ARCHITECTURAL BUILDING

CONSTRUCTION
SEM 5 - B

ASS.PROF.BUSHRA KAZI
Building Skin in various lightweight materials for
Framed Structure

• Curtain walls with transoms, mullions and infilling panels of
various materials

• Suspended glazing
 503 Architectural Building
• Composite panel cladding to the existing structure



construction 5
Canopies in various materials.

Scheme of examination


Theory: one paper of three hours duration
Foundation Systems

Types of foundation systems, 

• Max. marks- 50 Min marks for passing- 20
Shallow foundations

• Sessional marks:
Concept of Buoyant Foundation 

• Internal- 50 marks External
Spread Foundation, its need and application

• ----
Raft Foundations of various types viz. Slab, Slab & Beam, and
•
Cellular type

• Foundation Walls



Column footings- Strip, Combined, and Cantilevered footings

CURTAIN WALL


Curtain wall refers to a cladding, and exterior

wall system that is considered non-load A curtain wall system is an outer covering of a building in
bearing and nonstructural. Typically which the outer walls are non-structural, utilized only to
assembled from glass with aluminum frames, keep the weather out and the occupants in. Since the
this type of wall system spans several floors if curtain wall is non-structural, it can be made of
not an entire building. It is attached to the lightweight materials, thereby reducing construction
building at the floor line where wind and costs.

gravitational loads are transferred to the
structure through the floors and columns.

 HISTORY OF CURTAIN WALL

• Earlier building methods relied on exterior walls to carry the dead weight of
the roof and other features. Sturdier columns with greater load bearing
capacity formed the building’s support systems as steel and reinforced
concrete became standard materials in the industry. With walls no longer
required for primary structural support, builders began using materials other
than traditional stonework. The use of glass in exterior facades became
popular and gave rise to today’s curtain walls.

The Castle of Whales.
• Wood was first used as the rigid component of curtain walls in the 18th
century during the Ottoman Empire. Aluminum frames were introduced much
later as western economies were industrialized. British engineer and architect
Peter Ellis designed Oriel Chambers and 16 Cook Street, both located in
Liverpool, England. These buildings were two of the first structures to feature
metal framed glass walls.


• The first building introduced with a curtain wall was the Crystal Palace in the
Great Exhibition held in London in 1851.


• The first building in New York that featured a curtain wall was the Lever
House in Midtown Manhattan that was built in 1952 by the design firm of
Skidmore, Owings and Merrill.

CURTAIN WALL MATERIALS

A CURTAIN WALL MAY CONSIST OF METAL FRAMING HOLDING
EITHER VISION GLASS OR OPAGUE SPANDREL UNITS, OR OF THIN
VENEER PANELS OF CONCRETE, STONE, MASONRY, OR METAL. 

 Benifits of Curtain wall.

The use of curtain walls in commercial building designs became an enduring trend for many aesthetic and energy efficiency reasons.


• Natural Lighting : Just as large windows allowed natural light into interior spaces, curtain walls flooded the interiors with natural light. When
glass walls replaced masonry construction in commercial buildings, the depth and reach of light penetration improved, reducing the need for
artificial lighting and consequently, cutting down on lighting bills. Additionally, windowless areas toward the middle of the floor became
appealing and usable workspaces.


• Control of Air Leakage : An aluminum-framed curtain wall is designed to be airtight. In a properly sealed system, the air barrier is continuous
from the glass panel to the mullions and the seals.


• Control Heat Loss or Gain : The use of insulating glass in curtain wall installations can improve thermal qualities. A well-constructed glass
curtain can enhance energy efficiency and reduce the costs of heating and cooling in a commercial building.


• Control of Rain and Moisture Intrusion : The airtight design prevents rain intrusion that could lead to costly cleanup and repairs. The glass,
aluminum and sealant components of a curtain wall do not allow for absorption or evaporation of moisture, keeping moisture out of the
interior section. The components are corrosion resistant except for some seals, which may degrade if left soaking for some time.


• Maintenance of Curtain Walls : Curtain walls should be inspected regularly to ensure the integrity of seals, mullions and the glass itself.
Glass replacement and panel repairs should be handled by professionals experienced in this work such as the glass experts 

 WALL CLADDING

• Wall cladding is an application of one material over another to form an additional and protective skin or layer to
the structure.
• Usually, cladding is done for thermal insulation and weather resistance besides improving the appearance of
buildings.
• The various types of cladding are:

❑ Curtain Walling

❑ Sandwich panels

❑ Patent glazing

❑ Rain screen

❑ Timber cladding

❑ Metal profile cladding

❑ Brick slips

❑ Tile hanging

❑ uPVC

• Though all types of cladding materials are used for homes, offices and industrial establishments yet the metal
laminates and aluminium composite panel sheets i.e. ACP sheets are most common.
 A CURTAIN WALL

• Unlike other building materials, a curtain wall system is thin and lightweight, usually aluminum and glass. These
walls are not structural, and by design, they are only able to carry their own weight, while transferring the load
of wind and gravity to the structure of the building. The design makes it air and water resistant, to ensure that
the interior of the building remains airtight.
• System types
• Curtain walls are available in three main systems: face-sealed, water-managed, and pressure-equalized. Face-sealed
walls depend on perfect sealing between units of the wall and frame. Water-managed systems include moisture drains
to prevent the intrusion of water in the building. However, neither face-sealed or water-managed systems create an
air barrier.
• The pressure-equalized system blocks all forces while keeping the building’s interior air-tight. The outside
framing is designed to wash away water and prevent penetration. This is the strongest system, which provides a
reliable resistance to air and water.
• DEFINATION 2 : A curtain wall is usually composed of glass panels divided by grids into many panels and are
separated by mullions and transoms. Mullions are the vertical separations and transoms are the horizontal
separations. However there are many combinations of curtain walls. Sometimes a single panel is considered a
curtain wall. This is usually supported with spider system or with cables. Other times the panels are separated by
grids without mullions and transoms.
• Note that some or all panels may be replaced with solid panels (wood, aluminum, stone, empty, ...). This is still
a curtain wall. Basically it's a wall but composed of thin elements as opposed to thick block walls, gypsum walls,
etc ...
 Difference between Curtain wall & Cladding
• Firstly, cladding is a covering or coating on a structure put in place to protect a property from environmental factors such as harsh
weather condition. It’s also used to provide modernisation during the renovation of buildings.

• Curtain walling is very similar; it is a cosmetic alteration to the exterior of a building. Again, for decorative reasons or for protective
purposes. It can also be used to add aesthetic value.

CURTAIN WALL
Unlike cladding coatings, curtain walling is a
non-structural design and its aim is to protect the
interior and the occupants of the building from
harsh weathers including wind and water
infiltration. However, curtain walling is separate
from the main exterior wall and it is only designed
to support itself. An example of this includes
CLADDING
double glazed vision glass.
One of the major advantages that cladding coatings has over
Over time, like most things, your curtain wall
curtain walling is the variety of styles that you can choose
system will need maintenance to ensure it remains in
from. Your choice will greatly depend on the type of building
tip top condition.
you wish to renovate.
 Curtain wall system may be classified into categories based on fabrication and installation.

Curtain wall systems are factory pre casted systems. They are bought to the site and assembled. These are of two types based on the
way each component is assembled.



STICK CURTAIN WALL SYSTEM
 UNITIZED CURTAIN WALL SYSTEM

• Unitized curtain wall systems involves assembling by means of interlocking units that
• Stick Curtain Wall System involves its components to be assembled piece by piece on
are bought from the factory. The whole components are bought together as a single unit
the building at the site. These are mainly installed in low rise building or small regions.
from the factory. Individual installation of each component are not necessary as in sticky
This is because, to reach higher elevations exterior access is essential. For this additional
curtain wall system. The size of the unitized curtain walls aredependent on the floor to
requirements like scaffolding, cranes etc. will be required.

floor height of the building. Hence it is essential to keep in mind the mode of
• The above system gains the advantage of low shipping cost as onsite adjustments are
transportation and installation while planning the depth of facade. This system is mainly
possible. But the time and labor consumption is recorded to be high.
used in high rise building. This does not require exterior supports like cranes or
scaffolding. Only mini cranes or a temporary hoist can be held over floor to keep it help
during installation.

• This system gains advantage of faster construction and
higher quality because of factory manufacturing. But it
gains high shipping charge as mentioned due to
requirement of larger protection during transportation.



• Curtain wall in 1950's ,1960's, and
early 1970s were generally of
extruded alluminium. Transome &
sills and head were joined to mullions
with spigot & socket joints. Spigot
joint made allowance for thermal &
moisture movements.

• Since then the introduction of tinted
solar control glass and the use of
gaskets to provide rain & wind
weather seal around glass has
facilitated a move to systems of glass
walls where the hollow box section
framing members are fixed behing
the glass, which is held in cylinder
gaskets, to give the appearance of
glass wall, as in given figures.

• More recentlt the use of toughened
glass , hung from brackets fixed to
the structure, Has provided the
means of effecting what is truly a
curtain wall of glass.The large
squares of toughened glass are hung
from top by metal studs anchored to
the frame with additional restriants
fixings, as shown in the figure
170.The joints between the glass are
sealed with a silicone based sealant.

 Glass used for Curtain walls
Float Glass
 Solar Control Glass
 Toughened Glass


 (Tinted glass)
 (Tempered Glass)

Float glass owes its unique name to the The solar control glasses reduce the transmission of Toughened glass is made by the process of heating
process by which it is manufactured solar energy by absorbing or reflecting some of the & cooling which causes compressive stresses in the
wherein the molten glass is introduced into energy from the sun.The heat absorptive glasses are surface of glass which which are balanced by tensile
a bath of molten tin, causing the glass to produced with a color tint throughout the thickness of in the centre thickness of the glass.

float freely. Float glass is the original piece the glass or a color to one surface.
 Toughened glass is upto 5 times more stronger than
of glass, the progenitor to an endless Solar control glasses absorbs more solar energy and normal clear glass.

generation of glass solutions.
 becomes hotternand expands more than clear glass, Nmes 'Armourplate','Armour-cast' and 'Armourclad'
which contributes in solar control properties.
 are used for toughened glass

LECTURE 2
 WHAT IS GLAZING?

• Glazing, derives from the Middle English for 'glass', is a part of a wall or window, made of glass. Glazing also describes the work
done by a professional "glazier". Glazing is also less commonly used to describe the insertion of ophthalmic lenses into an eyeglass
frame.


• Common types of glazing that are used in architectural applications include clear and tinted float glass, tempered glass, and
laminated glass as well as a variety of coated glasses, all of which can be glazed singly or as double, or even triple, glazing units.
Ordinary clear glass has a slight green tinge but special colorless glasses are offered by several manufacturers.


• WHAT IS SUSPENDED GLASS SYSTEMS ?

• SUSPENDED means supported by attachment from above; hanging. Frameless glazing suspended from the building structure. ...
This system combines specially processed and toughened glass panes with a countersunk bolt fixing system designed to support the
weight of the glass.


• WHAT IS STRUCTURAL GLAZING ?

• Structural glazing systems, in their simplest form, are types of curtain wall systems consisting of glass that is bonded or anchored
back to a structure without the use of continuously gasketed aluminum pressure plates or caps. The glass can be comprised of
monolithic, laminated, dual-glazed or even triple-glazed insulating glass units (IGUs). The back-up structure may use horizontal
and/or vertical aluminum mullions or be a glass mullion, steel blade, cable or stainless steel rod. This system creates a completely
clean, flush exterior appearance while the interior members have many different options depending on design and budget.

 STRUCTURAL GLASS & SPIDER GLAZING CURTAIN WALL

• Structural Glass & Spider Glazing curtain walls provide maximum daylight for building interiors, as well as the possibility
of placing large transparent glass surfaces as building envelopes. Due to its visual attractiveness such architectural
building envelopes are commonly used on commercial buildings to create premium building skins.

• A wide variety of applications are available, including curtain walls, canopies and atriums, allowing maximum
transparency, brightness optimization and unique design.

• Structural Glass & Spider Glazing facades are best categorized by the structural system types used to support them.
Technology used to fix glass panes includes use of special fittings, such as spiders, rotules, clamps, tension rods and
other supporting parts, which are connected to the supporting structure.

• All hardware is made of high quality mirror polished stainless steel (graded 304, 316, 316LM and V4.A), ensuring best
possible protection against oxidation and corrosion.

• Glass panes are provided in various shapes and are installed without additional vertical and horizontal profiles on the
outer side of the façade, being connected by special structural silicone highly resistant to weather conditions and UV
radiation.

• In terms of performance and aesthetics, there are options for clear glass, reflective or toughened coating (external or
internal finish), as well as silk printing (fritting).
• Steel supporting designs vary widely, with an emphasis on 1. Steel supporting type glazing system
fine detailing and craftsmanship.
• The substructure can be constructing using pipe columns
(rectangular, I-Beams, etc.) or complicated trusses and other
complex steel substructures, frequently manufactured to the
highest standards. This type of solution is suitable for
overhead glazing applications as well as vertical facades.
• Such systems are often combined with tension rod or cable
systems providing a hybrid solution to minimize steel and
increase transparency, Snow loads, negative wind pressures
and inclination requirements are critical design issues that
must be taken in consideration. According to glass pane
sizes, rod or cable elements may be incorporated into the
design and lateral tensile systems are often used to stabilize
the facade structure.
 2. Structural glass fin & mullion system
• Glass fins or mullions supporting solutions represent the earliest form of structural glass
façade and are used when the design intent is maximum achievable transparency. The
result is a completely frameless and almost invisible facade, with no use of steel or
concrete elements, providing complete air tightness and water proofing.
• Glass-fin glass walls are quite simple in concept, utilizing a glass fin set perpendicular to
the glass pane at each vertical line of the glass grid. Glass panes (Single or Double
Glazing Units) are attached to the fins with stainless steel fittings such as rotules, spiders,
fin splices and clamps.
• The whole façade is suspended from concrete or steel beams via pin joints and is fixed to
the floor using special stainless steel sill channels. As the span grows, the most
challenging part is to create a fin comprised of multiple glass pieces
GLASS FIN & MULLION
• Τension rod supporting solutions are used when dematerialization of the structure is needed, to
provide a semi-transparent design with very high span.
• These systems vary widely in both design and configuration, allowing easily achieved vertical,
overhead, vaulted and dome applications. Bow string trusses or suspended cable trusses rely on
prestress forces into the tensile elements of the truss to provide stability.
• All materials are made of high quality stainless steel.
• Glass is processed according to safety requirements, usually being tempered or tempered
laminated as well as heak soak tested.
• Depending upon conditions of span and load, the required prestress forces can be quite high,
and must be resisted by adjacent building structure. This solution requires detailed structural
calculations and efficient communication with the building architects and engineers very early in
the design process

3. Tension Rod system

 4. Cable net system
• Cable net supporting solutions represent the ultimate elegant minimalistic
structural glazing providing optimum façade transparency.
• Cable supported facades, often called cable nets, are used where large
expanses of glass are required to enclose huge spaces, with limited
intrusion from supporting structure.
• This structural system supports glass by pre-stressed cables in a net
geometry, providing a very flat design. Cables need precise engineering
in terms of tensioning to prevent over deflection during strong wind loads.
• The horizontal cables are tensioned against the adjacent building
structures and the vertical ones between the roof structure and the
ground. Cables are locked together with stainless steel clamps, which
also hold the glass panes. This solution requires an early collaboration
between the façade contractor and the building engineers.
Cable net system- DRAWINGS &
JOINERY DETAILS
 COMPOSITE PANELS
• Composite meaning - made up of several parts or elements
• Composite panels, also known as sandwich panels, are a popular construction material
consisting of an insulation core sandwiched between two metal or plastic facings

• A range of standard , flat profiled composite sheet is available with an insulating core
between two sheet of steel & aluminium to combine an acceptable internal finish with
adequate insulation.

● A thin sheet of metal provides negligible resistance to transfer the

heat & the thin sheet by itself has to be stiffened. The advantage of
the combination of two thin skins of metal sheets with a core of
insulation material is the core that provides insulation and stiffness
to the two skins.
● There are two types of composite panel metal sheet
1. Box panel : Box panel derives their stiffness from the two
sheets of metal that are formed as shallow pans that are
joined around an insulating core.
2. The laminated panel : Laminated sheet metal panel are
formed from two skins of sheet metal that are glued to an
insulating core, under pressure. The adhesion of the sheet of
metal to core provides a rigid panel that derives its stiffness
from the sandwich of skins and core and that maintains its flat
surface by virtue of the laminated form. Laminated panels are
usually sealed with an edging of plastic or wood.
 ALUMINIUM COMPOSITE PANEL & ITS CHARACTERISTICS
• Aluminium Composite Panels are sandwiched panels which have layers of aluminium sheets
with the polyethylene core. It is used in the exterior as well as in the interior of the buildings.
• They are prefabricated panels which consist of two aluminium sheet with 3mm of polyethylene
core. The thickness of aluminium sheets are 0.5mm therefore total thickness of the panel
comes out to be 4mm which varies accordingly.
• The exterior panel of the aluminium panel i.e. aluminium sheet is coated with PVDF
(resistance from metal weathering over time) . The standard sizes used for aluminium
composite panels are 3mm, 4mm and 6mm, depending upon the thicknesses for polyethylene
and aluminium sheets available.
• The main purpose of this cladding is to enhance any dead wall or to provide aesthetics to the
elevation of the building.
• Aluminium composite panels are available in different colours, different sizes and different
shapes. They are mainly used in commercial complexes and corporate buildings.
• These panels are available in various types; there are matte finish, plain finish, wooden finish,
marble finish and many more. These panels are used in different requirements.
• They are also used with other building materials such as glass. There are many building which
have aesthetic facades in which aluminium composite panels are used with glass. The iconic
building Burj Al Arab in Dubai also has cladding of aluminium composite panel with
combination with glass in its elevation.
• Excellent mechanical properties at light weight
• Weathering and chemical resistance
• Rigid and flat yet highly formable
• Significant noise and thermal insulation
• Cost effective
• Non-toxic and environment friendly
• Easily and quickly processed
● PROFILED COMPOSITE PANEL : The profiled composite sheeting,
illustrated in fig., is designed for use as side wall sheeting to single
storey buildings where the sheet can be used in single length without
horizontal joints and with a side lap formed by the profile.
● FLAT COMPOSITE STEEL PANEL :
● Flat composite sheets with secret fixings are designed to combine the
economic advantages of continuous rolling and the stiffness provided
by lamination of the insulating core to the two skins, with the
appearance of flat panels for the use of walling.
● The flat steel sheets illustrated in the fig. are made in widths of 900,
length upto 10 meters and thickness 50.
● The long edges of the sheets are formed to provide an interlocking
joint in which the fixings to the sheeting rails are hidden.
● Sheeting rails are required at up to 3 metre intervals.
● These sheets are galvanised and coated with coloured inorganic
coating externally and painted internally.
● End joints are sealed with mastic as shown.
● These sheets can be made with opening for windows with square or
rounded corners. The principal use of these flat sheets is continuous
horizontal windows and as flat cladding to walls.
 COMPOSITE BOX PANEL : The ribbed , anodised aluminium, box panels are made by
vacuum forming. The outer tray is filled with phenelux foam and the inner skin then fitted
and pop rivetted to the outer tray through a thermal break. Seperate aluminium subframes
for each panel are bolted to lugs on the structural frame . Continuous neoprene gasket seal
the open drained joints between panels which are screwed to subframes with stainless steel
screws.

ALUMINIUM FACED INSULATED PANELS :

• The aluminium faced composite sheet illustrated in figure is made in
width of 600, length upto 10 metres and thickness of 50.
• Horizontal and vertical joints are made with an insulated plastic insert
that is fixed in the edge of one sheet and fits to the adjacent sheet as a
male &/ female joint.
• The joint is sealed with a neoprene gasket as shown.
• Window panels and square and rounded corner fittings are supplied.
• The exterior face of these sheets is finished with an oven dried paint
finish in range of colours.
 ● When open horizontal joints are used to emphasise the individual panels
there is a flat or sloping horizontal surface at the top edge of each panel
1. Today majority of composite panels are fixed and sealed in neoprene
from which rain will drain down the face of panels and in short time cause
gaskets filled to aluminium carrier system fixed to structural frame, in
irregular and unslightly dirt stains, particularly around the top corner of the
which the carrier system supports the panels and the carrier system
panel.
is exposed on the face of the building or hidden by open joints.
● Single skin panels hung as rainscreens in front of insulated panels will
provide some protection from rain and wind and extreme change of
temperature and hardening effect of sunlight on gaskets.

2. To reduce the effect of thermal bridges made by metal carrier at

joists, systems of plastic thermal breaks and insulated cores to
carrier frames are used.
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR A CURTAIN WALL

• Strength & Stability : The material of the frame , The type of installation

• Exclusions of wind & rain : Waterproofing performance, Condensation resistance

• Thermal Properties : Solar optical properties, Solar heat gain control

• Acoustic Properties : Noise sound insulation

• Fire Resistance : Durability

• Regular maintenance system