Position Statement on

Injection Technique

March 2002

Royal College of Paediatrics

and Child Health
Position Statement on Injection Technique

Position Statement on Injection Technique

The administration of a vaccine should ensure the attainment of maximum immunity, with the least
possible harm. This will depend on the type of vaccine, the recipient, correct storage of the vaccine
and the administration technique Severe local reactions to injections do occur, albeit rarely. Subcutane-
ous atrophy1, abscesses2, hyperpigmentation3, subcutaneous nodules4, muscle contracture and fibro-
sis5, and nerve palsies have all been described. It is important to reduce, as far as possible, the risks of
these occurring. Unfortunately there is a very poor evidence base from which to make recommenda-
tions on injection technique. What follows is based on the information that is available.

Site of Injection
It is recommended that all the injectable routine childhood vaccines (except BCG), should be admin-
istered by the deep subcutaneous or intramuscular routes 6,7. There are three possible sites – the
deltoid, the anterolateral thigh, and the buttock. Writing in 1920, Grey Turner 8 argued strongly for
using the outer side of the thigh for intramuscular injections, pointing out the theoretical dangers of use
of the buttock. Although there is an extensive literature on local damage to the sciatic nerve following
injections into the buttock9-11, one of the earliest reviews of peripheral nerve palsies following injec-
tions relates to peripheral nerve palsies not necessarily at the site of injection12. Many of these
affected the upper limb. However most reports are of sciatic nerve injury. It is not clear whether this
occurs with current vaccines. Thompson13 has argued very strongly that this does not occur with
modern medications, especially vaccines. Piggot14, on the other hand has first hand experience of
sciatic nerve damage in infants after intramuscular injections, though none were vaccines. In 1994,
MacDonald and Marcuse 15 16 requested case reports of any cases of sciatic nerve injury occurring
as a result of injections of vaccines into the buttocks of an infant. 18 months later they wrote that they
had only received one report of ‘a two year-old boy with sciatic and peroneal nerve injury temporally
associated with hepatitis B vaccine administered in the thigh or buttock (the site was uncertain)’17.

Muscle fibrosis and contracture has been reported after injection in the buttock 18, thigh19 and tri-
ceps20. Unfortunately, it is not possible to estimate the incidence of this adverse effect as, in none of
the papers is an indication given of the total population receiving injections. Much less is it possible to
calculate this specifically for vaccination, but it would appear to be rare.
Another factor to be considered is whether the vaccine is equally effective when given at different
sites. The antibody response to rabies21 and hepatitis B22 vaccines has been shown to be lower
when the injection is given in the buttock rather than the deltoid. It is likely that this is due to the
injection being subcutaneous in the buttock and intramuscular in the deltoid. Fessard and colleagues23
have shown that hepatitis B vaccine given intramuscularly in the deltoid produces higher levels of
antibody than when given subcutaneously in the suprascapular region. Shaw and colleagues22 showed
that when giving hepatitis B vaccine in the buttock, a longer needle (2” as opposed to 1”) produced a
better response, thus supporting this hypothesis.

There is little research which compares more minor local reactions, such as tenderness, redness and
swelling, and systemic reactions when vaccines are given at different sites. Baraff and colleagues24
compared the incidence of adverse reactions in infants after DTP immunisation given in the buttock,
anterior midthigh and upper lateral thigh. They found that while swelling, pain and fever were less
common following immunisation in the buttock than in the midanterior thigh, drowsiness and persistent
crying were more common. Ipp et al.25 examined the incidence of systemic effects, such as fever,
drowsiness, crying and anorexia, and local reactions after vaccination in the deltoid or thigh. The
children were all about 18 months old. Parents were more likely to rate reactions as moderate or
severe when the injections were given in the thigh.

Because of this, most official bodies6,7,26 recommend that the buttocks should be avoided for intra-
muscular injections and only used if a large volume immunisation, i.e. immunoglobulin, is to be given. In

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 Position Statement on Injection Technique

this case the upper outer quadrant of the buttock should be used and the needle directed anteriorly.
Bergeson and colleagues27 have described the exact technique which should be followed.

Needle Size and Length

There are few data on this. As noted above, there is some evidence to suggest that intramuscular
injections may be more effective than subcutaneous injections for some vaccines. Groswasser et al28
showed that if an injection is given perpendicular to the skin of the thigh, using a 5/8” needle, the
vaccine should enter the muscle. If, on the other hand, tissues are bunched up before injection, this size
needle would deliver the vaccine into the subcutaneous tissues and a 1” needle would be more appro-
priate if this technique is to be used. Diggle29 has correctly pointed out that the weight of most of these
infants fell between the 10th and 50th centiles, so the results may not be applicable to the whole popu-
lation. Ipp et al25 found that there was very little difference in local or systemic reactions between a
group of children receiving DTP vaccine in the thigh using a 1” needle compared with another group
where a 5/8” needle was used. The only differences reaching statistical significance were in the
frequencies of redness and swelling which were commoner in those where the shorter needle was
used (40.6% v. 13.4% and 32.8% v. 13.4% respectively). Diggle30 examined the incidence of local
reactions following DTP-Hib immunisation at 4 months of age. She found that redness and swelling
were less common when a 1” 23 gauge needle was used as compared with the incidence after the use
of a 5/8” 25 gauge needle. There was no significant difference in tenderness, which is arguably the
most important local adverse effect for the infant or mother. There would seem to be insufficient
evidence to advise any recommendation to change current practice.

Skin Cleansing
Bacterial or sterile abscesses have been said to occur at a frequency of 6 to 10 per million injections of
DTP31. Between July 1963 and January 1990, there were 49 reports to the Committee on Safety of
Medicines (CSM) of injection site abscesses following DT and DTP vaccines. It is difficult to translate
this figure into a precise frequency, but a reasonable estimate is of the order of 1 abscess per one or
two million injections. This is undoubtedly an underestimate.

Sterile abscesses
The aetiology of sterile abscesses at injection sites is poorly understood and there is little evidence that
injection technique has any part to play. Sako32 stated that in their study, the deeper the injection, the
less likely was abscess formation.

Infected abscesses
The organisms usually responsible for causing infected abscesses at injection sites are Staphylococcus
aureus and haemolytic Streptococcus pyogenes, though mycobacteria have occasionally been impli-
cated33. Staphylococcus aureus is found on the skin of the forehead of 39% of children and 15% of
adults34. It is common in children’s nostrils (65%), but less so than in adults (43%)35. It is not com-
monly found at other sites. These organisms are pathogenic (disease producing), but the need for
attempting to remove them from the skin before injections has been debated. Dann36 has suggested
that ‘routine skin preparation before injection is quite unnecessary’ and Koivisto and Felig37 concluded
from their research in diabetic patients ‘that routine skin preparation with alcohol before insulin injec-
tion markedly reduces skin bacterial- counts but may not be necessary to prevent infection at the
injection sites’. On the other hand, Selwyn and Ellis38 thought that ‘though the nihilistic approach of
Dann (1969) seems unwise, relatively brief disinfection of the operation site will usually suffice’. Oth-
ers have contributed to the debate with not always helpful comments, e.g. ‘There is no good reason
that healthy skin needs chemical disinfection for routine injections given outside hospital, though the use
of 70% ethyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol is desirable in most cases.’39!

Choudhuri and colleagues40 showed that alcohol pads were not as effective as iodine pads and pro-
duced only a 61% sterilization rate with a significant number of staphylococci remaining viable. How-

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Position Statement on Injection Technique

ever their assessment of sterilisation was based on swabbing the skin before and after preparation.
Selwyn and Ellis38 have shown that this an insensitive method of picking up skin organisms and so is
likely to grossly overestimate the rate of skin sterilisation. The contemporaneous guidelines from the
Department of Health6 state ‘If the skin is to be cleaned, alcohol and other disinfecting agents must be
allowed to evaporate before injection of the vaccine since they can inactivate live vaccine prepara-
tions.’

More and more people have abandoned skin preparation, other than making sure it is grossly clean,
prior to immunisation and there has been no sudden upsurge in abscess formation.

RECOMMENDATIONS
For immunisations the anterolateral thigh or deltoid should be used for all intramuscular or deep subcu-
taneous injections. The anterolateral thigh is probably best used in infants and the deltoid in older
children. The buttock is not recommended. A needle length of 5/8” is the minimum for all intramuscular
or deep subcutaneous injections. There is insufficient evidence to recommend whether a larger (1”)
needle should be used in infants and young children, but it would seem sensible to do so in children of
5 years or older. In younger children, a decision has to be made on an individual basis depending on the
size of the child. Formal skin disinfection is not necessary before administering immunisations.

References
1. Buntain WL, R MS. Local subcutaneous atrophy following measles, mumps and rubella vac-
cination. American Journal of Diseases of Childhood 1976;130:335.
2. Sarkar P, Dasgupta S. Complications of intramuscular injections in children. Journal of the
Indian Medical Association 1981;77(9 & 10):145-147.
3. Orlans D, Verbov J. Skin reactions after triple vaccine. The Practitioner 1982;226:1295-6.
4. Greenblatt DJ, Allen MD. Intramuscular injection-site complications. JAMA 1978;240(8):542-4.
5. Stark W A. Quadriceps contracture in children. American Journal of Diseases in Child-
hood 1970;120:349.
6. Department of Health. Immunisation against infectious disease. London: HMSO, 1996.
7. American Academy of Pediatrics. Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Illinois:
American Academy of Pediatrics, 1997.
8. Grey Turner G. The site for intramuscular injection. Lancet 1920:819.
9. Gilles FH, French JH. Postinjection sciatic nerve palsies in infants and children. Journal of
Pediatrics 1961;58(2):195-204.
10. Kline DG, Kim D, Midha R, Harsh C, Tiel R. Management and results of sciatic nerve injuries:
a 24-year experience. Journal of Neurosurgery 1998;89:13-23.
11. Villarejo FJ, Pascual AM. Injection injury of the sciatic nerve (370 cases). Child’s Nervous
System 1993;9:229-232.
12. Young F. Peripheral nerve palsies following the use of various serums. JAMA 1932;98(14):1139-
43.
13. Thompson M K. Needling doubts about where to vaccinate. BMJ 1988;297:779-80.
14. Piggot J. Needling doubts about where to vaccinate. BMJ 1988;297:1130.
15. MacDonald N E, Marcuse E K. Neurologic injury after vaccination: buttocks as injection site.
Canadian Medical Association Journal 1994;150:326.
16. MacDonald N, K ME. Does immunization in the buttocks cause sciatic nerve injury? Pediatrics
1994;93(2):351.
17. Marcusse E K, E MN. Neurologic injury after vaccination in the buttocks. Canadian Medi-
cal Association Journal 1996;155(4):374.
18. Ko Y C, Chung D C, Pai H H. Intramuscular-injection-associated gluteal fibrotic contracture
and hepatitis B virus infection among school children. Kao-Hsiung i Hseuh Ko Hseuh Tsa
Chih 1991;7(7):358-62.
19. Jackson A M, A HP. Injection-induced contractures of the quadriceps in childhood. A compari-
son of proximal release and distal quadricepsplasty. Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery
1985;67(1):97-102.
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 Position Statement on Injection Technique

20. Babhulkar S S. Triceps contracture caused by injections. A report of eleven cases. Journal
of Bone & Joint Surgery 1985;67(1):94-6.
21. Fishbein D B, Sawyer L A, Reid-Sanden F L, H WE. Administration of human diploid-cell rabies
vaccine in the gluteal area. New England Journal of Medicine 1988;318(2):124-5.
22. Shaw F E, Guess H A, Roets J M, Mohr F E, Coleman P J, Mandel E J, et al. Effect of
anatomic injection site, age and smoking on the immune response to hepatitis B vaccination.
Vaccine 1989;7:425-30.
23. Fessard C, Riche O, M CJH. Intramuscular versus subcutaneous injection for hepatitis B
vaccine. Vaccine 1988;6:469.
24. Baraff L J, Cody C L, D CJ. DTP-associated reactions: an analysis by injection site, manu-
facturer, prior reactions, and dose. Pediatrics 1984;73(1):31-6.
25. Ipp M M, Gold R, Goldbach M, Maresky D C, Saunders N, Greenberg S, et al. Adverse
reactions to diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis-polio vaccination at 18 months of age: effect of
injection site and needle length. Pediatrics 1989;83(5):679-82.
26. National Health and Medical Research Council. The Australian Immunisation Handbook:
Australian Government Publishing Service, 1997.
27. Bergeson P S, Singer S A, M KA. Intramuscular injections in children. Pediatrics
1982;70(6):944-8.
28. Groswasser J, Kahn A, Bouche B, Hanquinet S, Perlmuter N. Needle length and injection
technique for efficient intramuscular vaccine delivery in infants and children evaluated through
an ultrasonographic determination of subcutaneous and muscle layer thickness. Pediatrics
1997;100(3):400-3.
29. Diggle L. Practical aspects of paediatric immunisation. Practice Nurse 2000;19:202-6.
30. Diggle L, Deeks J. Effect of needle length on the incidence of local reactions to routine
immunisation in infants aged 4 months:randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2001;321:931-3
31. Center for Disease Control. Diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis: recommendations for vaccine
use and other preventive measures: recommendations of the Immunisation Practices Advi-
sory Committee (ACIP). MMWR 1991;40(RR-10):9.
32. Sako W, Treuting W L, Witt D B, Nichamin S J. Early immunization against pertussis with
alum precipitated vaccine. JAMA 1945;127(7):379-84.
33. Dudgeon J A. Immunization reactions. In: Dudgeon J A, Cutting W A M, editors. Immuniza-
tion: Principles and Practice. London: Chapman and Hall Medical, 1991.
34. Somerville D A. The normal flora of the skin in different age groups. British Journal of
Dermatology 1969;81:248-58.
35. Somerville D A, Vol. 81, Supplement 1, 14-22. The effect of age on the normal flora of the
skin. British Journal of Dermatology 1969;81(S1):14-22.
36. Dann T C. Routine skin preparation before injection. An unnecessary procedure. Lancet
1969;ii:96-8.
37. Koivisto V A, Felig P. Is skin preparation necessary before insulin injection? Lancet 1978;i:1072-
3.
38. Selwyn S, Ellis H. Skin bacteria and skin disinfection reconsidered. British Medical Journal
1972;1:136-40.
39. Anon. Preparing the skin for injections and venepuncture. Drugs and Therapeutics Bulletin
1972;10(19):73-5.
40. Choudhuri M, McQueen R, Inoue S, Gordon R C. Efficiency of skin sterilization for a veni-
puncture with the use of commercially available alcohol or iodine pads. American Journal of
Infection Control 1990;18:82-5.

March 2002

ISBN 1-900954-61-3
RCN publication code 001 753
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