MEASURING INSTRUMENTSMEASURING INSTRUMENTS, I. MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH For the measurement of length, usually, meter scales are used with an accuracy imeters. To measure length, say 1/100" of a centimeter (or) 1/100" of a ter, it is not possible to measure accurately using meter scale. Hence, the following instruments are used for more accuracy. up to mil A. Vernier calipers (Accuracy up to 1/100" of cm) B. Screw gauge (Accuracy up to 1/100" of mm) C. Travelling microscope (Accuracy up to 1/1000" of cm) A. VERNIER CALIPERS ‘The instrument is used to measure the external diameter, internal diameter and the length of the given specimen. DESIGN OF THE INSTRUMENT It consists of a steal scale called the main scale with a jaw (A) fixed at one end at right angles to its length as shown in Fig 1. A second jaw (B) carrying a vernier scale and capable of moving along the main scale can be fixed to any position by means of a screw cap S. The main scale is graduated both in centimeters and inches. The projections P1 and P2 of the jaws in the upward direction are used to measure the internal diameter of the calorimeter, cylinder, ete. The vernier scale is divided into 10 divisions which is equivalent to 9 main scale divisions. So, the value of one vernier scale division (VSD) is equal to 9/10 times main scale divisions (MSD). The value of one main scale division is 0.1 em. Procedure 1. Least count Itis the smallest length that can be measured accurately by the vernier calipers. Itis the difference between the main scale division (MSD) and the vernier scale division (VSD). Least count (LC) = | MSD— 1 VSD ‘The values of one MSD and one VSD are noted, 2. Error correction Before taking readings on the vernier calipers, we must note the zero error of the vernier calipers. To find this, the two jaws A and B are brought in contact with each other.Inside jaws, Outside jaws al Ls ATTN TTT onl onl tl = Ss Main sale Vernier seale Fig. 1 Vernier Calipers Least Count Derivation: Lc 10 MSD. 1 MSD 10 VSD 1vsD TG Lc ii) For 20 di We) 10 MSD. 1 MSD 20 VSD 1vsD Lc Lc i) For 10 division vernier scale: 1 MSD-1 VSD lem 1/10 cm 9MSD 9/10 MSD (or) {9/10} {1/10} 9/100 cm (1/10)-9/100) cm 1/100 cm 0.01em mn vernier scale: 1 MSD-1 VSD lem 1/10 cm 19 MSD 19/20 MSD (or) {19/20}{ 1/10} 19/200 cm (1/10)-(19/200) cm (20-19)/200 em 1/200 cm 0.005 em0 1 0 1 0 5 10 os 10 divisions (a) Zero error (b) Positive error 0 1 5 6 — Main scale —* Vernier scale os 10 o 5 10 (©) Negative error __(d) Reading of 5.14 em Fig. 2 Zero error, positive and negative zero errors Example: From Fig. 2(d), MSR =5.1cm VSC VSR WZE Zz OR =MSR + VSR =5.1 +0.04 em=5.14 em CR =OR+ZC=5.14+0=5.14cem Vernier calipers measurement Least count (LC) = cm Zero error (ZE) . cm Zero correction (ZC) = cm SL | MSR | VSC | VSR | OR=MSR+VSR_ | CR=OR+ZC cm cm cm No. | emZero Error If the zero of the vernier scale coincides with the zero of the main scale as seen in Fig. 2(a), then there is no zero error (ZI correction (ZC = 0). = 0). Hence there is no need to apply zero Positive Zero Error Ifthe zero of the vernier scale lies on the right side of the zero of the main scale, then the instrument has positive error (Fig. 2(b)). The division on the vernier scale coincides with the main scale is noted. This vernier division multiplied with the least count gives the positive zero error. This error should be subtracted from the final reading , the zero correction is negative. Example If the 4" vernier scale di sion coincides with the main scale division, then Zero error = (Vernier scale coincidence x least count) =4x0.01 = +0.04 cm Zero correction = - 0.04 em Negative zero error If the zero of the vernier scale lies on the left side of the zero of the main scale, then the instrument has negative zero error (Fig. 2(c)).The division on the vernier scale coincides with the main scale is noted. This division of coincidence is subtracted from the total division (n) on the vernier scale. The subtracted value multiplied by the least count gives the negative zero error. This error is to be added to the final reading i., zero correction is positive. Example If the 4" vernier scale division coincides with a main scale division, then Zero error = (n— Vernier scale coincidence) X LC = (10-4) X0.01 = 0.06 em Zero correction = +0.06cm To find the diameters and length of the given specimen To find the external diameter ‘The given specimen (eg. cylinder, scale) is firmly held between the two jaws A and B. The main scale reading and vernier scale coincidence are noted (Fig. 2(d)).. 9Main Scale Reading (MSR) For mai scale reading, coincidence of the main scale with the zero of the vernier scale is noted. Vernier Scale Coincidence (VSC) For vernier scale coincidence, exact coincidence of vernier scale division with the main scale division is noted. The readings are tabulated. Vernier Scale Reading (VSR) = VSCxLCcm Observed Reading (OR) MSR + VSR em Correct Reading (CR) = OR+ZCem The vernier caliper is held at different places and the readings are noted in the tabular column, The mean of the readings is found out. (ii) To find the internal diameter To find the internal iameter, the vernier caliper is inverted. The jaws of the vernier are adjusted so that they gently clamp the inner side of the cylinder. Now, as before MSR and VSC are noted. It is repeated at different places and the readings are tabulated. (iii) To find the length of the hollow cylinder To find the length of the hollow cylinder, it is held parallel to the vernier caliper and the jaws are gripped gently at the two ends of the cylinder. The readings are taken as usual and tabulated.B.SCREW GAUGE Design of the instrument: It consists of two scales namely pitch scale and head scale. Pitch scale is a ter scale engraved on the cylinder (C), which is rigidly attached with the frame (F). The head scale carriers either 100 or 50 equal divisions. The specimen can be held in between the two edges A (fixed) and B (movable) as shown in Fig. 3. ‘To find zero error To find zero error, the stud A and the tip B are kept in contact. If the zero of the head scale coincides with the zero of the pitch scale and also lies on the reference line or base line (BL) as shown in Fig, 4(a), the instrument is said to have no zero error. Positive zero error If the zero of the head scale lies below the reference line of the pitch scale, the zero error is positive and the correction is negative (Fig. 4(b)). Example If the 2" division of the head scale coincides with the reference line of the pitch scale, then, Zero error = _ Head scale coincidence x Least count = 2%0.01mm =0.02 mm Zero correction = —0.02 mm Negative zero error If the zero of the head scale lies above the reference line of the pitch scale, the zero error is negative and the correction is positive (Fig. 4(c)). Example If the 96" division of the head scale (carrying 100 divisions) coincides with the reference line of the pitch scale then, Zero error = ~ (100 ~ head scale coincidence) x Least count = —(100~96) x0.01 mm = — 0.04 mm Zero correction = 0.04 mm To find the diameter of the given wire ‘The wire is gripped gently between the faces A and B. The number of pitch scale divisions just in front of the head scale gives the pitch scale reading (PSR). The 13,anvil spindle Rachet thimble Frame Fig.3 Screw gauge Fig. 4(b) Fig. 4(6) Positive zero error Negative zero error BLS Fig. 4(@) Fig. 4 Screw gauge reading 12Derivation of least count: LC =Pitch/ No. of head scale divisions Pitch = distance moved on the pitch scale / No. of head scale rotations To find pitch, the head scale is given say, two rotations and the distance moved by the head scale on the pitch scale is noted Pitch = 2mm/2= 1mm If the number of head scale division = 100 LC = 1/100 mm LC=0.01 mm Screw gauge measurement Least count (LC) = mm Zero error (ZB) = mm Zero correction (ZC) = mm an PSR | HSC | HSR | OR=PSR+HSR_ | CR=OR+Z |. No. mm div | mm mm mmdivision on the head scale that coincides with the reference line gives the head scale coincidence (HSC). The readings are noted and are tabulated. Example Suppose if PSR = 5mm HSC = 35div Head scale reading (HSR)= HSC x LC 35 x 0.01 = 0.35 mm Observed reading PSR +HSR =5 + 0.35 = 5.35 mm If the zero error is 0.04 mm (positive zero error), then the zero correction is -0.04 mm, Correct reading OR £ZC (5.35 ~ 0.04) mm = 531mm 15C. TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE Design of the instrument ‘Travelling microscope consists of an ordinary compound microscope which slides along a graduated vertical pillar, attached to a horizontal base resting on the leveling screws. The main scale divisions along with the vernier scale divisions are marked on the horizontal base and the vertical pillar as shown in Fig. 5. The microscope can be moved up and down in the vertical pillar and can be moved in to and fro direction over the horizontal base. Thus, the microscope can be moved both in the vertical and horizontal directions. Two fine adjustment screws are provided for the horizontal and vertical movements respectively. The object is viewed through the eye piece where the objective lens is turned towards the object. The focusing of the microscope is done by a screw (focus screw) attached to the body of the microscope. The eye piece of the microscope is provided led into millimeter and half a millimeter. jon (MSD) is 0.5 mm. The vernier scale of the travelling microscope is divided into 50 divisions which are equivalent to 49 main ale division (VSD) is 49/50 MSD. with a cross wire. The main scale is di ‘Therefore, the value of one main scale di scale divisions. Thus, the value of one vernier s Least Count Derivation: Lc = 1MSD~1 VSD 20MSD = Iem 1 MSD = 1/20em Here 50 VSD = 49 MSD 1vsD = 49/50 MSD = (49/50) x (1/20) em = 49/1000 = 1/1000 em Le = 0.001 em To find the distance using travelling microscope Two well separated lines are drawn on a white paper and marked as line-1 and . The paper is placed on the plate of the travelling microscope. The microscope is, e-1. On the horizontal scale, MSR and VSC are d to focus the image of the noted. This reading is taken as Rj. Similarly, the readings on the horizontal scale are noted by focusing the image of the line-2 and tabulated as R2. The difference between Rj and Re gives the distance between the two lines. For MSR, coincidence of the mi scale division with the zero of the vernier s ale in centimeter is noted. For VSC, exact coincidence of the vernier scale division with the main scale division is noted in division, Total Reading (TR) = MSR + (VSC x LC) 7Fine adjustment screw Eye piece Microscope Vertical main scale ‘ ——— Focus screw Vernier scale Objective Fine adjustment screw Horizontal main scale Vernier scale Fig. 5 Travelling microscope MSR = 4.05 cm; VSC = 20 div VSR = VSC x LC = 0.020 em TR = 4.070 cm Fig. 6 Travelling Microscope Readings To measure the distance between the two lines 1c om Position of the | MSR | VSC | VSR=VSCxLC | TR=MSR+VSR cross wire ; em | div cm cm Reading when line- 1 is focused (Ri) Reading when line- 2is focused (Ra) 16II, MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES A. SPECTROMETER Design of the instrument Spectrometer is an instrument used to obtain a pure spectrum, It is used to find the refractive index of the prism. A standard form of the spectrometer is shown in Fig. 7. It mainly consists of three parts. 1. Collimator 2. Telescope and 3. Prism table, 1. limator It consists of a hollow brass tube with a collimating lens at one end and a vertical slit of adjustable width at the other end. To obtain parallel beam of light rays, the distance between the slit and the lens is adjusted with the help of the focus knob attached. to the collimator. The collimator is rigidly fixed to the main part of the instrument and thus provides parallel beam of light. 2. Telescope It is an ordinary refracting telescope with an objective lens near the collimator and an eye piece at the other end. The eye piece of the telescope is fitted with cross: wires and slides in a tube. The focusing of the telescope is done by the focus knob attached to the side of the telescope. The telescope is fitted on one arm of the spectrometer and can be rotated about the central axis. The movement of the telescope can be read on a circular scale graduated in degrees with the help of two vernier scales, Vaand Vp. 3. Prism table ‘The prism table consists of two identical metal discs separated by three springs. ‘These springs are adjusted with the help of three leveling screws. The prism table can be raised or lowered and fixed at any desired height by means of the prism table clamp. The circular scale (main scale) is graduated in degrees and coaxial with the ax of the rotation of the prism table and telescope. The circular scale is rigidly attached to the telescope and is turned with it. A separate circular plate mounted coaxially with the circular s ale carriers two verniers Va and Vs. The whole instrument is supported on a base provided with three leveling screws. The circular scale of the main scale is divided into 360 equal parts in degrees. Each degree is further divided into two parts. Thus one main scale division is equal to half a degree (0.5° or 30). The vernier scale has 30 equal divisions, which is equal to 29 main scale divisions.prism mounting elgmp Prism table collimator. telescope grating stand eyepiece with cross wire: slit width adjust screw <= focus knob ¢ focus knob | telescope rotation fine adjust knob vernier scale prism table clamp: prism table leveling screw table base fine adjust knob Sa ae aaa! table base lock screw Fig. 7 Spectrometer Fig. 8 Spectrometer readingsof Least Count: Le = 1 MSD~1 VSD 2MSD = I degree IMSD = P = 0s = 30 1MSD = 30° 30VSD = 29MSD 1VSD = 29/30 MSD 1VSD = 29/30 x 30° =29" Le = 30°-29° Le = oP Measurement in spectrometer Ya degree = 0.5 degree (0.5°) LC= Vernier A Vernier B Ray MSR | VSC VSR TR | MSR vsc VSR TR Direct Ray Reading Refracted Ray Reading Example: From Fig. 8 Vernier A MSR = 120.5” = 120°30° VSC =5 div VSR =5XL.C=5X1°=5° TR =MSR + VSR = 120°30" + 5° = 12035" Vernier B MSR = 300.5 VSC = 5 div VSR =5XL.C=5X1'=5" 300° 30" TR = MSR + VSR = 300°30" + 5° = 300° 20Initial adjustments i) ii) vy) vi) Eye piece adjustment: The telescope is turned towards a white wall and the eye piece is moved inwards or outwards until the cross wires are seen clearly. ‘Telescope adjustment: Distant object method (Adjusting for parallel ray The telescope is turned towards a distant object. The distance between the eye piece and the objective is adjusted by the focus knob in the telescope until a clear, well defined, inverted and diminished image of the distance object is seen on the telescope. Slit adjustment: The slit is made narrow with the help of the screw, provided aside of the slit Collimator adjustment: The telescope is brought in line with the collimator. The slit is illuminated by a source of light. If the image of the slit appears blurred, then the focus knob of the collimator is adjusted until a clear image is seen when viewed through the telescope. Now the rays of light emerging from the collimator will be rendered parallel Prism table adjustment: The spirit level is placed on the prism table, parallel to the line joining any two leveling screws (provided with the prism table). The air bubble in the spirit level is brought to the centre by adjusting the two screws, It is then placed in a perpendicular direction and the air bubble is brought at the centre by adjusting the third screw. Now the prism table will be horizontal Spectrometer base: The base of the spectrometer is adjusted to the horizontal position with the help of the three leveling screws at the base. Measurement: Before doing any experiment using spectrometer, the above mentioned initial adjustments have to be made. While performing the experiment, the main scale and the vernier scale readin; s are noted from both the verniers Va and Vp in degrees and minutes, respectively. For main scale reading, coincidence of the main scale division with the zero of the vernier scale is noted in degrees. For the vernier scale coincidence, exact coincidence of the vernier scale di sion with the main scale division is noted. Total reading (TR) =MSR +(VSCX LC)