POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

History of the Entire World (Ancient, Medieval, Modern) | World History Documentary
No matter where you live on this wondrous planet, the amount of history in every meter of forest, desert,
or ocean is unfathomable or immeasurable.
Tokyo, Japan – the most popular city in the world with over 37 million residents.
Redrock, Ontario, Canada – with population of under 900.
Outline:
● Pre – History
● Ancient Period
● Post-Classical Period
● Early Modern Period
● Late Modern Period

PRE-HISTORY

The Earth
● 85 million years ago, we believe this is when primates diverged from the rest of the mammalian
ancestors forming the family Hominidae or hominids.
● This is when we begin to see apes and orangutans, the sub-family hominini includes all of this
except orangutans.
● About 8.5 million years ago, the hominini would diverge from the garolini which went on to
become guerillas
● 7.5 million years ago, humans and chimpanzees under the homonini branch would diverge from
each other
● Humans as we know them today evolved in different stages
Stages of Human Evolution
● Auran Sahil Anthropus and artipificus was the first stage up to seven million years ago
● Australopithecus would appear just four million years back
● Some consider Paranthropus appearing 2.7 million years ago
● 1.8 million years ago would see the emergence of the genus homo
● One of the earliest species in this period was homo habilis. Their brains were about as small as
chimpanzees, but they would begin using crude stone tools
● Homo erguster and the famous homo erectus emerged later and possessed larger brain sizes
compared to homo habilis. They would create better tools and learn how to tame fire.
● Homo Heidelberg entis appeared around 800,000 years ago
● homo sapiens, our very own species about 150 to 200, 000 years back
● Homo neanderthalensis or neanderthal diverged around 600 to 700, 000 years ago from a
common ancestor in homo.
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● Once homo sapiens emerged, they would interbreed with homo neanderthal. Though they had
bigger brains and a sturdier physique than homo sapiens, they would eventually become extinct
due to their lack of social cooperation
Archaeology
● Can help us to discover the what and when but the whys and how’s are often quite difficult
when dealing with these far-gone time periods
●
Aridity hypothesis
● One theory of a driver of early human evolution
● This states that changes to more arid climate and an expansion of the savannah caused early
humans to have to adapt
Savannah hypothesis
● posits that this expansion of the savannah caused early humans to leave the treetops and become
bipedal on the grasslands
What did leaving the treetops do for our ancestors?
● walking upright on the savannah helped in various ways from being able to see further distances
traveling further while expending less energy and most importantly freed up their hands in order
to use tools and weapons
Physical consequences of leaving the treetops in terms of physical and skeletal changes
● Skeletal changes would occur in the legs and back.
● Changes in the pelvis caused childbirth to become more burdensome than in most other animals.
● Gestation periods would also shorten significantly to allow a baby to pass through the birth canal
before its head grew too large. This is also partly the reason why human babies are more helpless
and need more time to develop than other mammalian species.
Changes in the way of living
● from around 3.3 million years ago, when our ancestors began using stone tools until around
12,000 years ago, the paleolithic era or old stone age encompasses 99 percent of our
technological pre-history
● Early humans lived in small tribal societies hunting and foraging for food and beginning to use
fire to cook and see in the dark
● Members of the genus homo would evolve during this period leading to homo sapiens
● Around the middle Paleolithic, from around 300,000 years ago, we start to see primitive works of
art and spiritual practices involving the dead
● As they were primarily nomadic, humans would travel from place to place looking for new food
sources. This eventually, over thousands of years, brought us all over the world according to the
Out of Africa Theory
● Around 12,000 years ago, though there would be a shift in human society, a shift that changed
everything – the Neolithic revolution.
 POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

Neolithic revolution or the agricultural revolution

● Saw humans begin to domesticate plants and animals and would transition from their nomadic
lifestyles into once more sedentary
● It had deep effect on the human society
● This is the basis for sedentary society population growth, division of labor and social
stratification, all of which are still visible in our current society.
Theories about how the agricultural revolution began
● Hilly Flanks hypothesis – it states that agriculture began in the hilly flanks of the taurus and
zagros mountains
● Other theories claim that agriculture was developed to create surpluses of food in order to display
power or dominance
Effects of Neolithic revolution on the human society
● Somewhat egalitarian groupings of the past were replaced by a social hierarchy
● The surplus of food made possible by agriculture led to more population
● Not everyone was needed to produce this food so many became full-time soldiers or craftsmen
and administrators
● Priests and other spiritual leaders were often near the top of the hierarchy
● Physical health suffered as well. Less activity was bad on its own but close proximity to animals
caused pathogens to jump from species to species leading to widespread diseases
● Neolithic humans were also plagued by vitamin deficiencies and poorer dental growth

THE ANCIENT PERIOD

Ancient Period
● This period covers not only centuries but millennia
● From the advent of writing in ancient Sumer in around 3400 BCE to around the fall of the Roman
empire in the late 5th century, the ancient period would bring forth the birth of all the great
civilizations we are familiar with and as with any recent birth, there must be a cradle which
brings us here - the land between the Tigris and Euphrates or Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
● The land between the Tigris and Euphrates
● The alluvial plane created by the twin rivers allowed early settlers to remain here for thousands of
years
Eubaid Period
● The earliest known settlements on the plane date back to around 6500 BCE during this period
Europe Period
● Beginning around 4100 BCE, still predating the Bronze Age
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● This age would see more urban centers begin to emerge and with it the Sumerian civilization
● Urbanization led to a more centralized government which needed a way to administer affairs
which could be resolved through cuneiform, wedge-shaped impressions became the first writing
system
Early Dynastic Period
● Began in 2900 BCE
● It is during this period that Mesopotamia truly developed
● Urban centers evolved into city-states and trade was common
● But from out of the North, the Akkadians would come
The Akkadians
● Around 2340 BCE, the Akkadians came
● Led by Sargon of Akkad, the Semitic Akkadians would conquer the southern Sumerian city-states
forging what was arguably the first empire the world had seen
● Akkad and Suma would integrate cultures but the Sumerian spoken language was all but replaced
● In the 22nd century BCE, Akkad fell to a tribal force of Gutians
The Gutians
● Known for hit and run tactics
● Viewed as less civilized
● With the empire’s demise, they had nowhere with all to rule and vanished within less than a
century and the old would rule once more
The Neo-Sumerian empire
● Established around 2112 BCE under a Namu extending into upper Mesopotamia
● This period is associated with a Sumerian Renaissance
● This ended when Alamites from the East sacked the influential city of Ur
● Out of Babylon, an Amorite city in the west grew another empire
Babylonian Empire
● In 1792 BCE, Hammurabi would rule this small expanse of land and conquer all of Southern
Mesopotamia, creating the first Babylonian empire
● The Code of Hammurabi become his most popular legacy
● Short lived because after Hammurabi’s death, the hittites out of Anatolia would sack Babylon in
1565 BCE, resulting in the Kassai people taking control of the Babylonian empire
● Would control the region for nearly 500 years, the longest of any dynasty
● Unlucky for them, their time was up along with numerous other civilizations
Bronze Age
● It collapsed in the 12th century BCE along with attacks from the Assyrians in the North and Elam
in the East
● This set up the Assyrians to take control of the entire Mesopotamian area in 911 BCE along with
Persia, Judah, and Egypt known as the neo-Assyrian empire
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Neo-Assyrian empire
● The furthest spanning empire
● The world has seen they were hardened soldiers and experts at war especially siege
● Battering rams would be frequently used along with sapping techniques
● Their engineers would create makeshift pontoons and bridges to cross bodies of water and even
used flotation devices for their soldiers
● In 626 BCE, Babylon would revolt and crown a new emperor creating the Neo-Babylonia empire
known also as Chaldean Empire
Neo-Babylonian or Chaldean Empire
● Within a few years, after forging an alliance with the Iranian medes, Babylon defeated the
Assyrians and controlled much of their territory
● Their most famous ruler, Nebudchadnezzar II, would be known for the destruction of Jerusalem
in 587 BCE and the ensuing Babylonian captivity
● On a lighter note, his hanging garden of Babylon apparently looked delightful
● This lasted until an unstoppable force would take over the entire near east as far as the Indus
valley, establishing an empire in 550 BCE
Achaemenid Empire
● Exalted as a Messiah, King Cyrus would free the Jews from captivity and was viewed as quite
tolerant
● This empire would be most famously known for their constant wars with the Greek city-states
● Their Mausoleum of Halicarnassus would become one of the seven wonders of the world
● Reaching eight million square kilometer in area at its height under the leadership of Xerxes, the
empire would eventually crumble almost two centuries to a young Macedonian general
● Taking over from his murdered father Philip of Macedon, Alexander brought his unified Greek
and Macedonian Army to the rocky Persian landscape and defeated Darius III, last emperor of the
Achaemenids
Persian Nation
● After Alexander the Great’s early death, the Persian region became the Hellenistic Seleucid
dynasty
● Native Persians would eventually retake the region in 247 BCE under the Parthians which would
be the third Iranian empire after the Medians and Acamenets
● Lasting until 244 CE, they would constantly clash with the Romans
The Sassanids
● The last persian empire was the Sassanids - the longest and most successful Persian empire so
successful in fact that the Romans viewed the Sassanids alone as equals
● Their culture would also spread to Rome and beyond touching Western Europe and Eastwards
towards China and India.
● To the west of Persia and Mesopotamia is the Levant and two kingdoms which were inextricably
linked Israel and Judah
● There had been people who identified as Israelites in the region but the kingdom itself came into
being in the early to mid-9th century BCE
● Judah followed not much later
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● Both would come under the curtain of the Neo-Assyrians who would destroy the Israel capital of
Samaria in 722 BCE
● In the early 500 BCE, after the revolts in Judah, the Neo-Babylonians who now controlled the
levant marched into the region leading to the destruction of Jerusalem, the Judean capital
● After the Babylonians fell to the Achaemenids, Jews were allowed to return to Israel
● Once the Seleunids took over, the Hasmonean dynasty took control leading to the Maccabean
revolt
Maccabean revolt
● A rebellion against the encroaching Hellenistic culture
● under Roman rule, the area was known as the Herodian Kingdom of Judah after Herod the Great
Phoenicia
● A civilization that began on the coast near present-day Lebanon and Syria but would eventually
spread because of its maritime trade across the Mediterranean
● Their greatest legacy would be Phoenicians from tyre settling in Northern Africa establishing the
city of Carthage in 814 BCE
● Carthage would become the heart of the Phoenician civilization
Carthage
● Most of the Western Mediterranean was under Carthaginian control and would have a fierce
rivalry with the Roman Republic leading to the Punic wars
● After the third and final Punic war, in an act of domination, Rome obliterated Carthage their
territory becoming Roman
Egypt
● North Africa is home to one of the most famous ancient cultures Egypt
● Second cradle of civilization, after upper and lower Egypt unified around 3000 BCE, the old
Kingdom which began in 2686 BCE saw Egypt construct some of its most magnificent erections
the great Sphinx and Giza pyramids
● Egypt’s new kingdom in 1549 BCE was their most prosperous and far-reaching
● After the Bronze Age collapse, Egypt survived but was weakened greatly
● A shell of its former glory, Egypt would live but under the grinding Chariot wheels of the Neo-
Assyrians, Achaemenid empire, the Hellenistic Ptlomies and finally Rome in the 1 st century BCE
Kushites
● To the South, we find what the Egyptians would call the land of the bow
● Nubia is the home to the Kushites
● Sharing much of the same culture and religion as the Egyptians, the Kushites co-existed with
their northern neighbors and would even become Pharaohs themselves in the 8 th century BCE,
forming the 25th dynasty
● Women were held in high regard in Nubia, the Candice being their ruling queens
Land of Punt
● possibly located near present day Somalia or Eritrea
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● Was a trading partner of Egypt exporting African Blackwood, Ivory perfumes and Slaves to their
South
● To their South was the kingdom of Aksum
Kingdom of Aksum
● Located near modern-day Ethopia
● Growing steadily from 100 CE to 940
● Was one of the first empires to convert to Christianity
● Was known as the home of the queen of Sheba and is said to be the location of the Ark of the
Covenant from the biblical stories
Nok Culture
● Western of Africa, modern-day Nigeria, we find the Nok culture
● These highly advanced people thought to have existed from 1000 BCE to their disappearance in
200 CE
● Considered the oldest sub-Saharans to have created full-size terracotta figures
● A certain figure contains pharaonic elements which suggests the knock were linked or influenced
by the Egyptians
Sahel
● The land between the Sahara and the Savannah
● Based near the Nigel River valley in Mali
● The urban center, one of the oldest in Africa, was said to have existed from 250 BCE to 900 CE
then possibly abandoned or relocated after the spread of Islam
● There is evidence that the Indus valley civilization, one of the cradles of civilization, inhabited
this region from as early as 3300 BCE, firmly establishing their hold on the valley from 2600 but
would disappear and be replaced by 1700 BCE
The Vedas
● Were composed during the thousand-year vedic period
● Northern India would then become 16 smaller kingdoms in 500 BCE known as the
Mahajanapadas
Nanda Empire
● Would spring out of Magadha, one of the 16 kingdoms, but would be dissolved by 322 BCE after
being overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya
● This became the foundation for the Moya empire existing until 184 BCE
● His grandson, Ashoka the Great, was instrumental in the spread of Buddhism
Gupta Empire
● It arose during the middle kingdoms period of India
● Responsible for a golden age for Indian culture and sciences
● They would see their demise at the hands of the Hunas, a branch of the White Hans who
weakened the empire enough that they relinquished hegemony of North India
The Yellow River Valley
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● Located in China
● This area claim a fourth cradle of civilization and last of the old world
● In Chinese history, these people would be called the Xia
Xia’s dynasty
● China’s first dynasty ruling from 2070 BCE until 1600 BCE
● Some scholars debate these dates and claim this year are the Eretu culture which was dated back
to 1900 BCE
Shang Dynasty
● The dynasty next to Xia, 1600 BCE until around 1046 BCE
● China’s second dynasty but the first historians agree upon
● Afterwards they were conquered by the Zhou dynasty in the west claiming legitimacy through the
mandate of heaven and who would expand into the Yangtze River region
Zhou Dynasty
● While this dynasty ruled longer than any other almost 800 years, power would slowly become
decentralized leading to the spring and autumn period which would see the show move their
capital east to a safer location and become the Eastern Joe
● China would break apart into hundreds of smaller states each with a warlord ruler
● It didn’t stay this way and seven states would take center stage and battle during the warring
states period
The Chin State
● One of the seven states
● Defeated the powerless show and then crush the other six states to consolidate their territory
● This was the first time China had been unified and Qin Shi Huang of the Qin dynasty became the
first emperor of China
Qin Shi Huang
● This emperor ruled as an emperor would
● Commanderies were created all over China which took orders from none other than Qin Shi
Huang
● Legalism was also firmly established and promoted while Confucianism suffered
● Using forced labor, the Great wall began to be built and perhaps hypocritically invasions were
launched into Northern Vietnam concurrently
● After the emperor’s death, the Han dynasty would eventually take power from 202 BCE until 230
CE with brief few years of the Shin when the throne was usurped
Han Dynasty
● One of the most prosperous dynasties and shared ideas with the West through the Silk Road
● Because of the wealth accumulated in China at this time divided unevenly, the peasantry would
revolt in the yellow turban rebellion in 184
● It would fail but bring about the end of the Han in 208
● In 220, China would enter the three kingdoms period where the rival kingdoms of the Shu, Wei,
and Wu would be in a state of war
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● The three kingdoms ended in the late 200s with the Jin army defeating the final kingdom after
usurping the way
● China wouldn’t be fully consolidated again until the Sui dynasty in 581
According to Chinese historian Sima Chin…
● A Chinese general named Weimann who was defeated by the Han founded the Weimann zhou
sun dynasty in Gojo Sun, the first Korean Kingdom after usurping the throne in 194 BCE
● After the turn of the century, the Han would conquer Korea ending the Gojo Sun period and
established four commandaries
● All were short-lived except for Lilang which endured until 313 CE
● With the fall of Kingdom, Korea would enter a three kingdoms era of their own first running out
of the Chinese and then warring with each other
● Though the Bekja and Goguriya were the most powerful with the latter fending off Chinese
invasions by the sway
● The third kingdom Silla would win out of thanks to a strategic alliance with the Tang dynasty of
China
● In 676, they would expel the Tang dynasty to be sole rulers of the region
Vietnam
● Was ruled by the semi-mythical Hongbang dynasty for 2000 years but the North was conquered
by China
● In the late 200s BCE, it was turned into a vassal state called Nanu but was eventually annexed by
the Han in 111 BCE
● This would culminate in the rebellion of the Trung sisters
● They were eventually defeated however, and China would have control of northern Vietnam for
another thousand years imposing Chinese traditions
● The South though was ruled by the Champa and were more aligned with their Indian neighbors to
the west adopting more of their culture and religion
Yayoi People
● In the 4th century, the immigrated from Mainland China and Korea to Japan overwhelming the
Neolithic hunter-gathering German people
Kofun period
● Lasting from 300 to 538 CE
● The small state of Yamato would extend their power across Japan
● They would be in close contact with the mainland and be heavily influenced by China
The Americas
● During this period, they also had flourishing civilizations
● North America was known for its mound builder cultures which would manipulate the ground
and create what we call earthworks
● One of the largest was the poverty point culture from around the mid-1700s BCE
Woodland Period
● Began roughly in 1000 BCE and saw more cultures like the Hopewell develop
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● These would generally be hunter-gathered societies

The Olmec
● In Meso America, they grew to be the first true civilization dating back to around 2500 BCE
The Mayans
● They followed the Olmec around 2000 BCE
● Eventually, the Zapotec, Mixtec and teotihuacan would come to prominent in the region
● Evidence leads us to believe that MesoAmerica was one of only four areas of the world to
independently invent a writing system. First in Mesopotamia then Egypt, China and finally
MesoAmerica.
Norte Chico
● In South America, they were the first of the Andean civilizations
● Regarded as the first in all the Americans as well developing around 3500 BCE
● Built off of fishing communities, there isn’t much known about this specific society or most of
the Andean civilization especially in the ancient period
European Minoan crete
● Acknowledged by scholars to be the oldest civilization of the continent going back to 3600 BCE
● Their urban centers would begin to develop around 2000 BCE but would start to decline and
would eventually be overrun by the Mycenaeans from Mainland Greece
● The Mycenaeans themselves would be victims of the infamous Bronze Age collapse around 1100
BCE leading to the Greek Dark Ages which saw the abandoned or destroyed palaces of the
Mycenaeans scattered about within a depopulated Greece
Greece’s Archaic Age
● Began in 750 BCE until the invasion of Xerxes and the Persians in 480 BCE
● This period would see the rise of Greek city-states unless power was wielded by Aristocrats and
Oligarchs
Solon
● A statesman from Athens
● Laid the foundation for Athenian democracy and Sparta would adopt the Spartan constitution
Delhi in League
● In the wake of the failed Persian invasion, Greece entered a classical age where the Greek city-
states formed an alliance called the Delhi in League
● This is what allowed the city-state of Athens to thrive and rival Sparta head if the Peloponnesian
league leading to the Peloponnesian wars
Classical Era
● Though only lasting from the 400s to 300 BCE, this is the most familiar period of Greek tradition
● Regarded as the foundation of many Western cultures with influences from literature, theater,
architecture, philosophy and science
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● Its end came when Philip of Macedon conquered Greece but was subsequently murdered
● His son, Alexander of Macedon, would take the mantle of the Greek and Macedonian army and
lead it against the Persians putting an end to the far-reaching Achaemenid empire
● After his death, Hellenistic age began
Hellenistic age
● Saw Greek culture flourish within the empire Alexander had forged from Macedon to India
● Last for around 300 years
Roman rule over Greece
● In 146 BCE, the Roman Republic defeated Greece at the Battle of Corinth beginning what would
be over 1500 years of Roman rule over Greece
● With the Parthians expelling the seleucids in the East, only Egypt under the Ptolemies kept the
Hellenistic period alive that would end as well however, after the battle of Actium in 31 BCE and
the taking of Alexandria
Death of Cleopatra
● From kingdom to republic to empire, Rome along with Greece would make up the core of
classical antiquity and the Romans would adopt much of Greek culture
● The City of Rome would be founded in 753 BCE by the mythical Romulus and Remus, the
former going on to become the first king
● This was an elective monarchy
● In 509 BCE, Rome switched into a more representative republic based on democracy
● There was a constitution and checks and balances within the governing bodies
● Their conquest of the Mediterranean was slow but after destroying Carthage in the final Punic
war, they controlled the entire region
● In 27 BCE with Augustus declaring himself emperor, the republic perished leaving way for
autocratic rule
● Rome would eventually turn into a military dictatorship. This led to more territory as evidenced
by the span of the empire during Trajan’s rule but it also led to more revolts.
● The crisis of the third century saw the Palmerin empire break away in the East and the Gaelic
empire break away in the West
● Though both were reconsolidated, it would lead to the tetrarchy and Eocletian separating the
Roman empire in two, creating the Eastern Roman empire
● Eastern emperor Constantine would find the capital at Constantinople
● In 313, Christianity was proclaimed as a legitimate religion
● Rome would be known for its advances in infrastructure constructing public baths, gyms, and
theater
● Their aqueducts would be second to none
● The wealthy would live in large villas often in the countryside, but all this would soon crumble
Migration of Barbarians
● In the 400s, migrations of barbarians occurred and in the latter half of the century, an already
crippled Rome would breathe its last as Europe became a land of various Germanic kingdoms
● This would lead into a middle-ages which saw Europe become a stunning amalgamation of Greek
and Roman, Christian, and Germanic culture
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Nomadic societies
● So-called barbarians were powerful in their own right
The Hans
● Thought to have originated in Kazakhstan and would frequently invade Europe across the Danube
● Atilla the Hun was the most famous of these reaching Rome’s doorstep but turning back
The Celts people
● Were a loose group of tribes residing in Europe and would expand to occupy most of Europe
along with Ireland and Britain
● They would slowly disappear on the continent because of the Germanic migrations that occurred
in the second to fifth centuries but stayed on the British Isles
The Isles
● Near the end of the migration period, the isles would see an invasion of their own
● The Germanic tribes of the Angles from Anglia, the Saxons from around where Saxony is today
in Northern Germany and Jutes from Jutland, or modern-day Denmark would settle in Britain.
They would take control of the South of the island and merge into the Anglo-Saxons, calling
themselves the English, the word English was formed.
How do we know all this?
● Archaeologists spent days digging up areas to uncover the mysteries of the past
● They have uncovered Knossos on Crete, the Minoan city regarded as the oldest in Europe
● Pompeii in Italy was also discovered in a state of ghastly preservation as if to still live an undead
life
● The pyramids of Egypt or Terracotta army of the chin emperor are also examples
● History wasn’t a discipline in ancient times
● Herodotus was the father of history
Similarities of the civilizations
● The most ubiquitous one is the development of religion
● All of our civilizations found answers and meaning by worshiping different Gods
● Most were polytheistic and while many would be the same religion as their neighbors, they would
often worship a different God within the pantheon
● Temples would be built and sacrifices including human were made
● As time went on certain religions became more prominent and still exist to this day
● Hinduism around 2000 BCE, Zoroastrianism a bit later, Judaism in the 500s BCE with origins
over 1000 years earlier, Jainism in the 500s BCE and Buddhism in the 400 BCE
● In China, Confucianism, Taoism, and Legalism would be three competing ideologies
● In the west, Alexander the Great conquests would see the Hellenistic world adopt much of the
Greek philosophical teachings of Plato, Aristotle, and Socrates
● Each civilization would also attain more tangible successes
● The ancient Egyptians would be known for their durable ships such as the Khufu ship and
lighthouses. Their engineering skills would also translate to more magnificent constructs.
Utilizing the ramp and lever, they would go on to create a true wonder of the world.
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● In Persia, the Kanads allowed water to be transported over long distances in their dry climate
● In the east, the Indus valley civilization would perform plastic surgery, cataract surgery and make
advancements in Math and Astronomy
● China would as well producing the first confirmed comet sighting back in 613 BCE. They would
also excel at herbal medicine and acupuncture
● In Europe, Greece was home to numerous inventions like the gear, screw, and water organ. Many
of these, like in the modern age, were created as a result of war such as the Torsion catapult
● Rome would boast perhaps the greatest repertoire of technologies during their height. This could
be due to their accumulated knowledge from the Etruscans, Celts, and Greeks. Their roads,
aqueducts and dams were the sturdiest of their time.
● These civilizations would also mimic each other when it came to war. These were all sedentary
societies that meant they were predominantly based on agriculture. Agriculture meant an increase
in population leading to a division of labor. Not everyone had to work the farms. This led to a
professional class of fighter and military specialists
● The days of the tribesmen early in the morning and late evening skirmishing were no more
● Division of labor also meant more people were able to pursue the arts
● From Greece to Persia to China to the Americas, we find evidence of pottery, sculpture, and even
music. This music however would not last.
● The end of the ancient period had come. What we would see would be poultry tribes with the
power to collapse empires.
● The Western Roman empire fell in 476 and China would fall to the five Barbarians or woohoo
fracturing into the 16 kingdoms period
● The Gupta empire in India would have their golden age cut short by the Han invasions
● With a roar of despair under the horse hooves of galloping Nomads and Barbarians, the ancient
world dies or perhaps it’s just in need of a long rest or perhaps if we knew where to look, it never
went anywhere

POST-CLASSICAL PERIOD

After grave calamity, the world slumbers, the old world’s most powerful empires have fallen or
perhaps unluckily in the process of a long and arduous death. The far east sees China fragmented and
India’s Gupta empire, a golden age has come to an untimely end. The Persian empire, the dominant force
in the Middle East and central Asia for centuries, is about to change forever. In Europe, Barbarian tribes
inherited the Earth from the fallen Roman empire. Roman’s successor to the East was strong but internal
conflicts and attacks from all sides saw the Byzantine empire fail to make it out of the post-classical era.
Ancient sub-Saharan Africa
● Saw the Bantu migration change the demographics of the continent
● Urban settlements were also built in west Africa but seemingly abandoned and in the East, the
kingdoms of Aksum and Nubia would grow to become substantial powers.
● North Africa was home to the Egyptians and Carthaginians
● Medieval Africa would be a whole new game
● North Africa changed first as the Islamic expansion birthed out of the Arabian Peninsula
expanded in record time
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● By the mid-600s, a Caliphate was established over the Sahara, an Islamic influence would shift
southwards
● This would leave sub-Saharan Africa split between Christian, Islamic and traditional animist
belief systems
● Though Christianity was on the continent centuries longer in Ethiopia, Islam became prominent
in both the East and West mainly due to trade
● In West Africa, Islamic traders would have an influence on those who lived in the Sudan and
Niger River valley
● The trans-saharan trade route was one of the most extensive in medieval times and helped west
Africa develop rich Islamic empires
Ghana empire
● The first major one was the Ghana empire lasting around 800 years and saw the creation of
numerous urban centers
● The introduction of the camel into West Africa made trade easier and more regular
● The Ghana empire would become a vassal state and replaced with the Mali empire in the early
1200s
The Mali empire
● the kings of this empire were called Mansa, the most famous being Mansa Musa who is thought
to be one of the richest men to have ever lived
● this was all thanks to the Tran-Saharan trade
● Timbuktu was an important city in this empire
● The Mali empire would eventually fall, and the Songhay would become the hegemonic power in
the region
The Songhay empire
● While not originally a Muslim empire, the Songhay would blend African animist beliefs with
Islam. They surpassed the Mali empire in term of wealth, area, and power but would fall to
gunpowder technology from Morocco in the late 1500s
The Swahilis
● In the East, the Swahili coast was a group of port cities on the eastern coast of Africa
● Originally Bantu, the Swahilis which translate to people of the coast in Arabic would operate in
the Indian ocean trade and would exchange various luxury items like porcelain, silk, and slaves
Traditional African societies
● In Africa’s south, there were traditional African societies which would also participate in this
trade such as the city of Great Zimbabwe known for its impressive walls
● Apart from the emergence of Islam, Africa would remain relatively stable and autonomous during
its medieval period as Europeans fought futile wars amongst themselves and the middle east
 POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

European Middle Ages

● The stories we hear about this are often romanticized, most written much later
● Tales of sword and sorcery often take place in medieval settings even in real places such as
England
● But the Middle Ages in Europe which is usually separated into three parts was much more
mundane
Early Middle Ages
● occurs after the fall of Rome
● in reality, the beginning of this new age saw the same trends we saw earlier
● Rome hadn’t been a factor for decades and we see continued de-urbanization and a decline of
population in general
● Trade decreased and Barbarian migrations continued, most notably the Viking expansion from
the North and the Maggias from the East
● Even though this period was later termed the Dark Ages, it was not devoid of culture or
advancements
● Culture was quite complex as there would be a mix of Barbarian, roman, and Christian traditions
● Eastern Europe would see the Byzantine empire successes to the Roman tradition lose territory to
the emerging Rashidun Umayyad Caliphates
● the Code of Justinian, written during this period, would be used later on as an inspiration for legal
codes of European States
● The loose confederation of the Kievan Rus’ would be christianized by the Eastern orthodox
church and are regarded as the foundation of the Russian state
● The Byzantine empire would reach its peak during the Macedonian Renaissance of the 9th to 11th
centuries as they attempted to organize their knowledge, compiling books and manuals of
military and governmental affairs and encyclopedias
● In the west, year 800, the Frankish king Charlemagne would find the Carolingian empire what
was to be a Christian revival of the Roman empire
● It would soon become divided after his death, eventually developing into different states
High Middle Ages
● Known as a fairly stable time in the medieval period
● Saw population starkly increase a new advancement in agriculture and technology
● This can be attributed to a slight warming in the North Atlantic leading to the medieval warm
period. These increased crops leading to a boom in tray
● Society at this time was structured in a feudal and manorial system
● Feudalism is a complex subject on its own but in simple terms, it is the political relationship
between a king and his vassals
● These vassals are generally nobles, and the King grants them land in exchange for military
service offered by their knights
● Manorialism deals with the relationship between the noble and those who tend to this land called
villains or serfs
● they were allowed to live on the land but had to provide labor for the knights and nobles often in
the form of producing goods from the farms
● Two of the most prominent events of the High Middle Ages
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● Conquest of England in which the Normans from continental Europe defeated and took
over Anglo-Saxon England
● The Crusades wish saw armies of Christian soldiers march to the Middle East to liberate
Jerusalem
● This would lessen the idea of the nation-state for the time being as Europeans felt connected due
to religion
● Literature was filled with stories of chivalry and courtly love - concepts we tend to associate with
the Middle Ages
● Near the end of this period, architecture changed as well
● Beautiful gothic buildings would be constructed, a contrast to the classical Romanesque
architecture that was prevalent in the early Middle Ages
Scholasticism
● was a philosophy that would dominate high Middle Ages and even later until the renaissance
● it was a way to learn using the methods of the ancient classical era philosophers mixed with
Christian theology
● Originating from the monastic tradition, this method of learning would be more open to reason
and learning, both would eventually fall out of favor in the early modern era
The late Middle Ages
● The late ages brought an end to the prosperous high Middle Ages up to half of the population of
Europe perished in what we now call the crisis of the late Middle Ages
● Following the medieval warm period, the same regions were plunged into a little ice age leading
to agricultural crisis
● the great famine was the first of a series of plagues that ravaged most of Europe, but the small
continent would come into contact with death itself in the mid-1300s
● From the East, the black death made starvation from famines looked like an easy death, killing up
to one third of the population
● The Black death is regarded as the most fatal pandemic in human history
● The rise in famines plagues and instability also led to numerous revolts
● There were peasant revolts in both England and France, but there was still no solace.
● The end of this period would see England battle France for the throne of both kingdoms
in the hundred years war.
● The effect of this grim period of depopulation caused people to question the church and
their faith. These were major factors that would lead into Europe's next period
The Middle East
● Out of the ancient period, we see the continuation of a great rivalry, the Eastern Roman
Empire, successes to Rome and the Sasanian Empire, the latest and last iteration of the
old Persian empires.
● The Byzantine Sasanian War fought in the early six hundreds would be devastating to
both empires.
● Little did they know a new power would emerge.

The Rolling Sands of Arabia.

 POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

● This is the home of the Bedouins, Arab tribes who originally lived in the Arabian
Peninsula
● United under a single mantle by Mohammad in Medina, the nomadic Bedouins and
those who succeeded, their profit would expand into the Middle East and North Africa,
taking huge chunks of land from the Byzantine and Persian empires.
● The initial expansion resulted in the Rashidun caliphate and then the Umayyad
caliphate.
● The Arab Byzantine Wars saw Islamic Expansion into Eastern Roman land, but they
couldn't take the capital Constantinople itself in part due to the Roman use of Greek fire.
● The Muslim army would succeed in conquering Persia, though leading to the end of the
century's old empire.
● With most of the region unified, the Islamic Caliphates were positioned at the center of
the old world and at the crossroads of trade. Islamic traders would be able to travel to
different areas, introducing others to their faith. This also was a boon economically as
well. Traders and explorers would bring back knowledge and inventions to the Muslim
world.
● And mixed with the sources from places they had conquered like Egypt, they would
experience a golden age. Arab dominance in the region lasted for almost 500 years, but
in the 11th century, Turk nomads from Central Asia called the Seljuk Turks would
migrate south in a series of invasions. They captured Persia, the Mesopotamian region,
and parts of the Levant and Saudi Arabia.
● Their treatment of Christian pilgrims to the region they now controlled and the Christian
communities already living there led to a series of invasions from Europe to secure the
Holy Land.
● The first crusades saw the Europeans retake Jerusalem and established the kingdom of
Jerusalem in 1099.
● It would last for almost 100 years when it was retaken by Saladon. in the 1200s, the
Middle East would be beset by other invasions.

Turco Mongols
● Out of Central Asia, another even more ruthless peoples would invade the Middle East
sacking Baghdad and reaching the Egyptian border. These Mongols were treated soon
after, but the discord caused the Seljak Turks to be deposed.
● The emerging Turco Mongol peoples in the late 13 hundreds sought to invade the region
soon after. By the end of the period, it was Ottomans, another Turk people, who would
be in control of Western Asia.
Medieval period
● In South Asia, the medieval period is roughly defined as starting from the end of the
Gupta Empire In the f500s
● In the South, the Chola dynasty ruled by Tamils would control a thalassocracy spanning
Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and other islands.
● Buddhism had been important in India but would begin to disappear after invasions from
the Turk, Islamic nomads that would begin in the 1100s.
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● They succeeded and would find the Delhi sultanate it in 1206, the beginning of centuries
of Muslim rule In India
● This would last until the 1500s when a stronger Islamic power would dominate the
region, continuing Muslim rule.
● Southeast Asia would prosper during this period
● Trade from South Asia and China would pass through the strait of Melaka, a preeminent
trading channel.
● Most of the region was under heavy influence from South Asia. Only North Vietnam had
closer ties to the Chinese.
● In the 900s, a Chinese town command theory in Vietnam declared independence later
becoming di-viet or great viet. But this region would still be heavily under Chinese
influence.
● South Vietnam was home to the Champa kingdom and was governed by Hindus
associating more with their neighbors to the west.
● North Vietnam would eventually annex this area.
● because of the trade in South Asia and East Asia along with the spread of culture, the
Southeast benefited greatly
● Empires would rise like the Khmer empire in Cambodia, the Kaur capital.
● Angkor Thom was regarded as one of the largest cities in the world at the time. The city
could lay claim to over 100 hospitals
● In Burma. present-day Myanmar, the empire of Pagan would emerge using war
elephants for their military might.
● Indonesia would be home to the Shriver Malay, a Malay thalassocracy, which became
quite a powerful empire from their control of the Thunder Strait, a crucial trading route in
between the islands of Java and Sumatra and the Strait of Malacca.
● It was during this period; we believe Indonesian sailors traveled across the Indian ocean
settling in Madagascar off the coast of Africa.
● Changes on the continent, mainly due to the Mongol invasions had consequences for
these southeast empires.
● The Cambodian Khmer empire would be replaced with the Siamese Ayutthaya Kingdom,
and Indonesia’s Srivijaya was taken over by the Majapahit, a Hindu empire from Java,
and later on by the Malacca Sultanate.
● Just to the north, the Chinese would benefit from increased trade and become the
foremost power in the region and arguably the whole continent.
● Japan and Korea would voluntarily adopt Chinese culture. They brought in aspects of
Confucianism, Buddhism, and centralized government and bureaucracy.
● The short-lived but important Sui dynasty patched up and unified China again, and the
subsequent ‘Tang and Song dynasties took China to its greatest height scene.
● Until that time, they would become the world's top economy at that point - three times
larger than all of Europe during the 1100s.
● The first recorded chemical formula for gunpowder was also created here, along with
gunpowder weapons like the fire lance.
● During the Tang dynasty, China became increasingly involved in foreign affairs.
● They wanted to secure more of the Silk Road, so expanded Westwood
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● Encroaching into Central Asia, they would come into conflict with the abbasids, the third
Islamic caliphate to succeed the prophet Mohammed, who halted this expansion,
● Chinese prisoners from this battle are said to have brought paper making technology to
the Arab world.
● The An Lushan rebellion also hit the Tang hard, bringing about the death of perhaps
millions.
● The Tang would fall in 907 leading to a civil war known as the five Dynasties and 10
kingdoms period. It wouldn't last long, and the Song Dynasty would form in 960 and
consolidate China by 979.
● They differed from the Tang in that they would particularize in maritime trade. This
caused China's population to gather more southward towards trading ports.
● With ships reaching Arabia, India, and the neighboring regions to the South, China's
economy continues to expand
● Deeply devoted to their economy, the Song began using machines to produce products
with coal as a power source.
● These advances in the 11th and 12th centuries are regarded as an Industrial revolution.
Industrial revolution
● Because of their focus on the economy, their military grew weaker, leaving them open to
invasions to the north by the Churchian ancestors to the Manchu.
● By the 13th century, China was divided once again with the north fragmented and the
Song to the South.
● Civil War broke out between the rival states, leaving China a prime target for the
Mongols eventually being annexed by the nomadic chords.
● By 1279, the Yuan dynasty under the Mongols, had control of China and Korea.
● Japan would be able to escape this fate. However, with the Mongols in control, they
made China more open to the west.
● The famous Venetian explorer, Marco Polo, would visit detailing his travels on the Silk
Road.
● Soon after, less than 100 years since its founding, the Yuan dynasty was deposed in a
series of revolts known as the Red Turban Rebellion
● In their place, the Ming Dynasty took power in 1368.
● They would be the last ethnically harmed Chinese dynasty.
● Early on, the younger emperor constructed a naval fleet and sent them on expeditions to
the West under the guidance of Admiral Jinghei.
● After this brief period, though the Ming would isolate themselves from the West for
hundreds of years
● Korea and Japan continued to have links with China, although not as much as earlier in
the period.
● The Korean Emperor Xijong the Great created Hangul or the Korean alphabet in 1443,
replacing Chinese characters and creating a unique and intuitive writing system.
● Japan had just gone through the Heian period during its classical era where it tried to
distance itself from Chinese culture.
● Medieval Japan took things to an all new level
 POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

● The Kamakura period followed the Heian and saw the establishment of the first Shogun
Minamoto no Yoritomo
● In 1192, Japanese Samurai would become common during this time of Japanese
feudalism and decentralization.
● The Kamakura period would fall in 1333 as the Shogunate was destroyed
● An imperial rule restored under Emperor Godigo
● Seemingly not yet the time for an imperial restoration, this period would only last three
years before the establishment of the Muromachi or as Ashikaga Shogunate.
● The Muromachi period was first marked by division by those who still supported the
emperor. This led to the warring states period, also called Sengoku, a near century of
constant civil war and social unrest.
● In 1573, the Muromachi Shogunate would end when Ashikaga Yoshiaki, the last Shogun
was driven out of Kyoto by Oda Nobunaga, a powerful dimeo feudal Lord and head of
the ODA clan.
● While the early post-classical period was dominated by the rapid expansion and
conquests of the Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula, the latter half of the period was
dominated by nomadic invasions from Central Asia.
● The most famous and powerful of these were the Mongols. The beginnings of the empire
were humble
● In the steps of Mongolia, tribes were united to form a more powerful entity.
● Genghis Khan was declared ruler of this confederation in 1206
● Creating an empire that extended from central Europe to the sea of Japan, southwoods
into South Asia, and Eastwood into the Levant and Arabia, the Mongol Empire would've
control of almost 18% of the planet's total land area, only second to the infamous British
empire that would form centuries later.
● The Mongol hegemony in Eurasia would bring about what historians called pax
Mongolica, a period of stability where trade was regulated along with exchanges
of ideas and technology from the west and east.
● After Genghis Khan's death, there was some dispute over who his successor would be.
● Kublai khan, one of Genghis Khan’s grandchildren would end up being next in line,
although he was not recognized by the whole tribe
● By Kublai’s death in 1294, the Empire was fragmented into four separate carnates, the
golden horde in the Northwest, which would become Turkicized, the Chagatai Khanate
in the West, which also became Turkiciized, the Ilkhanate in the Southwest and the
Yuan dynasty, which ruled over China, founded by Kubli Khan prior to his death.
● While the Mongol Empire demonstrated the interconnectedness of the old world by their
running of the Silk Road, the trading route had always served to keep major powers
within distance.
● This wasn't always a blessing.
● Just as trading goods passed along the route from city to city so too did diseases often
deadly.
● It's thought the plague of Justinian entered Europe via the Silk Road.
● A major outbreak of the disease killed off a quarter of the Mediterranean population.
 POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

● A theory also states that the Mongols were behind the Bubonic plague entering Europe.
They would catapult diseased corpses into enemy towns in Crimea during sieges.
● Those who fled the town specifically traders would head to Constantinople or Italy
bringing the disease with them.
● Old world science often has a bad reputation when it comes to the post classical period
thought as being 1000 years of dark ages between the scientific advancements of
classical antiquity and the Renaissance.
● But most of, if not all of these regions advance significantly.
● Africa gave rise to the kingdoms of the West and Swahili coast, each benefiting from two
separate trading roots
● The Islamic world experienced a golden age during this time with knowledge from the
east and from Western sources in the areas they conquered.
● Europeans also brought back much of this knowledge during the Crusades, which gave
them access to more classical sources.
● Europe also experienced various periods of different renaissance during the Middle
Ages. The east would highly modernize under the Chinese as well, making the post
classical period one of great progress despite the seemingly constant setbacks.
● The ancient period saw just the beginning of mingling between these different empires.
But the post classical period saw the beginnings of globalization for both its enrichment
and detriment.
● There was one part of the earth though that remained untouched by the old world.
● The land is cold and barren.
Norwegian Vikings
● Vikings settled on this snowy expanse of land in the north by around 980.
● The presence of Walruses has made this settlement lucrative for the ivory trade.
● In the 1200s other expanding peoples would come in from the West.
● We aren't certain how these people who the Norwegian Vikings called scaling interacted
with them, but by the 1400s because of the little ice age, the Vikings abandoned their
settlements heading back east.
● These settlements were on Greenland, and those people initially called railings were the
Thule people, the ancestors to the Inuit.
● This is Lanzo Meadows, another Viking settlement. This time in New Finland, Canada,
they would call this Finland because of the presence of grapevines used to make wine.
● This colony set up around year 1000 would only last for around 20 years due to constant
conflict with the be off that native tribe
● with but a slight touch of fingertips, the old world and new world would remain divided for
another 500 years.
North America
● But what transpired on this continent, North America, the Hopewell culture from the
ancient period was slowly replaced with the Mississippian culture in the Midwest and
Eastern United States around year 800 until European contact
● They used rivers as the main mode of trade and would be known for their mound
structures.
 POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

● Monk's Mound is the largest pyramid north of MesoAmerica. Its base is larger than the
Pyramid of the Sun in Mexico and about the same size as the Great Pyramid of Giza. It
is located in Cahokia, Illinois, the most significant city for Mississippian culture.
Population boomed there after the 11th century, but the city would be mysteriously
abandoned by 1350.
Anasazi
● To the west were the Anasazi. They would construct buildings in the Charco Canyon in
New Mexico. It's thought that each house could house up to 600 residents
● In Colorado. Anasazi would build dwellings into Cliffside. They are still well preserved
today.
MesoAmerica
● Further south, Mesoamerica was still experiencing a classical age.
● The teotihuacan would start out the period at its peak. With 125,000 residents, it was
considered the sixth largest city in the world at that point.
● The pyramid of the Sun was the third largest pyramid on earth and was oriented to
astronomical events. Extreme weather events in 535 and 536, which caused sporadic
extreme cooling could have caused the decline of this civilization, perhaps leading to
widespread rebellion
Mayan civilization
● The Mayan civilization, one of the most advanced in the region, occupied the Yucatan
and Guatemala in various city states
● Originally influenced by the teotihuacan of Mexico, they would build their own complex
network of trade systems. Two city states, Tika and Calakmul would have a rivalry
spanning centuries.
● Chichen Itza was one of the most significant cities, often the economic center,
● Mayans were complex in other areas as well.
● Having developed a writing system independently, along with the concept of zero
second only to the Mesopotamians, the Mayans might have also created the 365 day
calendar before any of Afro Eurasia.
● During the 9th century, many of these city states were abandoned, most likely due to
drought marking the end of Meso America's classical age.
● Their post-classical period from the year 900 saw the Mayan still in existence, but not
the power they had once been.
● Not much is known about the Toltecs, but they supposedly formed an empire in
MesoAmerica based on wise and kindhearted rulers.
● Civil war was said to have broken out in 947 after the death of a controversial priest king,
who suggested an interhuman sacrifice.
● Centuries later in the 1300s, banned of religious radicals would rate areas of Lower
Mexico
● Claiming to be the rightful successes to the taltech empire, their number swelled, as did
their territory known as the Aztecs. These bands of militaristic raiders and priests would
use human sacrifice as a means of coercion and terror. They employed more advanced
agriculture techniques such as chinampas irrigation, and terrorist agriculture to support
their growing population.
 POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

● In the 1400s, the Aztec Center of tenochtitlan allied with the Tex Coco and tlacopan to
form a powerful triple alliance, also known as the Aztec Empire.
● This empire would take over the majority of Mesoamerica making most city states
tributaries.
● By the mid 1400s, the empire would fight the flower wars and intermittent ritual wars
fought with other city states, the most famous being clashkarla.
● This would occur until the 1500s when the Aztec Empire would be forever changed.
Andean region
● In South America, the Andean region, which produced the most advanced American
civilizations from the ancient period, continued to thrive in the post classical era.
● Most of the regions east of the Andes were primarily inhabited by seminomatic tribes.
● Although the Amazon River basin shows evidence of complex culture, the Andean
civilizations were generally advanced and developed independently from Mesoamerican
cultures.
● While they didn't have a writing system, they could rely on knotted strings called kipu to
send messages or communicate over long distances. These long distances would be
dominated by Llamas, who were the main transporters of goods in the Americas as they
didn't have access to the horse or wheel.
● During the first part of this post classical period, two Andean Empires dominated the
region
● in northern Peru was the wari or wari empire, and to the south also occupying parts of
Bolivia was the Tiwanaku Empire
● Having roughly the same military power, they would engage in a type of Cold war
coexisting, but ready for action with minor skirmishes in proxy areas.
● Both empires would begin to decline around the seven and eight hundreds because of
changes to the environment.
● The 1400s saw the rise of the largest empire in all the Americas. These quechua
speaking peoples out of the Cusco region would conquer and build upon the previous
Andean culture in the area.
● Under the guidance of Sapa Inca, these warriors expanded into present day Ecuador
and Chile. It was soon known as the Inca Empire.
Inca empire
● These Inca were known for their use of abacuses in mathematics and their pyramid-like
structures like Machu Picchu.
● Their road system was also regarded as one of the best in the world At this point
● An ocean away from the Inca lies Oceania. It is divided into these four subregions. The
first people to migrate to Australasia and melanesia had migrated over from Africa as far
back as 50,000 years ago.
● Migrations from Southeast Asia are typically responsible for the population to Polynesia
and Micronesia and took place thousands of years later.
● They would build cities like Nan Madol and Mua, which would become the capital of the
ChiTonga Empire
 POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

● Gaining power in 950. The Tolin Empire would reach its peak beginning in the 12
hundreds and led expeditions to spread their influence all throughout the South Pacific
Island.
● They were adept sailors and used stick charts to help them with navigation
The Poleniasians
● Polenisians were the first to discover New Zealand, Easter Island and Hawaii. These
were areas previously untouched by humans.
● Once settled on these different islands, the Polynesians would begin to adopt different
cultures from one another.
● In New Zealand, this would give rise to the Maori peoples originating from East
Polynesia.
● Because of the island environments, new species entering the ecology was rare. And
once the Polynesians arrived, it led to mass extinctions, including the mower, which was
often hunted.
● On Easter Island, the presence of Polynesians destroyed the native ecology by hunting
and the construction of their large stone statues. This resulted in their own population
disappearing over time.
● The 29th of May 1453, the Ottoman Empire laid siege to the city of Constantinople. The
Eastern Roman Empire's defenses had always been state of the art. Alas, state of the
art for a period long dead. Using gunpowder technologies after a 53-day siege, the
ottomans under 21 year old Sultan Mehmed II, would capture Constantinople putting an
end to 1,500 years of the Roman Empire.
● While nomadic tribes dominated the post classical period, that era would end giving way
to a new age of gunpowder.
● The Byzantines Delhi Sultanate and Songhay had already felt its lethal touch, but these
were just the first of many. The modern era was here.

THE EARLY MODERN PERIOD

● Afro Eurasia had become as connected as it ever was during this time.
● But as Europe became further cut off from the east due to the decline of the Silk Road,
they would try to find alternative ways to reach it for trade, and this would set into motion
what could never be undone, and nothing would ever be the same.
● After centuries of nomadic domination, the world is about to bend to a new master. The
three Islamic gunpowder empires, the Ottoman Turks, the Saffavids in Iran, and the
Mongols in the Indian subcontinent control Western, central and South Asia because of
their new technologies
● In Europe, a deeply tired continent emerges from the Middle Ages with new realizations
and new ambitions.
 POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

● During the post-classical period, Africa and the Americas produced some of the most
advanced and successful societies on the planet, but not even they could prepare for
what was to come.
● East Asia would begin to pursue isolationism from the west near the end of the last
period.
China
● In China, the Ming inherited the Song's advanced technical knowledge, but while the
Chinese went through a period of industrialization, they would not go through a scientific
revolution, meaning there was nothing to counter or challenge traditional belief systems.
● This could be responsible for what caused them to falter as arguably the world's leading
civilization
● While having invented gunpowder, it wasn't the Chinese, but the Europeans who
invented the matchlock, creating the classic firearms that were so useful in warfare.
● Early on, the Ming would see large-scale urbanization.
● Cities like Nanjing and Beijing would swell in population and see the rise of private
industries. More silk products were produced along with cotton and paper. Smaller
markets would focus more on food production.
● Before the Ming's isolation, they would actually have a very profitable trade system with
the Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch. This gave them access to silver, which they
needed to back their paper Money, which crashed by the mid 14 hundreds, suffering
from hyperinflation.
● Once the Ming became isolationist, silver would still find its way onto the mainland. This
abundance of silver from the Spanish helped the Chinese economy survive.
● In the late 1500s, Japan would invade Joseon Korea in what would be known as the
Imjin war.
● China sent an army to protect Korea and themselves and were ultimately the victors, but
this left them stretch thin.
● To make matters worse, the little ice age that affected the North Atlantic also affected
Ming China specifically, their food sources. Trading partners cut off exchanges and
Chinese crops began to fail.
● Along with other natural disasters and widespread disease outbreaks, the Ming were
deemed to have lost the mandate of heaven and rebels would begin to stir.
● In a peasant uprising, Li Ji Cheng would succeed in overthrowing the Ming at Beijing
with the Chongjin emperor committing suicide.
● Prince Dorgan, who would form the next dynasty, though allied with a former mean
general Wusangwy, and took Beijing themselves forcing Rebel Li Ji Cheng to flee the
city and establish the Qing Dynasty.
● This dynasty wouldn't be ethnically like the Ming, but Manchu.
● These manchus were descended from the Churchian who invaded from the North during
the Song Dynasty last period
● establishing the dynasty in 1644, they would go on to be the most popular state in the
world and the fourth largest empire in history.
 POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

● They would administer Chinese affairs with a traditional Confucian style and left most of
the ethnic minorities to their own devices. This dynasty would survive this period, but fall
in 1912
Japan
● In Japan, the Sengoku period of civil war continued
● the powerful Odo Nabunaga had just deposed the last of the as Ashikaga Shogunate,
and went on a warpath to unify the country
● In 1582. his dreams would almost escape him, but he lost something, arguably just as
valuable
● Betrayed by one of his generals, Nabunaga was forced to commit suicide or seppuku at
Honnoji. His successor, Tayotomi Hideyoshii took over the mission and succeeded
ending the strife-filled Sengoku period.
● He was the one who set into motion the Japanese invasion of Korea, which ultimately
failed
● After his death in 1598, and with the Tayotomi's credibility now in question.
● After the failed invasion, Tokugawa Ieyasu would challenge his son Tayotomi Heyodurii
● This came to a head in 1600 at the Battle of Sekigahara where Tokugawa was victorious
and was proclaimed Shogun of the new Tokugawa Shogunate in 1603.
● This marks the beginning of the Edo period, which saw the Shogun rule from the Edo
castle in the capital of Edo, former name of Tokyo,
● it was a feudal system like the other Shogunitess, with a strict hierarchy previously
established by Tayotomi Hideyoshi
● The feudal lords of the Tokyo Gawa clan ruled with their warrior class of Samurai,
underneath a similar system to Europe
● Farmers and artisans were ranked below them. The Tokugawa would close off the island
country from foreigners with its Sokoku policy, which also kept commoners from leaving.
● Literacy rates rose during this time, although this could be attributed to other factors
● In the smaller areas of Japan, the Daimyo feudal lords would often also train in the
fighting arts and be samurai
● By the same token, samurai could also be the proper Lord to their region.
● Damio would forge alliances by exchanging relatives and Daimyo families would stay
near Edo Castle to ensure loyalty.
● Because of the strict hierarchical system, there would often be dissatisfaction and
conflict
● But interestingly enough, not in the way one would expect.
● Instead of peasant uprisings, it was the Samurai and Daimyos who were cut short.
● With fixed tax rates and rising inflation taxes collected by landowners would be worth
less and less leading to angry nobles and angry Samurai. The system would still be
maintained though, and the Edo period would last for over 200 years.
Korea
● In 1392, the middle of the post-classical period in Korea, Yi Seong Gye established the
Joseon Dynasty, and the capital was eventually moved to Seoul.
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● King Sejong the Great, the fourth king of this dynasty, was responsible for replacing
Chinese characters to create the Korean alphabet. The Japanese invasions of Korea
would occur in the late 1500s, but how exactly did they fail?
● The answer was this man, Admiral Yi Sun Shin. He headed a fearsome Korean Navy
consisting of oddly shaped ships. They would be completely enclosed in metallic armor
with spikes on top to prevent boarding
● With a dragon's head poking out the front, these ships would resemble a type of turtle.
These turtle ships called Kobuksen in Korean were also fearsome offensive weapons,
capable of firing at least five different types of cannons.
● Combined with the panics and warships, they would win a stunning 16 out of 16 battles,
utterly destroying the entire Japanese Navy.
● In 1597 at the Battle of Chile Cho Young, after a bit of trickery, the entire Korean fleet
was destroyed by the Japanese.
● Korea would have the last laugh as the few remaining turtle ships were revived and
altered.
● A combined force of Ming Chinese and Korean warships put an end to the Japanese
advance, at Noryang ending the war
● In the 1600s, Korea was once again invaded, this time from the Churchian, who would
soon change their identity to Manchu, the same peoples who would form the Ching
dynasty in China.
● Korean King Injo surrendered in 1637 and was forced to send concubines and
noblewomen to the Ching prince Dorgan
● After the constant invasions, Joseon Korea experienced almost 200 years of peace.
Internal problems are what caused the dynasty to decline in the late 1800s, but the
Joseon would remain stable during most of the early modern period.
India
● The Delhi Sultanate early 16th century. This sultanate would've control of the Indian
subcontinent for over 300 years.
● Ibrahim Lodhi of the Afghan Lodi dynasty, would be the last of these rulers
● An invading army under Barbour, a descendant of both Timor and Gengis Khan would
kill the last Lodi Sulton at the Battle of Panipat and establish the Mughal Empire, one of
the Islamic gunpowder empires.
● The Mughals adopted much of the Persian culture and would become one of the richest
and productive regions in the world. Their GDP surpassed the entirety of Europe during
the early modern period, and it was valued at around a quarter of the GDP of the entire
planet.
● During the Mughal Classic period, the Empire was highly centralized with advances in
the arts and architecture.
● With the death of Emperor Aurangzheb, the empire would stagnate, but still survive for
another 150 years after losing hegemony to a mobile group of warriors.
● These Hindu maratha were located to the southwest and would expand under their
peshwas or prime ministers. This ended when the Afghan Empire backed by the
Mughals halted their expansion, but they succeeded in taking over most of the Indian
subcontinent.
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● They would later be divided into a confederacy of Meratha states. Near the end of the
early modern period, colonial powers practiced new imperialism, a phase which saw
Europeans after their earlier colonial pursuits in the Western Hemisphere attempt to
colonize and exploit Africa and the East
● India was no exception. In 1757 at the Battle of Plassey, the Nawab of Bengal, part of
the Mughal Empire, surrendered his territory to the British East India Company. The
British would soon be given the divani or ability to collect revenue and establish a
capital, Calcutta.
● Next on their list was a more formidable force. the Maratha. The Anglo Maratha wars
were a series of three wars fought between the Hindu Empire and the British.
● While the Maratha succeeded in the first, the British dominated the last two, ending up
with both Mughal and Maratha territory.
● As the Dutch East India Company was also a fierce competitor for territory in Southeast
Asia, the British had to negotiate treaties in order to assign possessions. After rebellion
and turmoil, the British dissolved their East India company, preferring to administer the
region themselves. This was known as the British Raj.
Southeast Asia colonial rule
● Colonial rule would continue to spread in Southeast Asia with only Thailand or Siam,
avoiding the same fate as its mainland neighbors
● Off the coast, in Indonesia, the powerful Hindu empire of the Majapahit layed a crucial
point in the spice route, which connected Indian and Chinese ports. Though their
influence spread to surrounding islands, the majapahit would fall before the mid 15
hundreds after the emergence of numerous Malay sultanates,
● The Portuguese would conquer the Malacca sultanate by 1511, taking control over the
strategic strait of Malacca.
Middle East
● In the Middle East, the crossroads of the old world tensions remained. West Asia had a
new king, the Ottomans
● After their conquest of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire entered its classical age, a
period of expansion and pursuit of power. They expanded into North Africa, capturing
Egypt in 1517 and establishing the regency of Algiers Ottoman Tunis and the islet of
Tripolitania Morocco remained an independent Barbour state
● In the latter part of this period. Ottoman land in North Africa, the Middle East, and the
Balkans would experience what historians call pax Romana, a period of economic
prosperity and stability not unlike the Pax Mongolica of the previous era. There would be
conflict though with a new enemy to the East.
Safavid Persian Empire
● Safavid Persian, founded around 1501, this empire was the first native Persian empire
since the fall of the assassinate in the six hundreds
● Being Shia, they would be under constant threat from the Sunni Ottomans. Nonetheless,
the Safavid would spread their version of Islam into various parts of the Middle East. The
Safavids grew to be a major power because of trade.
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● Europeans, especially England and the Netherlands, were quite fond of Persian rugs
along with their silks and other textiles. They would grow weaker and fall in 1736, but
their legacy lived on in the strengthening and spread of 12 Shia Islam
Central Asia
● Central Asia, where some nomads still rule, Turkic Uzbek Confederacies occupied this
area united by Mohammad Shaban Khan.
● From the steps he came at the helm of various tribes like the Kipchacks, Naaman, and
other Turkic tribes.
● Closer to India, the Pashtuns or Afghans came to prominence under the Hataki Dynasty
in the mid 16 hundreds
● They launched invasions both to the east in India and the West In Iran, the Pashtungajis
or warriors of the faith would form the aforementioned love dynasty of the Delhi
sultanate, the final dynasty before its collapsed to the Mughals
● In the west, they would also invade the Safavid empire, handing it a devastating blow at
the Battle of Gulnabad, a blow the empire wouldn't recover from
● The Afghans would later form the Afghan Empire or Durrani Empire in the 17 hundreds,
which halted the Hindu Morata expansion
Advancements in different aspects
● Man is the measure of all things. This idea attributed to Pythagoras, one of the ancient
Greeks sophists would be at the center of the humanist movement in Europe
● Birthed out of Italy, still during the late Middle Ages, humanism manifested itself in the
Renaissance, which would later spread all across the continent, bringing Europe into the
modern age.
● Using man or human as the basis of what we can know and learn, they began to use
inductive reasoning and physical observation in the sciences
● arts and literature blossomed as well.
● Linear perspective began appearing in paintings and images were more lifelike and
natural, often depicting ordinary people in majestic light
● Literature began to use more common language, and with the emergence of the printing
press became more available to more people.
● Warfare also changed dramatically. Though gunpowder was invented in the east, once
they possessed the technology, it was the Europeans who created the most effective
firearms
● Able to pierce even the finest of armor, the classic burdensome nightwear fell out of
fashion. With cannon also utilizing this gunpowder castles would be rendered nearly
useless as the walls had difficulty with standing the potent weapon.
● Renaissance ideals eventually opened the door for more scientific advancements
● Influenced by the works of Al-urdhi, a Syrian astronomer from the Islamic golden age,
Nicholas Copernicus would help to replace the faulty geocentric model of the solar
system, which claimed the sun and all planets moved around the earth with the
heliocentric model in which the Earth and all other planets move around the sun. This is
widely regarded as the beginnings of the scientific revolution
● This continued for the majority of the early modern period with the creation or
advancement of numerous scientific fields like biology, geology, and physics. They
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would surpass or replace much of the classical era sciences, Aristotelian physics being a
prime example. Many of these ideas directly challenged the church.
● Catholicism wasn't only threatened by science, but by other variants of Christianity. In
the late Middle Ages, Yang Hus, a Christian reformer in Bohemia, was executed for
heresy. His followers known as Hussites began spreading this version of Christianity and
feeling threatened, the Catholic Church would engage in a series of crusades against
the Hussites
● While the wars would simply end in compromise, they were significant as they were the
first European war fought where gunpowder was a factor
● Hussites soldiers were able to dispatch far larger numbers of the holy Roman emperor's
crusaders.
● Christianity in Europe would also be greatly challenged by foreign empires
● After their victory at Constantinople, the Ottomans expanded into Eastern Europe where
they laid siege to Belgrade.
● John Hunyadi of the Kingdom of Hungary, who had been fighting the Turks for decades,
masterminded a counter attack on the Ottoman Camp. Though outnumbered, the
Eastern Europeans would drive back the Turkish army wounding Mehmed II in the
process
● Seen as a pivotal moment in Christian history, Hunyadi's victory kept the Ottomans from
expanding throughout Europe.
Spanish Empire
● In the late 1400s, the Spanish Crown established the tribunal of the Holy Cross of the
Inquisition. This saw the church persecute Catholics for heresy and other acts deemed
against the faith. This included sorcery and witchcraft as well as judaizing and
blasphemy. This Spanish Inquisition would last all the way until the 19th century.
● The electorate of Saxony nestled within the Holy Roman Empire. In 1508, the university
at Wittenberg would accept an Augustinian monk as professor of philosophy. He then
became a preacher at the local church
● In 1517, on the 31st of October, this monk, Martin Luther, posted a critique of the Pope
and Church on the church's bulletin board. These would become known as the 95
theses and were mainly critical of the practice of selling indulgences and the Catholic
view of purgatory. Debates soon became commonplace leading to those protesting the
church and the Protestant reformation.
● Different Protestant denominations emerged from this, including the Lutherans after
Martin Luther, Calvinists, and Presbyterians
● In England, it yielded the English Reformation, which saw the rise of Anglicanism
● In 1521 at the Diet of forms, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V declared Luther heretic,
but occupied with affairs in Eastern Europe, left it up to the German nobles to deal with
Luther if they saw fit.
● In 1530, Charles ordered all Protestants to revert to Catholicism leading to the
Protestant banding together in the Schmalkaldic League, a military alliance of Lutheran
Princes.
● In 1555, the Treaty of Oxburgh was signed by Charles and the league, which gave local
rulers the choice between either Lutheranism or Catholicism for their state.
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● The Catholic Church wasn't about to take challenges to its power lightly. The Council of
Trent was called in reaction to this Protestant reformation sparking a counter reform and
Catholic revival
● Seminaries were founded for the training of new priests and new religious orders like the
Jesuits and Capuchins helped to fight the corruption in the church and strengthen its
reputation.
● New spiritual movements would begin in the major Catholic bastions, like the Spanish
mystics and French School of Spirituality
● In Italy and Malta there was the Roman Inquisition
Eastern Europe
● Ivan IV, the Grand Prince of Moscow has dreams of Grandeur, declaring himself Caesar
or Tsar. Ivan the Terrible went on a campaign to unify the various Turkic Carnates and
rust principalities in the region. He nearly doubled the area of this new large Sardum of
Russia, a multi-ethnic state spanning two continents.
The Atlantic Ocean
● The early modern period saw this expanse of water become much more crowded
● In Western Europe, the age of discovery teamed with European seafarers traveling to
find gold, silver, and spices as their previous route via the Silk Road were now controlled
by the Ottomans
● Europe's position on the globe enabled it to take to maritime expansion more easily than
most other regions.
● The dominant economic ideology at this time was mercantilism. This school of thought
dictated for an economy to maximize its exports and minimize imports. It wasn't a free
market economy, and it led to massive government intervention, often with militaristic
and imperialist motives in order to achieve their goals.
● This economic model was part of the commercial revolution, which saw the European
economy expand.
● European states began to compete with one another, not militarily, but economically. On
top of simple commerce, there would be a stark increase in other financial endeavors
like insurance, banking, and investments.
● In the search for precious metals and spices, the Portuguese would have a maritime
breakthrough. The Carrack and Caravel were state of the art ship designs, which made
traveling on the ravaging waters of the Atlantic possible
● Theory state that the Portuguese and Spanish of the Iberia Peninsula were the first to
begin this new age of discovery because they were in desperate need of gold and billion
due to their recent war with the Islamic settlements in Spain during the reconquista
● More traffic on the highways of the ocean led to more bandits.
● From the mid 16 hundreds to the mid 17 hundreds, the golden age of piracy would reign.
This period began with Anglo-French Buccaneers based in the Caribbean attacking
nearby Spanish colonies.
● Later on, the pirate round, a route across the Atlantic and around the tip of Africa was a
popular method of attacking both Muslim and British East India targets in the Indian
Ocean.
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● Later, still, after the war of Spanish succession, many privateers and sailors, now
unemployed, would take up piracy. They couldn't let those maritime skills go to waste.
● Now, could they back in Europe after the disastrous 30 years war, which killed up to 8
million people, the church was less of a unifying force, and residents would associate
more with their state. This allowed monarchs to claw for more claims to absolute power.
● There would be a decrease in feudalism from the previous period, as all power was now
centralized in the monarch who claimed legitimacy from a higher power.
● The nobles would have less control, and taxes would sharply increase as well.
● One of these absolute monarchs was Louis the 14th or the Sun King. He shepherded
France through three major wars, one of which was the War of Spanish succession,
where European powers banded together to stop a unification of the French and
Spanish crown under one bourbon king, as it would upset the balance of power on the
continent.
● The king's ambitions died as France and Spain lost the war to the English and united
provinces of the Netherlands.
● This treaty of Utrecht from the early 1700s marks the end of Spanish naval dominance
with the British, the new hegemonic maritime power.
● In England, the English Civil War saw the royalists, who supported the king, battled the
parliamentarians who supported parliament. The parliamentarians were victorious, and
Charles I was executed. His son, Charles II exiled, the British Isles were then united
under Oliver Cromwell
● In the 1660s, the English restoration saw the return of Charles II to the throne.
● In 1688 in what would be known as the glorious revolution, King James was deposed by
his daughter, Mary and her husband, William of Orange, leader of the Dutch Republic.
● Soon after it was resolved that England would be a constitutional monarchy.
Africa
● The Songhay, last of the Great West African Empires, fell to Moroccan forces from the
north
● In the east, the Ethiopian empire was alive, run by the house of Solomon, who claimed
descent from the old axumite empire and King Solomon going through various phases of
invasions, centralization, and decentralization.
The Ethiopian Empire
● Today, Ethiopia and Eritrea would remain intact until 19 74, 1 of only two African
countries to escape colonization.
● Further south parts of the Swahili coast came under Portuguese subjugation, but would
eventually be taken over by the Omani, a sultanate and maritime empire.
Across the Atlantic
● Christopher Columbus enters a fantastical paradise
● To Europe. It would be a new land to pursue their economic interests.
● The first land claimed was that of Latin America, so named because it was Spain and
Portugal to plunder
● The Treaty of Tordesillas has divided this land then named Iber America, between the
two Iberian powers.
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● Portugal named its territory Brazil after the Brazil Wood, which produced dyes. Using
gunpowder, Spain had a simple time subverting the natives within its territories. Those
two powerful, like the Aztecs, they would use subterfuge
● In their quest for pressures, metals, they would establish vice realities like New Spain
and force native peoples to work to extract resources.
● Their territory spanned all central and South America. The Portuguese already had
lucrative settlements overseas around Africa and Southeast Asia with links to both China
and India so their territory in Brazil wasn't as important.
● There was a dearth of precious metals there as well so Portugal instead began
producing sugar cane. Because of the intense labor of working these plantations,
Portugal brought over slave labor from West Africa, kickstarting the Atlantic slave trade
● After seeing how lucrative the new world could be, morality notwithstanding, the other
Western European powers with access to the ocean, England, France, and the
Netherlands sought territory in the Americas as well.
● Some Caribbean islands were taken from the Spanish, but more importantly, North
America itself was right for conquest.
● The British began colonization in Virginia in 1607 and continued until 1733 with Georgia.
● The Dutch settled further north in New Netherlands, what would become New York.
● France colonized even further north in eastern Canada, founding Quebec City in 1608
and eventually created New France
● In the mid 1700s, the seven years war regarded as the first truly global war would've
consequential effects for the colonies, resulting in France seeding New France to Great
Britain, along with Louisiana and all territory west of the Mississippi to the Spanish.
● The war took a financial toll on Britain, despite all its territorial acquisitions. Taxes were
increased on the 13 colonies in lower British North America, leading to rebellion in 1775.
They would declare independence from Britain in 1776 and after retired British Army
failed in quelling the insurrection, the crown finally accepted and recognized America's
independence with the Treaty of Paris in 1783
● To the north, the colonies of Canada remained loyal to the crown.
Enlightenment Ideals
● Most of the foremost figures from the 13 colonies were heavily influenced by
enlightenment ideals.
● Beginning in the mid 16 hundreds, the age of rationalism emerged, which differed from
renaissance philosophy. This period saw Isaac Newton write his Principia and French
philosopher Renee Descartes, famous for his quote “I think therefore, I am”
● Thinkers around this time tended to be deists, but secular preferring the church to stay
divided from governmental affairs.
● While the scientific revolution was one of the sciences, the enlightenment was an
intellectual revolution of philosophy where reason was king, not a fallible monarch or
mystic being in the heavens.
● This wasn't confined to science, but affected religion, economics, politics, literature, and
art.
● The American Revolution wasn't the only battle spurred by enlightenment ideals
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● Liberty, equality and fraternity rampant inequality ran through France. Soon so did blood.
With the abolishment of the Ancien regime, revolutionaries took control of France and
King Louis the 16th and Marie Antoinette met their demise in 1793.Terror then reigned.
This French revolution lasted 10 long years, and out of its spent ashes rose the man
who would bring a continent to its need. The man who would be emperor.

THE LATE MODERN PERIOD

● Longest century ever

Industrial revolution and technological revolution
● Throughout much of history, most advancement or innovation came in the form of ideas
or religious ideology.
● The steam engine changed all that, sparking a revolution that is still felt to this day.
● Using pressure created from steam, this invention was able to pump out water from coal
mines, enabling them to go much deeper.
● This industrial revolution began in Europe in the late 1700s, but would go well into the
1800s, spurring another era of advancement this time called the technological revolution,
which seeped into the 20th century.
● Louis Paul was the first credited with developing roller spinning, which was the basis for
spinning cotton in cotton mills.
● While the steam engine had existed prior, it was James Watton Matthew Bolton, who
made the improvements to it that truly caused widespread change.
● Later on, during the technological revolution, the electrical, petroleum and steel
industries took off. There were massive advancements in transportation with the first
airplanes and automobiles.
● This is when Thomas Edison would develop a number of devices and is said to have
created the first industrial research laboratory.
● Nicola Tesla also made a number of contributions to the fields of electricity and
magnetism around this time.
● The industrial revolution wasn't just a revolution of industry, but of society as a whole,
and is thought of as being only second in importance to the Neolithic revolution, which
saw hunter gatherer societies begin to practice agriculture and become sedentary.
● With more machines being used, more factories were built to house them, and society
shifted from manual labor to using these machines for manufacturing. The steam engine
fueled by coal was used to power most of these machines, like in the textile industry,
which was one of the first to implement this technology.
● Over time, machines were used to create more of themselves leading to exponential
economic growth.

The French Revolution

 POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

● They would need it, after Napoleon, rising to prominence during the French Revolution,
the ambitious Napoleon Bonaparte. Now Emperor of the French Empire after the short
lived First Republic led France to a series of victories against a coalition of European
powers during the early 1800s, replacing the Spanish Monarch with his own brother
● England, though, was to be the French's closest rival. The Battle of Trafalgar saw the
British and coalition forces victorious in a major naval engagement. After over a decade
of conflict, Napoleon was ultimately defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, an exiled
permanent while the bourbons were restored in Spain
● At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, at the Congress of Vienna, nations attempted to
restore the balance of power within Europe with an emphasis on maintaining peace and
order, but also the status quo so as not to undermine their own monarchies
● Europe was still full of monarchies during this period, each with different amounts of
ruling power. In 1721, Russia was declared an empire by Peter the Great. He defeated
Sweden in the great Northern War, taking back lost land and acquiring new territory,
becoming one of Europe's main players. Peter would found the city of St. Petersburg,
which became a window to Europe. His reforms later modernized Russia along the lines
of the Western powers.
● Later on, Katherine II or Katherine The Great, extended Russia's territory over the
Poland, Lithuania Commonwealth, dissolving the state. They would push eastward,
claiming Asian territories up until the Pacific, known as Siberia and even beyond into
North America in present day Alaska
● Though Russia was invaded by Napoleon in 1812, they would repel the invasion and
come out the victor
● Serfdom was abolished in the mid 1800s, resulting in some 30 million peasants freed
from the old system.
● Industrialization came to the Russian Empire in the 1870s, and with it a market economy
leading to income inequality
● Many of the world's other great empires were damaged, some beyond repair. The
Ottoman, once a significant power in West Asia, lost much of their territory in a series of
revolutions
● To the east, the Moghul succumbed to the Hindu Murata forces, which in turn fell to the
British.
● Europeans still controlled many Oceanic islands as well. The British had colonies in
Australia at the end of last period and added New Zealand and Fiji later. The French had
French Polynesia, a new Caledonia while the Germans colonized Samoa and New
Guinea. The United States would expand Westwoods and take Hawaii
● In the mid 18 hundreds. Japan would be visited by the black ships of Commodore
Matthew Perry. Perry is credited for opening up the severely isolationist Japanese to
Western ideas and technology.
● Around 10 years later, the Tokugawa Shogunate would be dissolved with Daimyo
seeding their land to emperor Meiji in what is known as the meiji restoration with Japan
becoming a proper empire
● After such isolation, the access to new ideas helped Japan modernize rapidly compared
to its Chinese and Russian neighbors.
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● Periods of decolonization would begin in Spain's colonies in the Americas. From 1808
until 1829, the Spanish American Wars of Independence saw all of Spain's territories in
the Americas become autonomous. Only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained in Spain's
grasp. The Portuguese never divided up their territories like the Spanish did, which is
why Brazil is now such a large state.
● This made rebellion much easier and Brazil would declare its independence in 1822,
forming the Empire of Brazil
Britain
● After Napoleon's defeat, Britain was undoubtedly the world's most powerful empire from
1837 until 1901. The Victorian era, so named because of Queen Victoria of the United
Kingdom, saw Britain prosper. Education increased with the help of industrialization and
profits from exploitation abroad put them at the forefront.
● After Napoleon, the British had no true rival in the entire world. Their foreign policy was
called splendid isolationism, so called because they needed no permanent alliances to
benefit themselves. This period of pax Britannica saw the British rule the oceans acting
as arbiters worldwide.
● Having abolished the slave trade in 1807 and slavery within its domains.in 1833, the
British would police the ongoing barbary slave trades still happening in North Africa.
They would even control the economies of countries that remained independent like
Qing China. Much of their ability to administer such far reaching areas was due to the
steamship, which used the prefix SS for quick transport and the telegraph for long
distance communication
Instability in France
● Napoleon's defeat was the start of instability in France during the 1800s. The bourbons,
relatives of the dead French monarchs, were restored in France, marking a shift toward
conservatism, placing the Catholic church into French politics. In 1830, the July
revolution ended the bourbon dynasty for good, replacing it with the July monarchy, a
liberal constitutional monarchy.
● The industrial Revolution mixed with enlightenment ideals from the last century led to
numerous reform movements across Europe. Liberalism and ideas challenging the
Monarch became more widespread. Originating in France, the revolutions of 1848 were
a series of rebellions and political upheaval, which spread across Europe. Most were
eventually quelled, but in France that monarchy was deposed, giving way to the second
republic.
● This only lasted until 1852 when Napoleon's nephew, Napoleon III, president of this
republic, ended it, establishing the second French empire. France would be on the
march once again, but was defeated during the Franco Prussian war, putting an end to
the Second Empire and Bonaparte's imperial Dreams.
● Alsace Lorraine was ceded to pressure in the loss. This is when the German states
headed by Prussia unified into a single nation state. This German empire would later be
known as the Second Riot after the Holy Roman Empire, the first riot, which was
dissolved in the early 1800s. With the Empire dead once again, France would revert to a
Republican government becoming the Third Republic. This would last for 70 years and
would be the longest government since the Ancient regime
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● Italy went through political change of its own. Known as the Resortimento, the Italian city
states were gradually unified into a single state, the process starting after the Napoleonic
Wars. The vast majority were consolidated by the 1870s.
Africa
● With the advent of new medicine and technologies, Africa's precious interior became
accessible to the Europeans, and they wasted no time in taking advantage.
● The so-called scramble for Africa began with the Berlin Conference in the 1880s. African
territories were divided up amongst the Europeans so as to avoid conflict with one
another.
● It was stipulated that control over territories gave the colonial power access to the
resources within as well without fear of another power's interference. This also meant
that protection of natives was mandated along with their welfare. This, unfortunately, is
not at all how it played out. Conditions deteriorated severely for Africans during the
colonial period
● By the 1910s, the British would control area from the north to south, while the French
controlled area from the west to East
● Germany, Italy, Spain, and Portugal also possessed colonies across the continent.
● Belgian King, Leopold II at the Congo, a region in which he was responsible for
sickening atrocities.
● By 1914, only Liberia, settled by freed American slaves, and Ethiopia remained
independent
● Over in Japan, Western intervention continued to help Japan to modernize during the
major era, the Haya Busho War office was replaced with the war department and naval
department while the Samurai class drifted more into obscurity
● able bodied Japanese were forced to join the first and second reserves for three and two
years respectively.It was met with resistance from the Daimyos and peasants. The
emperor was driven to modernize the military in the French model. France would help to
train Japanese soldiers.
● And by the late 1800s, Japan was one of the world's great powers taking from the
imperialists. They trained under the Japanese and their modernized military were
victorious in the first sino-Japanese war against the Qing, annexing, Korea, Taiwan, and
the Shandong Province.
● Once Emperor Meiji died, emperor Taisho took the throne granting democratic rights to
all Japanese males.
America
● In the 1800s, America was still not a major player on the world stage. The infant country
still had growing problems within.
● The Antebellum period beginning in the early 18 hundreds in the American South, saw
the country divided over the expansion of slavery. This division became official when the
southern states Seceded from the union to form the Confederate states of America
leading to the Civil War
● Led by Jefferson Davis, this Confederacy opposed Abraham Lincoln's Union of Northern
states
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● Seeking to unite America again, Lincoln and his generals also desired to do away with
Confederate nationalism and all forms of slavery in the South.
● The Confederacy's area was too large to defend with the forces they could muster, so
they were often outmaneuvered like at the siege of Vicksburg.
● Only General Robert E. Lee could fend off the union soldiers but eventually, generals
Ulysses S. Grant and William T. Sherman kept pressure on the south until the enemy
soldiers were starved, leading to a southern surrender
● With the emancipation proclamation, slaves were freed from their physical shackles,
although societal ones continued to be a burden.
● The reconstruction era began after the end of the war in 1865, which dealt with the
ramifications of the war, and lasted until around 1877.
● Beginning around the same time,parts of America were in the process of reaping the
rewards from industrialization
● Wealth inequality increased sharply and the upper classes owning these means of
production flaunted their wealth, giving this period the name of a Gilded Age.
● During the technological revolution, towns and cities in the northeast would be built
around factories owned by these rubber Barrons, factories would make their owners
fabulously wealthy, often at the expense of their workers.
● JD Rockefeller was widely criticized for using aggressive or immoral tactics with his
company standard Oil, which absorbed most of the competition
● With advances in transportation and communication, businesses profited the most, and
corporations became normalized
● Because of the growing power of big business, government passed the Sherman
Antitrust Act in 1890, the source of all anti-monopoly laws in America. The courts
declared that standard oil's monopoly be broken up in 1911. It survived as 34 separate
entities or with a different board of directors
Ideologies
● Because of the sub-optimal working conditions and worker exploitation that came hand
in hand with industrialization, certain ideologies manifested themselves.
● Case in point, the Communist manifesto. Published in England just before the
revolutions of 1848, the manifesto, written by German philosophers, Karl Max and
Fredrick Engels, described history as a class struggle.
● Marx also outlined the five phases in Europe's development
● Going into the beginnings of the next period, we would also see the sciences advance
with the emergence of quantum physics.
● Darwinism, based on adaptation and natural selection also became more accepted.
Unfortunately, some used this theory as a means to divide and place different people in
hierarchies dependent on race, health, or intelligence
● This attitude of survival of the fittest was known as social Darwinism.
● As we enter the 20th century, these ideologies would fully come into light. The century
begins with many of the same themes as the last. This is why many historians consider
the early 1900s as part of a period beginning around 1789, making it the long 19th
century.
 POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

● In 1901 Britain's colonies on the island of Australia, which had formed into six different
self-governing colonies New South Wales, Queensland, south Australia, Tasmania,
Victoria, and Western Australia joined together to form the commonwealth of Australia
● To their north, the Qing Dynasty wasn't as stable. Failed education reforms and civil
unrest like the Boxer Rebellion and fallout from the opium wars and unequal treaties
placed the Qing in a precarious position. They needed to modernize and liberalize their
archaic system of government. But numerous conservative Qing in the court were
opposed.
● This led reformists to take action. The Qing, China's final dynasty, would fall in 1911 in
the Shanghai Revolution, this marked the end of the old Imperial system, which dated
back to the Chin in the two hundreds bce.
● In 1912, the Republic of China was established under Sun Yatsen, the first provisional
president. This wouldn't last though as Yuan Shikai, who had control of China's most
powerful military force, the Baiyang Army, had been promised the position. To prevent
conflict. Sun Yatsen stepped down and Yuan Shikai was sworn in as the second
provisional president.
● The Japanese were new to the world stage, and while they tested their imperial metal
and won against their closest neighbors in China, they would be challenged by a foe to
the north.
● The Russian empire, now spanning from Europe to the Pacific, was eager for access to
warm water ports on the ocean. Seeking regions in Korea and Manchuria, they would go
to war with the Japanese in the Russo-Japanese war
● Fortune was with the new Empire of Japan as they handed Russian forces defeat after
defeat, a surprising result for all observers across the globe. While the war cemented
Japan as a mainstay as a new world power, it caused embarrassment and
dissatisfaction in Russia's tsarist regime.
Russian Revolution
● A year later, the Russian Revolution of 1905 would take place. This wave of civil unrest
included terrorism, peasant rebellion, worker strikes, and even military mutinies. In
response, the state humor of the Russian Empire was established making Russia a
constitutional monarchy.
England
● After centuries of constitutional monarchy of their own, England entered its Edwardian
age under King Edward VII after the death of Queen Victoria. This would begin in 1901.
The second Boer War broke out soon after in South Africa, splitting parliament into pro-
war and anti-war factions. The pro-war conservatives became unpopular, resulting in a
landslide victory for the liberals in 1906 although they still couldn't get their pro working
class agenda passed, known as the people's Budget, as the House of Lords was still
largely conservative.
● It was during this time that the United Kingdom entered a loose alliance with France and
Russia known as the triple Entente based on previous alliances. The main idea was to
flank Germany and provide a counter to the triple alliance, a more tightly knit alliance
between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
 POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

● The rise of nationalism throughout this long 19th century and of Europe's recent period
of industrialization left them unafraid of conflict. The Balkans were often fought over by
many different empires.
● In 1912 to 1913, the Balkan League comprising Greece, Monte Negro, Bulgaria, and
Serbia took back much of the Balkan area from the Ottomans.
● During this time, Austria-Hungary was competing with Russia and Serbia for Balkan
territory as well. The catalyst of conflict was when Serbian Gavrilo principal fired the two
shots that would spark untold. Mayhem Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was
assassinated, and the stage was set for a war Europe had not yet seen
World War I
● The July crisis occurring right after the assassination, saw a series of escalating
decisions made by European powers, which officially began the great war.
● The triple Entente became the ally powers, and after 1917 included Japan and the
United States.
● The triple alliance modified slightly and consisted of the German empire, Austro-
Hungarian empire, and the Ottoman Empire becoming the central powers.
● Most fighting occurred on the Western front with trench warfare the norm. A vast area of
no man's land, separated enemy trenches leading to sacrificial charges and waste of life
resulting in many stalemates.
● On the eastern front. Trench warfare wasn't as common. For the first time war was
fought from the air as well. Its estimated over 9 million lost their lives on the battlefield
and many more indirectly through food shortages and genocide, most notably of
Armenians
● Were still more people would die shortly after the war as an influenza outbreak was
easily spread in overcrowded barracks and hospitals. It soon spread around the globe as
soldiers returned to their countries causing a worldwide pandemic.
● The end of the war saw the Allied Powers victorious and the end of the German Austro-
Hungarian and Ottoman Empires. The Ottoman territory was carved up and partitioned
by the winning side, creating several new nations in West Asia
● The newly created League of Nations, a predecessor to the United Nations, granted
Syria and Lebanon to the French and Palestine and Mesopotamia to the British.
● The Arabian Peninsula eventually became Saudi Arabia and Yemen.
● A fourth empire also fell during the war.
● In 1917, a series of revolutions in Russia resulted in the abdication of the last Tsar,
Nicholas the second, and the establishment of a provisional government.
● Late in 1917, the October revolution saw the red guard, an army of peasants and
workers, take control of Petrograd present day, St. Petersburg under the Bolsheviks.
This socialist uprising would change Russia forever.
● Civil war soon broke out between the Bolshevik Red Army and the anti-Soviet white
army or the whites
● Nationalist groups like the Ukrainian Green Army and anarchist groups also engaged in
the war. After around five years of war, the Bolsheviks squashed all opposition and
controlled Russia all the way to the Pacific Coast.
 POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

● In 1922, the USSR or Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was established, the
successor state to the Russian Empire.
● While Vladimir Lennon would perish from natural causes, he was succeeded by Joseph
Stalin, a man who would become one of the most controversial of the 20th century
China
● In China. Yuan Chikai's government attempted to reinstate a new empire once again, but
after his death, it devolved into a warlord era in which China was ruled over by different
warlords in a period of decentralization
● Former leader Yen would collaborate with some southern warlords in order to take back
power and reunify China. Soon after Chiang kai-shek, who replaced Sun Yutsen as
leader of the kmt, went on a northern expedition to take back the country from the Bay
Young government and the various warlords. He then turned on the CCP, establishing
his anti-communist regime at Nanjing in 1927. This would mark the beginning of China's
nanjing period, which was one of power and consolidation for the kmt.
● There was social progress and the economy was generally positive.
● Civil War would start as the nationalist Kmt fought the communist CCP, who most
likely would've met their demise
● If not for a massive distraction in 1937, the interwar period saw much of the globe
superpower steeped in other struggles as Europe attempted to recover from the
carnage. This wasn't the case for North America, which started out the period on top of
the world
North America
● Known as the Roaring twenties or Jazz age, this was a period of economic prosperity
and social, cultural and artistic wealth. Flapper girls became prominent and art deco
ruled the art scene. Normalcy returned to politics with the election of Warren G. Harding
signifying a comfortable stability associated with the time before World War I.
● This mixed with the normalization of new technologies like the radio, automobile and
movies, gave the period a sense of modernity.
Europe
● Europe would spend these years rebuilding and coming to terms with the immense
human cost associated with the war.
● In Turkey, the Turkish national movement was established in response to the Allies
occupation of Istanbul.
● The Turkish War of Independence would last from 1919 to 1923 and saw the Turk
succeed in forming their own republic of Turkey, a success estate to the Ottoman
Empire, which was internationally recognized that same year
● The capital was moved from Istanbul to Ankara.
● Up north, with the German empire now dissolved, the Weimar Republic ruled, but with
an array of economic problems.
● Germany experienced intense hyperinflation in 1923, followed by the beer hall putsch a
failed coup d’ etat, led by a certain Nazi leader
● With Germany unable to pay off their war debt, the Americans invested heavily into
Europe to keep the economy from failing. This eventually led to prosperity for much of
Europe as well, and the back end of the decade would be called the golden twenties.
 POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

● This would all dramatically change in 1929.

● Seemingly as a counterweight to the economic success of the twenties, the Wall Street
crash of 1929, plunged the world into a great depression. It remained the largest and
most important economic depression of the 20th century. Everything would plummet
during this time.
● International trade and salaries dropped by over two thirds. Construction stopped in
many countries, and those that relied on farming suffered as well as crop prices also
dropped two thirds.
● The depression was the catalyst for high amounts of political polarization. Some
countries introduced new welfare programs and expanded the social safety net while
others turned towards nationalist or imperialist ideologies.
● While the League of Nations was meant to keep a balance of power and ensure stability,
they were less effective as the United States wasn't a member. This caused other more
authoritarian powers to undermine the league, making it irrelevant.
● The show of weakness might have pushed Italy and its fascist leader, Benito Mussolini
to ally with the like-minded Germans
● Their leader, the man who led the failed beer hall putsch back in 1923, also noticed the
weakness of the league and other European powers. This emboldened him to breach
the treaty of Versailles from World War I and re- militarize Germany.
● After Japan captured Manchuria in 1931, they established a puppet state called
Manchukuo with Qing Emperor Pui as ruler, the last emperor of China
● Losing Manchuria was a huge blow to Chiang Kai-shek and the kmt. This helped the
Communist Party to spread their influence through mass organization and land and tax
reforms favoring the peasant class. Apart from the Civil War, China also had to deal with
the threat of Japan.
● The empire would invade again in 1937, beginning the second Sino-Japanese war,
causing an uneasy truce between the KMT and ccp.
● The NanKing massacre, which saw Japan commit mass murder and other atrocities to
the Chinese people, was condemned worldwide. Tensions also rose between Japan and
the United States when the empire bombed a US gunboat and standard oil tankers
located in China
● This was known as the panay incident. After the Japanese occupied French IndoChina,
embargoes were placed on Japan
● Starved for war materials, the Japanese had to search for allies. They would find them
and share in the imperialist dream
World War II
● Drang Nach Ostin, the drive to the east, an emboldened Germany would kickstart the
most devastating war the world had ever seen with its drive East into Poland.
● The UK and France both declared war on Germany soon after, but the Russians held
back initially because of a secret non-aggression agreement with Germany called the
mulatto of Ribbon-trot Pact
● Eastern Europe was to be divided between both powers. Once the UK entered the war,
the British Commonwealth, Territories of the British Empire all joined as well.
● Following a lull in fighting, the Germans would turn their attention Westwood to France.
 POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

● In seemingly no time at all, the third French Republic who were also attacked by Italy,
surrendered. The Germans would then attempt to conquer Britain but this proved a
failure
● In 1941, the Germans would make an even more fatal mistake and attack the Soviets.
The harsh weather and sheer number of Soviet soldiers made that conquest impossible
as well. And after the Soviets then joined the allies, the Germans would have to fight a
war on two fronts.
● December 7th, 1941, the Japanese would bomb Pearl Harbor, an American naval base
in Hawaii. This brought the United States into the war on the side of the allies. China
would also join, mainly fighting the Japanese with guerilla like tactics.
● By 1942, the Western Theater had the British Commonwealth, the United States and
Soviet Union fighting Germany and Italy and in the Pacific Theater, the Commonwealth
China and United States were fighting the Japanese
● The UK, Soviet Union. China and the US were known as the Big four nations that played
the greatest roles in the war although propaganda afterwards would tend to downplay or
overstate certain countries' roles.
● In 1943, Italy surrendered, and Germany would surrender in 1945. After the
controversial usage of atomic weapons by the Americans, the Japanese would
surrender a few months later, marking the end of the second World War.
● After the war, Europe was devastated and power shifted from Western Europe to the
Soviets and Americans, the two new superpowers.
● Alliances were formed around these news spheres of influence with NATO, the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization in the West as a response to the Eastern Blocks Warsaw
Pact
China’s KMT and CCP
● In China, the civil war between the KMT and CCP flared up again after the Japanese
defeat, with the KMT evacuating to Taiwan and the Communist Party under Chairman
Mao Zedong, establishing the People's Republic of China in 1949 with help from their
Soviet neighbors to the North
● With the Americans becoming the number one power in the West, it brought with it what
historians call pax Americana, a period of peace and stability for western nations.
● The technological and economic gains in this half of the 20th century developed more
than the entirety of human histories combined, surpassing even the great advances
brought on by the Industrial Revolution.
● This exponential growth led to increased life spans for most nations’ residents, along
with the development of numerous technologies undreamed of in the early part of the
century
● Behind this progression though was the looming threat of nuclear war. The United States
and Soviet Union were embroiled in what was dubbed the Cold War as neither nation
fought the other directly. Germany was split by the Berlin War, a grim division of the
Western and Soviet realms. Nations around the world were coerced to join either sphere
of influence leading to intervention by the United States or the Soviet Union.
● This resulted in widespread espionage, propaganda, and proxy wars.
 POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

● Proxy conflicts like the Korean, Afghan, and Vietnam wars occurred because neither the
Americans nor Soviets could attack each other directly due to their increasing nuclear
arsenal. The national security policy of mutually assured destruction was the basis for
these proxy conflicts as a direct attack would cause nuclear war, surely destroying both
sides.
● So, the stalemate carried on.
● In China, chairman Mao adopted Marxist Leninist ideals. Older Chinese ideologies like
legalism were denounced.
● In 1960, thes Soviet split saw China and the USSR go their own way, each interpreting
and implementing Marxist ideology, differently.
● Beginning in 1966, the cultural revolution would do away with much of China's past,
purging many parts of its long history.
● In 1972, China would begin to have closer relations to the United States, and soon after
Dun Jing would implement economic reforms which opened up China to the West.
● During this period, numerous countries in Latin America would elect left wing leaders
threatening the smaller but more powerful upper classes.
● During Operation Condor, the United States assassinated many of these leaders placing
righter wing, anti-communist military dictators in power.
● The wonders of space wouldn't even escape this earthly competition. During this new
age, the United States and Soviets engaged in the space race to garner a reputation as
the true superpower.
● Starting in 1957, the Space Age began with Sputnik, the Earth's first artificial satellite
being launched by the Soviets.
● The Vostok program also sent the first human into space, Yuri Gagarin. The United
States would ultimately impress the entire world though with the Apollo program, which
put the first man on the moon. The event was reportedly watched by half a billion.
● Africans would also take back their land in mass independence movements. But many of
these countries would still struggle after generations of colonialism.
● In the late 1980s, the Cold War began to subside. Under American President Ronald
Reagan, the United States entered diplomatic relations with Soviet leader Mikhail
Gorbachev, who introduced the Paris striker and Glasnost reforms.
● The Soviet Union then collapsed in 1991, leaving the United States as the sole world
superpower.
● The 1990s was an era of stability. While the information age began in the mid-20th
century, the nineties would see the average westerner benefit from massive
technological advancements, granting them access to computers and the internet.
● Developed nations would begin a process of de-industrialization moving towards
information technology while outsourcing industrial jobs to current developing nations.
● The 21st century began with the war on terror and brought with it a feeling of a new age
● The feeling of never being able to go back. As the old saying goes, history never repeats
itself, but it often rhymes. It's easy to forget we are still the same tribal beings who roam
this earth years ago. And while we all have our own unique experiences, we are all
connected enough that they become strikingly similar.
 POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

● The future can hold untold triumphs or disasters beyond repair. So are we destined for a
thrilling sense shattering cyberpunk like dystopia and arid post-apocalyptic deserts cape
ruled by different city states? Or are we destined for an earthly utopia where we can
work together to set our sights on the stars?

Scholasticism
● was a philosophy that would dominate high Middle Ages and even later until the renaissance
● it was a way to learn using the methods of the ancient classical era philosophers mixed with
christian theology
● Originating from the monastic tradition, this method of learning would be more open to reason
and learning, both would eventually fall out of favor in the early modern era

State
- is a community of persons, more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of
territory, independent of external control and possessing an organized government to which the great
body of inhabitants render habitual obedience.
Four Important Aspects/Elements of a State
- People
- Territory
- Sovereignty; and
- Government
Sovereignty
- can be divided into two aspects (internal and external)
Internal Sovereignty
- promulgated and justified by the state
External Sovereignty
- recognition provided to us by the other states

Subbranches of Political Science (1st video)

Political science is so vast that it is divided into different subbranches or sub fields. There are several of
the fields of the political science, but we are going to discuss the most important one of those. Among
 POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

which the international relations, political philosophy, political policy, public administration, public
opinion, comparative politics, national politics, and political history. We will just have a glance of these
all aforementioned subbranches of the political science in detail:
⮚ International relations is a new field of political science which is also widely classified as a
major subdiscipline of political science, along with comparative politics and political theory. In
international relations, the political relations between the sovereign states are discussed. In a
broader sense, it concerns all activities between states—such as war, diplomacy, trade, and
foreign policy. This subfield of political science enables us to explain and understand the world
as a whole and it tackles key global issues and challenges which our world is facing today. Aside
from war, diplomacy, trade, and foreign policy po, Internal relations also tackles variety of global
issues such as:
⮚ Human rights
⮚ Global poverty
⮚ The environment
⮚ Terrorism
⮚ International security
⮚ Global ethics
⮚ Politics
Moreover po, it is about making sure things run smoothly between countries, governments, and
multinational companies in our interconnected world.
⮚ It is the new field of the political science. It became the part of the political science after 1900,
and especially after the World War 1.

⮚ Political policy is a course of action adopted and pursued by a government, party, ruler,
stateman, etc... Simply, it means when government, political party, association, or any of these
makes policy, that is known as the political policy. It is the subbranch of the political science. All
the government and the states had their political policies in the past. Thus, we can say that the
policy of the government in any of the state is known as the political policy. A simple example po
of political policy is when a government may make a policy decision to raise taxes, in hopes of
increasing overall tax revenue.

Prof. Carlo – Phil pol – fraud, political dynasty, corruption,

An activity that involves an interaction of people
Systematic study of government and politics
- fascinating, about people and their stody, analyze current events, literate can read articles
Ability to analyze the events
Formulate arguments and dev crit thinking skills
Eductae someone to actually understand that there is a gray
Legal rights, more about constitution,
More wars and chaotic, a result of gov, an attempt to minimize violence
Diplomacy and
Cause conflicts,

⮚ National politics is the study of the nation or the countries politics. It studies the political
dynamics, parties, pressure groups, political leadership, public opinion, and the administrative
 POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

system, So, we can say that national politics is one of the essential sub-fields of the political
science.

⮚ Comparative politics it the comparison of the politics on the international level. This field of the
political science compares the politics of the two or more sovereign states.
⮚ He then asks that why is it so? And asks that which one is better? This was how the comparison
of the politics was started by the Greeks in the ancient time, almost 2500 hundred years ago. They
compared themselves with the Egyptians, Persian, etc... thus, it became the essence or the
foundation of the political science.

⮚ Public Administration is one of the sub-fields of the political science. The word administration
is taken from the Latin word ‘ad’ ‘ministrate’ that means to serve. Waldo defines public
administration as the art and science management applied to the affairs of the state. But in a
simpler definition, Public Administration is centrally concerned with the organization of
government policies and programs as well as the behavior of officials (usually non-elected)
formally responsible for their conduct. In this po, Government and administration are together
and this subbranch of Political Science plays a vital role in preparing government decisions. The
history of public administration is as old as that of the government. It was simple when the
government was simple. Moreover, it became complex when the government was more complex
modernly. So public administration is subbranch of political science.
⮚ Political dynamics is the subbranch of political science. It focuses on the behavior of the
political parties, pressure groups, etc. instead of their structures. It is a developing branch of
political science; it studies the policies of the government and the state instead of the structure of
it.
⮚ Political history is the history of the political science or the politics. It had been started form the
era of the Greeks. When we say history, we thereby mean of the history of the state, government,
etc. Political science is nothing without history
In a nutshell, you can say that political science is so vast subject which has several sub-divisions.
Among them the most important ones are the international relations, public opinion, public
administration, political policy, etc. Undoubtedly, new ones are growing in the same field, though it is
the combination of the aforementioned fields.

Sub-Divisions/Sub Fields of Political Science (Second video)

Introduction
⮚ Political science is important because it is a vast discipline, constantly expanding.
⮚ Can be divided into several fields.
⮚ Derives much from other social sciences
⮚ It is a policy science
⮚ As Harold D. Laswell (founders of policy sciences), every policy has to pass from three stages
⮚ Pre-arena stage. Arena is whole complex of activities by various people that can be of knowledge
and know-how in
⮚ which a policy can be prepared, implemented, and assess.Arena Stage. Implemented.
⮚ Post-arena Stage. Completed.
 POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

Subdivision of the Political Science

⮚ National Politics
✔ Politics of a nation/country
✔ Without it, the subject is incomplete
✔ Main field of Political science
✔ Various organs of the government – pillars of the state (Legislature, Executive, Judiciary)
✔ Other topics like political leadership, elites, public opinion, p. groups etc
✔ Closely related and influenced by ither sub-fields of political science
⮚ Public Administration
✔ Management of affairs, public or private of government or company
✔ Divided into two kinds: private or public administration
✔ Latin words ad and ministiare (to serve)
✔ It can be found everywhere – business organization, house, unive, govt bodies
✔ Government and administration come together
✔ Where there is a need to manage men and materials, there is administration
✔ It has two meanings science of administration and process of administration
✔ According to L.D. White, it consists of all those operations shaving their purpose, the
fulfillment or enforcement of public policy
✔ It is government in action – this means that the government is doing its duties
✔ Art and science of the non pol machinery of govt carrying on its work for the welfare of
the people according to the laws adopted by the state.
⮚ Political Dynamics
✔ The dynamic forces of politics – public opinion, political parties, political groups, voting
✔ Developing branch of political science
✔ The actual working of government – politics
✔ Political process in political system
✔ All the forces – social, economic, moral, psychological – its subject matter
✔ Sources of energy in politics
⮚ Local Government
✔ A public organization authorized to decide and administer a limited range of public
policies within a relatively small territory which is subdivision of a regional or national
govt.
✔ Self-governing – local area, local finance, local authority
✔ Great variety of functions – administration, judicial, development, fiscal (government
revenues, taxes)
✔ Councils, municipalities, dis council
✔ Physical and regulatory functions

⮚ Comparative Politics
⮚ Public Law
⮚ International Relations
⮚ Political Theory
- Greek word “Theoria”, well-formed idea on the basis of thorough observation
- Broad sense: whole teaching thinker
 POLS 101 – Video Lectures Transcript

- Narrow sense: proposition or set of proposition design to explain something with reference to
data