STAGE LIGHTING DESIGN:

AN INTRODUCTION

Educator’s Edition

visual environment technologies | etcconnect.com

 Table of Contents

Introduction to Lighting........................................................................... 3

Objectives of Lighting Design................................................................... 6

Controllable Properties of Light ............................................................. 10

Types of Lights....................................................................................... 16

Lighting Angles...................................................................................... 20

Color..................................................................................................... 29

Lighting Systems.................................................................................... 35

Planning your Design............................................................................. 41

Getting Technical................................................................................... 47

Appendix A............................................................................................ 52

Appendix B............................................................................................ 53

Appendix C............................................................................................ 54

Appendix D............................................................................................ 55

Glossary of terms................................................................................... 56

Teaching exercises.................................................................................. 63

This guide has been developed as an aid to educators who need to present stage lighting or
theatre technology classes to their students and is intended to work in conjunction with the
Stage Lighting Educational Poster Series.

Each section of this book is color-coded to correlate to the relevant poster in the series.

This guide contains explanatory content and some suggested projects and tasks for your
students to complete.

In this guide, we use the words “play” and “production” synonymously with musicals, operas,
dance, and any other type of performance. Likewise, we use “actor” synonymously with any
performer.

2
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO LIGHTING

Humans are inherently storytellers. From the days when

cavemen used to gather around the fire and share tales of
the day’s hunt, to the elaborate spectacles of modern theatre,
we have always been telling stories. Theatres have developed
and evolved over time to adapt to different technologies and
styles of production. As our theatres were developing, lighting
systems were developing too.

Early Greek theatre took place in large outdoor amphitheatres

where the only source of illumination was the sun. As theatre
moved indoors, new methods of lighting the performances
was required, with flame (candle and gas) being some of the Ancient Greek amphitheatre
early technologies adopted. No matter the source, the ability
to control the light has always been a requirement. Early
mechanical dimming systems were developed to control the
light from candles, complex valves and piping systems were
developed for gas light, and the dimming of electric light has
also undergone many iterations.

Since the mid 1900’s, the tungsten light bulb was the staple
of theatrical lighting instruments with discharge lamps (and
occasionally fluorescent and other sources) also being used.
The past few years have seen a rapid development in lighting
technology, with LED lighting becoming more prevalent on our
stages. This has had a dramatic effect on the way we design
lighting and the level of control that we now require in order to
manage our lighting systems correctly.

ETC ColorSource family of LED

lighting, networking, and control
Light and the Eye

Before we start to talk about stage lighting and the power light
has in helping you to bring your show to life, it is important that
we first take some time and consider how light behaves and
how our eyes perceive light.

Chapter 1: Introduction to Lighting 3

 Light is the only thing that our eyes can see. When light strikes
an object, whether it is sunlight, moonlight, or stage light, it is
the light that object reflects that we are actually seeing. If an
object does not reflect any light at all, then we see the object
as being black.
It is interesting to note that
This is why most theatres take a “black box” approach to the
light and paint are in fact
overall design of the stage – by starting with a black box, you
complete opposites of each
are limiting the amount of stray light that will be reflected in
other. As a painter, you would
usually start with a blank the theatre. Lighting design is about the precise control of light,
canvas that is white. As a so having the starting point of a dark theatre on a black stage
lighting designer (or theatre means that you have a blank canvas onto which you can start
maker) your blank canvas to create your lighting looks.
tends to be black. Similarly,
when working with color, the You may have heard the expression that lighting designers ‘paint
relationship between paint with light’ and, to a certain extent, this is a good description of
and light is inverted. the process.

Light behaves predictably and understanding how light works

will help you take advantage of all its properties when you are
creating your show.

Light is part of the Electromagnetic Spectrum – the same

spectrum that also includes X-rays, gamma rays, and
microwaves. Visible light occupies a very narrow portion of this
spectrum. Either side of the visible light spectrum is ultraviolet
light and infrared light.

Radio waves Infrared Ultra- X-rays Gamma-rays

AM FM TV Radar violet

100m 1m 1cm 0.01cm 1000mm 10nm 0.01nm 0.0001nm

Visible Spectrum

700nm 600nm 500nm 400nm

4 Chapter 1: Introduction to Lighting

Light is a form of energy and as such, the rules of energy
apply. Energy is never lost; it is only converted from one form to
another. In terms of stage lighting, most of the energy wasted is
in the form of heat. Electrical energy is converted into light and
heat, with traditional tungsten fixtures being quite inefficient, as
only about 30% of the electrical energy is converted into usable
light, the rest being converted to heat. LED fixtures are more
efficient, and a higher percentage of the energy consumed is
converted into light.

Another factor to keep in mind is the rule of reflection – angle

of incidence equals the angle of reflection.

If light strikes an object at an angle of 30°, then it will reflect at

the same angle. This is important to remember, as controlling
where the reflected light ends up is part of the role of the lighting
designer. Lighting that is reflected towards the audience will
appear brighter than light which is reflected away from them.

Eye
Object

Reflected Incident
Ray Ray

Chapter 1: Introduction to Lighting 5

CHAPTER 2: OBJECTIVES OF LIGHTING DESIGN

In the days of the ancient Greek amphitheatres, there was not

much call for stage lighting. The sun was used as the lighting
source for the plays that were being performed. The ancient
Greeks understood the power of light and were able to use
the sunlight to create dramatic effects. They would take into
account the changing position of the sun as it moved through
the sky, as well as its changing color – elements that we still
control in our modern lighting designs. Over the years as theatre
moved indoors, the sun was no longer a suitable light source. In
the era of gas and flame, the primary objective was to provide
general illumination for the performance. As this technology
developed, different gases were mixed together to create
different colored flames, and a complex series of valves allowed
for some control of intensity. The advent of the electric light
bulb led to stage lighting becoming more sophisticated. Simple
Zorro illumination of the stage was no longer the only objective, and
Alliance Theater, Atlanta the early pioneers learned that lighting could add real drama
Photo credit: Greg Mooney
and effect to the show and enhance the audience’s experience.

Over the years, technology has constantly improved, but the

“Lighting designers create the basic objectives of lighting design have remained the same. We
air that the actors breathe.”
can break lighting design down into five main objectives:
– Jean Rosenthal
• Visibility
• Revelation of form
• Composition
• Mood
• Information

Let’s take a look at each of these objectives in turn.

Visibility

This is the primary objective of lighting design. We need to be

able to see what is happening on stage. Our task is to ensure

6 Chapter 2: Objectives of Lighting Design

that there is enough light to see what is happening clearly but
also to help guide the audience’s attention to the parts of the
stage where the important action is taking place. Perhaps it is
better to think of this in terms of “selective visibility” – you get
to decide what the audience sees, when they see it, and, more
importantly – how they see it. When you are planning your
lighting, think about the dramatic moments in the play and
how you can draw the audience’s attention to those moments The Color Purple
to make sure they do not miss them.

When we refer to visibility, we are talking about being able to

see the actors’ faces, especially, their eyes.

Any light that we use on stage will lead to a certain degree of

visibility, but in the context of our main objectives, being able
to see the actor’s face is what is important.

Ensuring that there is sufficient front light is essential in

achieving this objective. Of course, it is not essential that you
see all the faces all of the time – there may well be moments
when you want to close the scene down and create dramatic
effects where people are intentionally placed in shadows and
silhouettes are created, but these moments should be used
sparingly and created thoughtfully.

Revelation of form

It is not enough to simply “light the stage.” While visibility Shadow creates three-dimensional
objects.
is important, we must ensure that we make the actors (and
scenery and costumes) look as good as they possibly can. With
well-designed lighting, we can make them look even better
than they actually are! Revelation of form basically means
“introducing shadow.” By introducing shadow, we create
three-dimensional objects on stage.

Without shadow, things can look very flat and two-dimensional

on stage. The shadows you introduce do not have to be black –
by adding color to them, you create more visual interest.

Shadows can also help tell a different story. Keeping actors in

deliberate shadow can create intrigue and mystery.
Shadowland, Pilobolous
Photo credit: Emmanuel Donny

Chapter 2: Objectives of Lighting Design 7

 Composition

Just as the director or choreographer are creating visual pictures

with the actors, the lighting designer is responsible for creating
beautiful compositions without compromising on the first two
objectives. Most lighting rigs tend to be symmetrical, with
evenly spaced lights often mirrored about center. Symmetry
tends to be aesthetically pleasing, so by placing your lights
carefully it is easier to create pleasing compositions.

It is relatively easy to create striking stage pictures by lighting

with bold colors and dazzling beams, or glorious rich sunsets,
but we should be careful that we do not sacrifice visibility to
achieve them.

Mood

Part of the subliminal magic of lighting is setting the mood of

a particular moment during a play. Is the scene a happy or sad
one? Is it a cheerful sunrise, or a somber afternoon? Simple
adjustments to color or intensity can go a long way to help you
set the right mood. Warm-toned light tends to suggest happier
themes while cool tones tend to support sadder ones.

City of Angels Information (Scene Setting)

Donmar Warehouse, London
Photo credit: Johan Persson Lighting design is about telling stories and helping the audience
understand the play. Theatre is all about creating “suspended
disbelief” and helping the audience buy into the idea that
we are not actually in a theatre, but in the world that we are
representing on stage. Sometimes, a simple projection of a
window (when there isn’t actually a window on stage) is a great
way to tell the audience where we are.

Lighting can be used to tell the audience about the location and
the time of day. Lighting can help suggest:

• Interior spaces
• Exterior spaces
- Forest
- City

8 Chapter 2: Objectives of Lighting Design

• Time of day
- Early morning
- Afternoon
- Evening
- Night
• Season

We will discuss these objectives in a little more detail in

subsequent chapters. Remember that it may not be possible
(or applicable) to achieve all the objectives all the time in all
your cues, but they should be your starting point when you are
thinking about the lighting for your show.

For more info on lighting design principles, check out ETC’s

Making the Light Fantastic video series. The Color Purple

Chapter 2: Objectives of Lighting Design 9

CHAPTER 3: CONTROLLABLE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

To achieve our five objectives, we will need to make decisions

about what types of lights we will use, where we will rig them,
what color they should be, and how bright they will be in
each cue. As a medium, light has four properties that we can
control. By manipulating these properties you will meet your
five objectives and are well on your way to your first successful
lighting design.

It does not matter which lights you are using, all of them will
give you control, to varying degrees, of the following properties:

• Intensity
• Color
• Distribution (focus)
• Movement

Intensity

We are all used to changes of intensity in light; we experience

them every day. It has always been the primary desire of the
lighting designer to control the amount of light on stage.
When electric lighting became popular, lights were connected
to dimmers as a way of controlling the intensity of the lamps.
While the nature of dimming technology has changed over the
years, they are still prevalent in our theatres. Lights that use LED
technology are still capable of being dimmed, but this is done
electronically from within the luminaire.

40% 60% 80%

10 Chapter 3: Controllable Properties of Light

As lighting designers, we are less concerned about how bright
a light is, and more with how bright it appears to be. Of course,
the actual brightness is a consideration when selecting fixtures
for your show, but when you are creating the lighting, you will
set the intensity (also known as ‘levels’) of the light to create the
look and feel that you want.

Intensity and your objectives – Intensity helps you achieve your design
objectives:

• Visibility. The more light you have on stage, the easier it is to see the action. By simply
changing the intensity of the lights on different parts of the stage, it will help guide the
audience’s attention – our eyes are naturally drawn to the brightest parts of the stage.
We should be a little cautious here though – it is possible to create a situation where
there is too much light on stage. When this happens, it can be difficult to control your
audience’s focus. The ability to skillfully balance the intensities of all the lights in your rig
is part of what makes a successful designer.

• Revelation of form. Some people think that the lighting designer’s job is to eliminate
shadows. Shadows can add depth and dimension, so it is not necessary to try and
eliminate them all. When a light is at a lower intensity, the shadows can be more
apparent. At higher intensities, some light may be reflected, and this will start to soften
some of the shadows. If you have two lights focused on to your actor, one from each
side, and one of the lights is at a lower intensity, then this will help ‘shape’ the actor and
create a three-dimensional shape on stage.

• Composition. By varying the intensities of different parts of the stage you can not only
guide the audience’s focus, but you can create beautiful stage pictures with a brighter
light center stage that fades out to the edges, for instance.

• Mood. As a general rule, the brighter it is on stage, the happier it will feel – you may
have heard the old adage “Bright lights for comedy.” Conversely, the darker it is on
stage, the more moody and ominous it can start to feel – after all, murder mysteries
normally take place “on a dark and stormy night…”

• Information. Brighter lighting will imply daylight, or a scene or location that would
inherently have more light. Darker lighting will imply night-time or locations that might
inherently have less light.

Chapter 3: Controllable Properties of Light 11

 Color

Theatre is rarely a monochromatic place and color is a powerful

tool in the hands of the lighting designer. Color, perhaps
more so than any of the other properties, helps you achieve
the information, mood and composition objectives. While
visibility determines whether or not we can see something,
color determines how we see something. Careful color choices
can enhance scenery and costumes, create fantasy worlds of
When you are choosing swirling color, or conversely reduce the stage to a desolate,
colors, try to avoid colors that colorless place.
are too saturated in your front
light, unless it is for a special Traditionally, before the introduction of LEDs, color was
effect. Use tints in the front changed by using filters called “gels.” Filter manufacturers each
light and keep your more
have their own range of colors, both in saturates and tints, that
saturated colors for your back
you use to create your world on stage. Filter selection used to
light instead.
be an important part of the design process. You would select
your colors, cut the filters to the correct sizes and then fit them
to the lights . If you wanted to change a color, you would have
to cut a new piece of filter, climb a ladder and change the color
on the light.

LED technology has made this much simpler: now it’s possible
to change the color of a light directly from your lighting desk,
and you have a virtually limitless color palette to choose from.
Even though we use LEDs to change color these days, the same
principles of color theory still apply and we will cover this in
more detail in the Color section.

In addition to obvious color choices for suggesting day-time or

night-time scenes, different colors can have different meanings
and this is sometimes the motivation for our color choice.
Sometimes, our choice of color is more subliminal – if we want
to manipulate the audience’s response to what is happening on
stage, we can choose colors that have psychological or symbolic
American Idiot
meaning instead.
Berkley Reperatory Theatre
Photo courtesy of mellopix.com

12 Chapter 3: Controllable Properties of Light

 Color White Blue Red Green Yellow Amber Purple Pink
References Purity, Sadness, Anger, Wickedness, Warming, Comfort Sense of Love,
and revelation loneliness, passion, unnatural calming opulence romance
meanings romance blood

Uses Daylight Moonlight, Strong Forest Sunlight, Interior Effects, Effect and
night time effects & leafy strong scenes, romance mood
scenes, evil effects firelight
characters

By combining the color meanings above with the knowledge It is worth remembering that
of how color can enhance scenery and actors’ appearances, different colors can have
you are armed with a powerful tool to help convey mood and different meanings to people
information. around the world.

Color and your objectives – While color will mainly assist in achieving mood,
composition and information, it can help with your other objectives too.

• Visibility. Color can play an important role in helping with visibility. Darker, more
saturated colors will make it more difficult for the audience to see what is happening
on stage. Also, the darker the color (especially when using gels), the more intensity you
need to achieve similar light levels.

• Revelation of form. Adding color into the shadows can add an extra level of dimension
and depth to the stage. Similar to intensity, two lights focused to the same actor in
different colors will help sculpt them and make them appear more three-dimensional.

• Composition. We are drawn to colors that “belong” together. We will typically choose
a palette of colors that complement each other as this creates pleasing pictures on stage.

• Mood. The mood of the scene is largely dictated by the color choices you make.
Generally speaking, warmer-toned colors (ambers, pinks, yellows, and certain lavenders)
will create a happier mood on stage. Cooler-toned colors (blues, greens, and certain
lavenders) will lead to a sadder or more sombre feel on stage.

• Information. Color can tell a story and set the location and time of day. For example,
if you wanted to create the effect that the actors are sitting in front of a fireplace, you
would choose warm ambers and yellows to emulate the color of the flames.

Chapter 3: Controllable Properties of Light 13

 Distribution

This refers to both the types of lights you have chosen and the
way in which they are focused – in other words, how the light
will be distributed on the stage. You may want a well-defined
pool of light for a monologue, or perhaps you are just looking
for an even, general wash of light on stage. Within your show,
there are a number of different “looks” or lighting states that
Floodlights you might want to create, and several different kinds of lights
that you can use. Each has its own purpose and will give you
different results depending on how you decide to use them.

When we talk about distribution, there are three main elements

that we are referring to. The first is the type of light you are
using, the second is where you choose to position it, and the
third is how you choose to focus the luminaire.

Each type of light has its own unique set of characteristics and
PARs
properties, and as such, has a job that it is best used for. Most
lighting instruments will fall into one of these categories:

• Floodlights
• PARs
• Fresnels (Focus spots)
• Profiles

We will look at the different types of lights in greater detail in

the Types of Lights section (pg 16). When planning your lighting
rig, you will need to make some decisions early on about where
you are going to position your lights and what types you want
Fresnels
in each position. Different positions will give different effects.
While, in theory, it is possible to put a light anywhere, there are
five positions that are used most often.

• Front light
• Side light
• Back light
• Top light
• Up light

We will look at each of these in more detail in the Lighting

Profiles Angles section. Use the Throw Distance Calculator (Appendix
A) to help determine which lights to use.

14 Chapter 3: Controllable Properties of Light

Movement

A change of either a single property of a single light, or all

the properties for all the lights is thought of as movement.
Movement in this context does not really apply to the physical
movement of the light beam (something which has become
very popular since moving lights became accessible) but refers
to the way in which we transition from one lighting state to the
other – so in this instance, movement relates to time.

We can decide whether the change from one cue to another

is instantaneous – perhaps someone has entered the stage and
flipped on a light switch on the set – or perhaps it is more
Liola, National Theatre, London
gradual – a slow change from sunrise to a bright morning light, Photo credit: Max Narula
for instance.

Movement and your objectives – Movement mainly contributes to

the mood and information objectives, but does affect the other
objectives too.

• Visibility. Too many rapid changes of light can tire the audience’s eyes leading to visual
fatigue which may make it harder for them to focus on the action. During slow cross-
fades, there may be a point at the lower portions of the intensity spectrum where there
is not enough light to be able to see properly.

• Revelation of form. Transitions have a minimal effect on the appearance of objects on

stage, although a fade from a front light to a side light would introduce more shadow,
making the lighting more dramatic.

• Composition. While transitions rarely have an effect on the appearance of objects

on stage, sometimes you may want to reveal objects to the audience more slowly and
dramatically.

• Mood. Rapid light changes could suggest a mood that is more aggressive or passionate
and would suggest a sense of pace. Slower changes, like the gradual change from
sunrise to morning light, suggest a calmer scene. Similarly, a darkening sky could
suggest a sense of foreboding.

• Information. Slower changes in the lighting states could suggest that time is passing;
a change from afternoon to sunset, perhaps. A more instantaneous change would be
expected if an actor turned on a switch and the room lit up.

Chapter 3: Controllable Properties of Light 15

CHAPTER 4: TYPES OF LIGHTS

Most stage lights that you are likely to encounter will fall into
one of these basic categories (in order of complexity):

• Floodlight
• PAR
• Fresnel
• Profile
• Moving light

Tungsten Floodlight

Floodlights

Let’s start by looking at the simplest of the fixtures – This, as its

name suggests is designed to ‘flood an area with light.’ They
are traditionally used to light cyclorama and painted cloths.
Floodlights typically consist of a lamp (light source) and a
reflector.

There are no lenses in a tungsten floodlight and you have very

little control over the size and shape of the beam. Floodlights
are designed with an asymmetrical reflector that allows the
light to be evenly distributed from the top of the cloth to the
bottom. In conventional lighting rigs, floodlights would be
Border
rigged and then filters would be used to make them red, green,
and blue. Since most floodlights were 4-cell units, the fourth
color would usually be amber, open white, or another blue.
(Refer to Appendix B – color mixing). Of course, floodlights do
not have to be colored in red, green and blue. You could choose
Blended area
(additive mixing)
the filters that would suit the production needs best.

Cycloramas tend to be lit from both above and below and,

depending on the type of material used, they can also be lit
Scenic from behind. Back-lighting a cyclorama, known as a BP or RP
Ground
Row (back/rear projection) screen means that you do not have to
Cyc worry about trying to conceal the light sources. Lighting from
Cyc lit from above and below
both above and below can create some interesting effects and

16 Types of Lights
is one of the methods employed when creating the illusion of
a sunrise or sunset.

LED floodlights are slightly more complex than traditional

floodlights in that they do have a lens which has been specially
designed to spread the light in a similar fashion, but their
ColorSource CYC
purpose and application is the same.

PARs

PARs (PARcans) have been a staple of stage lighting for years.

PAR is an abbreviation for Parabolic Aluminized Reflector and
and is a reference to the type of lamp used. A PAR is a lamp
that has the lens, reflector, and light source in a single sealed-
beam housing. PARs produce very intense beams of light that
are slightly oval. Because the lamps also contain the lens and
reflector, the only way to change the size of the beam is to
Traditional PARcan
replace the entire lamp – which can be costly. Appendix C
has more information about the different kinds of PAR lamps
available. PARs can be used as part of a general cover* as they
provide bright washes of light when focused correctly. PARs
can be focused by adjusting their position (pan & tilt) and you
have a degree of control over the beam by rotating the lamp
to adjust the orientation of the oval-shaped beam. PARs can be
colored using gels.

ETC has its own version of the PAR called the Source Four PAR
– this is a single luminaire with a set of interchangeable lenses Source Four PAR (tungsten)
making it much easier and more affordable to adjust the size
of the beam.

LED PARs have started to replace PAR because they can change
color without the need for gels and are safer to use as they do
not get hot. You can still change the beam shape and size by
using specially designed lenses which are fitted to the front of
the fixtures.

Fresnel ColorSource PAR (LED)

Pronounced “Fre’nel,” these are the first types of light that

offer us some degree of control over the size and shape of the
*General cover – even illumination
beam. Fresnels get their name from the inventor of the lens that
of the stage, see page 50.

Types of Lights 17
 they use (which were originally designed for use in lighthouses),
easily recognizable by the series of concentric rings on the front
of the lens. A Fresnel has the capability to adjust the size of the
beam from a narrow spot to a wide flood (typically 10° - 55°),
making it a versatile fixture that can be used for both general
cover as well as for isolating parts of the stage or highlighting
certain elements during the show (known as a ‘special’).

A Fresnel beam has a very soft edge which makes it easy to

blend when creating your general cover and stage washes. You
Source Four Fresnel
also have the option of adding a ‘barn door’ – an accessory that
fits to the front of the light (in front of the color) and allows you
to shape the light and prevent it from spilling in areas where
you do not want it.

With a tungsten Fresnel, the lens is in a fixed position and the

lamp and reflector move together to adjust the beam size. The
closer the lamp is to the lens, the wider the light, and the further
away from the lens the narrower the beam of light becomes.

The Fresnel has a European cousin called a “PC.” A PC has a

Desire Fresnel Plano-convex lens (hence its name) and operates in a similar
fashion. A PC has a more defined edge than a Fresnel, a wider
zoom range (6°-60°) and the beam can also be roughly shaped
using barndoors.

Profile (Ellipsoidal Spot)

A profile is named for its ability to project a profile of an image

or shape. Profiles (also referred to as ‘ellipsoidals’) are the most
complex fixtures optically, but also offer you the most control
over the light that they emit. Profiles can project a beam of
light that can be either hard- or soft-edged. You can also adjust
the size of the beam, either by adjusting the lenses or by using
an iris, and you can shape the beam using an internal set of
framing shutters. Profiles can also project patterns and add
texture to the beam by using a gobo.

There are two main kinds of profiles – ‘fixed beam’ and

Source Four LED
‘zoom’ profiles. Fixed beam profiles have a beam angle that is
predetermined by the lens system. You can change the edge
of the beam (hard or soft) but if you want to adjust the size of
the beam you will need an accessory called an iris. There are

18 Types of Lights
a number of fixed beam profiles available, the most common
being 19°, 26°, 36°, and 50°. You can also get 5°, 10°, 14°,
70°, and 90° variants. (Appendix A)

Zoom profiles make use of a pair of independently controlled

lenses and by adjusting these, you can change the size of
the beam from a narrow spot to a wide beam. The amount
of adjustment that you have depends on the beam angle of
the fixture, but typically you will find there are both ‘narrow
zoom’ and ‘wide zoom’ options. A ‘narrow’ zoom will allow
for adjustment of the beam from 15° to 30° and a wide zoom
will allow for a variation from 25° to 50°. You can make further Source Four LED 25˚-50˚ Zoom

adjustments to the size of the beam using an iris in a zoom

profile, too.

Profiles have a set of four framing shutters that allow for

precise shaping of the beam. You can also make use of a gobo
to project a pattern (like a window) or just to add a break-
up texture to the beam (like a leaf pattern) which can add an
additional layer and dimension to your design.

Followspots

A followspot is a profile with a really narrow beam angle that is

typically focused to produce a hard-edged beam of light used
to follow an actor on the stage. You can use a 5° or 10° Source
Four with an iris as a followspot too!

Moving lights

It is not uncommon to find moving lights in our theatres and

lighting rigs. There are two categories of moving lights –
“spots” and “washes.” Spots behave like profiles and as such
would fall into this main category. A moving spot allows you
to change color, use gobos, adjust the size and edge of the
beam, and some even offer a set of framing shutters for precise
beam control. A moving wash light behaves more like a Fresnel
(or a PAR on the simpler units). A wash light will offer you the
ability to change color, adjust the size of the beam and have
a Fresnel-like soft edge. Both washes and spots allow you to
control their focus (position) on stage – all of these features can
be controlled remotely from the lighting desk.

Types of Lights 19
CHAPTER 5: LIGHTING ANGLES

Lighting Angles

Understanding the different kinds of lights that are available is

only part of the process. Once you know what lights you have
available, you need to decide where to position them in the
lighting rig. We refer to the positions that we hang lights in as
the ‘lighting angles’ and there are five basic lighting angles that
you are most likely to use in your show. The lighting angles refer
to the light’s positions relative to the actor.

• Front light
• Back light
• Side light
• Top light
• Up light

Since visibility is our primary objective, we will start by looking

at the angles that offer the best visibility and then start to look
at how variations on the position of the light introduce shadow
and how that achieves the other objectives. There are a few
variations on ‘front light’ each giving slightly different results.

5
3 3 6 TOP LIGHT 2
FRONT 45° / 45° FRONT 45° / 45° BACK LIGHT FRONT 45°

4 1
SIDE LIGHT FLAT FRONT
LIGHT

7
UP LIGHT

20 Lighting Angles
1. Flat Front Light

This is light that is placed directly in front of the performer at

eye-level (or as close to as possible). This angle is rarely used
for face-lighting. In most theatres, lights that are rigged on the
balcony or circle rail would fall into this category.

Advantages:
This angle offers good visibility as there are no, or minimal,
shadows on the actor’s face. If actors are wearing hats, it can be
helpful in getting light under the brims of the hats, eliminating
strong shadows on the face. It is an optimal position when
using projections as there will be minimal image distortion.

Disadvantages:
When lighting from this position, it is almost impossible to
prevent the huge shadows of the actors being cast on the set
or the background which will be very hard to get rid of. When
actors or objects are lit directly from the front, they can appear
flat and two-dimensional. This is also a lighting position that is
not always available in all theatres – it is usually only available in
theatres that have balcony seating.

Because the large shadows cast by the actors will be very hard
to get rid of, we want to try and avoid creating them at all, so
we tend to elevate the lighting position in an effort to minimize
the shadow cast by the actor. The greater the angle of elevation,
the smaller the shadow cast by the actor becomes.

2. Front 45°

Since most theatres may not have a lighting position that would
provide the ‘flat front’ position, and seeing as it would result in
harsh shadows, the majority of front- or face-light in theatres
comes from a slightly more elevated position. By lifting the lights
up to an angle of approximately 45° above the eye line of the
actor, we are able to achieve a light that offers good visibility
while offering a reasonable containment of the shadow that
the actor is casting behind them.

This angle also more closely resembles the light that is cast by
the sun, so it looks quite natural on stage. By lifting the light up,
we start to introduce some natural shadow on the actor’s face;
slightly under the nose and chin. We know that shadow is what

Lighting Angles 21
 contributes to the revelation of form objective, so this actually
works in our favor.

This is the most common lighting position in proscenium arch

theatres. These are the lighting positions in the auditorium and
are sometimes referred to as FOH (Front-of-house) bridges. It is
an optimal lighting angle for front light, and where possible, we
try to achieve this position irrespective of the stage or theatre
layout.

Advantages:
As this is a lighting position that is readily available in most
theatres, it is easy to access and will provide good front light
coverage. It offers good visibility and due to the small amounts
of shadow that it introduces to the face, it also helps to shape
the face, so we are starting to achieve our ‘revelation of form’
objective. By hanging the light in an elevated position, we have
also reduced the shadow behind the actor and this is now
contained to the stage floor, which is easier to manage and
looks more natural.

Disadvantages:
Even though we have introduced some shadow, it is possible
that the actors might still appear a little ‘flat’ on stage.

3. Front 45° / 45°

Whenever it is possible (depending on available equipment and

rigging positions) we tend to elevate the light to a 45° angle
and we also offset it by 45° to the side. This position is then
mirrored so that we have a matching light from the other side –
in other words, we are lighting our actor from two sides at the
same time – something known as the FRONT 45-45 which is
based on a lighting principle developed by Stanley McCandless
(first published in 1932). Typically, one light is colored as a
“warm” (pale amber) and the other as a “cold” (pale blue).

The same FOH lighting positions are used here that you would
use for the single Front 45 approach.

The 45° elevation offers good visibility. By moving the light 45°
off its axis, you are introducing more shadow on the face, so
the revelation of form objective is also achieved by this position.

22 Lighting Angles
Advantages:
This system is favored when lighting plays, where visibility and
the ability to see the actors’ faces clearly is essential. The 45°
angles offer great visibility and the two different color tones
shape and mold the face, providing good revelation of form
too.

Disadvantages:
It is possible that there may still be some unwanted shadows
cast on the scenery, particularly upstage. It also may not always
be possible to achieve the 45° offset for all units from the FOH
bridges as this would require the bridges to be wider than the
auditorium.

Lighting design is not just about visibility. It is also the

responsibility of the lighting designer to make sure that the
actors (and scenery and costumes) look as good as they can
(or even better than they actually are!) and, that they appear to
exist as three-dimensional objects in a space.

Front light offers us good visibility, so let’s look at some lighting

angles that focus more on the ‘revelation of form’ objective.

4. Side Light

Because it only lights one side of the performer, casting the

other into full shadow, side lighting has wonderful sculpting
and molding properties and as such, is the favored angle when
lighting dance.

Side lighting is usually rigged on booms, or “trees,” in the

wings on the side of the stage, and it is not uncommon to
have multiple fixtures in each location. It is also possible for
side lighting to be rigged on a floor stand and these are
affectionately known as “shin-busters” (or just “shins”) – just
ask any dancer who has ever run off into the wings!

Usually, profiles (ellipsoidals) will be the light of choice for side

lighting, as you have the most control of the light. By using the
internal shutters you can cut the light off the floor completely
to create a “floating effect.” You are not limited to the use of
profiles in this position, you can also use Fresnels or PARs, but
you sacrifice some degree of control over the beam quality. LED

Lighting Angles 23
 battens like the ColorSource Linear, when rigged vertically, are
also very effective as side lights.
By rigging a light at the very
ends of the lighting bar (called Advantages:
a ‘pipe-end’) and focusing While this angle offers a degree of visibility, its primary advantage
them across the stage, you is its sculpting properties. Side light creates strong shadows and
can achieve the side light this high contrast gives perfomers or scenic objects a real three-
effect, but your actors will not
dimensionality, enhancing their form. Shadows from side light,
cast shadows on each other.
when rigged on booms, falls into the wings on the opposite
side of the stage, so you do not have to be as concerned about
shadows falling on the scenery.

Disadvantages:
If your only source of light is side light, you may run the risk of
the performers casting shadows on each other, when they are
standing in front of the light. It is rare that a single side light
will be your only source of light on stage, so the overlap from
the other beams of light will help to alleviate this problem to
an extent.

5. Back Light

Lighting actors from behind is one of the most effective ways to

ensure that they appear as three-dimensional objects on stage
and do not blend in to the background. Back light creates a
halo effect around their head and shoulders which gives them
form, shape, and separates them from the scenery. Back light
helps create depth on stage.

Another of our objectives is mood – back light is a wonderful

tool for creating mood onstage. You are able to introduce
more saturated color into the back light as this will not have an
impact on skin tones. Also, the principle of ‘angle of incidence
equals angle of reflection’, means that it is the back light color
that the audience will perceive, as this light is reflecting directly
from the stage to the audience, so changes in the back light
color are noticeable and a great way to change the mood of
the scene.

Back light is usually rigged on the overhead lighting bars, and

where possible, is positioned so that it is approximately 45°
behind the actors so that it is a mirror of the front light position.
Of course, in practice, this is not always possible as there may
be limitations due to the location of the lighting bars or scenery.

24 Lighting Angles
Advantages:
Back light provides excellent sculpting on stage and should be
considered an essential part of any design. Back light can create
a sense of depth on stage and is a good way to introduce more
saturated color into the lighting design without there being an
impact on skin tones. Back light is more readily perceived by the
audience as it reflects off the stage floor, so it is a useful way to
change the mood on stage. We will look at how color can be
used to change mood in the Color section (pg 29) .

Disadvantages:
Back light offers little visibility in terms of face light and it is
rare that it is used in isolation, although sometimes a striking
silhouette is called for. Back light can result in some dramatic
shadows on the floor in front of the actors, and care should be
taken when focusing to ensure that it does not shine into the
eyes of the audience in the first few rows of the theatre.

6. Top Light

Top light has the advantage of being the most contained when
it comes to shadows. With the light directly above the actor, the
shadow is cast directly below them, so you don’t have to worry
about shadows on the set or backcloth. Top light offers similar
properties to the back light in that it offers some good sculpting
qualities, but it will cast big shadows in the eye sockets and
under the nose – making the eyes and mouth difficult to see.

Top light is usually reserved for ‘specials’ as it is an effective way

to isolate someone on stage. When used at high intensities,
it can result in shadows on the actor’s face that are slightly
unnatural and are difficult to get rid of. Saturated color can be
used in top light if used carefully and sparingly. When plotted
at high intensities, some light will be reflected off the floor and
will light up under the actor’s chin.

Advantages:
Top light provides a contained light with minimal shadows
on the stage floor. Depending on the finish of the floor, it
sometimes reflects to cast a soft up light on the actor’s face.
It offers some sculpting properties similar to a back light, but
should be used sparingly. If you are lighting a traverse, thrust,
or theatre-in-the-round stage, top light tends to replace your
back light as a way of introducing more saturated color.

Lighting Angles 25
 Disadvantages:
When used at high intensities, it can cast strong shadows on
the face which can be difficult to eliminate.

7. Up Light

Up light is typically reserved for effects, whereas in the days of

gas lighting, it was the primary angle used as the gas lamps
would be found along the front edge of the stage and would
up-light the actors. This angle is not common these days, and
when used in this position, is referred to as ‘foot lights’ or
simply ‘foots.’

The light cast by an up light does not look natural at all – this
is because we are used to our light sources typically coming
from above – think of the sun or the lights in the ceilings of
our homes or offices. Light from above is something we have
become accustomed to, so when it comes from below, it looks
unnatural and almost scary – I am sure we have all scared our
little brothers and sisters by holding a torch under our chins and
leaping out of the dark!

Up lights are typically found along the front edge of the

stage. Some stages may have special slots in the stage floor
to accommodate foot lights, and sometimes it is up to the set
designer to incorporate a space for them in the set design. It is
not uncommon for the lights to be secured to the front edge of
the stage where they are visible to the audience. Footlights tend
to be smaller fixtures as they need to be able to fit into small
spaces and not block the audience’s view of the stage. Battens
like the ColorSource Linear can also be used as footlights. Not
all up lights have to be placed on the front of the stage. Any
position that will result in the actor being lit from below is
considered to be an up light.

You may be wondering “if this looks so unnatural, why would

I use it?” There are a couple of instances where up light can be
really effective. If your actors are wearing wide brimmed hats,
then using some up lights at a low intensity is another way of
eliminating shadows on their faces cast by the hats. Thinking
about our objectives, information, and creating suspended
disbelief, is one that we are also working towards. Let’s imagine
that you are lighting a scene that is taking place around a camp

26 Lighting Angles
fire – by using footlights you are recreating the effect of the
flames from the fire by lighting faces from below – add an
amber filter and a flicker effect and you have achieved a realistic
effect of someone sitting beside the fire!

Advantages:
Up light is often used to create dramatic effects and can be
helpful when you deliberately want to cast shadows on the
background. It is a useful angle when creating firelight effects
on stage. When used at low intensity, it can be helpful in
removing shadows on actors faces caused by wearing hats.

Disadvantages:
Up light can look very unnatural when used in isolation or at
high intensities and will result in large shadows being cast on
the background which, if not intentional, can be very difficult
to eliminate.

The lighting angles listed above are not exhaustive, but form
the basis of any lighting rig. There can be variations on the
angles depending on the requirements of the show, the design
of the set, and the limitations of available rigging positions in
the theatre. It is also possible to combine some of the angles
to create alternatives – for instance, it is possible to move the
back light to a 45° off center (as we do for our front lights) –
resulting in a diagonal back light – an angle which is popular
when lighting dance. We have already talked about side
lights which are rigged on the ends of the lighting bars – this
is effectively making them a 45° side light and is called a
pipe-end.

Below is an example of combinations of lighting angles as you

might expect to find them on stage.

Lighting Angles 27
Distribution and the objectives – Carefully choosing your light, its place
and its focus, you can make sure that you have covered the visibility,
revelation of form, and information objectives. By adding color you can
start to cover the mood and composition objectives as well.

• Visibility. Ensuring that you have a good front-light coverage of the stage is the key
to being able to see the actors. Front-light (flat front, front 45 or front 45-45) and side
light are good choices here. Using lights that offer precise beam control is also helpful.
Profiles (ellipsoidals) are typically used for this purpose, although it is not uncommon to
use Fresnels too.

• Revelation of form. Careful placement of the FOH lighting can help achieve this, but it
is usually also accomplished with back light, side light, and top light. Depending on the
area you need to cover, you can use profiles, Fresnels, or PARs.

• Mood. Although mood is largely achieved through use of color and intensity, the
types of lights and how they are focused will also have an effect. Steeper angles with
more dramatic shadows will portray a different mood to those with softer, more evenly
illuminated areas. Similarly, tighter areas of light will have a different feel to broader
more open areas.

• Information. The choice of instrument and its focus can contribute to the setting of the
scene. If you want to introduce any form of projected image, a profile will be the only
choice. The angle that the light strikes the stage (or actor) can also convey information.
Steeper angles might suggest mid-day sunlight while lower angles might invoke the feel
of a sunset. Broader areas of coverage would be more suited to suggesting sunlight,
while a more contained light might be used to suggest the pool of light beneath a street
lamp, for instance.

• Composition. All of the above elements work together to create the overall composition
of the lighting state on stage.

28 Lighting Angles
 CHAPTER 6: COLOR

Before we start to look at how we use color on stage, we need

to take some time and look at how color works.

When we talk about color and color theory, we use white light
as our base point, and when we think of ‘white light’ we use
noon-day sunlight as our reference point. We have all seen the
image of Newton’s famous experiment where white light was
passed through a prism and it diffracted into the colors of the
rainbow.

From this experiment, Newton determined that white light is

made up of seven basic colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
indigo, and violet. These seven colors have been further distilled
into three primary colors, namely red, green, and blue.

The primary colors of light are red, green, and blue. You
may have already come across this before – your TV screen,
computer monitor, and all the screens on your devices use this
principle. Some of the more basic LED luminaires also use this
color model. The reason we refer to these colors (often written
simply as RGB) as the primary colors of light is because, if we
mix these three colors together, they form white light.

If we mix any two of the primary colors together, we will get a

new color – and this is called a secondary color. If we mix red
and green light, the result is yellow. Mix red and blue, the result
is magenta. Mix green and blue light and the resulting color is
cyan. Cyan, yellow, and magenta are the secondary colors of
light and are often expressed as CMY.

Green A unique relationship exists between the primary and secondary colors.
The primary colors of light are the secondary colors of pigment, and vice
Cyan Yellow
versa. If you think about the ink cartridges in your ink-jet printer, they use
White
cyan, yellow and magenta as the basis for their mixing system. Similarly,
Blue Red mixing two of these primary colors together creates a secondary color.
Magenta
For instance, mix yellow and magenta and the result is red.

Color 29
 Knowing that white light is in fact made up of several different
3. Red ray of light
colors, let’s examine how our eyes see color. We have already
is reflected
learned that our eyes only see the light that an object is
1. White ray
of light enters reflecting back towards us. So, let’s take a red dress and shine
white light at it. What is happening? The dress is absorbing
2. Red surface absorbs
the green and blue light
the blue and green portions of the light and is only reflecting
the red light back to us, so the dress appears to be red. If we
shine white light at a green dress, it will absorb the red and
blue portions of the spectrum and only reflect the green light
back to us. If, on the other hand, we shine green light at the
red dress, the dress will absorb all the green portion of the light,
and because there is no red light to reflect, it reflects no light,
so appears to be black.

To illustrate the above concept, take a piece of red lighting filter

(called “gel”) and look at the dresses on the left. Notice how
they change? Now do the same with a piece of green gel.

Color mixing

When we talk about ‘color mixing,’ there are two types of

Red mixing that we refer to – Additive and Subtractive color mixing.

Additive color mixing – this occurs when you have more

Magenta Yellow
than one light, each in a different color, focused onto the
same area. This is most prevalent on cyclorama lighting where
Blue Green you traditionally have floodlights in red, green and blue (or a
different combination of colors) and you use these to mix the
Cyan
different colors on the back cloth. LED fixtures also use additive
color mixing – typically based on the RGB color model. Even
Primary and secondary colors
in a color wheel.
though all three colors are housed within one luminaire, it is still
additive color mixing at play as you are able to control the three
colors separately. We call it additive mixing because as you mix
new colors each new color is less saturated than the original
Green
colors – in other words, you are working towards achieving
white light.
Cyan Yellow
In reality these days, most LED luminaires have more than
White
just RGB sources as the base of their mixing system, some
Blue
Magenta
Red manufacturers add a white LED, others use different colors and
some of the luminaires made by ETC use eight different colors
in the mixing system – but irrespective of the number of colored
Additive color mixing emitters, it is still additive color mixing.

30 Color
Subtractive color mixing – this occurs when you have one
light source and you add more than one color filter in front of Cyan
it. It is called subtractive mixing because each new color will
be more saturated than the original – in other words, you are Blue Green

working towards black. You are most likely to encounter this Black

type of color mixing system in moving lights (that use a white

Magenta Yellow
light engine) or if you want to mix your own new color by Red

adding two pieces of filter together.

The Sola Family fixtures from High End Systems use a subtractive Subtractive color mixing

mixing model.

Additive color mixing uses the RGB system as a base and

subtractive color mixing uses the CMY system.

When we think of additive color mixing, we think of using the

primary RGB system, but in reality there are usually more than
just those three colors used in an LED fixture. The ColorSource
range of fixtures from ETC uses RGBL (Red, Green, Blue, and Reflection and absorbtion
Lime) as the base. Other fixtures might substitute the Lime for
White (RGBW) or even Amber (RGBA), but there will always
need to be at least red, green and blue present in the color mix White reflects RGB Black absorbs RGB

system if you are going to be able to mix your favorite colors!

Now that you understand the basic principle of color mixing,

let’s take another look at our red dress example. If we shine Subtractive primaries reflect two of RGB

Yellow light at the red dress, what color do you think it will
appear? The answer is RED. Yellow light is made up of red and
green, so the dress absorbs all the green and only reflects the
Additive primaries reflect one of RGB
red light back, appearing red.

If we have a green dress and we shine cyan light at it – what

color do you think it will appear to be? Green, of course! Cyan
is made up of green and blue light, so the dress absorbs all the
blue light an only reflects the green light back to us.

To illustrate the above concept, take a piece of yellow gel and

look at both dresses. Notice how they change? Now do the
same with a piece of cyan gel.

Complementary colors

When we speak of color, we tend to talk about primary,

secondary and complementary colors. Complementary colors
are colors which are opposite each other on the color wheel Complementary colors
that, when mixed together additively, form white light. on the color wheel

Color 31
 Red and Cyan are complementary colors – if we mix red and cyan
together additively, we will get white light. Why? Well, cyan is
Red
Cyan already a mixture of green and blue light – so by mixing red and
(Blue + Green)
cyan, we are in fact mixing red, green and blue together – so we
end up with white light. Other complementary colors are:

Blue and Yellow: blue + yellow (red & green) = white

Green and Magenta: green + magenta (red & blue) = white

Magenta
Green
(Red + Blue)
We can change the color of light in two ways, by either adding
a filter (or ‘gel’) to the light, or by using the LEDs built into the
light to mix colors additively.

Gels change the color of the light by absorbing the portions of

Blue
Yellow
(Red + Green)
the spectrum that are not wanted and only allowing the color
we want to transmit through the filter. If we use a red filter, the
filer will absorb the green and blue portions of the light and
Complementary colors mix to only allow the red light to pass through.
create white light.
LEDs change color by varying the intensity of the red, green and
blue emitters within the light.

Color and your objectives – Like intensity, careful use of color can also
help you achieve your five objectives.

• Visibility. Paler colors will aid in visibility and make skin tones appear more natural.
Darker colors emit less light, so the darker the colors you use, the less light there will be
on stage. Remember the principles of reflection and absorption – darker colors will also
reflect less light

• Revelation of form. Using color to fill in your shadows is a great way to create depth
and make things look wonderful.

• Composition. Using colors that complement each other will create pleasing looks
on stage.

• Mood. Color is a wonderful way to help convey mood and emotion to the audience.

• Information. We use color to help tell us time of day and location –perhaps a dark blue
to suggest night time, or a pale gold to suggest the rising sun.

32 Color
Selecting colors

One could argue that the introduction of LED technology has

actually made the process of selecting colors for your show
more difficult. While it is physically easier to select and change
colors from the lighting desk, it is much harder to test colors in
advance.

When using gels to add color to your rig, you could use the
swatch book from your favorite filter manufacturer and hold it
up and look at the set model or costume swatches to see the
result. This method does not really work when using LED. Let’s
start by looking at color filters and then we will look at how our
method changes when working with LEDs.

When looking at your filter swatch book, you will see that for
every color swatch, there is a transmission curve graph. These
can be really helpful when selecting colors for your show. The
graph shows you the amount of color that each gel will transmit.
The numbers on the X-axis represent the color in wavelength
(based on the electromagnetic spectrum) and the Y-axis is the
percentage of that color transmitted by the filter.

Pale lavender
A pale lavender has good transmission in the
blue and red portions of the spectrum and less
so in the green and yellow portions. Therefore,
blues and reds would render well, while the
greens and yellows, less so.

Deep blue
A deep blue, which allows zero transmission
of the yellow and red portions of the spectrum
will cause these colors to render poorly and
almost appear black on stage.

By reading these graphs, we can quickly determine whether a

particular filter will work for the show. If the set and costumes
have a blue bias, then using colors that have low amounts
of blue in them will render them looking dull and lifeless.
Conversely, colors that have a high blue content will make
them come alive on stage.

Another method would be to use a torch and shine the light

through the filter at the set model or costume fabric. The pitfall
here is that you need to make sure that the torch you are using

Color 33
 is the same color as the lights you will be using in the theatre.
Most LED torches use a cool white LED, so the colors will not
render accurately if you are using tungsten sources in the
theatre. Tungsten light is much warmer, and this will affect the
color the filter produces.

If you are using tungsten lights in your design, you need to

keep in mind when a tungsten light dims, it gets warmer, or
more orange. This change in the color of the light (referred to
as “color temperature”) will have an impact on the colors you
choose. For example, if you select a blue filter that has a high
green content, when the light dims, the light will shift from
blue to green. This is known as “amber drift” or “red shift.”
This change in color temperature can result in some unexpected
changes, so giving some thought to what might happen to the
color as it dims is important.

When working with LED sources, the problem caused by amber

Tungsten dimming drift can be avoided. When LED dims, it does not, by default,
100% Power 3200K change color or get warmer. This means that you can maintain
your selected color throughout the dimming cycle which means
there will be no big color surprises as your lights fade out at
the end of the scene. Some LED luminaires (like the ETC Source
Four Series 2 Lustr) have a function called “red shift” which
deliberately introduces this color shift into the light as it dims.
50% Power 2700K
If you want to emulate the effect of a tungsten light when
it fades using LED, then you can turn this feature on in the
fixture menu.
30% Power 2000K

As the light dims, the color

While it is not as easy to test colors in the model box when
temperature lowers, making using LED, it is much easier to change colors while you are
the light warmer, or more programming. Most consoles have color libraries built in and
amber. This amber light interacts
with the filter to change the changing the color is as easy as scrolling through the library and
color from a bright blue to a choosing the color you want.
murky green.

While you are finding your way in lighting design, don’t be

afraid to experiment with color – it’s the best way to learn and
find out what works and what doesn’t. Using your knowledge
of how color works will get you started. Using your keen eye
and sense of good taste will do the rest.

34 Color
 CHAPTER 7: LIGHTING SYSTEMS

Now that we understand the objectives of lighting design and

have a good grasp on the properties that we can control to help
achieve this, let’s look at the various components that make up
a lighting system.

A lighting system will generally consist of a number of fixtures

(rigged in different places in the theatre space), dimmers
and power distribution, a cable infrastructure, and a lighting
control desk.

Your theatre might have a combination of tungsten stage

lights and LED fixtures. In order to control the intensity of the
tungsten lamps, they will need to be plugged in to a dimmer,
which is in turn connected to the lighting desk. Let’s take a look
at each individual component in the system.

The lighting console

Sometimes simply referred to as the lighting desk, or lighting

board, this is a key component of the lighting system. Most
modern consoles have a digital interface that you use to
program the lighting, but some will still have some faders for
manual control of the lights.

Each console will behave slightly differently, but all should have
the same basic functionality. You will be able to select the lights
you want to use, set their intensity, change their color (if they
have the ability) and record the state you have created. Each
new lighting state is called a “cue.” When you are recording
each cue, you will also need to set the cross-fade time – the
time it will take for the change to happen from one cue to the
next.

On most consoles, each light is called a “channel” and each

channel will have its own unique number that you use to select

Lighting Systems 35
 and control it with. Irrespective of whether you are using faders
or a keypad to select the lights, the channel number needs to
be assigned first. To assign channel numbers, you need to patch
the lights into the console. Patching is the process where you
tell the lighting desk which kind of lights are hanging in your
rig and which channel numbers you want to use to control
them. Each console will have its own unique way of patching,
so take some time to read the manual before you get started.
We assign channel numbers to the lights as it gives us an easy
way to talk to (and about) the rig.

Instead of saying “please can you turn on the third light from
the left on the second lighting bar”, we can simply say “please
turn on Channel 5.” the advantage of this system is that you
get to choose the numbers you want to use – so think about a
numbering system that will make sense to you.

Once all your cues have been created, you will be able to play
them back in sequence for your show.

Dimmers

If you are using tungsten luminaires, you will need to connect

the light to a dimmer in order to control the intensity. A dimmer
is an electronic device that is used to vary the intensity of a
lamp. Dimmers are typically located in a separate room in the
theatre and each line of dimming is then wired back to the
various lighting positions in the theatre. When you are patching
your lights into the console, you are actually patching the
dimmers – the light being connected to the dimmers. When
you bring up a channel on the lighting desk, you are controlling
the dimmer and the dimmer is controlling the intensity of the
light. Dimmers work by varying the voltage that is supplied to
the lamp. The lower the voltage, the dimmer the light.

Switched Power

If you are using LEDs (or moving lights if you have them), they
will not be connected to a dimmer. LEDs and moving lights
should NEVER be connected to a dimmer as this will likely cause
damage to the fixture. LEDs will need to be plugged in to a
mains voltage or ‘live power’ supply. Depending on the types

36 Lighting Systems
of lights you are using, and the electrical installation at your
theatre, you might encounter different power connectors. If
you have LEDs and tungsten lights in your theatre, you will most
likely have two different types of lighting sockets that you can
plug lights into. We tend to use different power connectors for
lights that need to be dimmed and ones that need mains power
to prevent from any accidental damage.

Some power control systems can be either a dimmer or a mains

power circuit on a per-channel basis. It is worth making sure
you know and understand the type of system that is installed
in your theatre.

Data

Once we have rigged the lights and plugged them in to their

outlets, we need to also make sure that there is a link between
the lighting desk, dimmers, LEDs, and moving lights. We use a
dedicated digital data called DMX (or DMX-512A as it is known
officially) as the interface between lighting console and lights.
A DMX (or “data”) cable is used to link the lighting desk to the
dimmers (to control intensity) and the LEDs.

In most instances, the DMX connector is a 5-pin XLR connector

although some manufacturers will use a 3-pin connector
instead.

As the console is the source of the DMX data, the data

connection needs to start here. From the console, we usually
link to the dimmers first, before linking to the LEDs and moving
lights. Most theatre installations will have these links already in
place, but it is good to know that they exist in case something
goes wrong and you need to do some troubleshooting. If you
are adding new lights into the theatre, then you may need to
link them into the data network as well as giving them power.
In more complex systems, you may have more than one line of
DMX. If your console has more than one DMX output, it means
that you are capable of controlling bigger lighting systems.
Each DMX output is called a “universe” and each universe can
control 512 addresses.

In lighting systems where you are using dimmers to control the

intensity of the lights, usually the number of the socket you
plugged the light into will correspond to the channel number

Lighting Systems 37
 you will use to control it. You can also use the ‘patch’ function
to change these number allocations. When you are using
LEDs (or moving lights) you also need to give each fixture a
unique address. This digital address is the lighting desk’s way
of knowing how to control the particular LED fixture you have
When patching, consider connected. With a dimmer, there is only one control parameter
using multiples of ten, – intensity. With an LED fixture, there is more than one control
rounded up above the number
parameter. You can control intensity, but you can also control
of required addresses. For
color and may have a strobe parameter.
example, if you need 13
addresses,offset your patch
When you assign the addresses to the lights, you should be sure
by 20 for each new fixture:
to leave a big enough gap between addresses so that none of
1, 21, 41, 61, etc.
the control parameters overlap each other as this can cause
some problems further down the line.

Most modern consoles are capable of assigning addresses to

the fixtures for you, using a feature called RDM (Remote Device
Don’t forget to read the Management) – so it is one less thing for you to think about!
manual for your lighting
console so that you can be Once your fixtures have been rigged and patched, you can
sure to get the most out of it! ‘flash’ all the channels to make sure that everything is working.
You are now ready to start focusing the lights.

What is “patching”?

Patching is how we connect the lights in our rig to the lighting

console. We have already plugged them in to the dimmer
or power outlets, and where needed, connected the DMX.
Patching is the virtual connection between the instruments
and the console. As the size and complexity of the lighting rig
increases, there is more and more information that the lighting
desk needs to distribute to the units on the rig. Patching is a
way of ensuring that you can control the right lights in the right
way and ensure that only information intended for a specific
instrument is actually delivered to that instrument. It is a way of
organizing the lights and channel numbers into a logical system
that will be easy to work with and recall. There are two types
of patching systems, or methods, that you are likely to come
across: Hard- and Soft-patching.

38 Lighting Systems
Hard patching is the system in which the luminaires are
connected directly to the dimmer outlet (or switched outlet) on
the lighting bar.

Soft patching occurs at console level and is a way of telling

the console which lights you have rigged and which channel
numbers you want to use to control them with.

Patching gives us a way to talk to (via the lighting desk) and

talk about (to our colleagues) the lighting rig. If, every time
we wanted to use a light we had to say (or type in) “third light
from the left on the fourth electrix” it would take ages to get
any work done. So, we allocate a dedicated number to each
light on the rig which we call a “channel number” or simply a
“channel.”

The advantage of doing this is that we get to decide on a

numbering system that makes sense to us. You might decide
that you want your FOH lighting to be Channels 1 thru 8 and
the wash lights to be Channels 101 thru 108 – for no reason
other than it makes sense to you!

Patching allows you to do this. A channel number can be either

single fixture like a Source Four, or it can be a fixture like an LED
or a moving light, or it can even be a number of individual lights
that you may want to control together, like your houselights,
for instance.

When you are patching conventional (tungsten-based)

instruments, one dimmer is typically patched to one channel
number. There are some exceptions to this, but that is the
general rule, as you probably want to be able to control each
light individually. When patching conventionals, the type of
light is not important – all you are patching is the dimmer.
When patching, we talk of the dimmers as “addresses”. Each
dimmer is an “address”. Dimmer 1 = Address 1, and so on.

When it comes to controlling LEDs (or moving lights), there

is more than one control parameter. With a tungsten source,
you are only controlling intensity. With a moving light, you can
also control color, position, gobo, and any number of other
parameters. Each parameter requires its own address so that
the console knows which parameters to send instructions to.
All you need to do is determine the STARTING ADDRESS and
the fixture and console will work out the rest.

Lighting Systems 39
 Parameter Default Address Patched Address
Intensity 1 101
Red 2 102
Green 3 103
Blue 4 104
Lime 5 105
Strobe 6 106

When you are setting the addresses of the fixtures, each light
must have its own unique address and they should not overlap.
There will be a way to set the address of the fixture on the light
itself – the user manual for your lights will guide you through
this process.

Unique DMX address setting

101 DMX Link 111 121 131

DMX in
1 2 3 4
Channel DMX
number address

Power Control Rack

Dimmable circuit
DMX

DMX

Switched Power

Lighting console

40 Lighting Systems
 CHAPTER 8: PLANNING YOUR DESIGN

Theatre is a collaborative process – the relationship between

the director, designers, crew and cast is important. Everyone
needs to be speaking the same “language” when it comes to
the production. It is important to establish a means of referring
to the stage so that we all understand where the actors, props
and furniture will be placed. One of the ways we do this is to
divide the stage into virtual zones called “acting areas.” This
grid divides the stage into a number of areas that we can refer
to consistently so that everyone shares an understanding of
direction and placement.

The number of acting areas on the stage will vary depending

on the size of the stage, but as a typical rule, they are
approximately 3m (10ft) wide zones. The stage is divided both
horizontally and vertically and all the zones are names from the
actor’s point of view, as they are looking at the audience. In
European theatres, this convention is reversed, and the parts
of the stage are named from the audience’s (or director’s) point
of view. For the purposes of this book, we will be naming the
areas as shown in the image below. This is not the only way of
referencing the stage positioning, but it is the most common.

USR USC USL

Upstage Upstage Upstage
Right Center Left

MSR CS MSL
Midstage Center Midstage
Right Stage Left

DSR DSC DSL

Downstage Downstage Downstage
Right Center Left

Planning Your Design 41

 As a general rule, most lighting designs start with the designer
reading the script, or in the case of a musical, reading the ‘book’
and listening to the score. The script is the starting point for you
as the designer and will, as the design develops, become the
main resource for all your lighting information.

Script reading is a bit like painting a picture – you start with

the broad strokes, then you go over it again and add in any
specific elements and then you go over it again and add in all
the details. It is a good idea to read the script at least three
times – the first time is simply to understand the story and learn
about the characters, the period and any other ‘broad strokes’
information that you can glean.

When you read it for the second time, you can start looking for
Top tip!
some of the specific details that might be referred to in the text
Using small Post-It® notes
which will usually be in the stage directions. For instance, the
to mark up the script is a
opening stage direction might read: “The lights fade up slowly
quick way to highlight your
cues. It also means that you
and we discover Susan sitting at the kitchen table bathed in the
can use different colors for early morning sunlight”. Based on our objectives, it is a given
different ideas, and if a cue that we will make sure we can see the actors and that we will
moves, then you can just do what we can to make them look well-sculpted and three-
move the note. dimensional. When reading the script, we are looking for clues
as to two of our other objectives – mood and information. We
are looking for the ‘when and the where’ as well as the ‘how
are they feeling.’ Remember, sometimes the clues will be in the
spoken words by the actors and not in the stage directions –
so skimming over the text just looking for the stage directions
might mean that you miss some important bits of information!

42 Planning Your Design

When you read the script for the third time, you are looking
more closely for other references that might offer up some
clues about the lighting and that might inform some of the
choices you make. Look at metaphor – does the playwright use
weather or color to convey meaning? How can you pick up on
these themes in your design? You might also start looking at
possible blocking notes and mentions of entrances and exits –
will these require you to do anything specific?

You do not have to sit down and read the script three times in
close succession – in fact, it is probably better if you don’t! You
may want to meet with the director and other designers after
you have read it for the first time to talk about style and period
and to get a sense of what the director’s vision for the play is –
this is all information that will inform and affect how you read
the script and what you might be looking for when you read it
again. Start to make notes in your script about where you think
cues might be placed and make notes about what each cue
might do and what the mood of each moment might be. It is a
good idea to find some visual references to help remind you of
your ideas and make them easier to convey to the director and
other designers.

Part of your preparation process should be attending rehearsals.

This is where you will get a chance to see the blocking of the
play and get a good sense of timings for your cues. You will
also be able to clarify any concerns that you may have with the
director or stage manager. You should also meet with the other
designers (set, costume, and sound) and start to familiarize
yourself with their designs too. Pay attention to the set design,
study the plans and drawings and be sure to let everyone know
if you spot any potential difficulties as soon as possible. There
will usually be a model box of the set too and this is a great way
to get a really good sense of what the finished set will look like.
Make sure that you have seen the costume designs as you want
to be certain that any colors you decide to use will be flattering
on the fabrics that the costume designer has chosen. It is worth
talking to the sound designer too – perhaps they have some
elements as a part of the soundscape they are creating that you
will need to add to – is there a crack of thunder that might need
a flash of lightning to go with it?

Planning Your Design 43

 Lighting design is the most reactionary of the creative aspects
of the show – you tend to make choices based on the decisions
that have already been made by the other designers and
director. Preparation is essential so that you are not caught by
surprise.

Once you have a good understanding of the script and you

have attended rehearsals, you will be in a good place to
start planning your design in detail. Part of this process is the
drawing of the actual lighting plan itself and the creation of
all the associated paperwork. The lighting plan is a drawing
(usually to scale) that shows the crew exactly which lights are
going to be hung in which position. The plan will also carry
other information like color choice, channel numbers and any
other bits of information that the crew will need in order to be
able to install the lighting correctly.

You have read the script. You have met with the director and
other designers. Now what? Where do you begin? If you follow
the objectives as the basis for your design, this will guide you in
the placing of fixtures and selection of colors.

Top tip! There are generally four elements to a lighting design:

When you are dividing
• General cover
your stage into acting
• Specials
areas, always try and get
an odd number of areas • Set lighting
from left to right. This • Effects
way, you will always have
a center area and we all
The priority of these may vary slightly depending on the type of
know that the majority show you are doing, but if you follow this approach you can be
of important moments sure of covering all your bases.
on stage happen center
stage! This means that if
you need to isolate the
General cover
central area to help focus
the audience’s attention,
You know you need lights for visibility (face light) as well as
then you can do so using
some that will tick the ‘revelation of form’ box. A good starting
your general cover and
point is to divide the stage into ‘acting areas’ and make sure
you may not need to add
a special to do this job. If that you provide good general cover for these areas. An ‘acting
you need help in deciding area’ is typically 3m x 3m (10’ x 10’). On your average stage,
which lights to use for the this will mean that you are able to divide the stage into nine
best coverage, refer to acting areas.
Appendix A.

44 Planning Your Design

Each acting area should have at least one face light and one
back light, but if it is possible, try to get two face lights (front
45/45) and a back light per area. This is known as a ‘3-point
general’ and will give you excellent visibility and revelation
of form – two of your objectives covered just by getting the
general cover right! Remember when you are focusing, that
you should allow for a little bit of an overlap between the areas
so that you do not have any actors walking through a dark
patch or ‘dip’ in the lighting.

Lights from the FOH bridges will most likely be profiles (like the
ColorSource Spot) and the back lights will most likely be PARs Object or
or Fresnels like the ColorSource PAR or Desire Fresnel. Using person
lights from the ColorSource family will ensure that you have
full control over the color choices you make so it will be easy to
adjust color to suit the mood of the play and you will not have
to worry about ordering or cutting any gels. 3-point general:
2 front 45/45 and 1 backlight
Once you have placed your general cover, then you can start
to add in the specials and any other lights that are over and
above what you need for your general. The above process
applies mostly to lighting plays. If you are lighting dance, then
you would probably favor side light and back light and have less
light in the FOH positions.

Specials

Now that you have your general cover taken care of, you can
start to consider what, if any, specials you may need for your
show. Specials are anything that fall outside of the general
A special is the theatrical
cover. For example, you may need to have a light focused to
equivalent of a close-up. In
a specific place for the final monologue, or perhaps you want
film or television, the camera
a window gobo to suggest time of day. Specials are there to
is able to zoom in on what the
help you tell the story and to take the design to the next level – director wants us to focus on.
lighting is about so much more than just a good general wash On stage, we use a special to
of light. If there are practicals on the set, then these are also highlight the actor (or object)
considered to be specials and you should make provision for that we want the audience to
controlling them in your design. Practicals are lighting elements focus on.
that the actors interact with – table lamps, chandeliers, wall
sconces or other appliances – if it lights up or turns on, then you
need to be able to control it!

Planning Your Design 45

 Set lighting

There are times when you will need to allocate some fixtures to
specifically light the scenery – perhaps there is an odd shadow
that you need to get rid of, or perhaps there is a doorway and
you want some light to come streaming through. Once you
have your general cover and specials allocated, then you can
add in the fixtures that you will need here. It is worth noting
that allocating lights for your cyclorama should be thought of
as part of your general cover. As you tend to use floodlights or
ColorSource Cyc units for this purpose, you can build this into
your general cover as these units do not generally have a use
outside of this application.

Effects

These are really the icing on the cake and unless they are
specifically called for in the text, tend to be the last things that
we add into our design. Smoke, haze, rain, fire, snow, strobes,
etc. are all effects and should be used with caution. When you
are adding in effects, always be careful that your lighting or
effect will not distract the audience from the action that is
happening on stage – lighting should always support the action
on stage.

46 Planning Your Design

 CHAPTER 9: GETTING TECHNICAL

Now that the lighting plan is finished, it is time to start hanging

lights and get ready for the show.

Working in theatre can be dangerous if safety isn’t everyone’s

priority. Before you start to rig any lighting, there are several
checks that should be completed first for each light that you
are going to hang.

• Electrical
• Mechanical
• Optical

Electrical checks

Before you hang any of the lights, you should inspect each one
for electrical safety. It is worth looking into your local legislations
as most countries have laws that require that each electrical
apparatus is tested for electrical safety and compliance every
year (this should be done by a qualified professional) but it is a
good habit to do a quick visual check on each unit each time
before you use it.
• Check the plug
- Are there any exposed wires?
- If it rattles when you shake it, there might be something
loose inside – so get it checked
• Check the cable
- Is the outer sleeve damaged?
- Are there any exposed wires?
- Is there any exposed copper?
- Is the cable properly secured to the fixture?
• Check the lamp holder (in the case of tungsten lights)
- Are the wires burnt?
- Are there exposed bits of copper wire?
- Is the earth cable properly attached?
- Is the lamp sitting securely in the holder?

Getting Technical 47
 Mechanical checks

It is important to make sure that the light is working properly

and that you will be able to focus it the way you want. A quick
visual inspection of the following elements will save you lots of
time later on:
• Is there a safety cable attached to the light?
• Is the hook clamp fastened securely with the correct bolts,
nuts and washers?
• Does the yoke move freely but lock off securely?
• Do the focus mechanisms (lens tube, or lamp adjustment
knobs) move freely but lock off securely?
• Are the accessories (barndoors, color frames, shutters, gobo
holders, etc.) properly secured and working correctly?

Optical checks

For lights to perform at their optimum, it is important that

the optical systems (lamps, reflectors, lenses) are all clean and
working properly. It is worth checking the following points
before you hang the light:
• Lenses
- Are they clean and free of dust and grime?
- Are they free of cracks or other damage?
• Reflectors (for tungsten lights)
- Are they clean and free of dust and grime?
- Are they free of cracks and other damage?
- Are they secured and aligned properly?
• Lamps (for tungsten lights)
- Are they clean and free of dust and grime?
- Are they free of cracks and other damage?
• REMEMBER – if you have to change the lamp, NEVER touch
the glass with your fingers. Always use a cloth to handle and
replace the lamps. If you do touch the glass accidentally, be
sure to wipe it clean with an alcoholic swab to remove any
fingerprints and residue.

If something looks wrong, or feels unsafe, do not use it until

you have had it inspected by a qualified professional. Once all
the safety inspections have taken place, you can start to hang
the lights on the bars. When all the lights have been rigged and

48 Getting Technical
plugged in, take some time to “flash out” every circuit to make
sure the light is working. Checking as you work will save you
time in the long run. You may need to patch the lights into the
lighting desk first before you can control them. If your theatre
has lighting bars that fly in and out, once you have made
sure that everything is rigged correctly and working properly,
you can set the “trim” on the bar. This is the height that you
want the bar to be at for the show. If there is a set, then it will
probably need to be installed before you can start to focus.

The focus session is the time when you get to set all the lights
where you want them. There is usually a large team required
for the focus session. Typically, there will be one person sitting
at the lighting desk to bring up the lights so that they can be
focused. There will be a person at the top of the ladder who
is doing the focusing, there will be a couple of people at the
bottom of the ladder supporting it (always ensure that you
are working within the ‘safe practice for working at height’
guidelines) and the lighting designer who will be giving the
instructions to the person who is focusing. When you have set
each light where you want it, before moving on to the next
light, be sure to give the instruction to “lock it off.” This means
that all the locking mechanisms should be tightened so that it
will not move once you have finished.

Once all the lights have been focused, it is time to start plotting.

The plotting session is the time where you get to build up and
program the cues into the lighting desk. This is the time where
you set the intensities, select the colors and adjust any of the
other parameters that you might have control over to create
your cue list based on the notes you have made from reading
the script, talking to the director and watching rehearsals. You
do not need to have all your cues finished at this stage – but
it is a good idea to at least have a rough look for each scene –
that way, it will give you a base to build on during the technical
rehearsals and will give you a starting point to show the director.
While you are building your cues, keep your objectives in mind
as this will form the building blocks of your design:

• Start with the lights that will give you the visibility you need
(front lights).
• Add the lights that sculpt and give the scene dimension (side
or back lights).

Getting Technical 49
 • Choose the colors to help support the mood of the scene
• Add in any lights that help impart information about the
scene – time of day, location, etc.
• Finally, look at the cue critically and make sure that you have
created a beautiful composition.
• You can adjust the timings of the cues in the technical
rehearsals, so you do not need to worry too much about this
for now.

Even though you are working towards achieving all your

objectives, it is not always essential, or even possible, to hit all
five objectives in every cue.

Once you have a rough cue list programmed, it is probably time

to get the actors on stage and start the technical rehearsals.

Technical rehearsals are when all the technical elements and

the actors come together for the first time. You will get to see
the costumes under the lighting you have created, you will get
to see the set come to life with your lighting layered on top
and the actors will get a chance to rehearse with the technical
elements of the show. It can usually be a slow process and
you may need to make changes to your lighting as you work
through the play with the actors and the director.

Once you have worked through the show you will then put
it all together and run it through in a dress rehearsal. There
will hopefully be some time for notes after the dress rehearsals
which is when you make any final adjustments to the lighting
design.

All that is left is to invite the audience and have the opening
performance!

50 Getting Technical
 Lighting checklist
Print or copy this page to use as a guide when rigging.

Electrical checks
• Check the plug
¨ Are there any exposed wires?
¨ If it rattles when you shake it, there might be something loose inside – so get it checked
• Check the cable
¨ Is the outer sleeve damaged?
¨ Are there any exposed wires?
¨ Is there any exposed copper?
¨ Is the cable properly secured to the fixture?
• Check the lamp holder (in the case of tungsten lights)
¨ Are the wires burnt?
¨ Are there exposed bits of copper wire?
¨ Is the earth cable properly attached?
¨ Is the lamp sitting securely in the holder?

Mechanical checks
¨ Is there a safety cable attached to the light?
¨ Is the hook clamp fastened securely with the correct bolts, nuts and washers?
¨ Does the yoke move freely but lock off securely?
¨ Do the focus mechanisms (lens tube, or lamp adjustment knobs) move freely but lock off
securely?
¨ Are the accessories (barndoors, color frames, shutters, gobo holders, etc.) properly secured
and working correctly?

Optical checks
• Lenses
¨ Are they clean and free of dust and grime?
¨ Are they free of cracks or other damage?
• Reflectors (for tungsten lights)
¨ Are they clean and free of dust and grime?
¨ Are they free of cracks and other damage?
¨ Are they secured and aligned properly?
• Lamps (for tungsten lights)
¨ Are they clean and free of dust and grime?
¨ Are they free of cracks and other damage?
• REMEMBER – if you have to change the lamp, NEVER touch the glass with your fingers. Always
use a cloth to handle and replace the lamps. If you do touch the glass accidentally, be sure to
wipe it clean with an alcoholic swab to remove any fingerprints and residue.

Getting Technical 51
APPENDIX A

Beam Spread Calculator

Use this graphic to calculate your beam spread. This will help you to select the right light for the
right job and ensure that you get the coverage on stage that you require.

Top tip!
If you are using a gobo, this will effectively reduce your spread by one “lens factor” - so if you are
using a 36° spot with a gobo, use the 26° reference for calculating your beam angle.

90°
2
Throw distance in meters

70°
3 50°

4 36°

26°
5
19°

6 14°

10°
7
5°
8
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Area covered in meters

52 Appendix
 APPENDIX B

RGB Color Mixing

Red Green Blue Color

Full 35% Out Orange
Full 65% Out Amber
Full Full Out Yellow
65% Full Out Pea green
35% Full Out Light green
Out Full Out Green
Out Full 35% Deep green
Out Full 65% Peacock
Out Full Full Blue-green
Out 65% Full Light blue
Out 35% Full Mid-blue
Out Out Full Blue
35% Out Full Violet
65% Out Full Mauve
Full Out Full Magenta
Full Out 65% Claret
Full Out 35% Scarlet
Full Out Out Red
Full 50% 50% Deep salmon
Full 75% 50% Light salmon
Full Full 50% Warm grey
75% Full 50% Green tint
50% Full 50% Pale green
50% Full 75% Steel grey
50% Full Full Steel blue
50% 75% Full Cold white
50% 50% Full Lavender
75% 50% Full Pale rose
Full 50% Full Deep rose
Full 50% 75% Pink

These values are an estimate – actual values may differ from fixture to fixture.

Appendix 53
APPENDIX C

PAR Lamps comparison table

The table below is a comparison of beam angles for PAR64 lamps – the lamps most commonly
found in PARcans.

Lamp Type Lamp Name Beam Angle

VNSP (USA) Very Narrow Spot 12° x 6°
NSP (USA) Narrow Spot 14° x 7°
MFL (USA) Medium Flood 28° x 12°
WFL (USA) Wide Flood 48° x 24°
CP60 (UK) Very Narrow Spot 12° x 6°
CP61 (UK) Narrow Spot 13° x 10°
CP62 (UK) Medium Flood 25° x 14°
EXG (UK) Wide Flood 26° x 40°
CP95 (UK) Very Wide Flood 45° x 70°

ETC Source Four PAR lens comparison table

The Source Four PAR is cheaper to use as you do not need to keep a large stock of different
lamps. You can change the size of the beam by swapping the lens.

Lens Type Lens Name Beam Angle

Clear, flat Clear 8°
Frosted Very Narrow Spot 8°
Eight rows Narrow Spot 10°
Ten rows Medium Flood 12° x 19°
Twelve rows Wide Flood 30° x 51°

54 Appendix
 APPENDIX D

Look at these images through

a red filter and then a green
filter and see how they
change color!

Appendix 55
GLOSSARY

Ampere: Amps define the rate of electrical current on a circuit. Electrical circuits are defined by
their amperage, which in combination with the supply voltage determines how much wattage
can be safely connected to that circuit.

Apron: A part of the stage that extends in front of the proscenium arch.

Array: The term used to describe a collection of LED emitters in a luminaire. The recipe of LED
colors in an array defines the type of light that luminaire can produce (the color gamut).

Back light: Light shone on a subject from behind, used to push the subject out of the
background and define form.

Backing: A light that illuminates the area behind a door or window.

Backstage: Stage area behind the proscenium and scenery.

Bar: A plain bar or internally wired lighting bar (IWB) suspended above the stage or auditorium
onto which spotlights are attached.

Barn doors: Hinged metal flaps that can be attached to the front of Fresnels to adjust the beam
shape. These can also be used with other types of lights to reduce glare.

Beam spread: Light from theatrical luminaires typically forms a conical beam – narrow at the
fixture and wider as the light gets farther from the fixture. The angle of the cone is called beam
spread. This value is important in calculating how much light will hit the stage from a luminaire
rigged at a certain distance from the stage.

Blind: Changes made to the programmed lighting states that do not affect the current lighting
state on stage.

Board: Another term for a lighting control desk or console.

Boom: A vertical lighting bar.

Boom arm: A metal support that attaches a spotlight to a boom.

Build: Slow increase in light intensity.

Check (back): Reduce light intensity.

Circuit breaker: A device that automatically interrupts an electrical circuit when an overloading
fault is detected. This is usually caused by a short circuit or too much connected load.

Color call: List of colored filters required for tungsten lighting when rigging a show.

56 Glossary
Color filter booklet (or swatch): A small booklet of sample pieces of color filter materials
including their name, number and spectral distribution characteristics. These booklets serve
as a reference for the lighting designer when choosing the colors for a production. Color
filters are generally designed to work on conventional tungsten luminaires, but there are some
manufacturers making color filters for white-light LED luminaires as well. Color filter booklets
are available from a theatrical equipment dealer.

Control channel: The control channel is the numerical name the designer uses for a luminaire
or set of luminaires that are controlled together. Control channels are used to group sets of
luminaires or devices together in a logical way relating to how the designer thinks about the
design, rather than to their physical location in the venue.

Cross-fade: Gradual change from one lighting state to another where the incoming state
replaces the previous state.

Cue: The starting point for a lighting change. A word or action or signal from performer or
stage manager that initiates a lighting change or some other change onstage.

Cyclorama (cyc): A white backcloth or painted surface at the rear of the stage.

Dimmer: A device that increases or reduces the power reaching the luminaires in a tungsten
lighting system, usually in response to signals from a control desk.

Dimmer rack: A wall mounted or floor standing cabinet which contains a number of dimmers,
controlled by a lighting desk. Dimmers in a rack can sometimes be replaced by relays, which turn
the power for a circuit on or off, like a switch. The ETC ColorSource ThruPower rack combines
dimmers and relays on each lighting circuit – the user can change the setting of each circuit at
the rack. The circuit can then be used either with traditional tungsten load (with a dimmer) or
with LEDs, moving lights or other devices that require constant power (with a relay).

DMX512-A: A Digital Multiplex protocol used for controlling dimmers and devices from a
lighting control desk.

DMX terminator: A device used to dampen the end of a run of DMX512-A signal. This consists
of an XLR-M connector with a 100 ohm resistor soldered between pins 1 and 2. These can be
hand-made or purchased from an equipment dealer.

Deputy Stage Manager (DSM): The DSM is the person in charge of running the show on a
daily basis. It is their job to call all the lighting cues, scene changes etc, ensuring the performance
runs as rehearsed and agreed. All the information, cues, scripts and important notes are kept in
a book which never leaves the stage or theatre. The DSM usually sits at the SM desk, sometimes
called the prompt desk, on stage left (Prompt side).

Dips: Low level electrical sockets or sockets below the surface of the stage.

Fixed lens: A lens fitted to a profile luminaire that will produce a beam of light at a known or
“fixed” angle.

Glossary 57
Floodlight: Stage luminaires that produce a wide beam of light. Floods are not normally fitted
with lenses.

Focus: To adjust a beam of light to deliver the required beam shape or sharpness.

Follow-spot: A long-throw profile spotlight mounted on a swivel base, used to follow a person
as they move around the stage.

Fresnel: A stage luminaire fitted with a Fresnel lens that produces a soft edged, controllable
beam of light.

Front of House (FoH): The area in front of the stage or proscenium containing the audience.

Front light: Light that hits a subject from the same direction as the audience is looking. Front
light is used for visibility of actors’ faces.

Fuse: A safety device fitted to older dimmer circuits and some plug tops (13A) to detect
overload. Modern dimmers use circuit breakers.

Gamut: The color gamut is the complete range of colors that an LED luminaire can produce.
The fewer the colors in the LED array, the smaller the color gamut.

Gate: Part of a profile spotlight, located at the internal focal point where gobos and other beam
shaping devices can be placed.

Gels: Sheets of colored, transparent material which are fitted at the front of stage luminaires in
order to color the beam of light (from Gelatin, the original color filter material).

Gobo: A patterned metal or glass disc which, when fitted into the gate of a profile spotlight,
will project the pattern onto the stage, cyc or scenery.

Ground-row: A row of floodlights, used to illuminate a cyc or backcloth from below.

Hook clamp: A hook-shaped clamp used to attach luminaires on to a bar.

Inrush current: A surge of current on an electrical circuit, produced when a device is first
turned on. The inrush current of a set of devices may exceed the current rating of a circuit and
cause a circuit breaker to trip, even if the normal operating current is under the limit of that
circuit.

Iris diaphragm: A device with an adjustable hole, which can be inserted into the gate of a
profile to change the diameter of the projected beam.

Kilowatt (kW): 1000 watts.

Lamp: A glass envelope containing a tungsten filament or other lighting source. Not required
in LED luminaires.

58 Glossary
Lantern: The original term for a stage luminaire.

LED – Light Emitting Diode: An LED is a small electronic device that emits light of a specific
color. LEDs may produce very narrow frequencies of light or may produce a wider range of
frequencies when manufactured with phosphors. LEDs are combined into arrays to produce the
light in entertainment luminaires – the more colors available in an array, the greater the range
of colored light a luminaire can produce.

Lighting control desk: The computer used to control connected dimmers and devices and to
store programmed cue information for a production. Also known as a light board or console.

Lighting Plan or Light Plot: a schematic drawing of the lighting rig, used to communicate to
technicians where to hang luminaires and how luminaires will be patched in the lighting control
desk.

Limes: The old name for follow-spots derived from the use of lime – the original light source.

Master: A fader that can override all other fades and function on a lighting desk.

Ohm: A unit of electrical resistance. Conductors (wires) are rated in ohms.

O.P. (Opposite Prompt): A stage direction meaning stage right.

Offstage: Any area of a stage which cannot be seen by the audience.

Onstage: Any area of a stage which can be seen by the audience.

Open white: The term used to describe a light that has no gel fitted. When thinking of LED,
this would refer to all emitters being at full, creating white light.

P.S. (Prompt Side): A stage direction meaning stage left.

Pan: To move a spotlight or moving light in a generally left-right or horizontal motion.

PARcan: A luminaire based on a sealed beam lamp contained in a simple can-shaped housing.

PAR lamp: Sealed beam lamp to fit into a PARcan.

Patch panel: A physical connection point between numbered circuits in the theatre and the
dimmers in the dimmer rack. Patch panels have been replaced by dimmer-per-circuit systems
where each circuit is directly wiredto a dimmer position in a dimmer rack.

Patching: The linking of dimmer circuits or DMX addresses to control channels in the lighting
control desk.

Perch: A stage lighting position located on either side of the proscenium.

Glossary 59
Plan: The drawing indicating where all luminaires should be placed and how they should be
connected to the lighting system. This drawing is usually drawn to scale.

Plot: The list of cues and other instructions necessary to produce the necessary lighting changes
for the entire performance.

Practical: A prop or other electrical device (table lamp, TV, etc) which is operated, or apparently
operated, by a member of the cast. Depending upon function, the practical may not be
connected to the dimming system.

Preset (1): A term originally applied to a simple manual lighting desk where two groups of
faders (A and B) were raised to the levels needed in two different scenes. A cross-fader provided
a means to fade between “Preset A” and “Preset B.” Not widely used now.

Preset (2): A term used in some modern control desks to denote a single fader to which
a number of channels at different intensities has assigned and recorded. These may also be
known as submasters.

Preset (3): A lighting state on stage before the performance begins.

Profile spot: A stage luminaire fitted with either one (fixed angle) or two lenses (zoom). The
profile can project images or patterns (gobos) and can be accurately focused and shaped using
internal shutters.

Prompt: Lines fed to an actor who has forgotten his/her place. The “prompter” is the person
who would normally give these lines, but this is no longer used in the professional theatre. If
lines are missed, the Deputy Stage Manager (DSM) on the “book” will call the missing dialogue.
Also see P.S.

Proscenium (arch): An arch or opening in the front wall of the stage, which frames the
audience’s view of the show. Some performance spaces have no proscenium; others install a
temporary “false proscenium” made from drapes or curtain or scenery flattage.

RCD (Residual Current Device): A safety device connected to an electrical supply to detect
whether the current between the energized and return conductors of a circuit is balanced.
A difference in current on these two lines can indicate a short circuit or leakage to the earth
conductor (a live shock in progress). Imbalance causes the RCD to trip, breaking the circuit.

Record: The process of saving information to a computerized, or memory desk. All the
information relating to the show is recorded and will include cues, times, soft patching and
other set up procedures. The combined show data is stored in a show file, which can be stored
on the console hard disk itself, and to an external memory stick for backup.

Rig: The lighting installation and placement of luminaires for a particular show. The rig may be
changed from show to show.

60 Glossary
Safety bond: A safety device made of rated clips and wire rope, intended to prevent a stage
luminaire falling if the main suspension point fails. Safety bonds have replaced safety chains.
Unlike chains, safety bonds can be tested and made to a common safe weight standard. Safety
bonds should be weight stamped so the correct bond can be used with the selected luminaire.

Safety chain: A strong welded link chain used to prevent a stage luminaire falling if the main
suspension point fails. Replaced by safety bonds.

Shutter: Metal plates that are fitted into the gate position of a profile spotlight, used to control
the shape and size of the projected beam.

Sidelight: Light that hits its subject from the left or right (from the point of view of the audience).
Sidelight is used to reveal the form of three-dimensional objects or performers.

Special: A light that is intended to perform very specific task, like spotlighting an actor during a
big downstage monologue or lighting a presenter at a podium. Specials may be added to help
an existing rig better suit the needs of a show.

Spigot: A short metal rod which connects a luminaire to a lighting stand.

Spill: Unwanted light from a luminaire.

Spotlight: The generic name for any luminaire which has a controllable beam.

Stage Manager’s desk (SM desk): Located on stage left (PS or prompt side) this is where the
DSM on the “book” will call all the cues for the show. In some theatres, the SM desk is located
on stage right (O.P. or opposite prompt) this is known as a bastard prompt.

Stirrup: The U-shaped metal supporting hoop attached to a luminaire (also known as a trunnion
arm).

Tabs: A set of curtains that can be closed across the front of the stage (behind the proscenium,
if there is one).

Throw: The distance from a luminaire to the stage or area on the stage. Throw affects the size
of the beam of light and will help to determine which size lens to use.

Thrust stage: a stage that extends into the auditorium and is surrounded on three sides by
audience seating.

Tungsten-halogen: The correct description of a tungsten lamp. A thin tungsten filament is

supported in quartz-glass envelope filled with a halogen gas.

UV: Ultraviolet light, used for special effects.

Upstage: The area of a stage closest to the back wall or cyclorama.

Glossary 61
Volt: A unit of power that quantifies the difference of potential that carries one ampere of
current against one ohm of resistance. Electrical supplies are rated in voltage.

Watt: A unit of power that quantifies the rate of energy transfer. Used to describe the power
consumption of lamps and devices. Wattage equals a circuit’s voltage multiplied by its amperage
(W=VA).

Wings: The side areas of a stage not seen by the audience.

Working lights (1): An independent lighting system, not connected to the stage dimming
systems, which can be switched on and off as required by the stage crew.

Working light (2): Lighting is sometimes required on stage for the crew to set a new scene. In
some circumstances normal working lights would be too bright, so a cue is incorporated into
the lighting plot allowing the crew to work quickly and safely.

Zoom: A system comprising two lenses that can be adjusted to vary the size and focus of a
beam of light from a profile luminaire.

62 Glossary
 TEACHING EXERCISE 1

Lighting Angles

This exercise is called “Circle of Light” and is a good way to demonstrate the different lighting
angles and the effect that these have on the performer. For this exercise, you will need to be in
a large open space, preferably one that you black out, as you will need darkness for this to be
really effective.

Ask the students to stand in a circle with a volunteer in the center of the circle. Students can use
the torches on their mobile phones for this exercise. If mobile phones are not allowed at school,
then some cheap LED torches will work just as well.

The students stand in a large circle with their phones held close to themselves (this is so that we
can control the light).

Divide the group up into four quarters and have everyone in Q1 light the person in the middle.

Those shining the light will be seeing front light. Those not shining the light will be seeing back
light if they are opposite the light holders or side light if they are adjacent.

Now call the next quarter and so on and investigate how the light on the person in the middle
changes. Keep going until you have gone all the way around. Now try doing opposite groups
together and then adjacent groups together.

If the session is going well, the teacher can try varying the number of students shining lights
from a particular angle, this gives a basic idea of light balance. Try lifting the lights high above
your heads or low down to the ground and see what changes in the shadow play on the person
in the middle.

When investigating side light, arrange the class in parallel lines across the space, ready to point
their phones in straight lines at the opposing person.

Teaching Exercises 63
TEACHING EXERCISE 2

Revelation of Form
Ask the students to find some objects that have
texture. This can be anything from a section of
corrugated cardboard, to a rock, to a piece of bark, or
even a crunched up piece of paper.

Again, using the torches on their mobile phones (if

allowed) ask them to light the object using the six
A flat front light does not reveal much
texture as there are minimal shadows. basic lighting angles – Flat Front Light, Front 45, Side
Light, Back Light, Top Light and Up Light and to take
note of how the object transforms from appearing as
a flat two-dimensional object into something more
visually interesting as the shadows start to have an
effect on the object.

Ask another student to add their torch onto the

same object, but in a different color. You can use a
As the angle gets steeper, more piece of gel to add color to their torch. Notice how
shadows are introduced, the texture
becomes more defined. the introduction of color (and it does not have to be
saturated) adds another dimension to the object they
are lighting.

Ask the students to arrange a series of objects on a

table (or other flat space). These can be the objects
used in the above exercise. Arrange them as if they
were scenic elements on the stage and then ask the
students to light them using a single torch and then
Almost directly overhead, the shadows are multiple torches and see the different effects that can
dramatic and the texture is prominent.
be created. You can also experiment with different
colors.

A side light helps to sculpt the object

and reveal texture.

64 Teaching Exercises
 TEACHING EXERCISE 3

Color

For this experiment, you will need a light to be rigged

above a table. If you have an LED (RGB or better), this is
ideal. If you only have a tungsten source, then you will
need three pieces of filter – primary red, primary green
and primary blue. The light should be easily within reach
so that you can change colors during the experiment. If
you are using an LED fixture, then have it connected to White light
the lighting desk so that you can change colors quickly
and easily.

Pour out some M&M’s or Skittles into a bowl and set

them on a table under the light. Start by turning the light
on in open white.

Ask the students to sort the M&M’s into separate piles

according to color. Once they start to sort the sweets,
Red light
change the color of the light to red. This will make this
seemingly simple task much more difficult. Let them keep
sorting the sweets for a while longer. Remove the color
from the light and let them see how well they sorted the
sweets.

Ask them to continue sorting the sweets into separate

color piles.

After a while, change the color of the light to green, and

Green light
then to blue.

Changing the color of the light will change the colors of

the sweets making them harder to sort, showing how
important color choice can be on stage.

Blue light

Teaching Exercises 65
TEACHING EXERCISE 4

Information Exercise

The aim of this exercise is to get the students thinking about the different ways that lighting
can convey information to the audience and help to establish the location of the play, the time
of day etc.

The Window Test

Imagine that you are working in a black box theatre – the only piece of scenery that you have is
a window frame hanging upstage, and a small table and chair.

Try to come up with as many different lighting solutions as possible using the window as your
main “source” of light to change the location, time of day, and feel of the room.

You can start with the simpler, more obvious choices and work towards more complex solutions
and moods.

Easy: Time of day – Talk about how the light could be changed to show morning, afternoon,
evening and night time. Think about choices of color as well as angle.

Difficult: Season – Talk about how the light might change through the seasons – how could you
convey this to your audience? Winter light might be softer, cooler and not as harsh as summer
sunlight, for instance.

Challenging: Do you think it would be possible to convey that the window is perhaps on the
2nd floor of a building, an apartment, for example. How would you go about this? How could
you suggest inclement weather outside? A flash of lightning through the window, perhaps?

What other effects can you think of to tell a different story about this location? Some might
include using a flashing red (or pink) light to suggest a neon sign outside the window – perhaps
this is a room in a seedy motel. Maybe you want to create the effect of car headlights passing
by as someone stands near the window looking out, waiting for someone to arrive. Another
alternative could be seeing the flashing lights of an emergency vehicle going past.

See how many other narratives your students can come up with and talk about how they might
achieve them.

66 Teaching Exercises
Window Groundplan

Teaching Exercises 67
Window Lighting Examples

Cool, direct light through Same angles, but a simple color change Same warm colors, but the steeper
window. Could be very early has altered the time of day angle of window light suggests a
morning, or nighttime. to a late afternoon feel. different time of day.

Again, steeper angle suggests Absence of any light through Long rays of sunlight stretching
the sun is higher in the sky, so the window makes the room feel into the room suggest a low sun,
earlier in the day. lonely and isolated. almost sunset.

Adding a “Shutters” gobo and A lower angle through the window Adding a “Leaf” gobo to the low
changing the color tones creates suggests light is coming from a angle suggests that the light is
the sense that it is nighttime and streetlight, suggesting that this is an shining through a tree – perhaps
gives a more mysterious feel. apartment on the second floor. this is the effect created as a car
drives past the window.

Changing the color of the “Shutters” Flashing red and blue lights through
gobo (and adding a simple flashing the window could suggest a passing
effect) might suggest there is a neon emergency vehicle.
sign outside the window, placing this
room in a seedy part of town.

68 Teaching Exercises
 TEACHING EXERCISE 5

Plan Drawing

This exercise can be done individually, or in groups.

Using the images of the set design below, start to plan your lighting design for Act II, Scene ii of
William Shakespeare’s Rome and Juliet – the balcony scene.

Romeo and Juliet ground plan

Romeo and Juliet set under work light condition

Teaching Exercises 69
Give some thought to what type of mood you would like to create and how you might achieve
that, but also give consideration to all five lighting design objectives.

Start by reading the extract from the script and analyzing the context of the spoken words and
think about how this scene might be staged.

Then, jot down the five objectives (Visibility, Revelation of Form, Composition, Mood, Information)
and then start to allocate lights to the scene that will help you meet these objectives.

The next step would be to make a list of the controllable properties of light (Intensity, Color,
Distribution, Movement) and then make notations about how these will impact on your choices.

Remember to consider that you are lighting the whole stage, not just the pair of young lovers,
so be sure to include lighting that will help to set the scene for the rest of the stage too.

Once you have planned your lighting, draw a plan that will convey these ideas to the crew so
that they can hang the lights and get them working for you. Your plan does not have to make
use of accurate lighting symbols, as long as there is a key that explains what you have done.
Your plan may end up looking something like this: (insert pic of a rough lighting plan).

At the end of the task, students can present their ideas to their classmates. It will be interesting
to see where ideas and concepts are similar and where they are different.

A further extension to this project will be to draw up a cue list for this scene, describing the cue,
its placement and timing.

A possible way to light the scene – The same scene, but with more saturation –
keeping the colors muted initially. perhaps you crossfade to this state as they fall in love.

A more dramatic approach to the scene –

keeping a sense of danger.

70 Teaching Exercises
Your lighting plan might look something like this.

Teaching Exercises 71
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