DR3 NOTES

 Hazard – dangerous phenomenon, substances, human activity or

condition that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts
property damage, loss of livelihood & services, social & economic
disruption or environmental damage… could be a potentially
damaging phenomenon. It could be natural or human-induced.
 Exposure – degree to which the element at risk is likely to experience
hazard event of different magnitude.
 Vulnerability- the characteristics and circumstances of a community,
system or asset that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a
hazard. May arise from various physical, social, economic, and
environmental factors.
Vulnerability has been related to the following factors:
 Social Integration – ethnicity, age, gender, location, status, wealth,
income, education, family type
 Psychological & physiological – locus of control, disability, coping-
style, individual’s perception, lifestyle, agility, mobility, experience
 Risk- is the combination of probability of an event to happen and its
negative consequences
 Disaster – is a natural or man-made (or technological) hazard
resulting in an event of substantial extent causing significant physical
damage or destruction, loss of life, or drastic change to the
environment. A disaster can be ostensively defined as any tragic event
stemming from events such as earthquakes floods, catastrophic
accidents, fires, or explosions. It is a phenomenon that can cause
damage to life and property and destroy the economic, social and
cultural life of people. In contemporary academia, disasters are seen
as the consequence of inappropriately managed risk. These risks are
the product of a combination of both hazard/s and vulnerability.
Hazards that strike in areas with low vulnerability will never become
disasters, as is the case in uninhabited regions.
Types of disasters:
 Natural disasters – earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions,
floods, and cyclones, tsunami, avalanches
 Man-made disaster - stampedes, fires, transport accidents, industrial
accidents, oil spills and nuclear explosions/radiation, war and
deliberate attacks
Effects of disaster :
 Population displacement
 Injury or death
 Risk of epidemic of diseases
 Damage to infrastructure
 Psychological problems
 Food shortage
 Socioeconomic losses
 Shortage of drugs and medical supplies
When is an event a disaster?
 At least 20% of the population are affected & in need of emergency
assistance or those dwelling units have been destroyed
 A great number or at least 40% of the means of livelihood such as
bancas, fishing boats, vehicles and the like destroyed
 Major roads and bridges are destroyed and impassable for at least a
week, thus disrupting the flow of transport and commerce
 Widespread destruction of fishponds, crops poultry and livestock,
and other agricultural products, and epidemics
Why are disaster impacts increasing?
 Increased in population
 Climate change
 Increased vulnerability due to:
 Demographic changes
 Increased concentration of assets
 Environmental concentration of assets
 Poverty
 Rapid urbanization and unplanned development
EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS
What is an earthquake?
 An earthquake is a weak to violent shaking of the ground produced
by the sudden movement of rock materials below the earth’s surface.
The earthquakes originate in tectonic plate boundary. The focus is
point inside the earth where the earthquake started, sometimes called
the hypocenter , and the point on the surface of the earth directly
above the focus is called the epicenter There are two ways by which
we can measure the strength of an earthquake: magnitude and
intensity.
 Magnitude is proportional to the energy released by an earthquake at
the focus. It is calculated from earthquakes recorded by an
instrument called seismograph. It is represented by Arabic Numbers
(e.g. 4.8, 9.0).
 Intensity on the other hand is the strength of an earthquake as
perceived and felt by people in a certain locality. It is a numerical
rating based on the relative effects to people, objects, environment
and structures in the surrounding. The intensity is generally higher
near the epicenter. It is represented by Roman Numerals (e.g. II, IV,
IX). In the Philippines, the intensity of an earthquake is determined
using the PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS).
Potential Earthquake Hazard
 Ground Shaking or Ground Motion – the earth shakes with the passage
of earthquake waves, which radiate energy that had been “stored” in
stressed rocks, and were released when a fault broke and the rocks
slipped to relieve the pent – up stress.
 If an earthquake generates a large enough shaking intensity, structures
like buildings, bridges, and dams can be severely damaged, and cliffs
 and sloping ground destabilized. Perched or stacked object may fall and
injure or bury anyone close by.
 Ground shaking will vary over an area due to such factors as
topography, bedrock type, and the location and orientation of the fault
rupture.
 Ground or Surface Rupture – is an offset of the ground surface when
fault rupture extends to the earth’s surface. Any structure built across
the fault is at risk of being torn apart as the two sides of the fault slip
past each other.
 Normal and reverse – (dip slip) faulting surface ruptures feature vertical
offsets while strike – slip faulting produces lateral offsets. Many
earthquake surface ruptures are combinations of both. Structures that
span a surface fault are likely to suffer great damage surface ruptures.
 Earthquake – induced ground subsidence and lateral spreading.
 Subsidence, or lowering of the ground surface, often occurs during
earthquakes. This may be due to downward vertical displacement on one
side of a fault, and can sometimes affect a huge area of the land. Coastal
areas can become permanently flooded as a result. Subsidence can also
occur as ground shaking causes loose sediments to settle and loose their
load bearing strength or to slump down sloping grounds.
 Lateral spreading occurs where sloping ground starts to move downhill,
causing cracks to open up, that are often seen along hill crest and river
banks.
 Tsunami – also known as seismic sea wave, a series of waves in a water
body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in
an ocean or a large lake. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other
underwater explosions, landslides, glacier cavings, meteorite impacts
and other disturbances above or below water all have the potential to
generate a tsunami.
 Earthquake – induced landslide
 Landslides are frequently triggered by strong ground motions. They are
important secondary earthquake hazards.
 The term landslide includes a wide range of ground movement, such as
rock falls, deep failure of slopes, and shallow debris flows. However,
gravity acting on a steep slope is the primary reason for all landslides.
 Strong earthquake – induced ground shaking greatly increases the
likelihood of landslides where landscape is susceptible to these types of
ground failure.
 If the ground is saturated with water, particularly following heavy
rainfall, the shaking will result in more landslides than normal.
WHAT IS A VOLCANO?
 Mayon Volcano eruption, 1984. (pyroclastic flow event)
 Mayon Volcano eruption 1984 (lava flow event)
 Volcano – is a place on a earth’s surface where hot molten rock (magma)
breaks through. It is a vent or chimney that connects molten rock
(magma) from within the earth’s crust to the earth’s surface. It includes
the surrounding cone of erupted material.
ORIGIN OF VOLCANOES
 Magma rises
 As the magma rises it melts gaps in the surrounding rock
 As more magma rises a large reservoir
 Pressure from the surrounding rock causes the magma to blast.
 The magma, now called lava builds up at the vent forming a volcano.
 Often the volcano sides will be higher than the vent forming a depression
called a crater.
Most volcanoes are formed by the movement of tectonic plates on the
surface of the earth. These plates are basically huge pieces of rock that
float on the mantle (layer of the earth that is sort-of liquid rock).

 Composite Volcanoes often form the largest and tallest volcanoes. They
are most explosive and dangerous of the types of volcanoes.
 Cinder Cone Volcanoes – usually smaller in size than composite
volcanoes, and the eruptions are smaller also. They form into steep cone
shaped hills.
 Shield Volcanoes do not erupt or explode like composite and cinder cone
volcanoes. Shield volcanoes have much smaller eruptions producing less
ash.
VARIOUS VOLCANO RELATED HAZARDS
 Lahars
 Ash Fall
 Pyroclastic Flows
 Volcanic Gases
 Lava Flows
 Ballistic Projectiles
Lava Flows are stream-like flows of incandescent molten rock erupted from
a crater or fissure. When lava is degassed and/ or very viscous, it tends to
extrude extremely slowly, forming lava domes.
Lava Flows rarely threaten human life because lava usually moves slowly –
a few centimeters per hour for silicic flows, to several km/hour basaltic
flows. Most characterize this as quiet effusion of lava. Major hazards of
lava flows – burying, crushing covering, burning everything in their path.
Lavas can burn. The intense heat of lava melt and burn. As lava flows are
hot and incandescent, areas it covers are burned (forest, built up areas,
houses).
Lavas can bury. Lavas can bury homes and agricultural areas under meters
of hardened rock. Areas affected by lava flows once solidified are also
rendered useless and will not be useful anymore (for agriculture, etc.) for
years due to the solid nature of the lava deposit. Lavas can also block
bridges and highways, affecting mobility and accessibility of people and
communities.
Collapsing viscous lava dome can trigger dangerous pyroclastic flows.
Ashfall or tephra fall are showers of airborne fine- to coarse-grained
volcanic particles that fallout from the plumes of a volcanic eruption;
ashfall distribution/ dispersal is dependent on prevailing wind direction
Ashfall endanger life and property by During peak of eruption with
excessive ash, can cause poor or low visibility (driving, slippery roads)
Loss of agricultural lands if burial by ashfall is greater than 10 cm depth,
Producing suspensions of fine-grained particles in air and water which
clogs filters and vents of motors, human lungs, industrial machines, and
nuclear power plants.
VOLCANIC PHENOMENA (ASHFALL OR TEPHRA FALL)
NEGATIVE IMPACTS / WHY IT IS HAZARDOUS
Ash suspended in air is also dangerous for aircrafts as the abrasive ash can
cause the engines to fail if the suspended ash is encountered by the airplane
Carrying of harmful (even poisonous, unpleasant) gases, acids, salts, and,
close to the vent, heat.
Burial by tephra can collapse roofs of buildings, break power and
communication lines and damage or kill vegetation. Even thin (<2 cm) falls
of ash can damage such critical facilities as hospitals, electric-generating
plants, pumping stations, storm sewers and surface-drainage systems and
sewage treatment plants, and short circuit electric-transmission facilities,
telephone lines, radio and television transmitters.
VOLCANIC PHENOMENA (PYROCLASTIC FLOW)
Pyroclastic Flows and surges (Pyroclastic Density Current)
Deadly effects include asphyxiation (inhalation of hot ash and gases), burial,
incineration (burns) and crushing from impacts.
The only effective method of risk mitigation is evacuation prior to such
eruptions from areas likely to be affected by pyroclastic density currents.
Pyroclastic flows and surges (Pyroclastic density current) are turbulent
mass of ejected fragmented volcanic materials (ash and rocks), mixed with
hot gases (200°C to 700°C to as hot as 900°C) that flow downslope at very
high speeds (>60kph). Surges are the more dilute, more mobile derivatives
or pyroclastic flows.
Pyroclastic flows and surges are potentially highly destructive owing to
their mass, high temperature, high velocity and great mobility. Pyroclastic
flows can
 Destroy anything on its path by direct impact
 Burn sites with hot rocks debris
 Burn forests, farmlands, destroy crops and buildings
VOLCANIC PHENOMENA (LAHARS)
NEGATIVE IMPACTS / WHY IT IS HAZARDOUS
Lahars can lead to increased deposition of sediments along affected rivers
and result to long-term flooding problems in the low-lying downstream
communities.
Lahars have destroyed many villages and lives living on Pinatubo and
Mayon Volcano because most people live in valleys where lahars flow.
Lahars are rapidly flowing thick mixture of volcanic sediments (from the
pyroclastic materials) and water, usually triggered by intense rainfall
during typhoons, monsoons and thunderstorms. Lahar can occur
immediately after an eruption or can become long-term problem if there is
voluminous pyroclastic materials erupted such as the case of 1991 Pinatubo
eruption. Lahars can also occur long after an eruption has taken place such
as the lahars at Mayon Volcano after the 1984 eruption
 Lahars can destroy by direct impact (bridges, roads, houses)
 Lahars can block tributary stream and form a lake. This can
submerged villages within the valley of the tributary that was
blocked, there is also the danger of the dammed lake breaching or
lake breakout and if this happens, this puts to danger the lives of
people in communities downstream
 Lahars can bury valleys and communities with debris
VOLCANIC PHENOMENA (VOLCANIC GASES)
NEGATIVE IMPACTS / WHY IT IS HAZARDOUS
Volcanic gases- gases and aerosols released into the atmosphere, which
include water vapor, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide,
hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride
Sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon dioxide (CO2), and hydrogen flouride (HF)
are some volcanic gases that pose hazard to people, animals, agriculture
and property. SO2 can lead to acid rain. High concentrations of CO2 which
is colorless and odorless can be lethal to people, animals and vegetation.
Fluorine compounds can deform and kill animals that grazed on vegetation
covered with volcanic ash.
VOLCANIC PHENOMENA (DEBRIS AVALANCHE)
NEGATIVE IMPACTS / WHY IT IS HAZARDOUS
Debris avalanche or volcanic landslide massive collapse of a volcano,
usually triggered by an earthquake or volcanic eruption. An example of
recent debris avalanche event occurred during the 1980 eruption of Mt. St
Helens. Based on present morphology of volcanoes, Iriga Volcano in
Camarines Sur, Banahaw Volcano and Quezon Province and Kanlaon
Volcano had pre-historic debris avalanche events.
When a huge portion of the side of a volcano collapses due to slope failure.
This results to massive destruction similar to what happened in Mt. St.
Helens in the USA in 1980. The huge volcanic debris avalanche typically
leaves an amphitheater-like feature and at the base of volcanoes with debris
avalanche event, a hummocky topography (small hills all over).
VOLCANIC PHENOMENA (TSUNAMI)
NEGATIVE IMPACTS / WHY IT IS HAZARDOUS
Tsunami- sea waves or wave trains that are generated by sudden
displacement of water (could be generated during undersea eruptions or
debris avalanches)
An eruption that occurs near a body of water may generate tsunamis if the
pyroclastic materials enter the body of water and cause it to be disturbed
and displaced, forming huge waves.
VOLCANIC PHENOMENA (BALLISTIC PROJECTILES)
NEGATIVE IMPACTS / WHY IT IS HAZARDOUS
Ballistic projectiles are Volcanic materials directly ejected from the
volcano's vent with force and trajectory.
Ballistic projectiles endanger life and property by the force of impact of
falling fragments, but this occurs only close to an eruption vent.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS: WHAT TO DO BEFORE AN ERUPTION?
 Learn about your community warning systems and emergency plans.
 Have disaster supplies on hand; flashlight and extra batteries, first
aid kit and manual, emergency food and water, essential medicines,
sturdy shoes. Also a pair of googles and disposable breathing mask.
 Keep a roll of plastic wrap and packaging tape so you can wrap and
protect electronics and appliances and ash.
 Be prepared for the hazards that can accompany volcanoes:
mudflows, flash floods, landslides, rockfalls, earthquakes, ashfall,
acid rain, tsunami.
 Evaluate sites for risk of volcanic disasters before even putting up
structures in these sites.
 Reinforce existing building structures and build protective works
such as dikes to deflect lava and lava flow
 Have an emergency disaster plan in place especially for evacuation
and communication.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS: WHAT TO DO DURING AN ERUPTION?
 Listen to and heed the warnings given. Follow the evacuation order
issued by authorities.
 Be aware of mudflows. Mudflows can move faster than you can walk
or run. Look upstream before crossing a bridge, and do not cross the
bridge if a mudflow is approaching.
 Stay away from the area during volcanic activity
 Cover your nose with a wet piece of cloth so that you will not inhale
the smoke.
 Cover your eyes from dust and smoke
 Evacuate from the place as soon as the authorities tell you to do so.
Stay out of the area defined as a restricted zone by the government
officials.
 If indoors. Close all window, doors, and dampers to keep volcanic ash
from entering. Put all machinery inside a garage or barn to protect it
 from volcanic ash. Bring animals and livestock into closed shelters to
protect them from breathing volcanic ash.
 If trapped outdoors. Seek shelter indoors. If caught in a rock fall, roll
into a ball
 to protect your head. If caught near a stream, be aware of mudflows.
Move upslope, especially if you hear the roar of a mudflow.
 Protect yourself during ash fall: Wear long-sleeved shirts and long
pants. Use goggles to protect your eyes. Use a dust mask or hold a
damp cloth over your face to help breathing. - Keep car or truck
engines off.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS: WHAT TO DO AFTER AN ERUPTION?
 Help people requiring special assistance like the infants, elderly, and
the disabled.
 Stay inside and listen for volcano information on your radio or
television.
 Minimize your movements and keep all windows and doors closed.
 Unless advised to evacuate, stay indoors and wear a face mask to
protect your lungs; wear glasses to protect you eyes.
 When outdoors or when evacuating, cover your mouth and nose;
wear goggles to protect your eyes.
 Keep your skin covered with long pants, long-sleeved shirt and hat to
avoid irritation from ash.
 Avoid driving after heavy ashfall. Driving will stir up more ash that
can clog engines and stall vehicles.
 If you have a respiratory ailment, avoid contact with any amount of
ash. Stay indoors until local health officials advise it is safe to go
outside.
 Avoid areas where there might be volcanic ash fall. Volcanic ash can
cause respiratory ailments.
 Remove ash from roofs. Volcanic ash is heavy especially when wet
and can cause roofs to collapse.
What is landslide?
A landslide is an catastrophic event where a block of earthen mass slides
downhill. Cause significant loss of life and billion dollars each year.

HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS
TYPHOONS
It is a severe weather disturbance characterized by strong winds and heavy
rains which revolve around central low pressure area. It is the most
powerful type of tropical cyclone that forms in the northwestern Pacific
Ocean. The word "typhoon" is derived from the Chinese term "Tai Fung"
which can be broken down into "ta" which means big and "fung", which
means wind.
MAJOR TYPES OF TROPICAL CYCLONES
1. TROPICAL DEPRESSION- wind speed up to 62 kph
2. TROPICAL STORM - wind speed ranging from 63118kph
3. TYPHOON- wind speed greater than 118kph (it is called hurricane in
northeast Pacific and northern Atlantic regions)
4. SUPER TYPHOON- wind speed exceeding 220kph.
The Philippine is very vulnerable to climate-related hazards because of its
location.
SEASONAL VARIABILITY OF TROPICAL CYCLONE ACTIVITY
Tropical cyclone activity:
- Lowest in May and increases gradually through June,
- Increases from July until September
- Level activity during August
- November, the activity level dies off
• TYPHOON HAIYAN(YOLANDA) IS THE POSSIBLY STRONGEST
TYPHOON IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY DEATH TOLLS ALLEGEDLY
REACHED MORE THAN 6000 ACCORDING TO NDRRME.
An average of 20 tropical cyclones enters the Philippine Area of
Responsibility (PAR) and 90% of them affect the country.
TROPICAL CYCLONE SECONDARY HAZARDS:
1. FLOODS
2. STORM SURGES
3. STRONG WINDS
4. LANDSLIDES
5. MUDFLOWS
IMPORTANCE OF TROPICAL CYCLONE
- If not for tropical cyclones, there would be severe environmental
imbalances.
- Rainfall brought by tropical cyclones replenishes ground water and
surficial water.
- Flora and fauna in the Philippines are heavily reliant on tropical cyclones
for source of water.
- 50% of average annual rainfall in the country is derived from typhoon-
related rainfall.
WHY DO TROPICAL CYCLONES FORM?
Tropical cyclones form as a result of the atmosphere's natural tendency to
maintain equilibrium by redistributing heat through wind from the
equatorical regions to the polar regions. This mechanism prevents the
tropical areas from getting excessively hot and the polar regions from
becoming extremely cold.
HOW DO TROPICAL CYCLONES FORM?
- Tropical cyclones form both in northern and southern hemisphere at
latitudes 5 to 30 degrees away from the equator(trade wind belt) in parts of
the open ocean where water temperatures reach at least 26 degrees Celsius
to depth more than 60 meters.
- Air masses increasingly heats up and rise.
- Mainly due to Coriolis effect.
- Drier air from higher altitudes is sucked into the center of tropical cyclone
preventing the formation of clouds and, therefore rainfall. This explains
why the "eye" of the tropical cyclone is calm.

TROPICAL CYCLONES
Before During After
 Coordinate with  Regularly  Attend to
local community monitor official injuries when
or barangay on updates of needed.
safety plan PAGASA or  Apply first aid to
during times of other reliable minor cuts or
severe events. sources on the wounds.
 Ensure that your tropical cyclone.  Seek medical
house (or school)  Stay in a sturdy assistance at
can withstand and stable your nearest
strong winds and shelter. clinic or hospital
heavy rains.  Stay indoors and  Check your
 Discuss with away from immediate
your family, windows or vicinity (house,
friends, things that may school,
classmate about topple over. surroundings)
typhoon and  Coordinate with for any6
other weather the local damages that can
disturbances, community on pose a potential
understand possible hazard to people
weather evacuation around it.
forecasts and measures
how to minimize (especially if you
our risks. are in a low-lying
 Recommended area)
trimming and  Remain calm
removal of and take notice
 unstable trees, of your situation.
electric posts, or
any
infrastructure
that could fall
and may cause
damage or
injury.
 Have survival kit
containing
battery operated
radio, flashlight,
emergency
cooking
equipment,
candles, matches
and first aid kit.
 Participate
actively in the
school drills on
disaster
response.

THUNDERSTORM
A localized storm cloud that produces lightning and thunder, and often
brings heavy rain shower or hail as well as strong gusty winds. The typical
thunderstorm is 5 kilometers in diameter and lasts an average of 30
minutes, although some may last longer.
can produce dangerous weather condition such as:
- Heavy rains
- Hailstones
- Floods
- Lightning
- Tornadoes
3 stages of thunderstorms:
- Initial or cumulus stage
- Mature stage
- Dissipating stage
THUNDERSTORMS
Before During After
 Learn about  Stay indoors and  Continue
your area’s remain calm monitoring
thunderstorm  Postpone all PAGASA or
risk by looking outdoor local
at past events. activities. radio/television
 These risks differ  Regularly stations for
for different monitor official weather updates.
places and updates by  Always observe
different months. PAGASA or safety measures
 Discuss how you other reliable on if you need to
would know if a sources. go outdoors.
thunderstorm  Be on the  Stay away from
may produce lookout for storm-damaged
light, moderate, falling debris areas.
heavy or and flashfloods.  Watch out for
torrential rain as If treat of lightning is fallen tree
well as duration. eminent: branches,
 Discuss the  Turn off and trunks, electric
rainfall unplug all lines, etc. and
/thunderstorm electrical and report them to
warning system electronic authorities.
of PAGASA. devices.  Stay away from
 Recommend  Refrain from flood waters.
trimming and using phones  Uneven ground,
removal of (mobile, open drainage
unstable trees, landline) until and/or sharp
electric posts, or the storm passes debris under
any over. floodwater can
infrastructure If no immediate shelter be potentially
that could fall and threat of lightning harmful.
and may cause is eminent:
damage or  Stay low
injury.  Stay away from
 Ensure proper structures such
drainage in the as trees,
surrounding by electrical lines,
removing things towers, or fences.
that may hinder  Water can
proper drainage conduct
flow. electricity
 Participate refrain from
actively in the swimming or
school drills on being in contact /
disaster submerge in
response. bodies of water.
 Distance of
thunderstorm
cloud can be
estimated by
counting the time
interval between
seeing lightning
and hearing
thunder (1
second = 330m, 3
secs = 1km)
 Remain indoors
at least 30 mins
 after hearing the
last thunder.

FLOODS
- Affect low-lying and coastal areas, due to the overflowing of water from
lakes, streams, and other bodies of water.
- The accumulation of rainwater in drainages also causes flood, particularly
in urban areas.
- Flood can caused by natural and human activities.
Natural causes include:
- Intense or prolonged rainfall
- Storm surge
- High tide
Manmade causes include:
1. Increased urbanization and coastal development
2. Informal settlers
3. Indiscriminate dumping of garbage
4. Deforestation
5. Failure of levees and dams
6. Blasting
Types of Floods:
1. River flood – caused by the overflowing of rivers when the run-off
exceeds the capacity of the channels.
2. Flash flood – caused by a very short period of unusually heavy
rainfall.
3. Coastal flood – occurs when strong onshore winds push the water
inland. The rise in the sea level also causes flooding of the low lying
coastal areas.