CAMBRIDGE Tara Sota eo Tas Physics for Cambridge IGCSE™ Ee ume nee eR oy es aeetcrtiy Third editionYour Access Code ‘This code gives you access to your cial resource Please seratch the panel ightly to reveal the code ‘beneath a coins ideal for this): How do | activate my digital resource? ‘+ Pleas login at cambridge.org/go and than click on ‘Add new resources! to access code above, + Need to register? Create your account at eambridge.org/ge and then click on ‘Add new resources’ to use the access code above, the ‘Terms and conditions: + This accots code will give you 2 you from the doy you fst use the code, ‘+ This code can only be used once, is personal to you, and cannot be reused by anyone else. ‘+ Fullterms ond coneltions are available at: cambridge.org/go/terms_of us (24 months) access to the digital resource startingCAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Physics for Cambridge IGCSE™ _ COURSEBOOK | David Sang, Mike Follows & Sheila TarpeyCAMBRIDGE Unies Printing Howe, Carbide» CB2 9B, United Kinaonh ‘One Liter Pa, 20h Floor, New York, NY 10005, USA “77 Watanstorn Road, Poet Metbourn, VIC 307, Asan 3142, 3 Floor, Ph Sper Forum, sala Distt Cet, Ne Del -10025, na 179 Anson Ron, 06-0806, Singapore 9808 ‘Cambcge Unversity Press pat ofthe Univers of Cambridge nfs he University ison by dsminting Enodis the prt of sation ering nd Yeah the highs aterationa level of xa fata hs le: wwcambrdsra97S1 08889073 (© Cambri Univer Pest 2121 Ti pucaon incopy Subec to stator ception stn othe povson of ele colbcte henng sree orepoduton fay puta ake ace thot he wien Feembsion of Cai Unversity Pres ‘Stoodedon 2018 ‘Thidediion 221 2019 WIT Wis eI 987654391 Pre in Dubai by Ont Pres A catlogue cord for this pebaton esas fom the rit Library ISBN a78--1o8 $8079 Coursbeok i digtal acs (2 yan) ISBN a7e-tiobaoqes Dial ouebook Yea) ISBN g7B-tiakaqqo Coussbok eBook Adional sous hie pabicaon a winccambridsorgSnge ‘Cambrian copyright mati in his pubzaton epoca “deren sd ermine he nla property Cums Avent [NOTICE TO TEACHERS ‘The phtacopy mats in his pation may be photoset ted clcroncay fe of cara ocr ie iio he Schoo ores tat purchased he ub. ‘ose and copies f then ena the copia Cambridge Unnerty Pram and sch cp uy tbe Sitter we in anyway ode he pray nstaton, Exams questioned sme newer ave ee writen by ‘he utors In exmtiony, te wy mark re rd ay Se ‘ier Refer o sun tao set peprton rethe publishers inerpeation othe yates guest nd yoo fly ret he approach of Cmte Assent siglo reproduc any art ofthis wok i mate fee Aoeuding potoopsng ad eesti trae) ec ner he (where you aresiting bys xace granted to ourshooor Tnscuon by the Copyright Lies Ap i where such iene exis o whee you wis excl he {erm of hens and you hn and th rite rms Cambridge Users Pr (ip yhere you ar atlowed o reproduce witht pemision under The provisos af Chaper3 oft Copy Des and tats Act 18h wth cvs for tp he mpedacton of hor passa witha cai types edoetinl tol) {nd repre othe prs of eng exaninationeA DEDICATED «< TEACHER La AWARDS etree oem ome m aero MMU eI mir ct gy pe cg:> _camoRioce kscse™ pistes: coRsEBOK > Contents How to use this series vi 6 Energy stores and transfers How to use this book vi ot ea ae ie : 6.2 Bnory transers 07 Introduction X 63 Conservation of enerey uo 1 Making measurements 64 Energy cleultons iis 1.4 Measuring length and volume 37 Energy resources cee 5 74 The eneray we we 1a 13 giometiog tine 972 Energy from the Sua 133 2. Describing motion fe feces 8 Work and power 22, Paani 248A oing work rn 23 Understanding acoseation 2582 Caleulating work done we 24 Caleulating speed and acceerstion = 183 Power i 84 Calculating power 146 3. Forces and motion 34 Wehwelit-ott 44 9 The kinetic particle model of matter 3:2 Mass weight and ereity 479A Siatesof mater Iss 3.3 Falling and trang 48 9.2 Thekinaic particle mode of mats 156 3.4 Fores mass and acceleration 5293 Gasesand the kinetic model 160 35° Momentum S494 Temperature and the Civ seale 162 36 Moreaboutsclarsandveciors, 399.5 The gas laws 164 4 Turning effects 10 Thermal properties of matter 441 Themoment of force (tt 10 ae tee enue in 42 Caleutating moments ® — 40.2 Specific heat opacity us 4.3 Stability and cet of gravity a oa eapeste es 5. Forces and matter Seen sg 11 Thermal energy transfers 2 Scenes toe " eee — Toe & 2 ee 5.5 Calculating pressure 94 eet aaContents 12 Sound 19 Electrical circuits 121 Making sounds 216 19.4 Cireutcomponents 38 122” How docs sound unset? 217 49.2 Combinations of resistors 353 423 ‘Thespeet of sound 219 19.3 ectrca safety 385, 124 Seeingand being sounds 221 : 20 Electromagnetic forces 13 Light 201 Themagnetceffest of acarent 378 194 Reflection of ight 231 20.2 Foreconacurentcarryng 13.2 Refraction of ght 236 ee 7 13.3. Tota internal reflection 241 a a soc ees oe fee noe etd 386 435 Dispenionof ht 235 21 Electromagnetic induction 14 Properties of waves 211 Generating cectcty 385 141 Desebing waves 260 24.2 Powerlines and transformers 401 142 Speed, Grequeney and wavelength 266243. How ranaformers work ‘405 143 Explaining wave phenomens 267 22 The nuclear atom 15 The electromagnetic spectrum 22:1 Atomie structure als 415A. Blectromagntic waves 279 22.2 Protons neuonsand electrons 48 152. Bectromagetc hazards 24 15.3 Communicating using 23 Radioactivity electromagnetic waves 283 23.1-—_Rasioativty all around us 9 23.2 Radioactive decay a1 16 Magnetism 23.3 Activity and hale 436 16.41 Permanent magnets 295-234 Usingradioisotopes 42 162 Magnetic fis am 24 Earth and the Solar System 17 Static electricity 24.1 Earth, Sunand Moon 453 17.1 Charging and discharging 30242 TheSolar System 436 17.2 Explaining static eloeity an. Wess estas jig 25 Stars and the Universe 251 TheSun 468, 18 Electrical quantities 25.2 Stareand galaxies Oy Coase a 253 The Universe a Volage in elects m1 jendix 485 letra resistance aso APP More aboutclectical resistance sas Glossary 488 Fletricl ene, work and power 337 Key equations 496 Index 498 Acknowledgements 51 AR OL uesPete ee een GSE Physics syllabus: Each caper expan cts eee eee sre eer ey Seer eT ee ee ‘wth focus on practical work and plenty of active learning Sa Semen eee ee eet eat ere nes eNom sere erent ei nrStcg ete eet “The digital eacher resource contains dtsiled guidance fr al pics of the ‘labs, including common misconceptions dentying areas where learners Tight ned extra sepport, aswell san engaging bank of lesson ideas for each Slabus topic ilferentition is emphasised with advice for iMemtiisation of diferent learner needs and suggestions of appropriate interventions to support and tet earners. The teachers resource also contains suppor for preparing tnt careying out al the vestigations in the pictial workbook, including ast of sample ‘sus for when practical arent possible ‘Te teachers esoree als conn seaolde worksheets and unit et foreach chapter [Awers forall omponznts ee accesible to {eichers for ise onthe Cambridge GO platform,The skill focus See ee eet eet et et eee eee = ona acd erent et ean eer eee eet eee erent prepa eer enema tt d. The workbook enables independent ‘ Physics The Cambridge IGCSE practical workbook provides lamer Cuter earcirasereenateienees Peete ee ce RCT ty ents et en eine cer ee en eee ee en ee ae Cr CC Physics rs = Seven ese Se cea eae ee eset nents ene an eesti econo> camenoce 1ccsem puvscs: couRses00K > How to use this book ‘Throughout this book, you will otc lots of diferent features that wil help your learning. Thee ar explainad below, RENE he leaning intentions table, Supple ee inthe example her ieeareonueu This feature presents eal-word examples and applications of the content n a chapter, encouraging you to look further into topics that ‘may g0 beyond the sllabus. There ae cscussion {questions atthe end which look at some ofthe benefits and problems ofthese applications. Sone “This Feaure focuses on developing your practical skis They include lists of equipment required and any safety issues, stepby stp instructions so you can cary out the experiment, and questions 12 help you think about whet you heve learned Key vocabulary is highlighted inthe text ven i is rst introduced, and definitions are given in ‘boxes near the vocabulary. You wil also find definitions ofthese words 'n the Glossary atthe back of ths book This contains questions and actives on subject knowledge you wil need before starting the chapter. Supplement content: Where content is intended foe y Tearmers who are studying the Supplement content of the syllabus as well asthe Cor, his indicated inte main text using the arrow and the at, as on the right here, and the txt isin ble, You may als see the ble ex with jst an arrow (and no barn boxed features suchas the Key Words or the Getting Stared. Symbols in Hue are also supplementary conten. Questions Appearing throughout the text, questions give oua chunce to check that you have understood the tepie you have ust ead about. The answers fo these questions are ‘accesible to teachers for foe on the Cambridge GO sit Actiitos give you an opportunity to check your understanding threughout the text in amore Active way, for example by coating presentations, posters of taking part in role pays hen activites have answers, teachers can find these for ree on the Cambridge GO site, Irsporant equstions which you wll need tol {and remember ate gven in these boxes,How to use tit book Command words that appear inthe sylabus and ‘Ac the end of some activities and experimental ‘right be used in exams are highlighted inthe sills boxes, you wil find oppocuniies ta help amsiyle questons. Inthe margin, you willing you assess your oun work, or that of your ‘he Cameridge Intemational definition. You wil Classmates, and consider how you can improve fo find these definitions inthe Glossary the way you eam. ‘Wherever you nee to know how 10 use an equation ‘These activities ask you to think about the (cary outs ealcultion, thee aze worked example ‘approach that you take te your work, and how bores to show you how todo this. {you might improve this in the future Projects allow you to apply your learning rom tha whole chapte: to gioup acts suchas making posters or presentations or performing in debates. They may give you the opporunity to extend your leering beyond ‘the yabusf you want to. at ‘There isa summary of key points at the end ofeach chapter. “Supplement conten is indicated with a large avtow inthe margin anda darker backround, ax here ‘Questions at the end ofeach chapter prove more demanding xam-stye questions some of which may require ‘se of knowledge from previous chapters The answers to these questions are aocesible to teachers for ree onthe ‘anol ange Rom me Lae Teton ore)caMBRIDGE IGcsE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK > Introduction studying physics ys pst Sme poe sty rhe vee arti they fe meres Paps ache) ea nna They ht Se OES ctsring te nit aan parle, be inandng th vf te Ue al Ona more human sal, py sty mater o On meee and col hc popes Thy stay stoma ton wh mater loin eet cl wae alo ‘ter People are more inetd in the apis ot Ce fey want to know ow canbe sed, perhaps pir Jocweg prob or model papas an sae ton how oer toon api ean Parte ord tetera Sone ee sly pas prof tc cone Smee wate bae tae ot pe oft eis esslcmist, Slog or pologs Thee et af cc dew ret elon es om Se po may de ne, Thinking physics How do isis tink? One the charset pei that thy tony piensa Momo thtebses nad then ste then apie sie ery fnew es For xm Jou ‘Sharh fe ttc ade ty perce tte and epee te and mone Mbowt Tats von weflmode wich has pe sto undestnd ih behaviour ef mati how sound tna ww deity ows end much more Once a fundamental ide is established, pics cok around fr other areas where it might help to solve problems One ofthe surprises of 20th century physics tras tha, once pists had begun to understand be Tundamental particles of which atoms are made they realised that this elped to expiinthe earliest moments inthe history ofthe Univers, atthe ime ofthe Big Bong Mein ison stan a biological career but this ctor il use many applications of physic, Fem Xa to rabotie Tins inher workPryses ois 00 mathematics Physicists measure {quantities and analyse data. They invent mathematical models equations snd soon — to explain their Endings Infact, a great deal of mathematics hasbeen teyelopes ty physicist to help them to understand their perimental results Am example ofthis the work of Fvard Witten, who designed new mathematical tols to unify diferent versions of superstrng theory~a theory wiih tre oui al the ores and particles you are Tearing about omputers have made a big difference in pyscs, lowing physics to process vast amounts of ata api: Computers ca process data fom telesopes, ‘ntl distant spaoseralt and prod the behaviour of billions of atoms i solid material, mn Api 2019 the fret pictures were lensed of blackhole he canal arene 2 dense ta ight cannot excape i. his image wa the recut of hunched of scent using & notwork ef radio telescopes aroun the world, procesting many petabyes of tat potbye sequal 1 millon Sosbyter ort» 10° bye ‘The more you study physic, the more you will ume to realise how the ideas join wp. Indeed, the wtimats goal for many physicists it ink all ides into one iying theory of everything Stephen Hovkng was a bilan young tadent whos he wat camanioce 1scsem pastes: couRsEB0oK hich cries will probably be in an elacricvhicl he this one, Many countries to phase out palling, fel Kel powered vices bythe mide of the 2st cnt, Physics are improving ear design and battery He to ak thi ait Joining in Shen you study pes you are dong wo things 1 Youarejoningin with ig human project. ‘ming mre toute word around ur and ‘opin that knowledge. 4 Atthesame tng you ae harnng thik tie {post how io apply some bas ers how ‘ook cially at da and how to ecopise {nderyng pater Whatever path you takes ill wlleain wih you and help oo mak ese of the pil chaning weld in wich wee> _cameince 1ecse™ paysics: COuRSEBOOK In pa following: ‘+ measure the length, width and thicines ofthis book and work out its volume ‘measure the thickness of sheet of paper that makes up this book + moasure the length ofa journey for example, on a map) that isnot stright ther take the measurements or write down how you would Now discuss how you would wark out the density of + aregularshaped sols + aniregularshaped solid +a qui. Pw People tend to dismis people who lived inthe past as ess intoligent than we are, Aor al they ‘sed part of theirboces for measuring distances, ‘Acubitwas the length af the forearm fom te tp ofthe middle finger to the elbow. However the ancient Egyptians knew this varied between people Therefore i arcund 30008CE, they invented the royal abit Figure 1.7), marked out on a piace of gfanite and used this ae standard to procuce ‘abit rod of equal length, Figure 1.2; Eratosthenes ued shadows and geomet to orkut the ercumfrance ofthe Earth Discussion questions Figure 11=Cibitrod. 1. You cannot alvaye depand on your eyes judge lengths. Look at Figure 13 and decide ‘The Ancient Egyptians were experts at using very ‘which in is longer? Check by using a ral. sSmple tools ke the cult od, This enabled ther to build thei pyramids accurately. Eratosthenes, eS _a.ballan scientist who Ived in Egyptin about 300 BCE, showed the same care and attention to a ‘etal This alowed him ta workout that the Earth Seer renee has a cieumference of 40000km (Figure 1.2, see oe Inconvact there are many recent examples where 2-_Ezatoshenes may ave hired a man to pace incorrect measurements have led to problems the distance between Alexandhia and Syere Although the Hubble Space Telesone had the most (present-day Aswan) to calla the Earths precisely shaped mior ever mad, the orginal, ‘treumference. Peopla have ciferent side Images it produced were not a cer a expected, lengths co some people take longer steps han ‘Tooy mistakes in moasuring meant tht t had the others, Discuss the possible ways that aryene wrong shape and ittook alot of effort to account wth any stride length could have measured fer these errs. the cistance between these tows accurately, eT) 2)1) Making measurements 1.1 Measuring length and volume 1m physics we make measurements of many different Tenet for example, the length of pie of wire, the hght of ligui in tube, he distance moved by an bjt the diameter of a planet or the radius ofits obit {nthe laboratory lengths are often measured using a fale (uch as mete rue. ‘Measuring lengths wth ruler familiar task. But when ou usar, its worth thinking about te task and Jot how selable your measurements may be. Consider -casring the length ofa piece of wir (Figure 14), ‘+The wire must be straight, and laid closely alongside the ult (This may be tricky with «beat piece ofwire) + Lookat the ends of the wie. Are they cut neatly, rare they ragged? Is it ifficult to dg where the ‘vite bopns and ends? + Look the markings on the ruler. They are probably mm apart, but they may be quite wide Line one end of the wite up agains the zero on the scale Because of the width of the mark, this may be sswkovacd to judge. “Look at the other end of the wire and read the seal, ‘Again, this maybe tricky to judg. Now you havea measurement, with an idea of ow precise itis You can probably determin the length ofthe wire to Within a milimetr But theres something else to tink out the ruler itself How sure ean you be tha itis ‘ones alate? Are the marks atthe ends of met Tule separated by exactly one mete? Any erorin this will ead to an inaoeuracy (probably sta in your esl Figure 1.5: Making multiple measurement. “The point here i to recognise that tis always important to thnk erially about the measurements you moke, however strnghtforward they may sem. You have 9 consider the mathod you uso, as Well asthe instrument (this case the rule), (eT aH standard: san absolute or ximary reference or precise: when several readings ae close together tanen measuring the same value calibrated: should agree closely witha standard ‘or agrees when a corrction has been applied More measurement techniques Ifyou have to measure a small ength, such the thickness of a wit maybe Bet 6 measure several thikneses ad then calculate the average. You can Use thesame approach when measuring something Yer thin Such ava sheet of paper Take a stack of 50 sexs and Ineasue its thickness witha rule (Figure 1.) Then tive by 500 to find the thickness of one sheet, 0 sony 8 2> camsnioce 1ccse™ pnsics: COURSEECOK For some measurements of length, suchas curved lines, ican help olay a thread along the fin. Mark the tread tether end of the line and then la it along «ruler tefind the length. Tis technique en also be sed for measuring the circumference of a eylindrical object such {sa wooden rod ora measuring cylinder. Measuring volumes ‘There are two approaches to measuring volumes, depending on whether or nt the shape i regular. For cubs or cuboid, such asa rectangular block, rmoasure the length, width and height of the object and ‘multiply the measurements together. For objects of other regular shapes, suchas spheres or eyinders, you may thve to make one o two measurements and then Lok up the equation forthe volume, For liquid, measuring eslinders can be used as shown in Figure 1.6. (Recall that these are designed so that yo lok a the seal horizontally, not tan obigue ‘angle, and read the level of the bottom of the meniscus) ‘The meniscus is the curved upper surface of liquid, used by surface tension, It can euve up oF down but the surface of water in a measuring eyinder curves downwards Think carefully about the choice of cylinder. ‘A Tite (or 1 di) cylinder is unikely tobe suitable for measuring a small volume such as Sem’. You wl get. ‘more accurate answer using a em exlinder Measuring volume by displacement Most objets donot have eglrshpe 30 we cannot find thr volumes simply by measuring the ngs Of these Herel ow tod the vole ofan ‘regulary shape object This techniques known as mmesuring volume by dblacement, Skea measuring cyinder hat bout tc or four ins large han the objet Partly with ‘ater (Figure 1) enough to cover the objet Note Thevolimeof the wae. mers the objectin the water. The level of water in the cylinder wil increase, because the obet pushes the water out ofthe way and the ony way it ‘an move i upwards. The inrease ints volume i ‘salt the volume of the objec. Units of length and volume In physics, we generally use ST units tis is short for Le Systme International ’'Unités or Te International ‘System of Unit) The ST unit of length she metre (m). ‘Table [1 shows some alternative units of length, together with some units of volume. Not that te ire and mili are not oficial ST unis of volume, and so frenot used inthis book. One lite (11) isthe same as {dm and one mille (1m isthe same as lem volume: the space occupied by an abject meniscus: curved upper surface of liquid lsplace: moving something to another place so water is moved out of the wey (upwards when an objects lowered into it immerse: to cover something in fi (usually water) o that the objects submerged Figure 1.6: sudent masturing the volume of qi Her eyes are lvl with the scala that he can acm rmaaaur where the meniscue mee the ss41. Making measurements 62/4 ae Measuring volume by placement 2 A.stack of paper contains $00 sheets of pape “The tack has dimensions of 0.297 m = 20am * so0mm, ‘8 What the thickness of one shes of pope? bb Whatis the volume ofthe stack of paperin om? 1.2 Density Our eyes can decrve us: When we look at an object, swe can judge its volume, However, we can ony gus its ras. We may guess incorrectly, because we misjuge the density. You may of to carry someone's bag nly to discover that it contains heavy books. A lange box of ‘choclate may havea mass of only 200 Tength | metre im) ‘The mass of an object is the quantity (amount) of matter Aust e sola itismade of Mass is measured in kilograms, But ens isa property of «material 1 tel us how concentrated re ae its mass ix You will lean more about the meaning of 4 millimetre mm) = 0.001m nass and how i ifr from weight in Chapter 3. {micromete m)~ 0.000001 | In everyday speech, we might say that lead isheaver than 1 klemete tk) _= 100m wood. Wemean that, given equal volumes of leadand wood, the lads heavier In seientic terms, the density of eas gear than the density of wood. So we deine ‘density as shown n words and as an equation, Figure 17 volume | eubie metre (n) 1 cubic centimetre (em) = 0.000001 m= 1 eubie decimetr (i?) = 0.001 m? Density isthe mas per unit volume fra substance ae) Questions density = Shag 1 The volume of «pier of wood which oats in water m cam be measired as shown in Fig 1.8 aa ‘2 Write a paragraph to describe the procedure ‘mass: the quantity of matter a bady is composed Of; mass causes the object to resist changes in its motion and causes itt have 2 gravitational attraction for other objects density: the ratio of mass to volume for 3 substance ater weight: the downward force of gravity that ats (nan object because of its mass stool block wood ‘The symbol for density isp, the Greek eter sho. The SI Figure 1.8: Measuring the volume ofan object that sts. unit of density is kp (Kilogram per eubie met) ‘You may come across other units a5 shown in Table 1.2> camsnioce iscsem pxsics: couRsEBOOK iograr, kg cubic mete, mn? Kelograms per cubic metre | 1000kg/m= Kilogram, kg cubic decimate, dn | klograms per cubie decimeve | LOkg/dn™ amg eubiccentimete, en | grams percubiccentimetre | 10g/em™ Table 1.2: Units of der. Values of density Some values of density are shown in Table 13. Gases hve mich lower densities than solids origi ‘An object that is ess dense than water will oat. Io is less dense than water which explains why icberus oat in the sea, ther than sinking tothe bottom. Only about fone tenth ofan iceberg is above the water surface If any part ofan objec is above the water surface, then itis ess lense than water Geer [air 129 hydrogen 0.09 helium os ‘arbon lonide | 1.98 Tiguide [water 1000 ‘skool ethane | 790) mereuty 13600 Soles [ce 320 ‘wood 400-1200) palethene 910-970 las 2500-4200 steel 7500-8100 Toad 11340 iver 10500 ‘gold 19300 Table 1.2: Donets of srr substances Forges thoes a8 sjven ats tapratre of0°C anc poesre of 1.0 CP ‘Many materials hve a range of densities Some types ‘of wood, or example, ae fess dense than water and will, oat. Other types of wood (such us mahogany) are more dense and wil sink. Te density depends on the ature (ofthe wood (its composition). Golds denser than siver. Pure gold isa soft meal, so Jewelers add silver to make it harder. The amount of, Silver added canbe judged by measuring the density. is useful co remember thatthe density of waters 000%, 1.Okgldm or 1.0 em Calculating density To calculate the density of a materia, we need to know themass and volume ofa simple ofthe materia, ‘A sample of ethanol has a volume of 240”. ‘ts mass is found tobe 190.0. What isthe density ofethanat? ‘Step 1: Write down what you know and what you vant to know, mass m = 190.08 volume P= 2400? density p= Wate down hc gun for esi Disttue vest cael om 1908 Hen? 79 glen? ‘Step2: Answer Density of ethanol = 0.79 p/m?“The easiest way 1 determine the density of a substance isto ind the mass and volume ofa sample of the substance For solid witha regular shaps, find its volume by ‘metsurement (se Section 1.1), Find its mass wing & talance, Thea calculate the density. Questions 3A bricks shown in Figure 1.9. Tthasa mass of 28g Figure 1.9: Abricklabelas wth is dimensions, 2 Give the dimensions of the brick in metres 1b Caleulate the volume of the brick © Calelate the density ofthe brick. 4 A-box full of 35 matches has amass of 6.77, Theos ital” has a mass of 3.376 9 Whatisthe mass of one match in grams? 1b Whatisthe volume (n cm) of each match, ‘A match has dimensions of 42mm * 23mm * 23mm? ‘What isthe density ofthe matches? How do you know if these matches wil float? The Earth has a mass of 6 10%kg and rads of about 400m. What isthe density of the Earth (Ga kg/n?)? The volume ofa spheres given bythe ‘equation = 437, where isthe ras 40 drawing pins thumn tacks) ike those shown in Figure 1.10 have a mats of 17.58. Whats the volume (in mm) of ene pin when they are mide of metal witha density of 87 em? Figure 1.10: Apr of craving ins hur ta ‘A young gil om the Kayan people in northen ‘Halland wears a neck ing made of bras Figure 11D Telooks a if there re 2 individual ings but the ring is actually one continuous length of bass fashioned (bent) int a coil. The height ofthe ass Dem and its average circumference is 49cm. [Neck rings are usualy only removed to be epaced with bigger one asthe gi grows However, we an estimate the mas of this neck ring without removing it,> camemoce acse™ PHYsics: couRSEEOOK ‘2 What looks like 21 individual sings around the g's neck is actully 21 turns ofa col of brass Each tum has a circumference of em. Caleulte Gn em) the toal length of brass used to make the gt neck ring. b Theol has a height of 12cm and the coil has 21 tums, Caleulate the rads ofthe brass inc, I che brass coil is unwound from the g's nck and straightened out, t would be long, thin, ‘linde, Calculate the volume ofthis cylinder inca. The volume ofa cylinder is given by the fsquation P= arth, where 7S radiusand h= height, 4d Calculate the mass of brass used to make the nec ring and express your answer i ks. The density of brass = 8.73 gem Finding the density of a liquid Figure 1.12shows one way to find the density of a liquid. Place a measuring cylinder ona balance. Set the balance to zero. Now pour liquid into the cylinder. Read {he volume from the scale on thecyinde. The balance shows the mass. Figure 1.12: Measuring the mas of qu ‘When guide with diferent densities are poured into the same container, they wll arrange themselves so that the liquid withthe lowest density wil be atthe top and the ones with the highest density will beat the bottom. ‘This is because the dense liquids displace theless dense Tiguids This easir to see when each figud is sven ‘ferent colour In Figure 113, the green liquid sess ‘dense than the red igud and 9 on. When a distinc layer forms in a minod solution, the Tiquids are sid tobe immiscibe, which means they do not mi. Thi is wy ol oats om water, However, not all liquids stay separated so you would be disappointed ou tried this at home with squash and water, for example, ‘When gud mi, itis usualy because on guid dissolves inthe other, For example orange sauash is coneztrated syrup that is luted by dissolving tin water. Figure 1.13: Liquid dnsty towers Apart fom making colourful liquid density tows, do variations inthe density of iquids have praca ‘onsequence? In Chapter 11, you wll learn about ‘comection currents in fids (liquids and gases), which ‘are driven by difeenocs in density, These comection ‘currents include the thermohaline circulation ine ‘oeans. Colder and saltier water sinks, deplacing {pushing up) warmer and les salty wate. Finding the density ofa regularly shaped solld In pois, crete @ worksheet on the computer fr finding the density ofa regualy shaped slic object (forexample, a rectangularbloc) using a ruler and a massbalance Your worksheet should include: + amothod for measuring the mass and werking ‘outthe volume. + the equation for calculating density + stable to record the data, Yeu could include an optional tak to work ou the sensty of quid ‘Afor your allotted time, another pois going to test copy of your worshaet (perhaps By doing the experiment). They are going to add any stops that ae missing or make suggestions to meke your ‘worksheet clearer When you get your workshest returned, edit and save anew version of a>Finding the density ofan regularly shaped solid Before you start, make a copy of your previous ‘worksheet and save it under @ new name. Some of “what you included in the previous worksheet can bekept and some wil need tobe ected, In pais, create a worksheet fr finding the density ‘ofan regulary shaped sali objec sing a mass Ealanco, a measuring cinder, some thread, a pair (of scisces and a eureka can (you have access to ‘ne. Your method explaining how to measure the ‘mass and howto calculate the density shoul be ‘he same. However, you should explsn how to measure volume by displacement say something about choosing suitably sized measuring cylinder change your previous table You could include an optional task to work cut ‘the density ofan regularly shaped sold object thot isless dense than water Finding ts mace and caleulang the dens is straightforward. The hallenging parts explaining how to workout te volume of an abject hat float Design a flowchart or dcisiontree (optional) Design a flowchart or decsion-tree for use by ‘anyone who wants to work out the densty of ‘2 lquid or any sali abject. Ensure that your flowchart includes enough information so that ‘someone could take the measurements, Ask your pertner or someone else sho has compieted the frst two parts fo check and comct your flowchart How dense can you be? In groups of thre, write a method showing how you cou a younger sbing, Atematvey plan out your svategy and be prepared to shar it with the class. There are a least two methods: a dry method and a wet method, Discuss ane or both of ther, ‘You wil need to include: + a method thats detaled enough for someone to fll ‘measurement should be taker) any calulations possible sources of uncertainty inthe measurements hat you expect your answer tobe, you actully cared out the experiment, comment on how cose your messurement was to what you expected. 11 Making measurements faconet write down one thing that you cid rally wll this activity rite down one thing that you wll ty t0 do bettor next time. How wil you do tis? 1.3 Measuring time “The athletes coach in Figure. 14s using his stopvatch to time a sprinter Fora sprints, a faction of a second (perhaps just 0.01) can make al the difference between winning and coming condor thc Its deent na marathon, where the ace ast for mare than ‘wo hour and the runners are med tothe neaestsecond, Figure 1.14: An athletics coach ues a stopmatchto ime 2 hut, wh can then learn wether she hs improved id work out your own density, or that ofa fiend e of low (this should include advice about how a> ‘COURSEBOOK Perrone es esecce caer EE In the laboratory, you might need to record the {temperature of «container of wate every minute, or find out how long an electri current is lowing. For ‘measurement ike thes, topeocks and stopwatches can bused. You may come ares wo types of timing device An clock (Figure 1.15) is tke a traditional lock whose hands move round the clock’ face You find the time by looking at where the hands are pointing on the seal, Itcan be used to measure ime intervals to no beter than the nearest second Figure 1.15: An analogue dock A digital clock (Figure 1.16 or stopwatch is one that, ‘ives a det reading ofthe ime in numerals. For ‘example digital clock might show atime of 9.58 A {igi clock records time toa precision ofa least one Ihundredth ofa sesond, You would never sce an analogue ‘watch recording times in the Olympic Games Figure 1.16: cigl dock stated when the gun fed and ‘Stopped 958s ter when Usain Bot roased the ishing nto win the 100m tthe 200? World Champonehipen vl cord ne clsplay has hands (ora need) ara is often not very precise lsplay shows numbers and is often precise ‘When studying motion, ou may need to measure the time taken fora rapidly moving object to move between two points In this ase, you might use a devie called a Tight gate connected to an clectoni timer This similar to the way in which runners are timed in major aletics events An eletronic timer starts when the marshal’ gun iefired, and stops asthe runner crosses the finishing line You will len more about how to use electronic ing insteumentsin Chapter 2 Figure 1.17 shows atypical lab pendulum, A mas, called a hangs on the end of string. The sting ‘sclamped tightly a the top betwen two wooden jaws Ifyou pall the bab gently o one side and releaseit the ‘enim wl sing from side to side ‘The time for one of a pendulum (whenit sstings fom left right and back agin) is called its Ainge period is usually to shor a timeto ‘ease accurately: However, because a pendulum ‘ings at steady rate, you can use a stopwatch 9 measure the time for large number of escilaions (perhaps 200750), and calculate the average time pet ‘silation. Any inaccuracy inthe time at which {3 Stopwatch i started and stopped willbe mach less, signfcant if you measure the otal time for a large umber of oseilations a mars (usualy led) hanging from 2 ‘arng ta define a verte! line 2 repetitive mation or vibration the time for one complete oscillation or wave; the time it takes an object to return tots ‘ginal postion11 Making measurements 9A sudent was investigating how the period of « pendulum varied with the length of the string and ‘btsined the results in Table 14, (0.00 00. (0.20 ve 0.40 21 0.80 283 080 398 1100) 205) 120 aa 140 a9 Table 14 2 Why did the student record the sings? 1b Makea oopy of Table 14 and, foreach ngth ofthe pendulum, caleulte the time for one for 20 Figure 1.17: simple pend. Questions wean and cod the a ei 8 High-speed video ean record sporting events at {© Plota graph of the period ofthe pendulsm Frame rate of 60 ames per second (ame). against its eagth (tht i plo the length of the ‘a Whats the time interval between one frame ‘endilum onthe si) and the next? Use the graph to work out the length ofthe 1b Ir wecan see 24 framels as continuous motion, pendulum when th period is 2 seconds. This ie by what factor can the action recorded at the length of pendulum used in grandtither 0 framels be slowed down and sl look clock, Using @ pendulum as a clock In 1656 the Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens invented a clock based on a swinging pendulum. Clocks like these ware the ‘mast precise in te word until the 1930s, One ocilation ofa pendulum is defined asthe time it takes for a plumb bob atthe bottom ofthe string fo retun ois original postion Figure 1.18). ‘Younced to develop a worksheat go that students can plot a ‘graph of how the period of oscillation ofa pendulum varies with the length ofthe sting. They then need to use the graph to ind Figure 1.18: One oxclaton's when the ‘the length the pendulum needs to be to give a period of one plumb beb swings one wey end then the second (useful ora clack). Your worksheet needs to ther and retrs beck tts es> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK Eau row how to put the equipment together + method (step-by-step instructions). + define what an oscillation means 60 thata student knows whon to start and stop the stopwatch) + explain why wo take the time for 10 or 20 oscillations when we only need the time fr one osclation| + provide a labelled dagram ofthe assembled apparatus not just list of equipment) so that students ‘Swap copie of your worksheet wth a classmate, Write down suggestions fr any improvements on the woksreet you receive before returning tts owner Note down ary mgrovementsf you have a lass discussion. In groups ofthe or four produce a posast fo more than Fie minutes long) on one of thefllowing options (Option 1: Can we build on what we have learned about density? ‘Thies opportunity to revo what you have learned about density and then consaliete that knowledge and understanding by epelying it to one of the two ‘samples below. You must explain how density is ealeulated Including the equation, + You should describe how vo measure the mass ‘and volume of both regular and iregular Shaped objects + You could describe how to work out the density cof an object that can float. 1 RSS Titanic Iwas claimed that the RSS Titanic was unsinkabe, However the ship sank in 1912 ont st voyage, You must exsain why 2 ship can float despite ‘being made of materal that is denser than water + Yau should explain why a ship can sink, in terms ‘of changesin density + Do some reseaich to find out about bulkheads In ships: what are they and hat ar they for? Why cid the RSS Tani sine despite being fitzad with bulibeade? 2 Submarines and seubs divers ‘You cous describe one phenomenon that desends fon changes ar ferences in density You could think CF your ewn or select one ofthese ‘+ Began how a submarine or scuba dver moves up ‘and dovm inthe water column or perhaps exaain hhow a Canesian diver demonstration works) + Explain how differences infu density can lead to convection (something you will met in Chapter M1). You might want to go on to discuss how this relates to ocean curents oF wind, Option 2: What was the solution tothe longitude problem? ‘A clock based on 3 pendulum is impractical on the ‘moving deck of alg) ship but knowing the ee Isimporant for naigation a this provides your longitude on 2 spinning Eath. Lines of longitude te tha vertical ines on 2 map, Whan you move east ‘or west you are changing your longitude; move fr fencugh and you change time zane. + You must start witha short description of the fongitude problem, + You could describe the vaious suggested solutions tothe longitude problem, + You could describe the fal soliton tothe longitude problem. Forth, you would need > ‘ook up Jen Hin and his mare vonanater Option 3: How did the Ancient Egyptians buid ‘their pyramids So accurately? “The pyramids ae an ncrecible feat of engineering, leven by today standards, Using vey bas took, the Eyptane pyramids are perfectly symmetric + You could star by introducing the dimensions ‘ofthe Giza pyramid and the numberof bloske ‘required to build n>"Yu could explain how the Egyptians manages to get the sides ofthe pyramicl ned up with ‘rug north (without a compass} and how they got the base of them absolutely level la) without = (spit level ‘Option 4: How did Eratosthenes work out the rcummference of the Earth? Eztosthenes was a bilint scientist, He was told that at tho samme time ovary year (12 noon en 21 June), veicalcolumnsin Syene present day ‘Asian cat no shedows wile columns where he lived in Alexandria cast shaciowrs He usad this ‘to wotk out thatthe Eat is ound. Eratosthenes ‘may have hited a man to measure out the distance between Alexandra anc Syene, “You could star with a shor biography of Eratosthones. + You should explain why the observation with the shadows shows that the Est 2 sphere. You might went to include 8 diagram tke Figure 1.2, + You should ty and show how the man hires by Eratosthonos could have worked cut his _stidelength (the distance of each step) and kept count of is sides (tops). Think about his possible jourey: cid he follow a straight line; ‘Wore there any his in the way? Could this have introduced erors in measuring the distance between Alsrancis and Syene? ‘+ Finally, you could show how Eratosthenes did the calculation, Option 5: How did Archimedes really workout that the goldsmith hed replaced some of the {90 in Hiro’ crown with silver? ‘achimedes wae probably the most brillant scentst this era. Hes supposed to have solved the ‘robiem of how to workout the density ofthe cown wie having a bath. Legend hast tat he then rn inte the sets showing curl (ve solved i) + You could star with a shor biography of Archimedes. ‘You could thon describe the ual explanation of how he worked out that some god had been stolen, Sve is less dense than gold $9 the same mast of serhaes bigger volume tnd wil daplace a bigger volume of water Hower, would be efcut to measure the liference'n volume, especialy since bubbee Sf aircould cing tothe Submerged crown an there could be other sources of err + You could descibe a beter method, which Uses a mass balance, You would need Ya pli en thera egal te Ealnce ps towards the denser mass hen lowered inte water + Gold naeds some sverimpunty ort would be to0 soft and would be eay o bend out ‘of shape, emaps te goldemth was asey ‘sausea Pamaps tsa coud form partof 2 ec of creative wrung (ome prose 3 pay) reenter ca + Foryour project, write down some thoughts ‘about what you feel went well and areas where yous could improve, + Give yourself a score out of ten for how much you know and understand the physics you included. fyou scored ten write down how you could have produced a more ambitious Project Ifyou scored les, do you need to thoroughly review the material o are you raking careless ertors? Write down what ‘concrete steps you need to take to improve for next time + Give yourself score out of ten forthe ‘quay of your presantation, Write down what you thought was good about the other presentations or any effective presentation ideas that you might use next ime you presnt.> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK Length can be measured using a ruler “The period of one orilation can be measured by measuring the time for 20 options and then dividing the time by 20, “The volume of «cube or cuboid cam be found by measuring the length of the thos sder and mltipying the measurements together, “The volume of a liquid can be measured sing a measuring cylinder where the boitom of the meniseus appears con the scale when looked at horizontally ‘All objects that ink in water displace their own volume of water “The volume of an irregularly shaped object can be found fom the change in he height of quid in a measting eplinder when itis immersed in the liquid ‘Deny isthe ato of mass to volume for a substance: p= "The deosity of water 1000 or LO glen "Anything less dens than water will ot in water and anything denser than water will Sak la wate Tee oats bowauseit rest dense than water ‘One quid wll oat on tp of anotber liquid sess dense “Time can be measured using a lock or watch, ‘An analogue clock has hands and ean only measure tine to the nearest second ‘A digital clock displays numbers and records ime to precision ofa Teast one hundredth of a wcond,Cant 2. Thre neal cubes have the same mss but are made of diferent metals [Each on i lowered into a beaker of wate Use the data ia the table acide which one wil nuse the Bgues se in water level i} A pod 8 siker © lead D all will cause the same rise in water eel 3 Astronauts land on another plaet and measure the density of the atmosphere 0 the plane surface They measure te mass of 500m? conical flask lus topper as 487.23g. After removing the a, the mass 456.43 (1 m= Tob ire), Whats the best estimate of the density of thea) m1 ‘A 0.000001 kg? © O16 kgm? B O.W16kgin? D L6kein* 4 The graph shows the mass and volume of several diferent objects, Volume Which to objects have the same density? nm A Danas 8 lands © 2anas D Sands 5 Astudent measures the cineumference ofa circular copper pipe He wrapsa length of sting four times around the pipe and marks it with ‘nk shown in the photograph Making measurements™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK > Tn caleulate: wok out ‘rom given facts, figures or information ethanol is : 1gg2st: app) slycarin knowledge and lve oil i | understendine ed vere there a arange of valid responce in order tomake proposals! put forward Eonsiderations explain: set out purposes or Feasons; make therelatonshios | between thing | evident provide | why and/or haw and. “| Suppor with relevant | ‘evidenceones ‘Measure length, volume and time 11 Making measurements re {Caleilatethe volume ofa cube or cuboid from meauements using a ruler ‘Determine the volume ofan regulary shaped object Measure the sie of tiny objets (or example, the thickness ofa sheet of paper the volume ofa drawing i) (Clete density Predict whether an object will ator sink in water sed om its density. Describe an experiment fo find the density ofa iguid. ‘rode whether igqaid wil leat ontop of another gu ‘thet denies re known and they ean mi ‘Describe an experiment to find the density of cube orcuboid ‘Describe an experiment to find the density of an ‘iegulrly shaped objet ‘Describe the diferences between analogue and digital syatshes or clocks> Chapter 2 Describing motion 1+ define speed! and cale + plotand intrpret dstance-time and speed-time graphs + ork out the distance travelled from the area under a speed-time graph ‘+ understand that accel 198 m speed and the gradient of speed-time graph ee eee) Sn oa eee ee eco enceeee eceerett acre eee eee eee eee ce 2 Describing motion ‘Werk in pies. Cn your own, quickly sketch a distance-time graph, perhaps based on your journey to school, Then as your th poner to wite a description of on a seperate sheet of peper Discuss each otters answers. Sketch a speed-sime graph fora spxinter running the 100'm in time of 9.88. Label with ax much information as you know. Show how your graph could be used to work out the sprinter’ aceleration a ofthe race and the distance he travelled. Compare your sketch with your pares and add to or {airect your own work. Be prepared ta share your thoughts with the cass ethene en “The fist known crcumnavigation (rip arounct the wor was completed by a Spanish ship on 8 September 1522, I took more than thres years ‘The French writer Jules Verne wrote the book Le tour du monde en quatre-vingts jours (hich ‘means Around the Word in Eighty Days) in 1873, In honouref the writer, the Jules Verne Trophy isa prizo forthe fastest crcurnavigation by @ yacht, now held by the yacht IDEC Sport, hich id tin just under 41 days in 2017. In 2002, te ‘American Stave Fossett wos the frst 10 make 2 solo reumnavigation in abaloon, without stopping, {aking just over 13 dys. In 2006, he flew the Virgin Atlantic Globalive Figure 21), he frst Fewing aircraft to ga araund the world without stopping or refueling, I took him just under tyes days, Hypersoncjete ara being developed ‘that could fl at 17 km per second =o thay eoule reumnavigate the globe in an incredible six and a halPhours Figure 2.1: The Vig Alani GlbalFyer pases over the Ale Mountains Sometimes these pc adventures inspire those who do them to campaign fora beter world. The Erish Sali Elon Macht (Figure 22) iust such = person. She eld the wold record forthe fastest, foo crcumnavigation, achieved on 7 February 2008, However, she retired from competitive Sailing to setup the Elen MacArthur Foundation, 2 chat that orks with business and educatien to accelerate the transtion to creular economy. ‘Actealar economy would coats less waste = ‘things should be designed to lst along tme end be easy to maintain, repar, use oe rcycl, Figure 2.2: Elan Machu celbrats ater pling her econ sol ound the world journey an 7 February ‘usin Falmouth England Discussion questions 1. What ware the speeds of he six journeys mentioned in th fst paragraph? Assume thet the Earth's ercumference is 400004, 2 How could the fastest bost nat win» ound the-wrld yacht ace?>> canine acse™ PHYsics: coURSEBOOK 2.1 Understanding speed Measuring speed If you tre! on a major highway or through large ity, the chances are tht someone is watching you, Cameras by the side ofthe road and on overhead rad signs keep an eye on wa ait moves along. Some cameras are ‘thor to monitor the ow, so that rfc managers ean take ation when blockages develop or when accidents ‘occur. Other cameras are equipped with sensors to spot speeding motorists, o those who break the aw a trac Tights. In some bus place, trafic police may observe the roads fom helicopter il 1ook at ideas of motion and speed, In Chapler 3 we will ook at how physicists came to understand the forse involved in motion, and how fo control them to make our everyday travel posible In this chapter, Distance, time and speed ‘Thor is more than one way to determine the speed of a ‘moving objec. Several methods 1 determine speed ely ‘on making two measurements + the total distance travelled between two points ‘+ the total ime ake total between these 190 points ‘We can then work out the average sped between the two points speed: the distance travelled by an object per We cannot say whether it was travelling at a steady speed, ‘ori its speed was changing. For example, you ecu use ‘stopwatch to mea frend cycing over «fed distance, Tor example, 100 metres (se Figure 23) Dividing stance by time would tll you thei average sped, but ‘they might have been speeding up or slowing dova along the way ‘Table 2.1 shows theiferent unis that may be wid in calculations of speed. SI units are the standard units ‘sed in plyses The units ml (metres per second) should remind you tat you divide x distance im metres) by & ‘ime Gin seconds 5) to ind sped. In practic, man other ‘units are used In US space programmes, heights :bow the Earth ae often given in fet, whl the spacecraft speed inven in knots nntcal mils per hour). These cvkward units id not preven them from reaching the Moa! Figure 2.3: Tining acct over fied distance, Ling _ Sopatch involves maken judgement 35 to when the ‘jl pastes the staring and fishing lines, Ts introduce an err into the measurements An atomic ‘ining system might be beter, tance | mate, m ilomete km average speed: the speed calculated fom total distance tveled vides by total tne tke tine [seconde our h peed | mates persecond, | blometes per ‘We can use the equation for speed in the definition is m/s fe hour, enh ‘when an objects taveling aa constant speed. I it travels 10 meres in! second it wil travel 20 metres in 2 seconds Its speed is 1Omls 2» > Table 2.1: Quantities, symbole and unten measurements2 Deserbing motion ‘Acyelist completed #1500 metre stage ofa race in 37.3, What Was her average sped? Seep Star by writing down what you know, and ‘what you want te know. distance = 1500m time =37.58 speed =? [Now write down the equation, so =a 150m seed = “S73 Step2 step Calculate the answer speed = 40 mis Step ‘Theeyelists average speed was 40m, Questions ‘2 What was Usuin Bolts average speed when he achieved his 100 m word coed of 9.588 in 20097 1b How do you know that his top speed mast have boon higher than tis? ‘A ebeetah uns 100m in 3.11 What iit speed? Information about three tain traveling between ‘ations is shown in Table 22. in 250 120 vein 7 50 ine “400 150 Teblea2 12 Which rain asthe highest average specd? 1b Which tain has the lowest average speed?” Determining speed in the laboratory “There are many experiments you can doin the laboratory if you can measure the sped of a moving trolley er toy car Figure 24 shows how todo this sing on or two light gates connected to an electronic timer (eto computer) The ight gate has a beam of (invisibie) infrared radiation, START contol infared team sto? ieee Bs Figure 2.4: Using light gatos to messi the spoed fs ‘moving woley nthe laborstone Inthe frst par of Figure 24, the peg attached tothe trolley breaks the beam of one ight sate to start the sim, I breaks the second beam to stop the timer The ‘mer then shows the time taken to travel the distance ‘betwen the tw ligt ates a>>. camanoce csem puss: couRSEBOOK Inthe second part of Figure 24 piace of card, called laterrop ear, fe mounted on the trolly. As the trolley passes through the gate the leading edge of the mart card breaks the Bea to stat the timer. ‘When te trailing edge pases the gate the beam is 0 longer broken and the timer stops The faster the wolley ‘nmoving the shorter the time fr which the beam is broken. Given te length ofthe interrupt card, the ‘lly sped canbe caleulated, light gates allow the speed of an object passing bbetwaen them tebe ealalated electronically Interrupt card: allows the speed of an object passing through alight gate to be calculated; a fimer stars when the card beaks the bearn and "ope when the beam iene longer broken Rearranging the equation Tus better to remember one version af an equation and how to rearrange i thant ry to remember three lferent versions. The equation, allows us to eaeuate sped from measurements of distance and time. This equation ean also be written in symbols Pomc This is sometimes known a the instantaneous speed, which is the speed at particular instant or moment in time, whereas average speed is worked out over a longer time interval. Beware, si this equation means distance (orsisplacement) and not speed. We ean rearrange the ‘equation tallow us to calculate distance or ime. For example arallmay sgnaller might know how fast 2 teu s moving, and needs to be able to predict where it will have reached after a certain length of time: distance = speed time or s= 11 2) ‘Similar the cr of an areraft might want 0 now how longi wl take for ther areal total bstween two pots on its Bight path distance, speed ‘A spacecraft is orbiting the Earth at steady speed (of 80k (ce Figure 25) How long will it take to Figure 25 ‘Step 1 Start by writing down what you know, and ‘what you want to know. speed (9)= 8 0kmis distance) = 40000km (=? ‘Step2: Choose the appropriate equation, withthe unknown quantity time asthe subject (on the letchand side), ‘Step 3: Subsite values ~itcan help to inlude units 0000 km ‘0kmis ‘Step Perform te calelation 1= 50008 Answer ‘The time to compete a singe orbit (44000) i $5005. “ “Thisis about 92 minutes (3500+ 60 = 91.67) So the, spacecraft takes 92 minutes to orbit the Earth one_— 2 Describing motion Worked Example 22 illustrates the importance of TGoking atthe units: Because sped sin kms and [Bstance sn km, we do not need to convert to mis and freee We would get the same answer if wedi the 000000 500105 = 5000s Questions 4 Anairraft travels 900 metres in 3.0 seconds. What sits speed? 5 Acar travels 400%m in 3.shours. What is the speed ofthe ca in kmh and mis? 6 The Voyager spacecraft is moving at 17 000m. Howe far wilt travel in one year? Give your answer ink. fone Running with the wind behind you In 2011, datin Gatlin ran 100 metres in 945 seconds {feta than Uran Bots word recor by 0.13 second However he was pushed along by @ 20m talwind generated by giont fans as part ofa Japanese game how A 100m oF 200m sprint record can stand only if 8 talvind does not exceed 2s, Why doos this ule not apply t longer events? Fist, think about how you might approach ths problem, “The day Roger Bonniste an ami in four minutes (6 May 1954) he almost decided not t race because it was too windy. Imagine there is alvin along ‘he final svaight section of 3 400m wack which speeds you up, and 2 headend on the opposte Sight tection which slows you down. Why do the ocs ofthe taind and hesdwind not cancel out? (Hint: youneed to think about the tine ft would take you to run the stiaight sections) 1 nagine that you area 400m canner who can run the distance in 0's (anew word record) at the same averoge speed of TOm/s. Assure thatthe 400m tack = equaly vided 2 thatthe straight ‘sections and bends are each 100m long, a (Calalte how many minutes it takes sunlight each ts fom the Sun, Light travels a 3% 10m and the Sun s about 144 milion km away [A cheetah can maintain isto speed of 31 mis ‘ver a distance of 100 metres wile some breeds of tuzell such as Thomson’ gazelle, havea top speed fof 25m. This question considers how cose the ‘cheetah needs tobe to catch the gazelle if the have both just reached top speed ‘8 How long dost take a chaetab to cover 00 1b Whatisthe closing speed of the chectah, that is whats the difrence in speed betwee the cchestah and the exzele? ‘€ How far ahead of the cheetah would the gazelle need tobe to escape? (Hn: you ned he time ‘you calculate in # and the closing speed you ‘aleulated in) d__ How long would it take the cheetah to etch the zl withthe closing sped you caleulted in band the distance apart you calculated ine? Plot your ime forthe 400m (yas against wind speed eax). When you re running against the tine on te straight section opposite the ish line, subtact the wind speed fem your normal running speed. When you are running withthe tind on the final straight section bofre the Finish ine, ade the wind speed to your normal running speed, For example, your speed along the straight opposite the nish line wl be 9's while it wil be 11 es along the stright section before the irish line. Then you ‘need to add the times for each straight secton to the 20s forthe bands. Ropest thi, neozsing ‘the wind speed by t ms each te, untl you reach 10m. Could you hove reached the answer without Plotting @ graph? Discuss whethorit is relist to ado subvact ‘he wind speed to your normal caning speed, Design an experiment to testhow wind speed ‘afecs running speed. You might need to include equipment that you do not have access 1 (uch as the giant fans used on the Japarese ‘game show). there ia wind speed of 1 mis,>. campatoce tacse rHvsics: couRsEBOoK Discuss your answers tothe activity withthe person siting next to you. Have they thought a anything, you haven't include in your answer? Would you ‘8 enything to your answers after your cussion? 2.2 Distance-time graphs Youcan deste how someting move word, “The coach drove aay fom the has ston Te teed at a steady speed along te main rad, essing town. Aer fre mimi it reached the igh, where a eo speed up. Aer ten minute, sas red to stop Beate ore” Wecan show the same information inthe form of dixance-tie groph as shown in Figure 24 Th graph isin thre ection coresponding othe thre scons of the coach joune. ° 5 70 ca o 70 ca Figure 26 a and A gph to represant the mation of oaths decerbed inh text. The slope ofthe rapes ve about the cosch speed, Insection A, the graph slopes up gently showing thatthe coach was travelling at a slow speed. Inseetion B, the graph becomes stoper The distance ofthe coach from its starting pint increasing more ‘api tis moving faster, Inseetion C the graph sat (horizontal). The distance ofthe coach from its starting pont isnot changing. Ie is Stationary ‘Theslope of the distance-time graph tells us how fast the coach is moving, The steeper the graph, the fst itis ‘moving (the pester its speod). When the graph becomes horizontal, its slope is ra. This telus that the eouch’ speed iszeoinseetion C. Its not moving. Figure 26a shows abrupt (stant) changes in speed Detween A, Band C. Te would not be very combstable ride fr the pasenges! Instead of abrupt changes in speed, the speed would change more slowly inthe rel ‘Word and there would be smooth curves joining he sections (Figure 26. The inereasing gradient ofthe "pward-sloping curve between A and D would shaw thatthe couch was speeding up (accelerating) andthe decreasing gradient ofthe curve between Band C would show thatthe coach vas slowing down (decelerating). “lever, we wil only look at graphs with angled edges sin Figure 26, Questions 9 Acar pulled may fom heights and travel ao ead opsed along an empty oad After mints ‘Goede main od, shoei tele at abot {ws the oral seed for 2 mintes The thn tet afc jam ant ad to hy show down and Sop The fe ere ermine bt hen the artrnele slow, t about ha te oii ped Stic a stane-ime graph to show the crs joo 10 Figure 27 shows the ita tine graph ora ‘oman ing + mosntsin marathon 8 8 8 Distance kilometres 0 SESEKE EEE Time of iy Figure 2) Distancetime gregh AS SS >2 Describing motion How fr di she travel? ‘What was her average sped in kmh? How many tops di she make? “The rules sid shea to stop for half an hour for food. When did she take he beak? © Later she stopped to help an injured cunner, When did this happen? What would her aerage speed have been if she had not stopped at all? 19 What was her highest speed and over what seeton did this happen? Express trains, slow buses An expres trains capable of reaching high speeds, perhaps more than 300 km/h, Honever, when iets off ‘on is journey it may take several minates to reach this top sped. Then i takes longtime to slow down when it approaches its destination, The French TGV ruins (igure 28) run on lines that are reserved solely for thst ‘operation, so that thee high-spoed journeys are not ‘dsrupted by slower, local tains A busourey is fll faceleration and decelerations The bus aceerates aay fom the stop. Ideally the diver hopes to travel ata steady speed ntl the next stop A. steady sped means that yu can st comfortably in your sea. Then thee rpid deceleration asthe bus slows to ‘that Jot of accelerating and decelerating means that your likely to be thrown about asthe bus changes sped, The geal acceleration ofan expres train wl barely str’ the drinkin your eup The bis’ rapid accelerations and deeerations would make impossble to avid spilling the drink Figure 29) Figure 2.0: France’ high speed tains, the TVs Tins & Grande Vitesse un an deceated track, Thi soed has made it posible to wavel600km from Masel nthe sth ‘oars inthe nor ettend ameting, and eetum home sgalnwthina sgl day. Figure 2.9: can be uncomfonsble on a packed bu ast cleats nd decelerate slong journey 2.3 Understanding acceleration Some cars, particulary high-performance ons are advertised according to how rap they can acter. ‘An advert may eum that ear goes rom 0 to 100kmvh a 538. This means tha if theca accelerates at a steady rte itreaches20kmvh afer 15, kmh after 2 and son, ‘We could say that it poods up by 20k every second Inother words, its ececertion is 20knvh per second So, we say that an objet accelerates if its spood increases. Its acecleration telus the rate al which ite speed ‘hanging, that is the change in sped pe unt time When an object slows down, its speed salto changing, _Weesay that itis decelerating, Instead of an acceleration, ‘thas dossertion Speed and velocity, vectors and scalars mn physics, the words “spect and “eloity’ have dierent reanings, although they are closely elated: yelocy an object’ speed in a particular stated direction. So, we ould say that an arraft has a speed of 20mis bata Velocity of 200: due north. We must give the detion (ofthe velocity or the information i incomplet Yelocty san example ofa vector quantity. Vectors have ‘both magnitude size) and direction. Another exape ofa yectr is weight ~ your weight sa force that ats ‘ovenwards, toads the centre of the Earth Speed san example ofa scalar qoantity, Scalar aly have magnitude. Tenperatureisan example of anther sealar quantity. ‘You wil earn more about vector and sears in Chapter 3. 2S> camanoce iocse™ rss: COURSEBOOK Graphs of different shapes Speedie graphs an sow sao aout an obs vane Wet mong ata sea speedo Spine hovsoving down? Westmont? Flnwe 211 eesnsaaiourney The gaphisin tector quntyzhasboth magnitude zo)and | four sctons Bach ont lee Pi Uincson 2k oping upward so he speed increases a the teaar quantity: issomethinghathas magnitude |” tainibaceletng tne Secon + Hrhorizotal rote spedisconsat andi tin is travelling at a steady speed + Cisping dma so he se deed ‘acceleration: the rate of change ofan object velocity, velocity: the speed of an abjectin a stated cretion Speed-time graphs the train is decelerating Jstas we can represen the motion of among object D: Rovio so the spend has decreased to 0 tyra daane tne graph, we cana epee by 2 andthe rin tionary. spued-time graph. A spesd-time graph shows how the ‘objects sped changes as it moves. Always check any raph by looking a the axes to see the labels. A speed-time graph has speed onthe vertical axis and time on the horizontal ais Figure 210 hows a speod-time graph fora bus The rip frequently drops to zero becuse the Bus stops to Tine Jet people on and of, Then the line slopes up, a the bus accelerates away from the stop. Towards the end of i Figure 2.1: An example of speed-sime raph for tin journey, the buss moving aa steady sped (horizontal during pa of ts journey ‘raph it does not have to stop. Fils the graph Slopes downwards to zero again asthe bus pulls nto the ‘The fat thatthe grap lines are curved in sections ‘eins and stop, ind Coleus hatte tain cckraton ws charging itt seed had hanged ta steady rate tse es ‘Thesloe ofthe ped-time graph tes ws about he Tassos of the sould hve bes smash the ncper the spe the eter the sean ji eid Questions + ampate lope meta a deniention Glowing own 11 Two stants vein the same apartment bok 2 cotatrpm pope 0) cans comune invlometown and ated th same shoo in storing ope =) eae oe ae question, workin km and hours. Scheconn parent Sea Figure 2.10: speed-ime graph for sb on a busy route ain [Aft thas taal frequently et bus stop, Toward the A fend fis ourey, i maiain steady speed, ln Soeed Figure 212‘2 Arun gets lit 1 schoo! in hit mother ar ‘The wali is heavy so the average sped forthe journey i 4 km/h. How many minutes does it take Arun to get to school? 1b Sofia eaves home at the stme time a Aran but she walks the 03km to Hometown station, ‘waits 3 minutes (0.08 hour) fr the tan, travels ‘on the train to Schooltown station journey sistance 22 kom) and walks the 0.7m from ‘Schooltown station to the school. The tain sverages 88 kmh and Sofia walks at $v How many minutes does it take Soi to gt to school? ‘€ How many minutes shorter is Sofas journey ‘ime chan Arun’? d__ Draw a sped-time graph for their journeys fon the same axes bt assume that any ‘change in speed is instant (do not show the acceleration). 12 Look atthe specd-time graph in Figure 2.13, rer Er ery Time / minster Figure 213 "Name the sctons tha represen steady speed 1b speoding up (aceerting) being stationary slowing down (decelersting, 13 A caristrmseling at 20mis The diver sees a hazard. Ate a reaction time of 0.7, she performs an emergency step by applying the brakes The car takes a further 3 3s to come toa stop Sketch a speed-time graph for her journey frm the moment she ses the hazard tothe moment she brings her car twa stop Label the graph with as many details as youcan 2 Deseribing motion 14 a Copy Table 23 and sketch the motion graphs Tr each motion deserted atrest moving at ‘conetant speed seceleration (speeding up) Seceleration (stoning down) able 1b Copy Table 24 and sketch the spead-tine raps fr each acclration described eceleraing [eeceerating Table 24 Finding distance travelled A spood-time graph represents an object's movetent. tells us about how is speed changes. We ea louse the grap to deduce (work ou) how far the object teavels, ‘To do this, we have to make use of the equation distance ender ei aph Tet nr ay ihn oph can oer downinorecuagssnd ag Pn oom ‘Smeaton tr of tan = wih et sro ge = bt ‘To understand this equation, consider Worked Examples 23,24and25 a)> cawarince 1ccse™ puvsics: coURSEBOOK Calculate the distance you travel when you yelefor Step: istance trvlled isthe same as the shaded 20s ats constant speed of 10m (se Figure 2.14), area under the graph. This rectange is 20s wide and 10m high, so its area is 10s 208= 200m. Step? Check using the equation: stance travelled = speed» time Speed / mis Time = Figure 2:14: Spaod-time graph fr Worked Example 23, ‘You set off down a steep ski slope. Your initial speed is area of a triangle = 1 x base * height Orns After 10s you are traveling a 30m (ie Figure 2 2.15), Calculate the distance you travel in this time, $103 30mi8 an} shaded area = 150m caer ‘Step2: Check using the equation: Fare 218 Send tine gaphle Weed 24 Aggy Step: Disane treed isthesane es tesbded You Wel 150 mee ‘eauner ie gaphTosup es angle Sina apne Sh dbase 1002 Describing motion Acskvaimlsmroneiyhogyhlafas Sey Pad hems enaping Yi fein amar tate medtaraairathinate seme wats «area of a triangle = 1 x base x height xinrchont a acannon soto Sev Aalst ur telone = ‘ohana ers etsy tecran ai neal ara areas under the graph. This graph has two distance travelled = average speed X time oho mesg Tenure erie sanyo eee Seimei food Faldeente evans ee odie owe ree) Dow ater feel ian have travelled if it had maintained a constant 20m sores ln sot ret tase Question fs + tryed py rx et on Str et sare byes ent a ro at how eee ac a Theft ey Tepper a eye ohtoubo ened ea ter pec lag PotEa ech ae el hea aretoeae ea ene Sy colette reat ta pore ene gen Sriathads tOnityrmedmattohonterpnietenmren ctacee bene |” Soom dota ta ar enipetboneattnie smc eng Raton ate ace Pau 2 some mtd ono> camarnce Kecse™ pHvsis: coURSEBOOK eal xchange 1 Inwhat hand wil anes recive and cary the pote baton Eaton on subsequent est 100m ma 2. What are the advantages of pasing the baton scleraion zone tote oppostehend? Ideal, ring the baton exchange he speeds ofthe unners shoud be the sare. To ceive tanger tone the the outgoing ume surshs nun hen te at incoming runner reaches a check mark. 3 How would you wrk out where to place the chock me? hin fight hep you sath Speeds graphs on esr are both Tuner, staring when te runner recor the baton strung Whot ce nformeton ‘would you need to maketh accurate? e 4. Even at Olympic nas teas canbe dafied aa (Stopped from taking par) if they drop the baton ane ‘or pas it outside of the changeover zone, Why, : ots ths happen so oor? Fem 2 17 Thetbendefeomatitson: 5 nage you arth edo atic com. Each athlete actualy sprint for more than 100m, eer et ona as shown in Table 2.5. By planning for the baton to. = = exchange between runners at the beginning or end Use this information to select your team end Sra Gansere care ea pesining rend Gece biting euch rae saul anand ‘each runner runs. You might have a slightly shorter. ‘enter their names on the team sheet. Do you distance for a 60m sprinter and a lengthened have a strategy for deciding which athlete distance for a 100m runner who also runs 200m, ‘uns which leg? What other information might which also makes them used to running bends, ‘you want to gather before making a decision? Usually, each runner keeps the baton in the same For example, Saijan suggests that he is the best hand and passes it to the opposite hand of the ‘starter. Some athletes are better at running next runner to exchange the baton. Usually, the first ‘bends. Some are better at passing or receiving runner carries the baton in their right hand. ‘the baton. Sajen Sicha 121 | 258 ight prefers bends Gar Psi Ho 11.8 | 243 [ight anbidenrous | prefers bends indrew Kerr-Chin Jambidextrous. [prafernstrights but fandrewkerechin [ina | 24a [ambi bres se Tem Schofield 17 [251 [rahe ambidenrous __ bottor at aight [Olver Hudson 126 | 263 [ambidextrous apy to un bend ‘phleas »)2. Describing mation Collect data fom your own group. Use this to select a4 x 100m team and decide who should un each eg Copy and complete this tam sheet, Team shoot Tog [Typical distance actualy n/m 105; 15 125; In science tis often helpful to visualise tasks. For question 3, dil you have a clear idea of how to work out where to place the check marks? Di the idea of sketching the speed-me graphs forthe rusners help? (The diference inthe area unser the ‘wo graphs up tothe moment of baton exchange houl tell you how far infront ofthe acceleration zone t place the check math “what other information did you need before deciding which runner should run each leg? 2.4 Calculating speed and acceleration From a distinoe-time graph, we can find how fast Something is moving Figure 218 shows information bout ear journey between two cites The car travelled "more slowly ‘at sometimes than at oters. tis easier to ‘ee this if we present the information asa graph From the graph, you can se that the ear travelled slowly at he star of i journey, and also at the end, when it ‘vas rveling through the it. The graph i staeper in the idle sedon, when it was traveling onthe open oad between the cities “The graph als shows how to se the gradient to calculate the car's speed onthe open roa speod = gradient of distance time graph “More details given in Worked Example 2.6 [Athete name "100m personal best Use the gradient of the graph i Figure 2.18 to calulate the ca’ speed on the open road o 10 20. 700 10 “Table 27: Ont for a jouney eas toSOS Tine ten yaph fora carr> camanioce 1acse™ pHysics: couRsEBOOK gradient of distance time graph deatiy the relevant straight section of the raph, Her, we are looking tthe straight ‘section in the idle of the graph, where the car's speed was constant Draw horizontal and vertical ines to complete rightangled tangle (Calculate the lengths of the sides of the ‘wiangle Divide the vertical height by the horizontal ‘wit of te triangle Cup divided by along), ‘vertical height = 80m horizontal width = 0B s0km Toh = 80kmih Step Step 2: Step 3: Step: gradient Answer ‘Thecar's speed was 80 kh for this setion ofits journey ‘Note: It helps to include units inthe calculation because then the ansver wil automatically ave the correct unt in this ese, kh Question 16 Table 28 shows inforsation about a rin journey Calculating acceleration Picture an express rin sting of rom station on Jong, ea race I may take 300 to each elcty (of 300k along the track. ts velocity has inreast by ands we tha aeration ‘These are not very convenient units, although they may ‘lp to make it clear what is happening when we alk about acoeleration. To calculate an objects acceleration, ‘we need to know two things ‘+ itschange in velocity (how much it speds up) ‘+ the time taken (how long it takes to speedup) ‘The acceleration ofthe object is defined as the change of an object’ velocity per unit time change in velocity ‘We can write the equation for acceleration in symbos with for change in velocity and Tor ie take. So we can write the equation for acceleration like this Alternatively, because thee are wo velocities, we ‘ould use evo symbols: = inital velocity and y= Saal ‘locity. Now we ean write the equation for acceleration Tike hi ‘Thoadvantageof this equations that ifthe inal velocity {sles than the initial velocity, the answer is negate This tes you tht the acelration is negative (ie that the object is decelerating). Homby o ° = Kirby Lonsdale 10 EY ne Ingleion 20 5 Dolphinhoime 4% oO Galgate 56 2) Table 28 Use the data in Table 28 to plot a distance time ‘raph forthe tran, Find the trans average speed between Kirby Lonsdale and Dolphinbolme. Give your answer in keh, Inthe example of the express rin, we hve initial locity u= Oki, nal velocity y= 300kmb and time taken (= 3005, So acseraion a= MORIA ObW py per second. Worked Example 27 uses the more standaré locity unis of mis 2 >2 Describing motion Units of acceleration In Worked Example 2.7, the units of acceleration are ‘given asm (metres pe second squared). These are the standard unis of aoceeration, The calculation shows thatthe areas velosit increased by 2m crery second, or by 2 metres per second per second, Tt {ssimplest to write this as 2m, but you may peefer to {think of it as 2m per second, as this emphasises the meaning of aceeration. ‘An irrat accelerates from 100s to 300ml in 100s, What sits acceleration? ‘Step 1: Start by writing down what you know, and hat you want to know. intial velocity w= 1005 final velocity » = 300m time = 1008 acceleration = ‘Step 2: Now calculate the change in velocity, ‘change in velocity = 300m/5~ 100m 200m! Step’: Substitute into the equation, sccleraton = £22088 velo Alternatively, you could substitute the values of 1, vand¢dretly into the equation, a 0 1 =2mie Answer “The aircraft's acceleration is 20m? If you are working ou the acceleration ofan object that is slowing down, ten this alternative method shown in ‘Worked Example 27 wll give negative answer. I the arceaft was slowing down From 300m to 100 m/s then its aceleration would be = 100m/s 300m 100s amie ‘This because acceleration sa vector quantity ithasa direction. Itean be forwards (postive) or brckwards (negative), So is important always tothink about velocity rather than speed wen working out accelerations, Because velocity is alo a vector quanti Questions 17. Which of the following could not be unit of acceleration? mist mphis kms mist 18 Acar ses off from tral lghts It reaches a seed ‘of 2 mis in 108, What its acceleration? 19 A train, intl moving a Sms speeds up 0 49min 120s, What ists acclertion? 20° The speed of a car increases from 12/5 to 20min seconds, {2 Skotch the spood-time graph 1b Calculate the acceleration, © Use the graph 1 work out the distance covered in those $ seconds, CCaleulate the distance traveled, (© your answers to parts eand dare not the ‘sume, then Work out where you have made a mistake Acceleration from speed-time graphs ‘A speed-ime graph wh see dope shows hat he ‘ponds changing rapidly the accelerations reer, [follows that we can find the acceleration ofan object by caleulating the gradient of its speed-time grape: acceleration = gradient of sped-time graph “Thre points shouldbe noted: ‘+The object must be trvelling ina stright ing its Velocity is changing but its direction i not + the speed-time graph is curved (rather thar 8 straight lin) the acceleration is changing If the graphs sloping downwards the objects ecsierating. The gradient ofthe graph is negative ‘Soa deceleration is a negative acceleration. =)>. camamoe1scse™ physics: coURSEBOOK {train travel slowly as itclimbs up a fong bil. Then itspeeds up ast travels down the other side. Table 29 shows how is speed changes. Draw aspeed-time graph ‘o show this data. Use the graph to ealeulate the tat's scceleration during the second half ofits journey. [era Tapas] a 20 oo 0 m ‘The sloping ection shows thatthe trun was then accelerating 2 8 4 6 60 100 120 140) sislalalels Time /o Figure 219: Speedtime graph for Worked Exrple 28 ta 9: Speed of rin Before starting to draw the grap, its wort looking at the data in the table. The vals of sped are given atequal intervals of time (every 108) The speed is constant at fist (6.0mis). Thea it increases in equal steps (8.0, 10.0, and so on). Infact, we cam Se that the sped increases by Om every 10s This i enough to tellus thatthe rin aooleration is 0.2m However we willow through the detailed calculation to ilustate how to work out aeeeration from a graph Step 1 Draw the sped-time graph sing the data in “Table 29: this shown in Figure 2.19, ‘The itil horizontal section shows that the trai’ spoed was constant zero acelerstion. Although Worked Example 28 uses the equation for acceleration, you are finding the gradient ofthe slope in Figure 2.19, Figure 2.20 shows the speed-time graph fora skyiver from the moment she eaves an aircraft. She jumps from 5000 m and opens her parachute when she reaches 1500m, 68 afer she jumps: You have already learned that you can find the acceleration from the gradient of @ speed-time graph. However, there are places where the jradient of the graph is changing (when the graph snot straight line). To find the acceleration at any moment in time, a tangent to the graph is drawn, This works fo aay aph straight of curved, Step2 Draw in triangle to calculate the slope of the graph as shown on Figure 2.19, This ives us the acceleration @s—208 ons 0s 0.20mi" Answer ‘The tain’ celeration down the bil is 0.20mi Spend mit 0 > ry Tess Figure 2.20: The speed-tine graph for addr showing the it 105 ofthe jump,2. Describing motion Sees es eae steerer cere eee ‘Look at Figure 2.2, Whats the skyivers acceleration a 0s b 552 Parta Daw a tangont to the graph at ¢= 0s (shown below by the be ln). Step ‘Step2: Draw in a wiange (shown below by the bashed ines). 10. ©. ~ 2 Ew 30 Fo ° oo 5 0 & » Time /= Step Calculate the slope ofthe graph. This gives ste acceleration, Perhaps you can already explain why her acceleration changes as she falls but wil be explained in ‘Chapter 3. Can you se when she opens her parachute in Figure 2.207 Recalling how to workout distance on &speed-time graph, can you workout how far she has fallen when se opens her parachute? Can you work out that she lande 160 after she starts her jump? Question 21. Acar driver has to do an emergency stop. This is ‘ven the driver needs to stop the ea in the shortest possible stopping distance. There isa delay between cing hazard and applying the brakes. This is due to the reaction time ofthe drive, sometimes called the thinking time. Te distance the car moves inthis time (when the ear has not changed sped) isthe thinking distance, The distance the car moves once Draw tangent to the graph at = 5.88 (Ghown below by the ble ine). ‘Step 2: Draw in rangle wo calulate the slope cf the graph (shown below bythe dashed lim) 10. Speed mis Times Step 3: Caleulate the slope ofthe graph. This gies us the aoseration “Answer “The parachutist has the aeeleration of free-fall (@.8ae) the moment she jumps out of the aircraft {at r= 08) and her acceleration decreases with ime tnt she aches a constant speed, Ate 5.5 sher sccleaton s 3.81mi the brakes ae applied and ntl the car comes toa ‘Mop isthe braking distance. The stopping dsiance hinking distance + braking distance. ‘A cars trweling at 20m/s when the driver ses a hazard. She has a feation time of 0.7 and brings hercar io stop 40s after seeing the danger. ‘Draw a spod-time graph to represent the cars ‘motion during the 40s described. Assume that the deceleration (egativeaceleration is 1b Usethe graph to deduce (work out the car's deceleration ait slows down f€ Use the graph to deduce how far the ear travels daring the 4s described,> camenoce 1ecse™ pnyscs: couRsEBCOK Using ticker tape to find the acceleration of trolley down a ramp You ate going to investigate the motion ofa tralley down a ramp. Some ticker tpe's attached to the ‘volley and a ticker timer marks the paper 50 tines a second Figure 221) As the trolley accelerates, the tlstance between the dots increases. 1 The cker mer marks the paper SO times 3 second. What intel of time doss esch gop) represent? “Tofind tho speed a apariculr dot, you need {to measure the distance coveced over a short interval of time cortzed on the dot. Measure the sistance between the preceding (previous| dot and succeeding dot (the one that follows). For ‘ample, to find the speed at dat 15, we need to find the distance covered between dot 14 {and dot 16 (13mm) and then divide by the time taken to cover this distance (2« 0.028 = 0.043), using he equation distance. 13mm speed = distance 13mm 9.3255 time” 0.08 ~ 0525 2 Copy and complete Table 2.10, using the ticker ‘ape to help you. 3 Plot speed-time graph 4 Use the gradient from the graph to caleulate the acceleration Alternative approach Every fith dot has been numbered. Tie comesponds tothe dstance travelled avery 0.1 1. Cuta copy of the the cher tape into lengths corresponding to every fith dot (1s tine interval. 2 Stick the lengths side by sido ie a histogram) ‘onto graph paper, with the bottom of each strip fon the horizontal ac 3 Drawaline though the dt atthe top ofeach strip (or the midale of the top ofeach sta, the dots missing). 4 Work out the scale fr each axis. The with of ch strip is equal toa tine interval 0.18 5 Work out the gradient ofthe speed-tie graph you have constructed,‘Your teacher will decide whether you wll work on {you 24m In pars or as part ofa small group, Your ‘skis to plana three-part revision leon on the ‘ater this chapter forthe rest of your cass particularly the ink between mation graphs and the ESuations af motion. Write down a pian ta show tnhat you would do and what resources you would tee, you have time, you can produce and teach the lesson to small groups of your classmates or the “shole af yaur class. The following pont wil help ol as you plan the revision lesson. + Youneed tobe able to answer questions on ‘potion graphs and equations of motion so that you can then use them as basis to writa your fn avn questions + Youneed to produce medal answers for your questions or come up witha better way of Getting the ideas across + Insist hat your classmates show their working + You ned to label what parts of your questions 2x0 supplementary. Here ave some suggested questions which you can tse in your plan forthe lesson Part 1: How to interpret motion graphs ‘Question for your classmates to answer Copy and complete the table by stating what feature of the motion graph can be used to obtain the vane Isted inthe le-hand column, The frst cell has been done for you" Distancetine | Speed-time: raph raph read ofthe Giance | vertical axis speed acceleration ‘You might want to suggest that your classmates ‘colour code the table in some way ‘Can you thnk ofa better way of getting information ‘om mation graph? 2 Describing motion Part 2: Linking motion graphs to equations of motion ‘Question for your classmates to answer: ‘A body ‘moving at 2 m/s accelerates for 2 seconds untt ‘reaches a speed of 4 m/s. Show that the bocy ‘wavels 2 distance of ém anc accelerates at 1/2 You need your classmates to get the same answer for the queston you preduce using two different methods Methed 1: Use the relevant equations (for ‘acceleration and distance) ‘Some of your classmates wil get the distance wrong because they do not use the average speed inthe ‘equation fordistance “Method 2: Sketch the motion graph ‘Your classmates should use the gradient ofthe graph to find the acceleration andthe area under the curve find the distance, However, some of your dassmrates wil setch the motion fom the {riginGinstoad of from 2 mis) and will workout the aea ofa tangle instead ofa tiangle plusa square) s0\will gota distance traveled of 2 motes, (Others will measure the horizontal and vert! clstances witha ruler to work out the gradient instead of using the sesle on the axes ta work out the changes in the speed and time to work out the gradient ‘Younved to come up with similar questions {different numbers) and their model answers, Perhaps ty your ueston on 3 few of your Fierds te chack that its lear and to pick up common mistakes. You could prove your question anda wrong solution and ask ather members of yourelass to spot and correct the mistakes Part 3: Putting learning into practice Questions for your classmates to answer Bloodhound LSR is being developed to achive a new land speed record of 1000 mph, The vehicle willbe timed over a ‘measured mie’ halfway down 2 12mile ong salt pan in South Afca, “+ fBloadhound achieves 1009mph, how fora ‘would it take to complete the measured i’?> camarioce 1acsem prysies: couRseBooK Cette ‘What is the total ue for the 12 ile journey? ‘What isthe acceleration or deceleration of the vehicle and hav does this compare ta-he acceleration of Foetal (981 m/s!” First, you need 10 answer the question yours ‘When you set your question, decide whether to convert the data inte question to S units ‘or gat your classmates toda themselves (lemph = 0.447 mils; tmle = 1610) ‘Figure 2.22: Bloodhound LSR during a practice run on ‘You could introduce the question with a short vdeo fie ie ee eee cee ee ene arp ec eeu cee Aer, el Se ee Seon eone a serene ey cae + Sketch 2 speed-time graph for is journey. abe’ i with significant speeds and tines, ‘Assume that Bloodhound accelerates uniformly Lunt teaches the ‘measured mile’ and then ocelarates uniformly 0 that it comes to rest 12 miles from the start (and before the end of the sat pan) MMARY Speed is distance divided by time, Average speed is otal distance divided by total time Light ges and interrupt cards an Be used to measure sped in he Iboratory. Saree ‘Spee can be calculated fom the gradient of @dstancetime graph and acceleration can be calculated fom the aradient of a speed-tie graph, ‘Sed ib scalar and velocity isa vector ‘Asrsleration canbe calculated from the change of speed divided by time und a negative aoeleration isthe sane asa deceleration,2. Deserbing motion> campnince iccse™ prysics: CouRSEBOOK es) '5 The table shows Ustn Bol’ split times fom his world record 1009 un in Bern in 2008, Bach spit imei fora 10m section of the 100m distance ‘Thetime fr the fist 0m includes his reaction tne of 0146s Before he lel mons ele ele ele 3 seve) 2/3/3/3/8\2/2/ 2] 2/2 slelalsfelalefel ale Tinea | 1907 [00005 [083 [a2] bmi [ase] oas|oms TE + Gaon tin ts Ut Bo akon meso caalate wok ot Semester | fomevenacs 'b Calculate Usain Bolts average speed over the first 10 metres from the Squres oF information cae eran — Go Una Bt mann spect o ht 0 sen pose or Ignore his reaction time and assume his acceleration is constant. (2) Pspecleered 4. Catealate Uatin Bots aceeration over the frst 10 mets bowen tings Ioite So are ean pete ‘© Calculate Usain Bolt’ top speed in the race, Show your working. 2 are Spor nahn Towa) | Sons 6 Animate happened tobe yng neara volcano when it erupted. The co-pilot took some video footage: He hand the fotage over to sient or analysis ‘The scientists sported a huge boulder tht was moving aa constan speed ‘horizontal (sideways) in the fs frame and fling in subsequent frames of the ‘ideo, They wanted to workout ow fa the ash and rock would spread, Plot graph of the position ofthe boulder atintervals ofS seconds Pot the vera eight of the boulder (vertical axis) agains the ree es 5 ror ES | : 5 'b Explain the shape of the graph, ru SE “>“Thesclentst thought de aircraft had been at an altitude (height) oF 4420 meres when the video was taken butt was at 3600 mete, Use your ‘raph o estimate the (horizontal) distance the boulder wil hve traveled from the point that it wa seconded on video to wha ichitthe proud. (2) ‘Use our graph to estimate how Long it took theouldr to hit the oud fom whee was ed. n suggest apply knowiedge and Understanding where there are a range of valid responses in order FS razon tds box Ta) | (htepeyess Bieetierstatactns omayiewmiotmtisiadns | | heed -ofcdebris that your answer to e might suggest, om ee ota) “Work out speed from distance travelled and time taken. 20 Wor ou-nerge lfm ol dinner tell Pio ae Daciano ace GT i Tro das tl Romane nh Fin pe on eine ph 2 ities aw cnn we aIy | Tay un Won slob om pen nk 2 Tsan is ie wn dnd cy [2 2 Describing motion> Chapter 3 Forces and motion lscover the diferences between mass and weight eseribe the ways in which a resultant force may change the mation of @ body {ind the resultant of two ar more forces acting along the same ine find out about the effect of fiction (or ar esstance or drag} on a moving object een eam how force, mass and acceleration are related fine what a forces, understand the concepts of momentum and impulse and apply the principle oF the conservation of momentum Re ee cee ee eee ee gee ee eer ee_— 3 Forces and motion Look a the following question. Your teacher wil give you some me to think about them on your awn. You fray azo take some time to discuss them with he fon sting eno you Be prepared Share your rowers with the lass. 41 While ting on your seat, describe any forces {acting on you 2 Imagine # ball thrown in he ac. Sketch the ball Draw a artow or eros to show any forces acting ‘on the bal and, possible, label the arrows. 3 Dercrbe dally Ife without fiction. Whst do you think would change the most? 4 Laok at Figure 3.1 and decide which path the Earth ‘would folow if gravity stopped acting, Figure 3.1: The Earth ting the Sun. Which ofthe paths woud Ea fellow ifthe Sun suddenly topped ening? i ‘Tranzpor systems would be much more efficient if _atract)puls the tain fom the front while magnetic less eneray was wasted werking against ftion or repulsion pushes itfom behind, The ans wil vavel |_| sirresitance, Hyperloop One promises to getid through tubes wih most the sir removed using Sfoth, Elon Musk proposed fron 12 August 2013 pump. This wil allow thom to rave at Mach 7 (hat ‘2a faseratemative toa travel. Iecombines two seven tines the speed of sound at sea leva, Tis ‘sting technologies —magley (magnetic levitation) about 20000m/s, much faster than supersonic ara. {rd vectra vacuum tube train). Maglev trans uso 192014, Hypercop One launched ts Hyperioop Ono ‘agnetc repulsion ike poles repel) 0 make the alo Glabal Challenge and selected five courines fox the float which eliminates fretion. Aline motor then development ofthe hyparioop networks: US, UK, ‘secelerates the train: magnetic atvaction (unlike poles Canada, Mexico, and inca Figure 3.2: The dea of aesencessvaveling trough 2tube is ret now Passengers taking ride inthe rst peutic ray th US, erected st the Esnbiton ofthe Amores nett atthe Amory New York City, 1867 bs: Hyperiop tube on depay cus theft tof the propulsion system at th ypaloap One Test and Safety ste 11 May 2076 in Las Vegas, Novad,> camanoce 1acse™ pHysics: cOURSEBOOK Discussion questions 1 Describe the ways in which fiction wil be reduced in Hyperloop One, 2 Describe any potential dangers ofraveling in Hyperioop One. 3.1 We have lift-off Tr takes an enormous force to Fit a gant space shuttle off itslaunch pa, and to props itinto space Figure 3.3). ‘The booster rockets that supply the inal crust provide «force of several milion newtons. As the spacecraft fccelertes upoardsthe crew experience the sensation {of being presed firmly back into their seats That is how they know that their craft is acoerating Figure 3.3: space shut scclersting away fom te Inanch pac. The force needed ix prowdad by ever] ork (Once ech rocket he sed lis fel it wil be jtizoned (cropped) to reduce the mass that nbeing cared up to spac Unbalanced forces change motion ‘One moment, the shuttle is siting on the ground stationary. The next moment, its accelerating upwards Prshed by the force provided by the rockets In this chapter, we wil lok a how forces pushes and pul aflet objects as they move You wil be femiiar ‘with the id that the wit se for measuring fore is the ‘newton (N). To give an idea ofthe sizes of various frees, here are some examples ‘+ You lit an apple. The force needed to lift anapple is roughly one newton (1), + You jamp up inthe air. Your le masses pevide the force need 0 do this, about IDDON. ‘+ You reach the motorvay in your high-perfomance cat, and pres the accelerator pedal The cat cclerates forwards The engine provides aes of bout S000, + You are crossing the Atlantic @ Boeing 749 jumbo jet The four engines topether prove a thrust, ‘of about SOOO). Ta tots thats about hal {the thrust provided by each ofthe space suite’ booster rockets Some important forces Forces appets when two objets nteract wih each other Figure 3 shows some important frees Each foc is represented by an arow to show its direction, Usilly the longer the arrow, the bigger the frees Notice the convention thatthe arrow usually points away from the objet of interest. “>