LESSON 2.

METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING

Philosophy is concerned with determining the truth since it lies at the heart of every inquiry. The discussion on truth is part of
philosophical studies on knowledge and the ways of knowing. As we know from out previous lesson, facts are statements that are
observed to be real or truthful and claims are statements that require further examinations or test to determine their truthfulness.
There are various philosophical views regarding truth. Philosophers consider something as truthful if it corresponds with an
observable fact or reality. Something is also true if it can be justified through experience and the use of one’s senses. Another view
believes that truth is a product of agreement or consensus. And last, there is perspective that considers a claim as truthful if it can
be tested or verified.

BASIS FOR DETERMINING THE TRUTH

 A belief is true if it can be justified or proven through the use of one’s senses.
 A belief or statement is true if it is based on facts.
 Getting consensus or having people agree in a common belief
 Determining truth in this case requires a person to prove a statement through an action
 Claims and beliefs should be subjected to tests to determine the truth.

What should we consider when looking at arguments or opinion?

Arguments - are series of statements that provide reasons to convince reader or listener that a claim or opinion is truthful. There
are also numbers of arguments based on faulty reasoning. These kinds of arguments are called fallacies. We must be aware of the
various kinds of fallacies as these affect the validity of the arguments.

Logic – branch of philosophy that focuses on the analysis of arguments. It studies and elaborates on good argumentation. Study of
correct thinking and reasoning.
Fallacy are group of statement that appear to be arguments, but fail to support the conclusion.

FALLACY Latin Term CHARACTERISITICS EXAMPLE

Attacking the Argumentum ad Hominem Attacking the person presenting the “Of course he believes that
Person argument instead of the argument itself the government is flawed,
Hominem came from a Latin he is a rebel and a
word “homo” which means Attacking the character of an individual Communist”.
man. rather than an attempt to address the
issue “How can we believe him
when he talks about social
distancing, he is a lawyer
who is a liar. ”

Appeal to Force (ARGUMENTUM AD Using the threat of force or an undesirable “If these peace agreement
2 BACULUM – argument with event to advance an argument will not be signed by the
aidgel) government, then we will
Disbelief will tend to physical abuse. have no recourse but to go
Baculum – is a latin word to war”.
which means scepter or This is committed when a person uses
stick. A scepter is a symbol threat or force to advance an argument. “TV Patrol is the best news
of authority. program on Tv. If you don’t
believe me, I won’t let you
watch the TV.”

Appeal to Pity3 (Argumentum ad Using emotions such as pity or sympathy. “All these charges are
misercordiam) baseless; this is just plain
A person uses emotion such as pity to harassment – can’t you see
Misercordiam is a Latin convince someone how this is affecting my
word which means pity or family?”
compassion.

Appeal to Argumentum as Populum The idea is presented as acceptable Every boy your age already
People4 because a lot of people accept it has a girlfriend, you should
Or Populum is a latin word for Making an argument right because a lot of go find one!”
people. people accept it
Bandwagon I’m sure you want to have
Fallacy an I phone. Almost 80 % of
your schoolmates are using
it”.

Appeal to (Argumentum ad tradition/ The idea is acceptable because it has Marriage should be between
Tradition 5 ANTIQUITATEM) been true for a long time. a man and a woman. It has
been so for a long time in
Traditio means tradition. “this is the way it has always been done”. this country; it should
Advancing an ideas since it remain so today and in the
has been using fo a lonf future.
time.

Appeal to Argumentum ad Ignorantiam Committed when a person could not give “I am sure that the students
Ignorance6 a counter argument or if he/she could not have understood the
Ignorantiam is a latin word present any evidences or witnesses to instructions perfectly well
for ignorance. Whatever has prove or disapprove the statement of because no one raised a
been proven false must be another, his/her assertions are correct and hand to ask anything on
true and vice versa. the opponent is wrong. them.”

Begging the (PETITIO PRINCIPII) – A fallacy n which conclusion is taken for “I have a right to speech;
question 7 Fallacy of Presumption granted in the premises. therefore you cannot stop
me from talking.”
Assuming the thing or idea to proven true
“kung saan ka masaya, dun
Also known as circular argument ka happy’.

Unfair talaga kapag hindi

patas

Cause and Effect Post Hoc, Ergo, Propter Hoc Assuming a cause and effect relationship “Ever since you bought that
8Fallacy between unrelated events sweater, everything has
been going wrong in your
life. Get rid of it.”

Fallacy of (MODO HOC FALLACY) Assuming that what is true a part is true “You are a doctor, therefore
Composition9 for the whole you came from a family of
Individual to all. doctors.”
Infers that something is true of a part, is
true of a whole. “These cases of robbery in
this district have convinced
me that the city has become
a den of thieves and
criminals.

Fallacy of All to individual Assuming that what is true for the whole is “Your family is smart,
Division 10l true for its parts therefore you are smart."

Infers that something is true of the whole. “You come from a family of
Must also be true on its parts. doctors and intellectuals.
Surely you can do better in
this course.

Fallacy of Using the same term in different situation “Humans walk by their legs,.
Equivocation with different meaning. The table has legs.
Therefore the table walks by
Calling two different things by the same its legs. “
name.
 Fallacy of Occurs when one attempts to apply a Cutting people with knives is
Accident general rule to an irrelevant situation. a crime. Surgeons cut
people with knives. Surgeon
are criminals.

Argument from Argumentum ad Verecundiam Committed when a person uses a name of My assignment in Chemistry
authority a popular celebrity or name of an expert to is not wrong. MS. Aguire,
put more weight in the assertion being my English teacher who is
made. known internationally as a
novelist, conformed my
answer.

Red Herring Diveting the topic and makes an argument #Neveragain, Eh kumusta
of it. naman ang Hacienda
Luisita.

Biases – these are tendencies or influences that affect the views of people.

BIAS CHARACTERISITICS EXAMPLE

Correspondence bias or attribution bias Tendency to judge person’s personality “These soldiers who fought in the wars
by his or her actions, without regard for are all bloodthirsty murderers.”
external factors or influences

Confirmation Bias Tendency to look for or readily accept “How can I accept his view that there is
information which fits one’s own beliefs or no God? I am a Christian.”
views that go against it

Framing Focusing on a certain aspect of a Preliminary evidence has still not

problem while ignoring other aspects pointed out the actual cause of the
plane crash, but investigators are
currently focusing on the possibility of
pilot error.

Hindsight The tendency to see past events as Magellan’s assault on Mactan Island
predictable, or to ascribe a pattern to was a foolhardy ventures, made by an
historical events overconfident, careless man who
underestimated the valor of the native
Filipinos.

Conflict of Interest A person or group is connected to or has As the daughter of the accused, I
a vested interest in the issue being believe I have the right to express my
discussed opinion on the issue of his alleged
corrupt practices.

Cultural Bias Analyzing an event or issue based on I do not agree with this Western practice
one’s cultural standards of placing aged parents in retirement
homes. We Filipinos take care of our
family members.