Fluid dynamics/Hydrodynamics ∆m

mass

flow rate = .
We can distinguish two main types of fluid flow. If the flow is smooth(slow), ∆t
such that neighboring layers of the fluid slide by each other smoothly, the flow is
said to be streamline or laminar flow. In streamline flow, each particle of the
fluid follows a smooth path, called a streamline and these paths do not cross one
another turbulent. Above a certain speed, the flow becomes turbulent. Turbulent
flow is characterized by erratic, small, whirlpool-like circles called eddy currents
or eddies.

Steady flow /Streamline flow– If the flow of a fluid is steady, then all the fluid
particles that pass a given point follow the same path at the same speed.

Turbulent flow – In this type, of flow the speed and direction of the fluid
particle passing any point vary with time.

Line of flow – The path followed by a particle of the fluid.

Streamline – A streamline is a curve whose tangent at any point is along the

direction of the velocity of the fluid particles at that point. Streamline never
cross. In steady flow, the streamlines coincide with lines of flow.

Tube of flow – This is a tabular region of a flowing fluid whose boundaries are
defined by a set of streamlines.

Incompressible fluid - This is a fluid in which changes in pressure produce no

change in the density of the fluid.
Liquids can be considered to be incompressible gasses subject only to small
pressure differences can also be taken to be incompressible.
The rate of mass flow is defined as the mass ∆ m of fluid that passes a given
point per unit time ∆ t :

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MRS. H. MARIE F. SILVA
BSc, Dip. in Edu., MSc. In Phy. Edu.
In Figure, the volume of fluid passing point 1 (through area A1) in a time ∆ t is
A1 ∆ l 1, where ∆ l 1 is the distance the fluid moves in time ∆ t . The velocity of
fluid (density ρ1 ) passing point 1 is v1 =∆ l 1 /∆ t .Then the mass flow rate

∆ m1 /∆ t through area A1 is
∆ m 1 ρ 1 ∆ V 1 ρ 1 A1 ∆ l 1
= = =ρ1 A 1 v 1 ,
∆t ∆t ∆t
where ∆ V 1 = A1 ∆ l 1 is the volume of mass ∆ m1. Similarly, at point 2 (through

area A2 ), the flow rate is ρ 2 A 2 v 2 . Since no fluid flows in or out the sides of the

tube, the flow rates through A1 and A2 must be equal. Thus

∆ m1 ∆ m2
= ,
∆t ∆t
and
ρ1 A 1 v 1=ρ2 A 2 v 2

This is called the equation of continuity.

If the fluid is incompressible ( ρ doesn’t change with pressure), which is an

excellent approximation for liquids under most circumstances (and sometimes
for gases as well), then ρ1= ρ2 ,and the equation of continuity becomes
A1 v 1 = A 2 v 2

The product Av represents the rate of volume flow (volume of fluid passing a
given point per second), since which in SI units is m 3/s. This equation tells us
that where the cross-sectional area is large, the velocity is small, and where the
area is small, the velocity is large.

Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to flow.

Bernoulli’s Theorem
For an incompressible, non-viscous fluid undergoing streamline flow, the
pressure plus the kinetic energy per unit volume plus the potential energy per unit
volume is constant at all points on a streamline.

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MRS. H. MARIE F. SILVA
BSc, Dip. in Edu., MSc. In Phy. Edu.
 Assuming the diameter of the
reservoir is large compared to
that of the spigot, v2 will be
almost zero. Points 1 (the
spigot) and 2 (top surface) are
open to the
atmosphere, so the pressure at
Bernoulli’s Equation both points is equal to
1 2 atmospheric pressure: P1 = P2.
P + 2 ρ v + ρgh = k (constant) Then Bernoulli’s equation
becomes
where, P – pressure within the fluid,
1 2
ρv +
ρ – density of the fluid, 2 1
v – velocity of the fluid, ρg y 1 = ρg y 2
or
g – acceleration due to gravity,
v1 =
h – height of the fluid above a reference level.
√2 g( y − y )
2 1
.P – Pressure/ pressure per unit volume,

1 2
ρ v – Kinetic energy per unit volume,
2
ρgh - Potential energy per unit volume.

1 2 1
P1 + ρ v 1 + ρg h1 = P2 + ρ v 22 + ρg h2
2 2

 Bernoulli’s equation is not valid for a gas, a heavy oil, very rapid flow.
It follows that from Bernoulli’s equation that whenever a flowing fluid speeds
up, there is a corresponding decrease in the pressure and the potential energy of
the fluid.
If the flow is horizontal, the whole of the velocity increase is accounted by a
decrease in pressure.

Applications of Bernoulli’s theorem

Torricelli’s theorem

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MRS. H. MARIE F. SILVA
BSc, Dip. in Edu., MSc. In Phy. Edu.
 closer together, so from the
equation of continuity the air
speed increases above the wing
where the streamlines are
squished together.
Thus the air speed is greater
above the wing than below it,
so the pressure above the wing
is less than the pressure below
the wing (Bernoulli’s
principle). Hence there is a net
upward force on the wing
called dynamic lift.
Atomizer
Experiments show that the
The pressure in the air blown at high speed
speed of air above the wing can
across the top of the vertical tube of a perfume
even be double the speed of the
atomizer is less than the normal air pressure
air below it.
acting on the surface of the liquid in the bowl.
Thus atmospheric pressure in the bowl pushes the perfume up the tube because The wing shown in figure can
of the lower pressure at the top. experience lift even if the attack
angle is zero, because the
rounded upper surface deflects
air up, squeezing the
streamlines together.

Ping-Pong ball in jet of air

A Ping-Pong ball can be made to float above a blowing jet of air (a hair dryer or
a vacuum cleaner that can also blow air); if the ball begins to leave the jet of air,
the higher pressure in the still air outside the jet pushes the ball back in.

Airplane Wings and Dynamic Lift

Airplanes experience a “lift” force on their wings, keeping them up in
the air, if they are moving at a sufficiently high speed relative to the air
and the wing is tilted upward at a small angle (the “attack angle”). See
figure, where streamlines of air are shown rushing by the wing (we are
in the reference frame of the wing, as if sitting on the wing). The upward
tilt, as well as the rounded upper surface of the wing, causes the
streamlines to be forced upward and to be crowded together above the wing. The
area of air flowing between any two streamlines is smaller as the streamlines get
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MRS. H. MARIE F. SILVA
BSc, Dip. in Edu., MSc. In Phy. Edu.
Baseball Curve
Lack of Blood to the Brain—TIA

Venturi meter
A venturi tube is essentially a
pipe with a narrow constriction
(the throat). The flowing fluid
speeds up as it passes through
this constriction, so the pressure
is lower in the throat. A venturi
meter is used to measure the
flow speed of gases and liquids,

Underground air circulation

If gophers, prairie dogs, rabbits,
and other animals that live
Search and Learn underground are to avoid
suffocation, the air must
circulate in their burrows. The
burrows always have at least
two entrances. The speed of air
flow across different holes will
usually be

Sailboats

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MRS. H. MARIE F. SILVA
BSc, Dip. in Edu., MSc. In Phy. Edu.
 Exercises
1. In humans, blood flows
from the heart into the aorta,
from which it passes into the
major arteries. These branch
into the small arteries
(arterioles), which in turn
branch into myriads of tiny
capillaries. The blood
returns to the heart via the
veins. The radius of the
aorta is about 1.2 cm, and
the blood passing through it
has a speed of about 40
cm/s. A typical capillary has
a radius of about 4 × 10 -4 cm
and blood flows through it
at a speed of about 5 × 10 -4
m/s. Estimate the number of
capillaries that are in the
body.

2. What area must a heating

duct have if air moving 3.0
m/s along it can replenish
the air every 15 minutes in a
room of volume 300 m3?
Assume the air’s density
remains constant.

3. Water circulates throughout

a house in a hot-water
heating system. If the water
is pumped at a speed of 0.50
slightly different. This results in a slight pressure difference, which forces
a flow of air through the burrow via Bernoulli’s principle.

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MRS. H. MARIE F. SILVA
BSc, Dip. in Edu., MSc. In Phy. Edu.
 m/s through a 4.0 cm diameter pipe in the basement under a pressure of 3.0 speed in the 1.9 cm pipe to
atm, what will be the flow speed and pressure in a 2.6 cm diameter pipe on that in the pipe carrying 26
the second floor 5.0 m above? Assume the pipes do not divide into branches. L/min?

5. How much work is done by

Problems pressure in forcing 1.4 m3 of
1. A garden hose with an internal diameter of 1.9 cm is connected to a water through a pipe having
(stationary) lawn sprinkler that consists merely of a container with 24 holes, each an internal diameter of 13
0.13 cm in diameter. If the water in the hose has a speed of 0.91 m/s, at what mm if the difference in
speed does it leave the sprinkler holes? (8.1 ms )-1
pressure at the two ends of
the pipe is 1.0 atm? (1.4 ×
2. Two streams merge to form a river. One stream has a width of 8.2 m, depth of
105 J)
3.4 m, and current speed of 2.3 m/s. The other stream is 6.8 m wide and 3.2 m
deep, and flows at 2.6 m/s. If the river has width 10.5 m and speed 2.9 m/s, what 6. A cylindrical tank with a
is its depth?( large diameter is filled with
water to a depth D = 0.30 m.
3. Water is pumped steadily out of a flooded basement at 5.0 m/s through a hose
A hole of cross-sectional
of radius 1.0 cm, passing through a window 3.0 m above the waterline.What is
area A = 6.5 cm2 in the
the pump’s power?
bottom of the tank allows
water to drain out. What is
the drainage rate in cubic
meters per second? At what
distance below the bottom
of the tank is the cross-
sectional area of the stream
equal to one-half the area of
the hole? (1.59 × 10-3 m3 s-1,
0.90 m)

7. A pitot tube is used to

determine the airspeed of an
airplane. It consists of an
outer tube with a number f
small holes B (four are
shown) that allow air into
the tube; that tube is
connected to one arm of a
U-tube. The other arm of the
U-tube is connected to hole
4. The water flowing through a 1.9 cm (inside diameter) pipe flows out through A at the front end of the
three 1.3 cm pipes. If the flow rates in the three smaller pipes are 26, 19, and device, which points in the
11 L/min, what is the flow rate in the 1.9 cm pipe? What is the ratio of the direction the plane is
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MRS. H. MARIE F. SILVA
BSc, Dip. in Edu., MSc. In Phy. Edu.
 headed. At A the air becomes stagnant so that vA = 0. At B, however, the
speed of the air presumably equals the airspeed v of the plane. Use
Bernoulli’s equation to show that,

v=
√ 2 hρg
ρair

where r is the density of the liquid in the U-tube and h is the difference in the
liquid levels in that tube. Suppose that the tube contains alcohol and the level
difference h is 26.0 cm. What is the plane’s speed relative to the air? The
density of the air is 1.0 kg/m3 and that of alcohol is 800 kg/m3. (64.50 ms-1)

8. A venturi meter is used to measure the flow speed of a fluid in a pipe. The
meter is connected between two sections of the pipe; the cross-sectional area
A of the entrance and exit of the meter matches the pipe’s cross-
sectional area. Between the entrance and exit, the fluid flows
from the pipe with speed V and then through a narrow “throat”
of crosssectional area a with speed v. A manometer connects the
wider portion of the meter to the narrower portion. The change
in the fluid’s speed is accompanied by a change ∆ p in the
fluid’s pressure, which causes a height difference h of the liquid
in the two arms of the manometer. (Here ∆ p means pressure in
the throat minus pressure in the pipe.)

By applying Bernoulli’s
equation and the equation of
continuity to points 1 and 2
in figure, show that,

√
2
2a ∆ p
v=
ρ (a − A )
2 2

where r is the density of the

fluid. Suppose that the fluid
is fresh water, that the cross-
sectional areas are 64 cm2 in
the pipe and 32 cm2 in the
throat, and that the pressure
is 55 kPa in the pipe and 41

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MRS. H. MARIE F. SILVA
BSc, Dip. in Edu., MSc. In Phy. Edu.
 kPa in the throat.What is the rate of water flow in cubic meters per second? (2
× 10-2 m3 s-1)

9. Figure shows a stream of water flowing through a hole at depth h = 10 cm in

a tank holding water to height H = 40 cm. At what distance x does the stream
strike the floor? At what depth should a second hole be made to give the same
value of x? (34.64 cm, 30 cm)

9
MRS. H. MARIE F. SILVA
BSc, Dip. in Edu., MSc. In Phy. Edu.