top and one ninth from the inside mar-
Proportion is critical for creating a visually gin. This system ensured that the text block will be positioned
pleasing and functional page layout. Since the with consistency, balance, and harmony.
time of Gutenberg, it’s not unusual to find books
printed in a vertical position that conforms pre-
cisely or loosely to the golden section. Root
rectangles and golden section proportions
have been used to standardize paper sizes.

The principles of proportion for page design

were defined in the mid-to-late twentieth century.
Variations on these principles have evolved over
the decades.

Early in the twentieth century, paper proportions

were systemized into a model that would accom-
modate different paper sizes. The system was
introduced as a DIN standard. The standard
proportions are based on the square. The side Recognizing the importance of the long forgotten Van de Graaf
of square in relation to its diagonal determines Canon, Jan Tschiclod resurrected the proportional system in the
a rectangular format. This is the same proportion early to mid-twentieth century. In his publication, The Design
as the root rectangle—root 2. The advantage of of the Book, Swiss typographer and modernist designer, Jan
this system is scaling. Each time a format in this Tschichold, proportioned page layout in approximation to the
proportion is divided into equal halves, the golden section.
subsequent sizes remain proportionally equal.

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4

A simplified version of the golden section is the

“rule of thirds.” Oddly, it is not a rule at all. Rather,
it is a “rule of thumb” associated with capturing
photographic images. Since the golden section is
believed to be the ideal proportional aesthetic, the
proportional divisions of a rectangular format are
divided into a grid of nine equal units approximately
in similar proportions to the golden section.

The grid is initially intended to assist the composi-

tional arrangement of parts in a camera’s view find-
er. The nine parts of the divided rectangle allow for
positioning and isolating the focal point of a scene
at intersections of equally spaced horizontal and
vertical lines. The proportional divisions allow for
framing an image in golden mean–like proportions.

The grid of nine rectangles presents an opportunity

for creating a static or dynamic image. Framing a
composition for effective communication depends
on many factors including the elements, the attri-
butes, and our perceptual structures. Context and
content are the preeminent concerns when decid-
ing upon compositional arrangement of parts.

These drawings illustrate the similarities between the image area

of photographic proportions and the golden section rectangle. In
the first drawing, the dimensions of 35-mm film are formatted in
its 3:2 ratio. In the second drawing, the golden section is divided
using the rule of thirds in its 1:1.6 ratio.

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 Since proportion is a comparison of surface areas,
a grid system of fixed horizontal and vertical divi-
sions can be useful in determining relationships
between the parts of the image area format. A grid-
based system enhances organization. It provides a
visual and structural balance that brings continuity
to the image area. Grids have been in use since the
thirteenth century when scribes used the Villard
grid to organize their handwritten manuscripts.

The grid is a plan that helps provide continuity

among the elements. It is an organizational
structure that helps to unify the elements within
the image area. The grid can be rigid and static or
rhythmic and dynamic. The beauty of a grid lies in
its flexibility. When used properly, it will enrich the
visual experience and make it easy for the viewer
to understand content. Imposing a grid system
should never impede creativity.

Grid structures can be fluid and provide oppor-

tunities for contrast in size, sequence, interval, Villard devised the system dividing a straight line into logical and
number, density, orientation, and position. In harmonious parts consisting of thirds, fourths, fifths, to infinity.
order to avoid chaos and create compositional
harmony, grid structures provide opportunities
for continuity, similarity, grouping, alignment,
transitions, connections, and terminations.

As noted with other elements and attributes of

form, grid proportions should be based on content
and context. The context of some situations calls for
concise and deliberate communication, while other
contextual situations call for layers of hierarchical
information organization.

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4

The Fibonacci proportion defines the rectangle

in this illustration. The grid is derived from the
base square of the Fibonacci proportion. The
divisions of space remain consistent with the
proportional units of the system.

The divisions of space within the rectangle can

be static if there is no contrast in the mass/
space elements, their attributes, and perceived
structure. In this example, there is contrast in
size, shape, weight, and direction. The use of
figure/ground reversal, repetition, position,
proximity, trajectories, and closure are also a
factor contributing to visual interest.

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 In the book, Designing Type, author Karen
Cheng demonstrates the visual principles of
letter construction. Optical effects of shape
and form consistency, proportional systems
for type structure, and legibility within a type-
face are fundamental issues of typography.

Design: Karen Cheng

Cheng’s poster defining letter construction

divides the image area into proportionally equal
horizontal bands. Both the vertical and horizon-
tal divisions of space are an appropriate context
for understanding letterform design.

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Design: Laura Frycek Design: Lisa Bambach

In the typographic grid studies that follow, typography is used as line

and shape, which defines the proportion of the page. Bold type pro-
vides contrast to the blocks of type that read as gray textured values.

Design: Kristin Cullen

Words inhabit space in horizontal and vertical

directions in this Visible Language layout by
Kristin Cullen. The layout explores a balance
between the practical and the poetic. Each page
is divided in the same proportion, with a square
at the bottom and a rectangle at the top. A line
of type defines the top edge of a square in the
left layout and a bold font is employed to define
the top of the square in the layout on the right.

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 Design: Kristin Cullen

Because the poster contains a great deal of

content that must communicate meaningful
information, it is necessary to structure consis-
tent proportional columns and a baseline grid.
To provide visual interest, contrast of shape,
texture, color, and typographic elements are
strategically placed within the system. The an-
gles employed in the composition are inherently
connected to the proportions of the horizontal
and vertical divisions of the space.

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Photograph: D. M. Puhalla

The use of a proportional system along

with a grid does not in itself guarantee
a visually successful composition.
Proportions and grids form the founda-
tion of an ordered structural system
that has the potential to unify the parts
of the whole. Structural systems are
based upon context and content sup-
porting a logical objective rationale The rule of thirds is applied in the vertical
for design organization. And, design orientation of the composition. This division
organization is the product of thought- of space follows the principles of proportion
ful and purposeful arrangement of the established in the golden mean.
mass/space elements, their attributes,
and their perceived structures.

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 Photograph: D. M. Puhalla

“The grid system is an aid, not a

guarantee. It permits a number
of possible uses and each designer
can look for a solution appropriate
to his personal style. But one must
learn how to use the grid; it is an
art that requires practice.”

—Josef Müller-Brockmann

In this photographic composition, the points of interest are the three boats that
form an implied triangle. The points of interest in the composition are roughly
horizontal lines or shapes that interact with the three rectangular divisions of
the image area formed by the rule of thirds.

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 5

“The essence is to give order to information,

form to ideas, expression and feeling to
artifacts that document human experience.”

—Phillip Meggs

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 Ordering Strategy

RM
FO

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5
Ordering Strategy

Forming a systematic approach to the organization Once a design problem has been defined, the
of space requires thoughtful and focused planning. process begins with exploration. Generating multi-
The mass/space elements and their variables com- ple ideas from as many different sources as possible
prise all the graphical elements that determine stimulates thinking and broadens possibilities—
the essence of spatial order. Potentially, they can good and bad. From multiple ideas, a few will show
establish a visual language system that gives form promise. Through experimentation, one prominent
meaning, purpose, and feeling. direction will likely emerge.

Developing a visual language requires a rigor- Executing the concept and producing the form
ous examination of how all elements function as involves managing the mass/space elements and
a harmonious whole. The properties of a form’s their variables. In the process of producing the
visual language define its visual character and form, image modification and evolution are applied
visual aesthetic after careful evaluation of the structural elements.
Once the analysis is complete, it is important to
Envisioning a destination or direction for struc- rework the details that will elevate the form to
turing form comes from a method that enables exquisitely balanced proportions.
inventiveness, ignites imagination, and enriches
the visual experience. It is a process that begins
with an in-depth understanding of the ordinary
relationships of the elements and pushing those
elements beyond our preconceived expectations.
The five components of the process are explora-
tion, experimentation, execution, evaluation,
and elevation.

The methodology of the five stages of the form development process

is fundamental to establishing a visual language and inventiveness.

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 !
exploration

elevation
experimentation

execution

EVALUATION

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5 Fundamental Ordering System

An ordering strategy begins with defining the

image area format and a method for activating
that space. Applying a square format makes it
possible to enact visual observations in an envi-
ronment where the height and width are mathe-
matically constant. Dividing the space along one
of the implied forces within the square establishes
directional axis limitations. An examination of the
vertical image area axis is an explicit orientation
for activating the two-dimensional space of the
square. Limiting the visual elements to directional
axis and lines/rectangles limits options to number
and size. Placing limitations on line, shape, color, Within the perceived attributes of the mass/space elements
size, texture, and position encour-ages exploration there are two variables that can be manipulated. Each variable
and experimentation. is dependant upon the other. One variable is size/scale and the
other is number. In this example, two rectangles equal in size
A logical figure–ground sequence of lines/rect- define the square. Mathematically the image is defined as having
angles can form a basic organizational strategy. three parts—one square and two rectangles. Visually, the image
It is a structural strategy that facilitates the is defined as having two rectangular parts.
ordering of static and dynamic visual systems.
In this example, there are not enough parts to define a sequence.
The first and most obvious ordering system is Mathematically, it takes a minimum of three parts to communi-
composed of a regular sequence where the cate a numerical sequence. The same logic may be applied to
black-and-white parts appear to be uniform in creating a visual sequence.
width and length, and equal in size. There is no
directional movement and no contrast in size. Additionally, there are no additional black parts to compare a
The figure/ground relationship is ambiguous— similarity in size and no white parts to compare similarity in size.
neither the black nor white is established as Therefore, black cannot be constant to black and white cannot be
figure or ground. The ordering system is constant to white in size relationships.
predictably repetitive.
In a regular sequence, the figure–ground relationship is ambigu-
The second system establishes an alternating ous. Also note that white expands and black contracts. A slight
sequence of visual contrast in the sizes between adjustment in the width of each is necessary to make them ap-
the black and white. The image remains relatively pear equal. A regular repetitive sequence creates a static image
static with no directional eye movement, and the that is bilaterally symmetrical, with minimal contrast, and no
ordering system is readily apparent. In this image, directional movement.
the smaller part becomes the figure resting on
the ground. Spatially, the figure resides in front
of the background.

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 Likewise, the second image does not conform to a regular ordering sequence.
The image defines the square with three rectangles. Once again, there are not
enough parts to define a sequence. There are not enough parts of the same
color to be sequential. As in the first example, there are no black parts to make
a comparison. This arrangement of parts creates a black figure. The two white
parts visually group to form a background.

Units of four create black-and-white vertical edges. This image establishes

light/dark contrast and a left-to-right visual direction.

A space defined with five units communicates a regular sequence. Although there
are only two white units, it may be assumed a regular sequence is in place. Repeti-
tion of the three black units establishes a regular pattern. Note that black units are
used on the left and right edges of the image area. This helps to contain the se-
quence within the square, since white tends to expand and black contracts. In ad-
dition, black edges are a conventional method used to outline an image.

Employing seven parts is a decisive definition of a regular sequence. There are

enough parts in white and black to visually confirm a repetitive pattern.

When the number of white-and-black units increases, a textured field of gray

is formed. At this point, the units do not maintain their individual identity to
communicate a sequence.

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5 Fundamental Ordering System

An alternating sequence is composed of units that significantly

contrast in size. The width of black parts remains consistent to
each other and the width of white parts remains consistent to
each other. With extreme contrast in size, an alternating
sequence produces a figure that resides on a ground of the
opposite color.

The third system employs successively increasing The sixth ordering system establishes a successively
black units while the white units remain the same increasing sequence of black-and-white units moving
size. Since the black parts are sequentially increas- in opposite directions at different rates while main-
ing from one side of the square to the other, a direc- taining maximum contrast in size. Given this division
tional movement is established. Visual interest is of space, the sequential order is generally an underly-
also created through contrast in size. This ordering ing structural element. The ordering system in itself
system has the potential to create a reversal of fig- is visually less important than the changes in scale
ure/ground. In a sequence of this type, it is prefer- and the reversal of figure/ground, but it holds the
able for the parts that are progressively increasing elements together.
to be more important in the visual hierarchy.
The primary purpose of these organizational
The fourth system is similar to the previous, except strategies is to increase sensitivity to the dual
the white units are increasing while the black units relationship between positive and negative space.
remain the same in visual appearance. Applying restraint, these orderly systems encour-
age an exploration of contrast, direction, number,
In the fifth system, both the white parts and the repetition, continuity, and variety. Visual sequenc-
black parts successively increase in size and in the ing, rhythm, grouping, and similarity are a means
same direction. The sequential ordering of parts is of developing compositional harmony. Additionally,
less obvious and predictable. Contrast occurs in objective criteria can be applied for evaluating the
size and directional movement is evident. Figure/ strengths and weaknesses of a visual composition.
ground relationships may be incorporated.

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 These four examples represent a system of increasing intervals. The first example
demonstrates a system with black increasing and white remaining the same in appear-
ance. The second example is similar to the first, but white increases visually. In the
fourth example, white and black increase in the same direction. Lastly, white and black
increase in opposite directions. Note the figure–ground reversal in these images.

In order to maintain maximum contrast between the The asymmetrical divisions of ordered spatial
white and black units, either white or black must be proportions produce a visually dynamic image.
as small in width dimension as possible. The largest The smallest unit transforming to the largest unit
unit must be large enough to permit figure/ground causes a visual direction movement. While the
reversal. These images address the Gestalt principle sequence is orderly, it is not visually obvious.
of grouping. If similar color units are close in proxim- Continued visual movement left to right or right
ity, the colors will group together and form a field. to left is dependent upon small parts transforming
logically/visually into larger parts. Divisions down
Given the scale and proximity of white and black parts, the center tend to interrupt the visual transformation.
the image area surface suggests movement back into
space or causes the surface to appear curved. The proportional relationship between the grouping
of black and white units is decisively different.
Proportion is a comparison of surface areas.

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5 Fundamental Ordering System

In a horizontal orientation, the square image area will appear to

move back into space when the unit intervals change succes-
sively in size. In addition, the square will appear to be a different
rectangle, depending on the number of intervals and size contrast.

Depending on the axis orientation, the sixth ordering

system will produce different visual characteristics.
Horizontal divisions of space are considerably differ-
ent in appearance when compared to a vertical orien-
tation. The effects alter the size, shape, and space of
the square format.

In a horizontal orientation, the image area suggests

movement back into space or causes the surface to
appear curved. This is caused by the scale and prox-
imity of the diminishing size intervals. This effect
is more apparent in the horizontal orientation when
compared to other spatial orientations.

The units in these examples are mathematically

equal in width dimension. As the lines/shapes get
shorter in length, the wider they appear. In an angu-
lar orientation, the parallel lines appear to contract
along one edge of the square and expand along the
horizontal edge of the square.

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 Diagonal and Angular Interval Systems
The diagonal and angular orientation creates optical effects that
make shorter units appear wider than the longer units. Parallel
edge relationships appear to expand and contract along edges
of the square. It is important to note that a division through the
center of the square may interrupt the appearance of increasing/
decreasing intervals.

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5 The basis for developing dynamic visual images
resides in
When one ordering system interrupts another,
· understanding the principles of two-dimensional they create shapes or lines depending on scale.
organization. A combination of two ordering systems at con-
trasting angles produces a grid of increasing in-
· objective analysis of visual form; fostering visual tervals in two directions. In this example, diago-
experiences through exploration, experimentation, nal axes are employed. The interaction of the two
and investigation. axes produces a right angle relationship of parts.
An ordering system of increasing units moving in
· developing a process for organizing a two-dimen- the same direction interacts with an ordering
sional space. system of increasing units moving in opposite
directions. An organization of line and shape is
· fundamental compositional properties integrating built along the axis of the two ordering systems.
the mass/space elements and their attributes into
a harmonious whole. An evaluation of this compositional arrangement
demonstrates contrast in scale, shape, and
That is, all parts must contribute to the develop- black-to-white proportional relationships. The
ment of the image and to the unification of the composition also incorporates figure/ground re-
whole image. versal. In the color iteration, a split complemen-
tary color scheme is employed. All components
in the composition are generated by the interac-
tion of the two ordering systems.

Strong compositions tend to have several basic

characteristics. There should be contrast in size,
decisive changes in white and black, and figure/
ground reversal. The concept of closure is also
important to dynamic compositions. Closure
links different parts together by utilizing proxim-
ity and grouping and forces the eye to travel as it
connects the parts.

Design: Hannah Lee

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 The rectangular format for this composition
is defined by the Fibonacci series. Each unit
in the series is expressed in an ordering sys-
tem of white and black intervals increasing in
opposite directions.

The first three examples demonstrate edited

stages of composition development.

The Fibonacci proportional system is implied

and maintains its identity in each step of de-
velopment. The final image employs one
dominant axis within the area of the propor-
tional system.

Alignments and trajectories of points and

lines assist the eye to connect the parts
forming a unified composition. This example
integrates the inherent implied dynamics of
the proportional system—diagonals, angles,
and curves. A primary color harmony is
applied to the black-and-white composition.

Design: Mark Grote

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5 Applied Ordering Strategies

Building a consistent visual language validates a Form elements and attributes are the syntax of the
compositional “family of form.” In the process of visual language. The syntax defines the patterns of
establishing a family of form, there are many orga- formation among the visual parts. It represents a
nizational methods that may be considered. These system of orderly arrangement. Basically, words
methods are all fundamentally integral to the vari- and images have equal importance, since the imag-
able relationships of the mass/space elements. es represent the words. Whatever the strategy, all
Ultimately, visual elements play a critical role in systems employ restraint, intent, and meaning.
the development of an organizational strategy.

Design: Anna Grote

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 Based upon the whimsical phrase “The Jesus Lizard frantically
outruns the sharks,” a compositional study of point, line, plane,
and shape intervals communicates the intent of the message.
Breaking down the line, shape, and text elements into an orderly
system, this nine-step storyboard animates the two-dimensional
components for a motion piece executed in time-based media.

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5

Design: Lindsey N. Meyer These nine images create a family of form as they incorporate
similar visual elements. All nine images are confined within a
circle. They are formulated by consistency of line, texture, and
visual weight. These images are a representation of natural
symbols found in Japanese culture.

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 The animals in this system represent endangered species of Design: Jenny Slife
Australia. The system relies on the similarity of line and shape
through the visual effect of closure.

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5

Design: Lisa Bambach From a collection of the Taft Museum of Art, a set of drawings
identifies time, places, and artifacts of art, architecture, and design.
This system shares a commonality of a line, which serves as a base
anchor. Line weights, geometry, closure, and proportions provide
consistency without sacrificing object identity and meaning.

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 These drawings are a collection of scientific instruments based Design: Anna Grote
on historical significance. The drawings demonstrate a visually
cohesive character suitable to its identity and purpose. Circular
shapes, line weights, and light/dark relationships define the
family of form. In addition, the geometry of the form is indicative
of the mechanical function of the object.

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5

Using shapes and lines derived from the pathways

concept creates the essence of the visual system.
Shapes can be made into lines and color bars and
layered to create depths. Elements can be sub-
tracted to enhance the design. The possibilities
are endless. Because they derive from the same
system, line and shape patterns create a consis-
tent link and identity for visual communication at
the University of Cincinnati.

As shown in these examples, interior and exterior

environmental signage conforms to identity stan-
dards. The same organizational strategy is applied
to all forms of visual communication.

Design: Kolar Design

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5

A system of dots and concentric circles is used in these information graphics posters. “Everyone
Ever in the World” is a visual representation of the number of people to have lived versus those who
have lost their lives in wars, massacres, and genocide throughout recorded history. The visualiza-
tion uses existing paper area and die cuts to represent the concepts of life and death.

The graph exemplifies the value imparted to data with regard to the manner in which it is visualized.
The relative simplicity and graphical approach affords the viewer an instantaneous assessment of
the degree to which conflict has shaped human history.

The organizational strategy demonstrates simplicity of visual representation that imparts a somber
and respectful tone to such a weighty subject.

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 Design: Peter Crnokrak

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5

In this promotional brochure, visual metaphors

illustrate the characteristics of the company’s
process—the drafted quality of compliance, the
pulsing emanation of creativity, and the tar-
geted precision of consistency. Each illustration
capitalizes on a circular form and uses a radial
grid in both simple and complex ways. Color
harmonies of similarly saturated colors are
based on various fundamental structural triads.

The layout of the piece depends on a strong

horizontal band that leads the eye through the
piece. Fold-out pages conceal and reveal mul-
tiple levels of information.

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 Design: Madison Design Group

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5

This system created for the Cincinnati Ballet blends refined geometric and poetic Design: Stanard Design Partners
forms. The concept is also based upon paradoxical wordplay—current yet time-
less, elegant yet bold, sophisticated yet accessible.

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 In an effort to build public awareness, a distinctive identity program was created Design: Steff Geissbuhler
for the National Parks of New York Harbor. The goal was to develop a memorable C&G Partners
graphic system to identify the family of sites, while also allowing each location its
own unique image. Ultimately, twenty-three separate “wordmarks” were created
from a whimsical, changing alphabet inspired by the specific features of each place.

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5

“Graphic design—
which fulfi ls aesthetic needs,
complies with the laws of form
and the exigencies of two-dimensional space;
which speaks in semiotics, sans-serifs,
and geometries;
which abstracts, transforms, translates,
rotates, dilates, repeats, mirrors,
groups, and regroups—
is not good design
if it is irrelevant.”

“Graphic design—
which evokes the symmetria of Vitruvius,
the dynamic symmetry of Hambidge,
the asymmetry of Mondrian;
which is a good gestalt;
which is generated by intuition or by
computer,
by invention or by a system or coordinates—
is not good design
if it does not co-operate
as an instrument
in the service of communication.”

—Paul Rand

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 So this is where order and structure facilitate restraint. It is where
thoughtful application of the elements fosters visual aptitude.
Where understanding and meaning are embedded in context and
content. It is the place where form and communication coexist in
visual harmony. It is the place where creativity is ignited.

the language of form

PERCEPTIONS
AT TRIBUTES
ELEMENTS

hierarchy
alignment, position, projection, trajectory, orientation, direction, proximity, rotation
sequence/interval
transitions, connections, convergence, terminations
number/density
axis
POINT COLOR balance
LINE SIZE symmetry
PLANE SHAPE tension
VOLUME TEXTURE rhythm
closure
fluctuation
afterimage
grouping
focal point

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 index b balance
74
bilateral symmetry
113–114
brightness
a abstract geometric elements 62 · 63 · 89
52 c center point
additive color models 15 · 18 · 19 · 28
84 Chase logo
aesthetic value 52
8 Cheng, Karen
after-effect images 125
74 · 90 · 91 chroma
Alhurra 62 · 63 · 84
59 Cincinnati Ballet
alignment 154
74 circles
a–c alternating sequences 12 · 42
134 · 136 concentric
American Institute of Graphic Artists (AIGA) 19
60 relation of pentagon to
AMESCO logo 55
52 circle’s rectangle and triangle
analogous harmony 112
100 clearly circumscribed mass
Andrews McMeel Universal 44–45
59 closed curves
angles 58
20 · 44 closure
angular linear relationships 74–75 · 77–79 · 124 · 140 · 145
32 · 33 · 36 · 44 CMYK (cyan, magenta, yellow, black) model
angular orientation 84
139 color
anthropometry 44 · 62–65 · 80
118 chroma
apex 62 · 63 · 84
35 complementary colors
Archimedean solids 86 · 90 · 96 · 101–102
44 · 45 contrast
Architectural League of New York 104
73 cool colors
arcs 104 · 107
32 · 34–35 derivative colors
arithmetic sequences 96–100 · 108 · 109
120 desaturated colors
Artear logo 62 · 85–86 · 101–102
59 hue
asymmetrical divisions 62 · 63 · 84 · 92 · 94 · 95 · 104 · 105
137 Munsell Color Notation System
attributes. See mass/space attributes 93
axis primary colors
74 64 · 85 · 95 · 106
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 color continued
saturation compositional harmony
86 · 92 · 94 · 95 · 105 · 107 74 · 123–129 · 136
secondary colors concave lines
64 · 85 · 86 · 95 · 106 33–34
simultaneous contrast and concentric circles
88–90 19
size relationships and connections
72 74
study of content
84 104 · 122–123
temperature context
104 · 105 104 · 122–123
tertiary colors continuity
85 · 98–99 77
value continuous convex surface
62 · 63 · 84 · 92 · 94 · 105 · 107 44–45
visual communication and contrast
94 80–81 · 92 · 104
warm colors simultaneous
104 · 107 88–90 c–d
color harmonies convergence
92–104 · 152 74
analogous convex lines
100 33–34
complementary convex solids
101 44–45
divergent harmony cool colors
103 104 · 107
monochromatic Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museum
95 · 104 · 107 107
primary cubes
96 · 106 · 109 46
secondary Cullen, Kristin
97 126
split complementary cultural motifs
102 108
tertiary curves
98–99 closed
color models 58
84–85 increasing
color selection 32–33
92 regular
color structure 32–33 · 35 · 38
83–109 variable
color wheels 32–33 · 35 · 38 · 43
85–86 d DAAP Works poster
communication 58
7 Darien Library logo
complementary colors 107
86 · 90 · 96 · 101 · 102 dark colors
complementary harmony 62 · 72
101 Da Vinci, Leonardo
complex forms 118 · 119
57
159

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 d Department of Transportation (DOT) experience
60 6
depth experimentation
44 · 49 · 58 · 73 132 · 134
derivative colors exploration
96–100 · 108–109 132 · 134
desaturated colors extraordinary state
62 · 85–86 · 101 · 102 9
de Saussure, Ferdinand eye movement
7 31 · 37 · 39 · 73 · 80 · 81
Designing Type (Cheng) f family of form
125 142 · 144 · 147
design organization Feliciano, Felice
123 · 128 · 134–157 114
diagonal axis Fibonacci proportion
12 124
diagonal orientation Fibonacci sequence
139 116 · 141
diagonals figure/ground relationship
d–g 12 · 14 · 32 · 120 74–77 · 79 · 124 · 134 · 136
dimensional letters five-pointed star
51 55 · 58 · 118 · 119
DIN standard fluctuation
121 74
directional movement focal point
73 74
divergent harmony format
103 12
divine proportion form development process
116–129 132
dodecahedron form language. See language of form
45 g geometric shapes
Doomsday clock symbol 59
31 Gestalt principles
dynamic symmetry 74–77 · 80 · 113 · 137
114 Gestalt psychology
e elevation 8
132 GLAAD media-award brochure
ellipses 43
32 · 42 glide-reflection
emotional response 113
92 · 104 glide-rotation
empty space 113
46–47 golden section (ratio)
entopic patterns 114–118 · 121–122 · 128
40 golden spiral
equilateral triangles 114
55 grid systems
Euclidean geometry 123–124 · 128–129
32 ground
evaluation 75
132 grouping
execution 74 · 77 · 80 · 137
132
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 h Hermann grid language systems
90–91 7–8 · 75
hexagons Law of Prägnanz
55 74
hexahedrons Laws of Gestalt
45 8 · 74 · 76–77 · 113
hierarchical structuring layering
7 44 · 48 · 58
hierarchy Le Corbusier
74 110 · 118 · 119
Hirshhorn Museum Le Modulor
106 118 · 119
horizontal axis letter construction
12 · 14 125
horizontal orientation letterforms
138 79 · 114 · 125
hue light colors
62–63 · 84 · 92 · 94–95 · 104–105 62 · 72
human mind light-to-dark texture
6 68 h–m
human proportions “Light Years” poster
118–119 48
i icosahedrons linear relationships
45 32 · 33 · 36
image area lines
12–21 · 134 7 · 26–27 · 32–41 · 146
implied forces concave
12–21 · 34 33–34
implied lines convex
31 33–34
increasing curved lines implied
32–33 31
information graphics increasing curved
40 · 57 · 150 32–33
intensity regular curved
62 32–33 · 35 · 38
International Tchaikovsky Competition straight
64 38
interval systems variable curved
139 32–33 · 35 · 38
intrinsic properties Lisbon Aquarium
74–75 58
k Kant, Immanuel literal properties
6 74 · 76
Kepes, György Liz Claiborne
10 53
l Land + Sky + Time (Puhalla) m mass, clearly circumscribed
16–17 44–45
language of form mass/space attributes
24–25 · 157 24–25 · 54–73 · 140
mass/space attributes color
54–81 62–65
mass/space elements
26–53
161
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 mass/space attributes continued
m perceiving and processing of 9 West 57th Street
74–81 50
size nonliteral properties
72–73 74–75 · 77
texture number
66–71 74 · 134
mass/space elements o objects
7–8 · 24–53 · 140 6
attributes of octagons
24 55
line octahedrons
26–27 · 32–41 45
order of order
74 proportion and
perceiving and processing of 112
74–81 symmetry and
plane 113–115
26–27 · 42–43 ordering strategy
point 131–157
m–p 26–27 · 28–31 applied
shape 142–155
54–61 fundamental ordering system
volume 134–141
26–27 · 44–53 sequences
Matisse, Henri 134–137
82 ordering systems
Meggs, Phillip 134–141
130 ordinary state
monochromatic harmony 9
95 · 104 · 107 organic shapes
movement 56, 58–59
31 · 37 · 39 · 73 · 80–81 · 113 organic symmetries
Müller-Brockman, Josef 114
129 orientation
Munker illusion 74
89 overlapping
Munsell Color Notation System 44
93 p Pacioli, Luca
Museum of Arts and Design (MAD) 114
67 packaging
Museum of Contemporary Art 53
65 page design
n National Parks of New York Harbor 121 · 126–127
155 parallel lines
nautilus shell 32
117 Parthenon
NBC peacock 116
64 patterns
negative afterimage effect 66 · 135
90 · 91 Peace Corps
negative space 79
46 · 136 pentagons
negative volume 55 · 118 · 119
44 · 46
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 perception r radial symmetry
6 · 8 · 74 113
perceptual psychology Rand, Paul
8 156
perceptual structure ratios
24–25 · 74–81 112
perpendicular lines reason
32 6
perspective reciprocal properties
58 74–75 · 77
phi rectangles
116 12 · 14 · 16–18 · 21 · 115
photographic images root
122 120–121
pigment mixing reflection
85–86 113
planar relationships regular curved lines
44 32–33 · 35 · 38
plane regular polygons
7 · 26–27 · 42–43 45 · 54–56 p–s
Platonic solids regular sequences
44–45 134–135
points repetition
7 · 26–31 113 · 124 · 135
center representation
15 · 18–19 · 28 6
polygons RGB (red, green, blue) model
12 · 42 84
regular rhythm
45 · 54–56 74–75
position root 2 proportion
74 · 76 · 124 120–121
positive space root 5 proportion
136 120
primary colors root rectangles
64 · 85 · 95 · 106 120–121
primary harmony rotation
96 · 106 · 109 74 · 113
proportion rule of thirds
74 · 112 · 137 122 · 128 · 129
divine RYB (red, yellow, blue) model
116–129 85
Fibonacci s saturation
124 · 141 62–64 · 86 · 92 · 94–95 · 105 · 107
grid systems and saturation scales
123–124 · 128–129 93
human proportions scale
118–119 72–73 · 121 · 134 · 140
page design and Scintillating grid
121 90–91
Proust, Marcel secondary colors
22 64 · 85–86 · 95 · 106
proximity secondary harmony
74 · 76 · 78–79 · 124 97
163
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 s seeing spatial movement
74 73
semiotics spatial order
7 23–81
sequences spatial organization
74 · 134–137 7 · 24 · 131–157
shades spatial positioning
62 · 63 48
shapes spatial structure
44 · 54–61 7 · 111–129
contrasting divine proportion
80 116–129
geometric proportion
59 112
organic symmetry
56 · 58–59 113–115
signs split complementary harmony
7 102
similarity squares
s–t 74 · 77 · 80 12 · 13–21 · 42 · 55 · 115 · 121
simplicity straight lines
8 38
simultaneous contrast structural forces
88–90 12–21
size structural systems
44 · 72–73 · 134 123 · 128
solids structure
Archimedean 6
44–45 subtractive color models
convex 84–85
44–45 sunflower
Platonic 117
44–45 symbolism
space 7
empty symbol signs
46–47 60–61
graphic divisions of symmetry
18 · 21 74 · 113–115
negative syntax
46 · 136 7 · 24 · 142
positive t temperature
136 104 · 105
proportional divisions of Tennessee Aquarium
112 58
spacing tension
20 21 · 74–75
spatial depth terminations
58 · 73 74
spatial division tertiary colors
26–28 · 32 85 · 98–99
spatial forces tertiary harmony
11–21 98–99

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 tessellations virtual volume
56 · 58 44 · 46–47
tetrahedron Visible Language (journal)
45 48
texture visible spectrum
66–71 95
“Think About It” campaign visual dynamics
42 30 · 32 · 74 · 140
Thirty-Eighth International visual hierarchy
Viola Congress brochure 7 · 64 · 80 · 94 · 104
21 visual language system
three-dimensional space 7–8 · 24 · 74–75 · 132 · 142
44 visual metaphors
tints 152
62–63 visual organization
tones 8 See also spatial organization
62–63 visual perception
trajectories 8 · 74
124 visual phenomena, human response to
translation 8 t–w
113 visual sequences
transparency 134–137
44 · 48 Vitruvian Man
triangles 118 · 119
42 Voice of America
Tschiclod, Jan 79
121 volume
two-dimensional surface 7 · 26–27 · 44–53
44 · 140 clearly circumscribed mass
type 44–45
37–39 illusion of
typography 48
114 · 125 · 126 negative
u universal communication 44 · 46
60–61 virtual
Universal Press Syndicate 44 · 46–47
59 visual articulation of
v Vale Mining identity 51
43 w Wana
value 43
62–63 · 72 · 84 · 88 · 92 · 94 · 105 · 107 warm colors
value scales 104 · 107
93 weight
Van de Graaf Canon 72–75
121 “We Still Use Film” poster
variable curves 79
32–33 · 35 · 38 · 43 WGBH
vertical axis 51
12 · 14 · 18 · 36 White’s illusion
Villard grid 89
123

165
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 c ontr i bu t or s

AIGA Symbol Sign Commission Christina Cahalene Anna Grote

60 · 61 www.christinacahalane.com 142 · 143 · 147
68

Lisa Bambach Mark Grote

104 · 126 · 146 Karen Cheng 105 · 141
Seattle, WA
www.cheng-design.com
Michael Bierut 125 Joseph Howell
Pentagram Design 78
www.pentagram.com
48 · 73 Chermayeff & Geismar
137 East 25th Street Darrin Hunter
New York, NY 10010 www.dishdesign.com
Michael Bierut www.cgstudionyc.com 21 · 105
Armin Vit 50 · 51 · 52 · 53 · 58 · 64 · 65 · 106
Pentagram Design
31 Victoria Karoleff
Peter Crnokrak 18 · 37
London, U.K.
Michael Bierut 150 · 151
Jennifer Kinon Kolar Design, Inc.
Pentagram Design 660 Lincoln Avenue
42 Kristin Cullen Cincinnati, OH 45206,
www.kristincullen.com www.kolardesign.net
30 · 36 · 37 · 39 · 48 · 58 · 126 · 127 Bernard Tschumi Architects,
Michael Bierut Eva Maddox, glaserworks,
Joe Marianek Hargreaves Associates
Pentagram Design Branden Francis Marcia Shortt Design
67 46 148 · 149

Michael Bierut Laura Frycek Lucas Langus

Yve Ludwig 38 · 41 · 78 · 91 · 105 · 126 18 · 20 · 78
Pentagram Design
107
Steff Geisbuhler
C&G Partners
Yulia Brodskaya 116 East 16 Street
United Kingdom New York, NY 10003
www.artyulia.com www.cgpartnersllc.com
70 · 71 59 · 79 · 107 · 155

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 Diane Lee Rachel Mason Matt Puhalla
www.liveandletdiane.com 19 · 20 45 · 47 · 92
San Francisco, CA
105 · 106
Katrina Mendoza D. M. Puhalla
107 www.puhalladesign.com
Hannah Lee 17 · 69 · 128 · 129
140
Lindsey N. Meyer
109 · 144 Lindsay Quinter
Kathryn Lee 49
91
Lauren Oka Jesse Reed
36 · 38 · 78 www.jessereedfromohio.com
Allison Leidy 79
108
Jane Park
www.jjoodesign.com Jenny Slife
81 www.jennyslifedesign.com
Lippincott 145
499 Park Avenue
New York, NY 10022 Mia Pizzuto
Brendán Murphy www.miapizzuto.com Stanard Design Partners
Connie Birdsall 79 2061 Beechmont Avenue
43 Cincinnati, OH 45230
www.stanarddesign.com
Matt Puhalla 154
Lynda Lucas MNML Design
40 1032 W. Fulton Market
Chicago, IL 60607 Jen Vitello
www.mnml.com www.jenvitello.com
Madison Desgn Group 46 57
515 Madison Avenue
Covington, KY 41011
www.madison-design.com
Jonathan Albers
Allison Leidy
152 · 153

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 Acknowledgments About the Author

Writing and designing a book requires Dennis Puhalla is professor of design

commitment and determination. It also at the University of Cincinnati, College
requires the enlightenment, vision, and of Design, Architecture, Art, and
wisdom of numerous individuals. I wish Planning. He teaches undergraduate
to extend heartfelt gratitude to those and graduate courses in visual lan-
who assisted and encouraged me along guage design, motion design, color
the way. theory, and principles of two- and three-
dimensional design. Students and col-
Rockport Publishers, Betsy Gammons, Emily Potts, leagues recognize him for his out-
and Regina Grenier—for their advice, guidance, standing teaching. Professor Puhalla
and patience served as director of the School of
Design for ten years, initiating innova-
My students—for their enthusiasm and creativity tive and visionary programs. He
earned a doctorate in design from
Colleagues at the University of Cincinnati and North Carolina State University,
North Carolina State University—for stimulating College of Design. He holds a master
intellectual curiosity of fine arts and a bachelor of science
in design from the University of
Kristin Cullen—for her generosity and astute Cincinnati, College of Design,
observations, a friend and colleague Architecture, Art, and Planning.

Melissa and Kurt, Matthew and Aliy—for their Puhalla’s professional work has been
insight, encouragement, and unwavering loyalty exhibited nationally and is included in
public and private collections. Puhalla
Diana—for her trust, faith, and words of wisdom is committed to the field of design as a
practitioner and consultant.
Finally, I wish to dedicate this book to my
guardian angels, Lilly and Mia—my source of
inspiration and motivation.

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 Text and Design © 2011 by Rockport Publishers

First published in the United States of America in

2011 by Rockport Publishers, a member of Quayside
Publishing Group

100 Cummings Center

Suite 406-L
Beverly, Massachusetts 01915-6101
Telephone: (978) 282-9590
Fax: (978) 283-2742
www.rockpub.com

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced

in any form without written permission of the copyright
owners. All images in this book have been reproduced with
the knowledge and prior consent of the artists concerned,
and no responsibility is accepted by producer, publisher, or
printer for any infringement of copyright or otherwise, aris-
ing from the contents of this publication. Every effort has
been made to ensure that credits accurately comply with
information supplied. We apologize for any inaccuracies
that may have occurred and will resolve inaccurate or Design: Dennis M. Puhalla, Ph.D
missing information in a subsequent reprinting of the book.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN-13: 978-1-59253-700-6
ISBN-10: 1-59253-700-6

Digital edition published in 2011

eISBN-13: 978-1-61058-041-0

Digital edition: 978-1-61058-041-0

Softcover edition: 978-1-59253-700-6
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication
Data available

Printed in Singapore

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