CAM SYNTHESIS

SOLID MECHANICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Volume 26

Series Editor: G.M.L. GLADWELL

Solid Mechanics Division, Faculty of Engineering
University of Waterloo
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3Gl

Aims and Scope o/the Series

The fundamental questions arising in mechanics are: Why?, How?, and How much?
The aim of this series is to provide lucid accounts written by authoritative research-
ers giving vision and insight in answering these questions on the subject of
mechanics as it relates to solids.
The scope of the series covers the entire spectrum of solid mechanics. Thus it
includes the foundation of mechanics; variational formulations; computational
mechanics; statics, kinematics and dynamics of rigid and elastic bodies; vibrations
of solids and structures; dynamical systems and chaos; the theories of elasticity,
plasticity and viscoelasticity; composite materials; rods, beams, shells and
membranes; structural control and stability; soils, rocks and geomechanics;
fracture; tribology; experimental mechanics; biomechanics and machine design.
The median level of presentation is the first year graduate student. Some texts are
monographs defining the current state of the field; others are accessible to final
year undergraduates; but essentially the emphasis is on readability and clarity.

For a list of relnted mechanics titles, see final pages.

CaIn Synthesis
by
M. A. GONZALEZ-PALACIOS
Universidad lberoamericana Plantel Le6n,
Departamento de lngenierfa y Ciencias Aplicadas,
Le6n, Guanajuato, Mexico

and
J.ANGELES
McGill University,
Department of Mechanical Engineering &
McGill Research Centre for lntelligent Machines,
Montreal, Quebec, Canada

SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN 978-94-010-4835-4 ISBN 978-94-011-1890-3 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-94-011-1890-3

Printed on acid-free paper

All Rights Reserved

© 1993 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1993
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1993
No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or
utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
includ ing photocopying, recording or by any information storage and
retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner.
 To the memory of my father
To my mother
To Betty
Max Antonio Gonzalez-Palacios

To Patricia, Bruno and Romain

Jorge Angeles
 "It would be foolish to suggest
that drawing and theoretical knowledge
at any stage replaced the craftsman's skill
at working with materials."

Francis Pugh (Derek, 1987)

FOREWORD

While the synthesis of planar cam mechanisms has come of age, that of spatial mech-
anisms is still in its infancy. A milestone in the development of methods of synthesis
of planar cam mechanisms was the introduction of envelopes, a similar breakthrough
as applied to spatial mechanisms, being yet to be reported. To be sure, attempts in
this direction are recorded in the literature, as pointed out in Chapter 1. This state
of affairs motivated the work summarized in this book.
The objectives of the book are manifold. We include first a unified approach to
cam synthesis, whereby planar, spherical and spatial cam mechanisms are synthesized
within a single theoretical framework. We thus start by studying the synthesis of
the contact surfaces of spatial cam mechanisms composed of three links, namely, a
frame, a cam and a follower. By properly setting the mechanism parameters to values
that render the cam and follower axes concurrent, we obtain spherical mechanisms.
Likewise, by setting the mechanism parameters so as to render these axes parallel, we
end up with planar mechanisms. As a matter of fact, planar mechanisms are derived as
a special case of their spherical counterparts. In synthesizing all these mechanisms,
we aim at producing contact surfaces of minimum sliding, thereby minimizing the
power losses due to dry friction.
Once the study of three-link cam mechanisms has been accomplished, we introduce
a fourth element, the roller. Here, the roller is a quite general element that moves
with both translation and rotation with respect to cam and follower. The roller thus
introduced is, in fact, a generalized roller, for it i) not only rolls, but also slides in the
most general spatial case, and ii) has a hyperboloid shape of revolution in the spatial
case, a conical shape in the spherical case and a cylindrical shape in the planar case.
Practical issues pertaining to the mechanical design of such a roller are still to be
investigated, but the underlying theoretical bases are fully discussed here.
 Moreover, the approach adopted at the outset has allowed us to synthesize novel
complex mechanisms for the realization of intermittent motion. These mechanisms,
known as indexing mechanisms, turn out to be a composition of the two above-
mentioned types, namely, the three (no roller)- and four (with roller)-link mechanisms.
What we obtained with this combination is a pure-rolling indexing cam mechanism
with positive action, free of springs.
We believe that the approach and tools introduced here can assist the designer
in producing a much broader spectrum of mechanisms than those motivating this
study. We include, for example, in Chapter 7, an example pertaining to the design
of a shaking mechanism, which is readily synthesized with the aid of USYCAMS
(pronounced 'you see cams'), the software package that we developed to implement all
the synthesis procedures described herein. This software, running on Silicon Graphics
Inc. IRIS machines, is available at the Internet address camsGmcrcim. mcgill. ca, at
no cost.
The overall philosophy in producing this book has been to exploit sound mathe-
matical and kinematical tools of analysis and synthesis that could be used only with
the available current software and hardware. The latter refers to powerful UNIX
workstations that offer the capability of rendering solid models on a graphics monitor
at the touch of a key or at the move of a mouse. Modern workstations of this kind
thus offer the possibility of rendering animations of multi-body mechanical systems
with a great degree of realism. We decided to base our software development on these
workstations and not on more common, low-end hardware, because a) the McRCIM
(McGill research Centre for Intelligent Machines) network is UNIX™ based, and b)
the prices of graphics workstations are going down very rapidly, while their capabil-
ities are going up at the same pace. We believe that workstations will become the
norm in mechanical engineering design in the foreseeable future.
Current software available includes Matlab™, IMSL™ and the like for numerical
applications (i.e. number crunching), with very easy-to-use routines for interpolation
and matrix computations, two very common tasks in mechanical design, particularly
in cam synthesis. Other software available pertains to symbolic computations and
includes brand names such as Maple™, Mathematica™ and Macsyma, to cite the
best known of this kind. We found symbolic calculations a great aid in building
our theoretical framework, but soon discovered that none of these packages provides
routines for algebraic manipulations with dual numbers, introduced in Chapter 2 as
the main synthesis tool. We thus developed a few Mathematica routines for this
purpose, which we include in Appendix C for the interested reader. Similar routines
can be readily developed for Maple or Macsyma.
A feature of the book is its bibliography. Here, we compiled a list of 127 references
that we include in Appendix A.
All in all, we have attempted to give new life to a rather languishing field of the

viii
theory of machines and mechanisms, that is currently undergoing a phase of stagna-
tion with regard to theoretical and methodological developments. In doing this, we
have also attempted to sensitize the reader to the new tools available that warrant
a review of well-established but rather limited methods of mechanism synthesis. We
illustrate this point in Chapter 8, where we revise the graphical methods of cam-
profile synthesis. Here, we show that an improvement in accuracy and speed can be
achieved virtually at no cost, by making proper use of current CAD tools. What is
needed, however, is a change of attitude towards mechanical design that should bring
about creative approaches. We have tested our novel synthesis procedures both in
computer animations and in the machine-tool shop. Thus, we produced two proto-
types of PRICAM, the pure-rolling indexing cam mechanisms that we synthesized as
described in Chapter 5, detailed mechanical design drawings of which are included in
Chapter 8. Our intention in including the latter was to highlight the realization of
the abstract techniques that we introduce in Chapters 3 and 4, while establishing the
link between the rather specific realm of mechanism synthesis and the much broader
field of mechanical design.
For the accomplishment of this project we thank our main sources of funding,
namely, Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONNACYT), of Mexico, and
the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC), of Canada. Our
undertaking could have not been possible without the state-of-the-art facilities of
McRCIM and the enthusiastic support of the machine-tool shop of the Department
of Mechanical Engineering of McGill University. Here, we thank Mr. Arthur Clement
very especially for his excellent work in producing most of the pieces required by our
two prototypes of PRICAM. In the last stages of the manufacturing of the spherical
mechanism, the Centre de recherche industrielle du Quebec (CRIQ) came to our aid.
Professor G. M. L. Gladwell, Editor of the Kluwer Series of Solid Mechanics and Its
Applications, is duly acknowledged for his valuable suggestions. These comprised not
only technical matters, but also English issues that would have otherwise obscured the
ideas that we intended to communicate. The first author completed a substantial part
of the work reported here as a doctoral candidate of the Department of Mechanical
Engineering of McGill University. Last, but not least, the support and understanding
of our families encouraged us to make it to our deadline with Kluwer Academic
Publishers.

Montreal, July 1993

Max A. Gonzalez-Palacios
Jorge Angeles

IX
Contents

FOREWORD vii

NOMENCLATURE xv

1 PREAMBLE 1
1.1 Introductory Remarks . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The Development of Cam Technology . 3
1.2.1 Cam Synthesis 3
1.2.2 Screw Theory 11
1.3 Scope of the Book . 13
1.4 Book Organization 13

2 SYNTHESIS TOOLS 15
2.1 Dual Numbers. . . 15
2.2 The Aronhold-Kennedy Theorem 27
2.3 Ruled-Surface Geometry . . . . . 30

3 KINEMATICS OF THREE-LINK MECHANISMS 37

3.1 Introduction....................... 37
3.2 Surface Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2.1 Revolute-Higher-Revolute (RHR) Mechanisms 42
3.2.2 Revolute-Higher-Prismatic (RHP) Mechanisms. 43
3.2.3 Prismatic-Higher-Revolute (PHR) Mechanisms. 45
3.2.4 Prismatic-Prismatic-Prismatic (PPP) Mechanisms. 46
3.3 Pressure Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.3.1 Pressure Angle of RHR Mechanisms 48
3.3.2 Pressure Angle of RHP Mechanisms. 52

Xl
 3.3.3 Pressure Angle of PHR Mechanisms. 53
3.3.4 Pressure Angle of PPP Mechanisms . 53

4 KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS 55

4.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.2 Roller-Followers............................ 56
4.2.1 Revolute-Higher-Cylindric-Revolute (RHCR) Mechanisms. 62
4.2.2 Revolute-Higher-Cylindric-Prismatic (RHCP) Mechanisms 76
4.2.3 Prismatic-Higher-Cylindric-Revolute (PHCR) Mechanisms 79
4.2.4 Prismatic-Higher-Cylindric-Prismatic (PHCP) Mechanisms. 82
4.3 Pressure Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.3.1 Pressure Angle of RHCR Mechanisms. 85
4.3.2 Pressure Angle of RHCP Mechanisms. 90
4.3.3 Pressure Angle of PHRR Mechanisms. 91
4.3.4 Pressure Angle of PHRP Mechanisms . 91
4.4 Three-Link Mechanisms with Constant Pressure Angle 93
4.4.1 RHHR Mechanisms . 94
4.4.2 RHHP Mechanisms . 96
4.4.3 PHHR Mechanisms . 96
4.4.4 PHHP Mechanisms . 98

5 INDEXING MECHANISMS 101

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.2 Input-Output Function of Indexing Cam Mechanisms (ICM) 102
5.3 ICM of RHR Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.4 ICM of RHCR Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.5 Pure Rolling with Indexing Cam Mechanisms 110
5.5.1 Primary Mechanism . . . . . 113
5.5.2 Secondary Mechanism . . . . 114
5.6 Positive Action and Positive Motion. 117

6 THE VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS 125

6.1 Introduction . . . . . 125
6.2 General Formulation 127
6.2.1 Volume . . . 129

xii
 6.2.2 First Moment . . 129
6.2.3 Second Moment . 131
6.3 Planar Objects . . .. . 132
6.4 Solids . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.5 An Outline of MOMENT. 140
6.6 Volumetric Properties of Cams in Indexing Mechanisms . 149
6.6.1 Planar PRICAM .. 149
6.6.2 Spherical PRICAM . 155
6.6.3 Spatial Mechanisms . 159

7 AN OUTLINE OF USYCAMS 163

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.2 On-Line vs. Off-Line Synthesis . . . 164
7.3 General Description of USYCAMS 164
7.4 Main Menu . . . . 166
7.4.1 Main Loop . . . . 167
7.5 Submenus . . . . . . . . 172
7.5.1 sm_io_selection 172
7.5.2 dL3_osc. 174
7.5.3 dL3_ind... 178
7.5.4 dL4 . . . . . 179
7.6 Synthesis Procedures 181
7.7 Application Example 194

8 THE CAD OF CAM MECHANISMS 199

8.1 Introduction............... 199
8.2 CAD-Based Methods. Planar Applications 200
8.2.1 RHRR Mechanisms. 201
8.2.2 RHHR Mechanisms. 205
8.2.3 RHRP Mechanisms . 205
8.2.4 RHHP Mechanisms . 208
8.3 Case Studies . . . . . . . . . 211
8.3.1 The Manufacturing Drawings of the Planar PRICAM 213
8.3.2 The Manufacturing Drawings of the Spherical PRICAM 214

xiii
APPENDICES 220

A BIBLIOGRAPHY 221

B DISPLACEMENT PROGRAMS 231

B.1 Generalized Input-Output Function 231
B.2 Cycloidal Function ... 232
B.3 Polynomial Functions . . . 233
B.3.1 3-4-5 Polynomial 233
B.3.2 4-5-6-7 Polynomial 233
BA Combined Functions ... 233
B.4.1 Modified Trapezoidal Acceleration. 234

C SYMBOLIC DUAL ALGEBRA 237

C.1 Cross U nitDual 239
C.2 DecompDual . 240
C.3 DivDual. 241
CA SqrtDual 242
C.5 TanDual 243
C.6 UnitDual 244

INDEX 245

XIV
NOMENCLATURE

a1: distance between 121 and 131

a3: distance between 131 and 143
a4: distance between 143 and 142
~: distance between 121 and 132
b:J: distance between 132 and 143
c: J(j12 + 2;;;' cos a1 + 1
d: ~ - a1
eij: unit vector parallel to lij
eij: dual unit vector parallel to the polodeAi
h: amplitude of r.p
k: unit vector
m: p x e, the moment of a line with respect to a given point
n: unit normal
p: position vector of point P with respect to a given point 0
q: first moment of n
ri: position vector of ni
rp: position vector of a point of the pitch surface
re: position vector of a point of the cam surface
r: position vector of the centroid of n
8i: dual position vector of a point of the polode i
8p : dual position vector of a point of the pitch surface
Be: dual position vector of a point of the cam surface
V2: dz 2 /dt
V3: dz 3 /dt
Vij: dZij/dt
w: w x r/ II w xr II
Z2: displacement of a point of body 2 lying on 121 with respect to body 1
Z3: displacement of a point of body 3 lying on 131 with respect to body 1
Zij: displacement of a point of body i lying on lij with respect to body j

xv
 c: closed contour
CoP,: great dual circle containing poles Pi;' Pile and Pjle
lij: instantaneous screw axis of bodies i and j
IIe: kth moment of 'R
I: second moment tensor of 'R
£ijle: common perpendicular of lij, lile and Ijle
N: indexing number
Pij : pole of Si with respect to Sj
Q(Ii): dual rotation through Ii about the X-axis
'R: bounded region
'Ri: ruled surface of body i
'RB: bottom surface of the cam
'Rc: contacting ruled surface of the cam
'RT: top surface of the cam
R(Ii): dual rotation through Ii about the Y-axis
S: boundary of 'R
Si: dual sphere of body i
S(Ii): dual rotation through Ii about the Z-axis
V: volume of 'R
angle between 121 and 131
al + eal
angle between 131 and 143
a3 + ea3
angle between 143 and 142
a4 + €a4
O2 - al
P+ ed
angle between £123 and £341

8 + eZ32
dual unit; e2 == 0
angle between 121 and 132
02+e~
angle between 121 and 132
03 + eb:3
real number
pressure angle
angle between £341 and £234
11+ eZ43

xvi
 en: n-dimensional Euclidean space
ei: l.AJi x ri
p: radius of curvature
jJ: dual radius of curvature
r(x}: normalized function of x so that x, r E [0, 1]
t/J: angle of rotation of the follower with respect to the frame
t.p: generalized input-output function (pronounced varphi)
~: dt/J/dt
t/J': dt/J/ dt/J
~: t/J + fZ31
t/J: angle of rotation of the cam with respect to the frame
,p: t/J + fZ21
Wi;: angular velocity between bodies i and j

Wij: wi;ei;
II . II: the Euclidean norm of its vector argument ( . )

xvii
Chapter 1

PREAMBLE

1.1 Introductory Remarks

A mechanism, according to the IFToMM Commission A for Standardization of Ter-
minology (1991), is a system of bodies designed to convert motion of, and forces on,
one or several bodies into constrained motions of, and forces on, other bodies. The
way these bodies are connected is defined by their kinematic pairs. Basically, there
are two kinds of kinematic pairs, namely, higher and lower pairs. The former refer
to the coupling of two bodies in point or line contact, while the latter refer to the
same in surface contact. Lower kinematic pairs can be of six types, namely, revolute,
prismatic, screw, cylindrical, spherical and planar (Hartenberg and Denavit, 1967;
Angeles, 1982).
A cam mechanism is defined as a mechanism whereby the motion is transmitted by
a higher kinematic pair. The simplest cam mechanism is composed of three elements,
frame, cam and follower, the cam being the driver, the follower the driven element.
Another type of cam mechanism contains a fourth element, a roller, which is usually
connected to the follower by a revolute pair, the higher pair coupling the cam with
the roller. The coupling of a frame with a cam or a follower can be done by revolute,
prismatic, cylindric or screw pairs.
Despite advances in robot technology, in which industrial manipulators have re-
placed mechanisms, cam mechanisms still find important industrial applications in
the textile, food-processing and manufacturing industries. Moreover, many applica-
tions of cam mechanisms, specifically indexing cam mechanisms, arise in conjunction
with industrial robots. For example, in Fig. 1.1a, a robot is shown installing fixtures
on an automobile door; an indexing cam mechanism rotates the hexagonal table in-
termittently, thereby allowing the process to be automated. In Fig. 1.1b a piece is
presented to a cluster of machine tools by means of a table driven with an intermittent
motion supplied by an indexing cam mechanism. Notice that this layout permits var-
ious machining operations to take place simultaneously, with the consequent increase
2 CHAPTER 1. PREAMBLE

(b)

Figure 1.1 Industrial applications of cam mechanisms.

1.2. THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAM TECHNOLOGY 3

in productivity.

1.2 The Development of Cam Technology

This subsection is divided into two main parts. The first part presents an overview
of previous work on cam mechanisms, while the second deals with the mathematical
tools applied in this book.

(a) (b)

Figure 1.2 A pumping system.

1.2.1 Cam Synthesis

The origin of cam mechanisms can be traced back to the Paleolithic age, as claimed
by Muller and Mauersberger (1988), who present an account of the evolution of cam
mechanisms, their applications and their contributors. Cam mechanisms seem to
have their origin in one of the simple mechanisms of the ancient times (Muller, 1987),
namely, the wedge. Moreover, the modern design of cam mechanisms is considered to
have been pioneered by Leonardo da Vinci, who designed one of the most significant
applications of cam mechanisms, oriented to pumping systems, as shown in Fig. 1.2,
where the rotary motion of the crank is transmitted via friction wheels to the cam;
then, the rotary motion of the cam is transmitted to the lateral motion of the follower,
which drives the piston. Furthermore, the motion of the piston in one direction pulls
water from the well and fills the cylindrical deposit, while motion in the other direction
pushes water out.
4 CHAPTER 1. PREAMBLE

Half a century later, Agostino Rameli took Davinci's concept on pumps and de-
signed multi-piston pumps, arranging the pistons radially, as shown in Fig. 1.3. This
type of mechanisms is now used in the well-known axial piston pump, which is shown
in Fig. 1.4.
While there have been many significant contributions to the theory of cam mecha-
nisms since the XV Century, only as recently as 1724 did J. Leupold report a method
for the synthesis of the profile of a cam mechanism, whereas the concept of pressure
angle was introduced only in 1826 by J. V. Poncelet, one of whose sketches is shown
in Fig. 1.5. In the middle of the XIX Century, a complete survey on the theory of
cam mechanisms was presented by R. Willis (1841).

(a) (b)
Figure 1.3 A multi-piston pump mechanism.

The design of cam mechanisms in the first half of the XX Century was based
on geometrical methods, while the cutting of the cam profile was done manually, as
illustrated in Fig. 1.6. Below we present a survey of developments in the theory and
practice of cam mechanisms, starting from the second half of the XX Century. This
survey is divided into two main parts, namely, kinematics and dynamics.
1.2. THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAM TECHNOLOGY 5

Kinematics
In connection with kinematic synthesis, a method based on finite differences was in-
troduced by Johnson (1955) for the design of planar cam mechanisms. Later, this
method was applied by the same author (Johnson, 1956c) to determine cam profiles
with desired acceleration characteristics, while, with a different approach, Zigo (1967)
devised an algorithm for the same purpose. Furthermore, some methods for the syn-
thesis of the cam profile from prescribed jerk patterns were proposed by Di Benedetto
(1975), while Fenton (1966b) proposed to avoid noise in cams with a proper selec-
tion of cam-follower offset for roller-follower radial cam mechanisms. A method of
local analysis of the motion of mechanisms connected by a higher kinematic pair is
discussed by Rosenberg and Kren (1987), while the theory of conjugate surfaces is
applied to the synthesis of planar cam mechanisms by Zhong-Tang and Jing-Ping
(1989).

Figure 1.4 The axial piston pump.

The combination of linkages with cam mechanisms, in five-link mechanisms, was

introduced by Hain (1970), who also proposed the optimization of these mechanisms
(Hain, 1971). The same author reported later the optimization of a kinematic inver-
sion of a five-link mechanism with a fixed cam (Hain, 1978). Furthermore, Amar-
nath and Gupta (1978) adopted Hain's work to design cam-linkage mechanisms for
multiple-dwell generation, whereas Sadler and Yang (1990), using a different ap-
proach, reported the optimum design of five-link cam mechanisms. Shown in Fig. 1.7
is a typical arrangement for a mechanism of this kind.
6 CHAPTER 1. PREAMBLE

Figure 1.5 Definition of pressure angle introduced by Poncelet.

Figure 1.6 Primitive construction of a cam profile.

1.2. THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAM TECHNOLOGY 7

With the aim of improving the motion of cam mechanisms, Jackowski and Dubil
(1967) and Wunderlich (1971) presented their design of positive motion with single-
disk planar cams and oscillating follower. An example of their mechanism is shown
in Fig. 1.8. Later, with a different approach, but the same concept, Hunt (1973)
presented a study of profiled-follower mechanisms, a sample of which is shown in
Fig. 1.9.
It is well known that intermittent motion can be achieved with a kind of kinematic
inversion of the slider-crank mechanism, i.e., the Geneva mechanism, as shown in
Fig. 1.10, which has been studied in the past to some extent (Bickford, 1965, 1972;
Fenton, 1965, 1975a, 1975b; Olegzki and Szydlowski, 1975; Shadek et al., 1990).

Figure 1.7 A five-link cam mechanism.

Intermittent motion has been produced with the aid of indexing cam mechanisms,
like the one shown in Fig. 1.11, which exhibit a better dynamical behavior than the
Geneva mechanism (Jacobs, 1949; Johnson, 1958; Makino, 1979). Moreover, the
design of five-link cam mechanisms with multiple-dwell capability was reported by
Amarnath and Gupta (1975).
The optimization of cam mechanisms can be considered from different points of
view, depending on the practical problem at hand. Thus, the minimization of the
cam size for planar cam mechanisms was reported by Fenton (1966a, 1975c) and Loeff
and Soni (1975), while the minimization of cam forces is the subject of (Jones, 1978b),
8 CHAPTER 1. PREAMBLE

a comprehensive account on the optimization of planar cam mechanisms appearing

in (Angeles and Lopez-Cajun, 1991).

Experimental work to determine jump characteristics in planar cam-follower sys-

tems has been also reported (Rao and Raghavacharyulu, 1975), while experimental
results on the changes of dynamic properties were presented by Bialkowicz et al.
(1979). The problem of cutting the cam profile was studied by Jones (1978a), while
Norton et al. (1988) analyzed the effect of manufacturing methods on cam perfor-
mance. Furthermore, the error due to manufacturing and assembly was studied by
Dhande and Chakraborty (1975) from a probabilistic viewpoint, as pertaining to some
planar and spatial cam mechanisms. A method for the formula-based design of three-
dimensional cams was reported by Raven (1959). Later, a unified approach to the
design of this type of mechanisms was presented by Dhande et al. (1975). Moreover,
Dittrich and Zakel (1979) reported a study of three-dimensional cam mechanisms
based on the values of the pressure angle, while a study of spherical cam mecha-
nisms was discussed earlier by Dittrich (1966). Recently, envelope theory, which had
been limited to planar mechanisms, was applied to spatial cam surface geometry, as
reported by Backhouse and Jones (1990).

--

Figure 1.8 Positive motion with single disc cam mechanisms.

1.2. THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAM TECHNOLOGY 9

Dynamics
For cams rotating at high speed, impact loads become crucial in the design. Thus, if
force characteristics are considered in the synthesis of cam mechanisms, the problem
falls into the realm of dynamic synthesis. A coordination of the polynomial equations
of motion with the dynamic aspects of machine operation gives the polydyne cam de-
sign, which was discussed by Stoddart (1953a, 1953b). Another approach to dynamic
synthesis was reported by Wiederrich and Roth (1975), who applied finite trigono-
metric series to their analysis. Furthermore, a procedure for the dynamic analysis of
a cam mechanism with bearing clearances was proposed by Osman et al. (1987) .

,-
. . _------1----.. . . _,.--.. . .
",'Ii'

,/
I \Jl ::
:j /' -Ht-'::
1\
" - "
\ ... "II
II \ ',',
1'- ;-- ---/ItJ I
I \ I I I
I \ I I I
I \ , I I
I , I I I

I
I ,
: '\,

- ,,'
/ '
::
I

I
I

I
I...... ",' I I
I ...... ;... I I
I ... - .... ___ 1 ___ --- I I

Figure 1. 9 A profiled mechanism.

The optimization of cam and follower properties considering the dynamics of cam
mechanisms has been reported by Johnson (1956a, 1956b) and Berzak and Freu.~en­
stein (1979), while the effects of cam-profile error on the dynamic behavior of folldwer
cam systems was discussed by Grewal and Newcombe (1988).
In the realm of indexing cam mechanisms, residual vibrations were studied by
Takano and Toyama (1979). The optimum configuration of planar external mech-
anisms of this kind is reported by Jones and Tsang (1987), whereas the optimum
design of external and internal indexing cam mechanisms was addressed by Gouxun
et al. (1988).
10 CHAPTER 1. PREAMBLE

Figure 1.10 Geneva mechanism.

\
\
\.
'"" '''''.-._ -- ./

Figure 1.11 An indexing cam mechanism.

1.2. THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAM TECHNOLOGY 11

Backlash, squeeze and impact in planar cam mechanisms are simulated in the
work reported by Koster (1975) and Kass and Chace (1975), while different methods
of cutting a plate cam are compared by Norton (1988).

1.2.2 Screw Theory

The approach to the kinematic synthesis of cam mechanisms introduced here is based
on screw theory. While it is difficult to state the date of the origin of this theory, Ball
(1900) includes a list of contributors. A crucial development of screw theory is the
concept of cylindroid, that is the locus of the instant screw axis of two bodies in relative
motion that rotate about axes fixed to a common frame. The cylindroid is generated
as the velocity ratio of the two bodies ranges from -00 to +00. Ball (1875) built a
model of the cylindroid with steel wires mounted in a boxwood cylinder, as shown in
Fig. 1.12a. The corresponding surface of the cylindroid is shown in Fig. 1.12b.
More recently, Yang (1974) presented a brief outline of the basic operations and ge-
ometric interpretations of the calculus of screws, while screw theory and dual matrices
were applied by Pandrea and Voiculescu (1975) to determine the screw displacement
of two arbitrary lines in space. The determination of instantaneous screw axes by
relating screws and the algebraic concept of motor is introduced by Rooney (1975a).
A theory that involves repelling and contrary screws is presented by Ohwovoriole and
Roth (1981). Moreover, Sugimoto and Duffy (1982) applied elements of linear alge-
bra to screw systems, and presented a general method for determining the system of
instantaneous screws of any link in a closed-loop mechanism; later, Kerr and Sanger
(1989) used this approach to evaluate the inner product of reciprocal screws. The
correspondence of points, planes and lines of a set of four mutually reciprocal screws
was outlined in turn by Hon-Cheung (1987), while Gibson and Hunt (1990a & b)
presented all possible linear combinations of given instantaneous screws.
The theorem of three axes in spatial motion was introduced first by Beggs (1959)
in German, while Phillips and Hunt (1964) published the same result for the first
time in English. Presented in this book is a theoretical framework based on the
application of this theorem. The analytical treatment of planar kinematics based on
canonical systems and instantaneous invariants is extended to spatial kinematics in
the work reported by Veldkamp (1967), who later presented an account of the algebra
of dual quantities, the differential geometry of dual curves and their applications
to theoretical spatial kinematics (Veldkamp, 1976). The theory pertaining to the
kinematic synthesis of rigid-body motions for finitely- and infinitesimally-separated
positions was reported by Chen and Roth (1969).
The theory of ruled surfaces has been considered an important tool for the study
of screw theory. Along these lines, Yang et al. (1975) reported applications of screw
theory to spatial mechanisms. Moreover, the differential properties of ruled surfaces
12 CHAPTER 1. PREAMBLE

Figure 1.12 a) Ball's model of the cylindroid; b) the cylindroid as a ruled surface.
1.3. SCOPE OF THE BOOK 13

in a form applicable to spatial kinematics were reported by McCarthy and Roth

(1981), while a study of ruled surfaces in dual space is given in Kose (1982a, 1982b).
The geometry ofaxods is analyzed, in turn, with the aid of ruled-surface theory by
Dizioglu (1989), while a new dual integral invariant for a given closed ruled surface
is introduced by Giirsoy (1990).
Contributions to the theory of mechanisms from the point of view of screw theory
have been presented by different authors, e.g., Yang (1963), Yang and Freudenstein
(1964), whose work is related to the application of dual-quaternion algebra to the
study of spatial mechanisms; Hunt (1967a & b) presented a study of spatia/linkages
with prismatic pairs; Waldron (1972) reported a method for relating the geometry
of contacting surfaces to motion capability in the joints of spatial linkages; Rooney
(1975b) stated a principle enabling one to utilize laws derived for spherical linkages
directly in the analysis of spatial linkages; Vadasz and Soni (1979) presented, in turn, a
formula giving the ratios of two of the three direction cosines of the spatial Burmester
lines for C-C cranks; Xiao and Yang (1989) reported more recently a derivation of
the instantaneous kinematics of two arbitrarily chosen moving rigid bodies.

1.3 Scope of the Book

Cam mechanisms have been studied from different points of view, namely, kinematic
synthesis, dynamic synthesis, analysis, design, optimization and manufacturing. This
book is oriented to the kinematic synthesis of cam mechanisms in a unified frame-
work. By this we mean that spatial, spherical and planar cam mechanisms are inte-
grated in the same formulation. Traditionally, the synthesis of the three types of cam
mechanisms has been approached using independent formulations. With a unified
formulation, not only the well-known types of cam mechanisms, but also novel cam
mechanisms can be synthesized, as shown in this book.
Moreover, since all the design parameters are considered in a unified framework,
the optimization theory of cam mechanisms can be applied systematically, i.e., the
criteria applied for the optimization of planar cam mechanisms, which can be found
to some extent in the literature, can be complemented in order to provide general
criteria for the optimization of spherical and spatial cam mechanisms.

1.4 Book Organization

The basic tools of cam synthesis, namely, dual-number algebra, the Aronhold-Kennedy
Theorem and ruled-surface geometry, are included in Chapter 2. The unified synthe-
sis of three-link mechanisms is presented in Chapter 3, where the geometry of contact
14 CHAPTER 1. PREAMBLE

surfaces and the significance of the pressure angle are discussed. Four types of three-
link cam mechanisms are studied, which are classified according to their kinematic
pairs, namely, RHR, PHR, RHP and PPP. The first and last letters stand for the
type of pair of the input and output axes, respectively, while the middle letter, for
the cam-follower pair. Moreover, R, P and H represent respectively, revolute, pris-
matic and higher pairs. The sliding velocity along the higher pair is minimized, and
the contacting surfaces are obtained from this condition. In Chapter 4, the same
philosophy is applied for the unified synthesis of four-link cam mechanisms. Now, the
four types are defined as RHCR, RHCP, PHCR and PHCP. Similarly, the first and
last letters refer, respectively, to the kinematic pair of the input and output axes,
while the second letter refers to the cam-roller coupling, and the third letter, to the
roller-follower pair, C standing for cylindric. A unified formulation for the pressure
angle is introduced here. The concept of cam mechanism with constant pressure angle
and an auxiliary roller is applied to the synthesis of cam mechanisms with flat-face
followers. Here, four types are discussed, namely, RHHR, RHHP, PHHR and PHHP,
where the symbol HH is explained in Section 4.4
The theory discussed in Chapters 3 and 4 is now applied in Chapter 5 to the
synthesis of indexing cam mechanisms with an extension to the synthesis of indexing
cam mechanisms with pure rolling and positive motion. The volumetric properties
of solids of arbitrary shapes are discussed in Chapter 6. The description of USY-
CAMS, a software package developed for the interactive synthesis of cams, is outlined
in Chapter 7. With the aid of a CAD system, graphical methods for planar cam
mechanisms, based on the theory presented in Chapters 3 and 4, are discussed in
Chapter 8, where the profile of the cam is obtained directly from the contact points
between cam and follower. In this chapter, CAD drawings of the overall design of
PRICAM, a novel pure-rolling indexing cam mechanism, are presented.
Three appendices are included for quick reference: a collection of 127 references
is included in the Appendix A, while a few displacement functions applied for the
synthesis of cam mechanisms are described in Appendix B, and the code of some
functions to perform dual operations symbolically is included in Appendix C.
Chapter 2

SYNTHESIS TOOLS

2.1 Dual Numbers

A brief account of dual numbers is presented here as a quick reference for the reader.
Those readers wanting to learn more on dual numbers are referred to (Yang, 1963,
1974; Yang and Freudenstein, 1964; Veldkamp, 1976; Bottema and Roth, 1979).
A dual scalar, vector or matrix quantity is represented as the sum of a primal part
and a dual part, the latter beginning with the dual unity t, which is nilpotent, i.e.,
t2 = o.
a
Let = a + w* and b= b + tb* be two dual scalars, with a, b, a* and b* being all
real numbers. Equality, addition, multiplication and division are defined, respectively,
as

a= b ¢:} a = b, a* = b* (2.Ia)

a+ b= (a + b) + t(a* + b*) (2.Ib)

ab = ab + t(ab* + a*b) (2.Ic)

K= ~ - t (ab* ~ a*b) , (b i= 0) (2.1d)

Moreover, if a function f(x), with x = x + tx*, has the derivative df(x)fdx, we

can define f(x) in terms of its series expansion evaluated at x = x, namely,

f(x)
A

= f(x) + (x -
A df(x)
x)-dA . +
I ... +
(x-x)idif(x)1
., dA'. +
x x=x t. x' x=x
*df(x)
=f(x)+tx - dA .
I tix*i cf f(5:) I
+ ... +-.-, -d A' . + ...
x x=x z. x' x=x
16 CHAPTER 2. SYNTHESIS TOOLS

but fi == 0, for i = 2,3,4, ... , and the series expansion reduces to

f(x) = f(x) + fX* f'(x), f'(X) == df(~) I. (2.2)

dx x=x

For example, with application of eq.(2.2), one can readily obtain an expression for
the square root of a dual number, namely,

x*
v'x = Vi + f 2 y'X' (x> 0) (2.3)

Example 2.1.1: Given x = x + fX*, prove that

(2.4)

Solution:
First, we consider the function f(x) = eX: from eq.(2.2) we have

(a)

On the other hand,

(b)
Thus, by equating the rightmost-hand sides of eqs.(a & b), the intended proof is done.
Alternatively, relation (2.4) can also be derived by a straightforward development of
the series expansion of the exponential. •

With the aid of eq.(2.4), a dual number a = a+w*, can be expressed in exponential
form, namely,
a*
q= - , a:fO (2.5)
a
where q is called the pitch, an attribute that characterizes the dual number a. Thus,
when q :f 0, a is a proper dual number; when q - 00, a is a pure dual number and
when q = 0, a reduces to the real number a.
Henceforth, vectors are regarded as column arrays. When vectors are represented
as row arrays to save space, a superscript T on this array is used to remind us of our
convention.
Now, an ordered triple of dual numbers [ab 0. 2, a3jT, is called a dual vector a, its
a
components being ai, for i = 1,2,3. If the components of are real, then the vector
2.1. DUAL NUMBERS 17

is real. Moreover, let a and b be two dual vectors; their equality, multiplication by a
dual scalar, inner product and cross-product are defined, respectively, as

a = b # ai = hi, i = 1,2,3 (2.6a)

ca = cal, ca2, ca3

A A [AA AA AA]T
(2.6b)

a . b = al hI + a2h2 + a3ba (2.6c)

T
a x b = [a2ba - a3b2, a3bl -
A A A A A A A

alba, alb2 - a2bl] (2.6d)

In most cases, the definitions of the rules of vector algebra apply to dual vectors.
Thus, a dual vector a :: [all a2, a3]T can be written as a linear combination of basis
vectors, namely,
(2.7)
Consequently,

a = (al + wni + (a2 + w;)j + (a3 + fai)k

= ali + a~ + a3k + f(a~i + a;j + aik)

= a+ fa* (2.8)

From the foregoing discussion one might be induced to regard dual vectors as
vector spaces over a corresponding field. However, dual numbers, contrary to real
or complex numbers, do not form a field. Indeed, to form a field, a set of numbers
must contain the inverse of every non-zero number under multiplication. However,
from the definition of division of dual numbers, eq.(2.1d), it is apparent that pure
dual numbers, although non-zero, do not have such an inverse. Nevertheless, dual
vectors share many properties of vectors defined over the real or complex field, as we
will show presently. Moreover, from eq.(2.8) one can readily derive frame-invariant
representations of relations (2.6a-d), namely, if
a::a+fa*, b::b+fb* and C::C+fC*,

then
it = b # a = band a* = b* (2.9a)
ea = ca + c:(c*a + ca*) (2.9b)
a· b = a· b + c:(a· b* + a* . b) (2.9c)
it x b = a x b + c:(a x b* + a* x b) (2.9d)

In particular, if b = it, eq.(2.9c) leads to

a . a =11 a 112 +c:2a· a* (2.ge)
18 CHAPTER 2. SYNTHESIS TOOLS

Now, the Euclidean norm II a II of a dual vector a = a + fa* is defined as

II a 11= Va. a = Ja. a + f2(a· a*)

Moreover, with the aid of eq.(2.3), one can readily obtain

a· a*
II a 11=11 all +fW' (a# 0) (2.10)

where II a II denotes the Euclidean norm of a, a notation that will be used throughout.
Furthermore, a is called a unit dual vector if II a 11= 1. Any dual vector can thus be
expressed as
a =11 a II duv(a) (2.11)
where duv(a) is the dual unit vector ofa, and is computed as

• _ a a (a x a*) x a
duv(a)= II all =W+ f II a 11 3 (2.12)

The proof that the last expression of eq.(2.12) is indeed a dual unit vector is left as
an exerCIse.
Furthermore, a line C can be defined via the dual unit vector e, defined as
e = e+fm, m=e" (2.13)

where e T e = 1 and eT m = O. Here, e defines the direction of C, while m the moment

of C with respect to a self-understood point 0, namely,

m=p xe (2.14)

p being the vector directed from 0 to an arbitrary point P of C. Moreover, e and m

are called the primal and dual parts of e, respectively. Thus, the components of e are
defined as the line coordinates of C (Yang et al., 1975), while e defines the dual point
P on the dual unit sphere S as shown in Fig. 2.1a. Furthermore, the six components
of the two vectors e and min eq. (2.13) constitute the Plucker coordinates of C. An
alternative representation of C is given as shown in Fig. 2.1b, where

r= p + >.e (2.15)

and >. is a real number. The components of r are defined as the point coordinates
of C. The relation between line coordinates and point coordinates is derived from
eq. (2.14), upon cross-multiplying its two sides by vector e , namely,

exm = e x (p X e) (2.16)
2.1. DUAL NUMBERS 19

S:Dual unit

-
(a) (b)

Figure 2.1 A line represented a) in line coordinates and

b) in point coordinates.

Expanding the right-hand side of eq.(2.16), one obtains

ex m =p-eTpe (2.17)

If P is chosen as that point of £ lying closest to the origin, henceforth denoted by

Po of position vector Po, then, from eq.(2.17),

po=exm (2.18)

and vector r of eq.(2.15) is given by

r =e x m+ Ae (2.19)

Now, let £1 and £2 be, in general, two skew lines as shown in Fig. 2.2, the dual
angle between them being defined as

v == + fh
II (2.20)

where II is the angle between e1 and e2 and h is the distance between £1 and £2. As
such, h is nonnegative. Now, with the aid of eq.(2.2), the trigonometric functions of
v can be expressed as
cos V = cos II - fh sin II (2.21a)
20 CHAPTER 2. SYNTHESIS TOOLS

sin v = sin v+ fh cos v (2.21b)

tan v = tan v + fh(l + tan 2 v) (2.21c)

cotv = cotv - f~'

SIn v
(sin v #- 0) (2.21d)

(b)

Figure 2.2 Definition of the dual angle v == v + fh.

Moreover, let el and e2 be two dual unit vectors, and e3 be the dual unit vector
of the cross product el x e2, as depicted in Fig. 2.2, i.e.,

• el Xe2 (2.22)
e3 == II el x e211
Thus, the dual angle between el and e2 is defined as

(2.23a)
(2.23b)

Below we illustrate the geometric interpretation of eqs.(2.23). First, by application

of relation (2.9c),
(2.24)
i.e.,
(2.25)
2.1. DUAL NUMBERS 21

Upon equating the real and dual parts of the right-hand sides of eqs.(2.21a) and
(2.25), we obtain

el· e2 = cos v (2.26a)

el· m2 + mI· e2 = -hsinv (2.26b)

Moreover, from Fig. 2.2a,

mi = Pi x ei, i = 1, 2 (2.26c)
If now eqs.(2.26c) are substituted into eq.(2.26b), it is apparent that

[(P2 - pt) x e2]· el = -hsinv (2.27)

The left-hand side of eq.(2.27) represents the projection onto line £1 of the moment
of £2 with respect to Pl. Thus, eq.(2.27) states that the foregoing projection equals
the negative of the product of the distance between the two lines times the sine of
the angle between the two lines. The static interpretation of the same equation is
straightforward: the right-hand side of eq.(2.27) represents the moment of a unit
force, whose line of action is £2, with respect to £1. Obviously, the component of
this force parallel to £1 exerts zero moment about this line, while the component
perpendicular to £17 of magnitude sin v, exerts a moment about £1, that equals
-h sin v, the negative sign arising from the definitions of el and v in Fig. 2.2. We
then have the relation
el . e2 = cos v - fh sin v (2.28)
Now we turn to relation (2.23a). First, notice that

(2.29)

i.e.,
(2.30)
where, upon expansion,

(2.31 )

If we now apply relation (2.10) to calculate the Euclidean norm of el x e2, as given
by eq.(2.10), the associated dual expression is derived, namely,

(2.32)

Upon substitution of eqs.(2.31) and (2.32) into eq.(2.23b), we obtain

II el II +f (el x e2)· (ml x e2 + el x m2) _ . •

x e2 II el x e2 II - SIn v (2.33)
22 CHAPTER 2. SYNTHESIS TOOLS

Moreover, from eq.(2.21b), eq.(2.33) leads to the relations

II el x e2 II = sin v ~ 0 (2.34a)

and
(2.34b)

Equation (2.34a) thus states that v should be defined so that 0 ~ v ~ 11"; otherwise,
this equation is just a consequence of eq.(2.26a). Now, upon expansion of the left-
hand side of eq.(2.34b), we readily obtain

(2.35)

and, by virtue of eq.(2.26a) and the definition of e3, the latter relation reduces to

(2.36)

which simply states that the projection of segment PI P2 onto the common normal to
C 1 and C 2 equals the distance between these two lines. We can thus summarize the
foregoing results in the equation below:

el x e2 . e3 = sin v + f.h cos v (2.37)

In the discussion above we assumed implicitly that lines C 1 and C 2 are not parallel;
if they are, then v = 0 and eq.(2.37) leads to el x e2· e3 = h, i.e., the box product of
the dual unit vectors of the two lines and their common perpendicular is well defined,
even though the common perpendicular to the two parallel lines is undefined. Indeed,
e3 itself, as given by eq.(2.22), is not defined, for, in this case, the product el x e2 is
a dual vector with zero real part, thus violating the requirement that the real part of
a dual vector be not zero in defining the associated Euclidean norm, as in eq.(2.10).
What we need, then, is an alternative means of defining e3 in the particular case of
two parallel lines, an issue that we address in the paragraphs below. To this end, we
resort to a concept introduced in (Gonzalez-Palacios, Angeles and Ranjbaran, 1993).
Let the point coordinates of two parallel lines be defined as

C,: r, = q, + Ae, i = 1,2 (2.38)

Now, their line-coordinate representations are given as

e,=e+f.ID, (2.39)

with ID, = q, X e. We now have

2.1. DUAL NUMBERS 23

Theorem 2.1: Let two lines £1 and £2 passing through points Ql and Q2, be parallel
to the unit vector e. Moreover, let PI and P2 be the points of £1 and £2 closest to a
point O. Then, the line passing through PI and P2 is perpendicular to e, and hence,
to £1 and £2.
Proof: Let Pi be the position vector of Pi. Then, from eq.(2.18),

Pi = ex mi (2.40)
Hence
P2 - PI = e x (m2 - mt}

---
which is obviously perpendicular to e and the theorem follows.

--- e

Figure 2.3 The common perpendicular to two parallel lines.

Now, considering Theorem 2.1, the line £3 perpendicular to both £1 and £2

passing through points PI and P2 of £1 and £2, respectively, as shown in Fig. 2.3, is
defined by its vector of point coordinates as
(2.41)

where
(2.42)

and h == II P2 - PI II·
Moreover, the line-coordinate representation of £3 is given as

(2.43)
24 CHAPTER 2. SYNTHESIS TOOLS

Upon substitution of eq.(2.40) into eq.(2.43), one can readily obtain the dual repre-
sentation of £3 as
P2 - P1 + P1 X P2
(2.44)
A _

e3 - h f h

Example 2.1.2: Given the unit vectors ei, for i = 1, 2, representing the directions
of two lines £i, and the position vectors qi of arbitrary points on each line, find the
position vectors of the points Pi that are the intersection of the two lines with £3,
their common perpendicular.

Figure 2.4 The two lines of Example 2.1.2.

Solution:
We define the coordinates of Pi as shown in Fig. 2.4, in terms of the position vectors
Ui of points Uj of £i that lie closest to a point chosen as the origin 0 of a certain
coordinate frame, namely,
Pi = Ui + biei (a)
Note that, in Fig. 2.4, V1 and V2 are unit vectors parallel to U1 and U2, respectively.
Now, the equation of £i in terms of qi and ei is given in point-coordinate form as

ri = qi + Aiej (b)
2.1. DUAL NUMBERS 25

or, in line-coordinate form as

(c)
But, from eq.(2.19),
ri = ei x (qi x ei) + Aiei (d)
The first term of the right hand-side of eq.(d) represents the position vector of point
Ui , i.e.,
Ui = qi - (qi' ei)ei (e)
Substitution of eq.(e) into eq.(a) leads to

Pi = qi + (bi - qi . ei)ei (I)

Now, in order to obtain bi, we notice that £i is perpendicular to Vi and e3, where Vi
and e3 are the unit vectors indicated in Fig. 2.4. Now, we define the dual unit vectors
Vi and e3 as
Ui
Vi == II Ui II + fO
A

and
e3 == duv(et x e2)
All we need now is the dual angle Oi = ()i + fbi, for i = 1,2, between the common
perpendicular to £t and £2, denoted by £3, and lines U t and U 2 passing through
o and Ut and U2 , respectively. This dual angle can be readily evaluated from the
expression below:
(g)

Now, let:Ft and:F2 be two initially coincident coordinate frames. Assume that :F2
•
is rotated through an angle v about its X -axis and translated a distance h along the
same axis, as shown in Fig. 2.5. Thus, the transformation from :F2- to :Ft-coordinates
is given by the dual screw matrix shown below:

(2.45a)

In other words, Q(v) represents a dual rotation through v about the X-axis. Similarly,
the dual rotations through v about the Y- and Z-axes are given by

R(v) =[
COS
0
V 0 sin v
1 0
1 (2.45b)
-sinv 0 cosv
26 CHAPTER 2. SYNTHESIS TOOLS

and
-sinv
['?'~
S(v) = slnv
0
cos V
0 ~l (2.45c)

respectively.

1,
Q
~
.11
:F2

h
Z,

Figure 2.5 Dual rotation of frame F from Fl to F 2 •

Example 2.1.3: The transformation from one frame to another defined by a set
of dual rotations is a common exercise in the application of dual numbers. In this
example we present a transformation matrix that occurs very frequently in robotics.
Recalling Example 2.1.2, assume that we have two frames:F;, for i = 1, 2, such that
their Zi-axes lie along the line £i with direction ei, while their Xi-axes lie along the
lines UI and £3 with directions 1/1 and e3, respectively, as shown in Fig. 2.6. Find
the transformation matrix T to transfer components of vectors from frame F2 to
components in Fl.

Solution:
Let us consider an intermediate frame F' resulting from the dual rotation of FI by
the dual angle 01 == 81 + fbi about the Z.-axis. Then, the dual rotation of F' through
a dual angle & = a + fa about the X'-axis takes F' to F 2 • Thus, T is defined as

(a)
2.2. THE ARONHOLD-KENNEDY THEOREM 27

---
VI

Figure 2.6 The two dual rotations of Example 2.1.3.

Now, by means of eqs.(2.45), T is written as

-sinfh cosO:
COSOl cos 0:
- sin ~l sin 0:
- COSOl sinO:
1 ( b)
sinO: cosO:

Notice that the dual matrix T contains both translation and rotation information,
and hence, plays the role of the rather popular 4 x 4 transformation matrices of
robotics (Craig, 1986). •

2.2 The Aronhold-Kennedy Theorem

Below we include the discussion of the Aronhold-Kennedy Theorem in three dimen-
sions, first stated by Beggs (1959), as proposed by Veldkamp (1976). At the outset,
we recall the concept of instantaneous screw axis, or [SA for brevity. When two
bodies A and B are in relative motion, a set of points of these bodies exists along
which the relative velocity has a minimum magnitude. Moreover, this set is a line,
which is termed the ISA of B with respect to A, or of A with respect to B (Angeles,
1982). This result finds applications in the design of hypoid gears (Dudley, 1962),
whose pitch surfaces are hyperboloids generated by the motion of the ISA about the
screw axes of the pinion and the gear, thereby minimizing power losses, for contact
takes place along the line of minimum sliding.
28 CHAPTER 2. SYNTHESIS TOOLS

When three bodies A, B and C are in relative motion, then three different ISAs
can be defined as shown in Fig. 2.7. What the Aronhold-Kennedy Theorem states is
that the foregoing ISAs are not arbitrarily located in space, but all three share one
common perpendicular N, as illustrated in Fig. 2.8.

Figure 2.7 The three ISAs of three rigid bodies

in relative motion.

In Veldkamp's discussion we will need the concept of dual unit sphere. The dual
unit sphere, or dual sphere for short, is the locus of points of the dual space lying a
unit distance away from the origin of this space. Furthermore, the dual space is the
space of points whose position vectors are dual vectors. Thus, all position vectors
of points on the dual sphere are dual unit vectors, and hence, represent lines in the
Euclidean space.
By virtue of the definition of the dual sphere, then, the screw axis of a rigid-body
motion becomes a point on the dual sphere. As the body moves arbitrarily in the
Euclidean space, then, its motion is mapped into a curve on the dual sphere, which
is the dual image of the polode of the body. the polode being the ruled surface traced
by the ISA of the body with respect to a fixed body.
The relative screw motion of two rigid bodies, then, becomes relative spherical
motion in the dual space. Thus, one can imagine these bodies in the dual space as
two concentric dual unit spheres 8 1 and 8 2 • The dual angular velocity of 8 2 with
respect to 8 1 is given as

(2.46)
2.2. THE ARONHOLD-KENNEDY THEOREM 29

Figure 2.8 A geometric representation of the

Aronhold-Kennedy Theorem.

where e21 is a unit dual vector defining point P2b the two components of the dual
scalar W2b W21 and V21, representing, in real space, the signed magnitudes of the
angular velocity and the velocity of the points lying on the screw axis. The velocity
of any point P of S2, defined by the unit dual vector p, is given by

(2.47)

It is clear that V21 =0 if P coincides with P21, which is known as the pole of the
motion.
Now, the three dual angular velocities of the unit dual spheres S1, S2 and S3 in
relative motion are related as

(2.48)

Similarly, the dual velocities of a point are expressed as

(2.49)

where
V21 = W21 X P21 (2.50)
with similar definitions for V32 and V31.

Equation (2.48) can also be expressed in the form

(2.51 )
30 CHAPTER 2. SYNTHESIS TOOLS

where ei; indicates the three poles A;, and Wi; are the signed norms of the dual
vectors Wi;' defined as
Wi; = Wi; + Wi; (2.52)
As a result of eq.(2.51), the Aronhold-Kennedy Theorem is expressed as (Veldcamp,
1976)
Theorem 2.2 (Aronhold-Kennedy) The poles P21. P31 and P32 of three unit dual
spheres in relative motion lie on the same great circle.
Thus, the Aronhold-Kennedy Theorem defined in the dual space involves pure
rotations, pure translations and general screw motions. The dual representation of
Theorem 2.2 is included in Fig. 2.9.

Figure 2.9 The dual representation of

Aronhold-Kennedy Theorem.

2.3 Ruled-Surface Geometry

A surface 'R generated by the motion of a line C, defined as in eq.(2.15), is called a
ruled surface, C being its generatrix (Struik, 1961). Thus, the position vector of'R, is
given by
r(.,p, -X) = p(.,p) + -Xe(.,p) (2.53)
where .,p and -X are the parameters of 'R. The curve defined by the points p( tP) is
called the directrix of 'R" and the vectors e(.,p) with origin at the center of a unit
2.3. RULED-SURFACE GEOMETRY 31

sphere describe the spherical indicatrix of C. Moreover, if pet/!) is constant, 'R is a

cone, whereas 'R is a cylinder if e is constant.

Figure 2.10 Graphical interpretation of the striction curve.

We now introduce the concept of striction curve. Given a ruled surface 'R, con-
sider two infinitesimally separated generators e and f == e + de and their common
perpendicular PQ, as shown in Fig. 2.10. Then, point P is the central point of the
generator e, the locus of the central points defining the striction curve.
The striction curve is traced by the position vector g( t/!) defined as (DoCarmo
1976)
e / · p'
g(t/!)=p- e/.e/e (2.54)
the prime denoting differentiation with respect to t/!.
Thus, the central circle of an axially-symmetric hyperboloid 1{ is the striction
curve of 'H, whereas the striction curve is undetermined in cylindrical surfaces and
reduces to a point in conical surfaces.
Now, the unit normal of 'R can be derived from eq. (2.53) as
u
net/!, A) = 1fUiT (2.55)
32 CHAPTER 2. SYNTHESIS TOOLS

where
8r 8r
u = 8t/J x 8>" (2.56)

In terms of eq. (2.53), n( t/J, >..) becomes

(p' + >..e') x e
n= II u II (2.57)

The unit normal takes a limiting value as >.. decreases to -00, this value being
called the asymptotic normal, which is defined as (McCarthy, 1987)

a == lim n(t/J,>") = lim (p' + >..e') x e = -e' x e (2.58)

A-+-OO A-+-OO /(p' . >..e')2 _ (e . p')2 II e' II
A third vector, called the central normal, is defined from a and e as follows:
e'
c==axe=M (2.59)

Since c is a unit vector, we conclude that a and e are perpendicular. Thus, the triad
{a, e, c} is called the natural trihedron of 'R and is defined on the striction curve of
'R.
Example 2.3.1: The expression below represents a family of hyperboloids of one
sheet, where fixed values of p and 0 define one particular surface:

COS t/J] [- sin t/J sin 0]

r( t/J, >..) = p [ sin t/J + >.. cos t/J sin 0 , -00 :s >.. :s +00 (2.60)
o coso

Find:

i) the equation of the striction curve;

ii) the expression of the unit normal and the natural trihedron;
What happens if p == 0 or == O?
0

Solution:

i) We notice that, if eq.(2.60) is written in the form of eq.(2.53), p' and e' are
readily obtained as

- sin t/J]
p' = p [ co~ t/J , t
-cos t/J sin 0
e' = [ - sin sin 0
]
2.3. RULED-SURFACE GEOMETRY 33

Substituting these values into eq.(2.54), the points of the striction curve are
defined as
COS tP]
g( tP) = p [ si~ tP

and hence, the striction curve is the circle lying in the XY plane, centered at
the origin of this plane, and of radius p.

ii) The unit normal is obtained from eq.(2.57), namely,

1 [PCOS tP cos a - A sin tP sin a cos a]

n = - p sin tP cos a + A cos tP sin a cos a ,
v -A sin 2 a

Now, from eqs.(2.58, 2.60 & 2.59), we obtain, respectively,

sin tP cos a ]
a = [ -co~tPcosa
-sin tP sin
e = [ cos tP sin a
a] , COS tP]
, C = [ si~ tP
sma cos a

thereby defining the natural trihedron. For purposes of illustration, we assume

now the numerical values p = 1, a = 350 and -5 ~ A ~ 5, the corresponding
hyperboloid, the striction curve C, the natural trihedron and the direction of n
along the directrix in which tP = 0, being shown in Fig. 2.11.

It is clear now that, if p == 0, we have a family of regular cones and, if a == 0, a family

of regular cylinders. •

Now, if g(tP) and e(tP) are reparameterized by the arc length s of the spherical
indicatrix, we obtain the equation of the position vector of n
in the form

res, A) = pes) + Ae(s) (2.61)

where s is defined as
s = 10'" II e' II dtP (2.62)

Moreover, the geodesic Frenet equations of the {a, c, e} triad are given by

dejds = c (2.63)

dcjds = ')'a - e (2.64)

dajds = -')'C (2.65)

34 CHAPTER 2. SYNTHESIS TOOLS

z z c
e

Figure 2.11 A hyperboloid of one sheet and its natural trihedron at 'l/J = o.
2.3. RULED-SURFACE GEOMETRY 35

where s represents the arc length of the spherical indicatrix of e, while, is the geodesic
curvature. The latter is expressed in terms of e and its derivatives with respect to '!jJ,
namely,
e x e'· e"
(2.66)

The positional variation of the trihedron defined by a, c and e is given by

~~ = Lla+ Fe (2.67)

where
p'. ex e'
.1= ~-...".-- (2.68)
- II e' II"
and
p' . e 1 d ( p' . e )
(2.69)
F==M-]fe'lfdt ~

Now, the dual spherical radius of curvature ofR, p= p+tr, is given by (McCarthy,
1987)
A l/k
tan p = A/A (2.70)
1 ,..
where

k = ,.. + t(K - ,...1) (2.71)

l' = , + t(F - 1.1 (2.72)

and the definitions below:

,.. == VI + 12 (2.73)

K == ,F+Ll (2.74)
,..
Chapter 3

KINEMATICS OF THREE-LINK
MECHANISMS

3.1 Introduction
This chapter is confined to the study of cam mechanisms composed of three rigid
links, namely, the fixed frame, the driving element or cam and the driven element
or follower. While the study is general, special attention is given to indexing cam
mechanisms (ICM).
At the outset, we describe the objective of this Chapter. As a matter of fact,
Chapters 4, 5 and 8 share the same objective. Our objective is, then, to synthesize
the contact surfaces of two rigid bodies, the cam and the follower, so as to produce
a prescribed motion of the latter as a function of the motion of the former. Both the
prescribed follower motion and the cam motion are described by one variable, and
hence, the prescribed motion is fully specified by a scalar function of a scalar variable.
This function is termed henceforth the input-output function.
The synthesis of the contact surfaces of both cam and follower as well as the quality
of the transmission, quantified via the pressure angle, are discussed in this chapter in
a unified fashion. The contact surfaces are designed as ruled surfaces, and motion is
transmitted along a common line, which gives rise to a higher kinematic pair. Two
more kinematic pairs arise, namely, the cam-frame and the follower-frame pairs, which
belong to the class of lower kinematic pairs, and can be of any of three types, namely,
revolute, prismatic or screw (Angeles, 1982). This generalization allows the analysis
of those mechanisms not only with rotating but also with translating followers, i.e., if
the output motion is attained via a prismatic pair.
By virtue of the theorem on the existence of an instantaneous screw axis, already
recalled in Section 2.2, three ISAs (Is) arise within the kind of mechanisms under
study. Moreover, the input and output pairs are represented by their instant screw
axes 121 and 131, where 1, 2 and 3 stand for frame, cam and follower, respectively. For
38 CHAPTER 3. KINEMATICS OF THREE-LINK MECHANISMS

given input and output pairs and a given input-output function there is a unique pair
of cam and follower surfaces that produce the given motion with a minimum sliding
on the higher pair. This solution is achieved when the contact line coincides with the
instant screw axis 132 • In some degenerate cases the surfaces may collapse into a line.
Other solutions can be obtained if the contact line and 132 are not coincident, but
parallel, e.g., in cam mechanisms with flat-face followers.
In this book, planar, spherical and spatial cam mechanisms are classified according
to the relative location of their ISAs. Thus, the mechanism is planar if every ISA is
either parallel to one direction or perpendicular to it; the mechanism is spherical if
all ISAs are concurrent; spatial, if none of the two foregoing conditions is met.
The contact line of the higher pair is an element of both surfaces, and is derived
by application of the Aronhold-Kennedy Theorem, first proposed by Aronhold (1872)
and Kennedy (1886) independently for planar motion and later extended to the three
dimensional case by Beggs (1959) and Phillips and Hunt (1964). The formulation is
based on a mapping of the motion onto the dual space, where the three bodies are
considered as dual unit spheres SI, S2 and S3 in relative motion, and the poles Fij
are the images of the axes Iij under the aforementioned mapping.

Figure 3.1 Mapping from Euclidean to dual space.

3.2. SURFACE GEOMETRY 39

3.2 Surface Geometry

As mentioned in Section 3.1, the surfaces of the cam and the follower are generated by
the sweeping action of 132 onto each of the two bodies. The first part of this section is
devoted to the derivation of the parameters defining h2' the second to the definition
of the surfaces.
Let SI, S2 and S3 be the dual unit spheres representing, in the dual space, the
frame, cam and follower, respectively. We recall briefly here that dual quantities are
denoted with a hat C) and are composed of a primal part, usually a real scalar, vector
or matrix, and a dual part, correspondingly a real scalar, vector or matrix, preceded
by the dual unity ( with the property (2 == 0. The relative dual angular velocities of
the foregoing dual spheres are related as in eq.(2.51), i.e.,

In the above equation, the subscripts (ij) denote the dual angular velocity of the
ith dual sphere with respect to the jth dual sphere, but, in order to simplify the
nomenclature, all dual angular velocities with respect to 1, the frame, will be indicated
only with the label of the other sphere, eq.(2.51) thus taking on the form

(3.1 )

Now, three coordinate frames are defined so that their X -axes are collinear and
each of the Z-axes is oriented towards one of the poles. Thus, the poles are locally
represented by the dual unit vector

k = [0, 0, If (3.2)

with zero dual part.

Furthermore, al is the dual angle from e2 to e3, whereas O2 is the dual angle from
e2 to e32, both of which are defined as

(3.3a)

(3.3b)

The geometric representation of the foregoing mapping is shown in Fig. 3.1, where
Vij = Vijeij, while Vij and Wij are the components of Wij, as defined in eq.(2.52). Thus,
the unit dual vectors of the poles are given as

e3 = Q(at}k (3.4a)

e32 = Q(02)k (3.4b)

e2 = k (3.4c)
40 CHAPTER 3. KINEMATICS OF THREE-LINK MECHANISMS

where Q is defined in eq.(2.45a).

Next, substituting the values of eqs.(3.4) into eq.(3.1), one obtains

(3.5)

Two dual equations are obtained from eq.(3.5), namely,

Wa2 sin O2 = W3 sin at (3.6a)

W32 cos O2 = W3 cos at - W2 (3.6b)

Thus, the parameters of the pole F32 can be written in terms of those of the poles
F2 and F 3 • Consequently, W32 is obtained by the addition of the squared terms of
eqs.(3.6), while O2 is obtained upon dividing both sides of eq.(3.6a) by the corre-
sponding sides of eq.(3.6b), namely,

(3.7)

(3.8)

Moreover, we are interested in calculating the numerical values of the real angular
velocity and the real sliding velocity of the follower with respect to the cam, W32 and
V32, respectively. The former is the signed magnitude of the difference W3 - W2, while
the latter is the signed minimum magnitude of the difference VP3 - VP2, where VP3
is the velocity of point P of the follower and VP2 is the velocity of the same point of
the cam. Now, in order to obtain the real angular velocity W32 and the real sliding
velocity V32, one can expand eq.(3.7) considering eqs.(2.52 & 3.3) and the definitions
given in eqs.(2.1 & 2.21), which readily lead to

(3.9a)

V32 = W3V3 + W3W2at sin at - (W3V2

W32
+ W2V3) cos at + W2V2 (3.9b)

A similar procedure is followed to obtain ()2 and b2 from eq.(3.8), namely,

(3. lOa)

~= (W3 2 - W3W2 cos adat + (W3V2 - W2V3) sin at

(3.10b)
W~2
3.2. SURFACE GEOMETRY 41

In general, eqs.(3.9 & 3.10) provide all the necessary information to define [32.
Moreover, we claim that these are the general equations from which one can derive
any type of the known cam mechanisms satisfying the condition of minimum sliding
velocity at the contact line and new types depending on the combination used on
the input and output screw parameters, namely, W2, V2, W3, V3, at and at. However,
special treatment may be needed if both the input- and output-pairs are prismatic,
as discussed in Subsection 3.2.4.
Now, if S2 rotates with respect to St through the dual angle ~ = 'l/J + fZ2, where
both tf; and Z2 are functions of time, A2 will trace a polo de on S2, which is given by
the dual unit vector 52 (~) defined below:
82(~) = ST(~)Q(02)k (3.lla)
where the dual rotation S is defined in eq.(2.45c).
Similarly, if S3 rotates with respect to St through the dual angle 4> = </J + tz3,
where both </J and Z3 are functions of time t, P32 will trace another polode on S3,
which is given by the dual unit vector 83(4)), defined as
83(4)) = ST(4))Q(02 - &t}k (3.llb)

Furthermore, the polo des defined by the dual unit vectors 82 and 53 are the images
of the ruled surfaces 'R2 and 'R 3 , the contact surfaces of cam and follower, respectively.
Now, upon expansion, eqs.(3.ll) take on the form

(3.12a)

-s</J(t)s{3] [dS</J(t)C{3 + Z3(t)C</J(t)s{3]

83(t) = [ -c</J(t)s{3 - f dc</J(t)c{3 - Z3(t)S</J(t)s{3 (3.12b)
c{3 ds{3
where d == b2 - at and {3 == ()2 - at. Furthermore, c f- cos and sf-sin.
By means of eq.(2.19), the point coordinates of'R 2 and 'R3 can be readily obtained
from eqs.(3.12), namely,
b2c'l/J(t) - Z2(t)S'l/J(t)S()2C()2] [-S'l/J(t)S()2]
r2(t,..\) = [ -b2s'l/J(t) - Z2(t)c'l/J(t)S()2C()2 +..\ -c'l/J(t)S()2 (3.13a)
-Z2(t)S2()2 C()2
and
dc</J(t) - Z3(t)S</J(t)S{3c{3] [-S</J(t)S{3]
r3(t,..\) = [ -ds</J(t) - Z3(t)C</J(t)s{3c{3 +..\ -c</J(t)s{3 (3.13b)
-Z3(t)s2{3 c{3
42 CHAPTER 3. KINEMATICS OF THREE-LINK MECHANISMS

3.2.1 Revolute-Higher-Revolute (RHR) Mechanisms

A cam mechanism with both input and output revolute pairs and with the contact
line coinciding with 132 is called a revolute-higher-revolute (RHR) mechanism. Its
input-output function can be expressed as
(3.14)
and, from the type of input and output pairs,
Z2 = V2 = 0 (3.15a)

Z3 = V3 = 0 (3.15bj
Next, from eq.(3.14), ~ can be expressed as
1 = d¢> _ d¢> dt/J _ ,/.'
'Y - dt - dt/J dt - 'Y W2 (3.15c)

Now, substituting the values of eqs.(3.15) into eqs.(3.9 & 3.10), the screw parameters
of 132 are readily derived, namely,

W32 = ±W2C (3.16a)

V32 = ± ¢>' sinC at atW 2 (3.16b)

¢>' sin at
tan 2 =
(J
(3.16c)
¢>' cos at - 1
¢>12 _ ¢>' cos at
~ = c2
at (3.16d)

where
c == ..;¢>'2 - 2¢>' cos at + 1 (3.17)
Furthermore, combining eqs.(3.16) with eqs.(3.13), the cam and follower surfaces are
derived from
COS t/J ] [ - sin t/J sin (J2]
r2( t/J, A) = ~ [ - sin t/J + A - cos t/J sin (J2 (3.18a)
o cos (J2
and

r3(¢>, A) = (~- at) [~:~:¢>] + A [=:~:~:~:~:: ::~]

o cos( (J2 - at)
= (3.18b)

in agreement with the results presented in (Gonzalez-Palacios and Angeles, 1990),

using an alternative approach, based on the application of vector algebra.
Now we can draw some conclusions, namely,
3.2. SURFACE GEOMETRY 43

i) The surfaces generated by ri correspond to any of the three classes of cam

mechanisms. Thus, the classification below is given in terms of the values of at
and at:
- Planar: at =/: 0, at = O.
- Spherical: at = 0, at =/: o.
- Spatial: at =/: 0, at =/: O.
ii) As expected, pure rolling is achieved in the first two cases mentioned above,
which is apparent from eq.(3.16b), since V32 vanishes with the corresponding
values of at and at.

3.2.2 Revolute-Higher-Prismatic (RHP) Mechanisms

A cam mechanism with a revolute pair as input and a prismatic pair as output, with
line of contact 132 , is called a revolute-higher-prismatic (RHP) mechanism. Moreover,
the output motion can be expressed as a function of the input motion, namely,
(3.19)

From the types of input and output pairs, one concludes that
Z2=V2=0 (3.20a)

(3.20b)

Now, upon considering eq.(3.19), we can express V3 as

_ dZ3 dZ3 d.,p ,
V3 = dt = d.,p dt = Z3W2 (3.20c)

Moreover, in light of eqs.(3.20), eqs.(3.9 & 3.10) take the form

(3.21a)

(3.21b)

tan ()2 = 0 (3.21c)

(3.21<.1)

Furthermore, by substituting eqs.(3.21) into eqs.(3.13), the cam and follower sur-
faces are readily derived in terms of the position vectors r2(1/J, oX) and r3(z3, oX), namely,

(3.22a)
44 CHAPTER 3. KINEMATICS OF THREFrLINK MECHANISMS

and

r3(Z3,A) = [-Z~Z:i::~~O!::)] +A [Si:O'I] (3.22b)

-Z3 SIn 0'1 COS 0'1
Equations (3.22) represent a family of cam mechanisms, chara.cterized by specific
values of 0'1. Because the output is a prismatic pair, al can be arbitrarily defined
without changing the geometry of the follower surface. In other words, al only giv~
the position of the follower frame. Now, by looking at eq.(3.21b), V32 vanishes if
0'1 = 1r /2 or 31r /2. Indeed, substitution of these values into eqs.(3.22) leads to the
surfaces given below:

(3.23a)

and

(3.23b)

the upper sign prevailing when 0:1 = 7r /2.

From these results we can draw a· few conclusions, namely,

i) The surfaces are cylindrical.
ii) The cam mechanism has a translating follower.
iii) Because 0'1 -:f:. 0 and b2 -:f:. 0, the IS As are non-parallel and non-intersecting.
Therefore, according to the given definition, these two mechanisms are spatial
cams.

On the other hand, V32 of eq.(3.21 b) is a maximum if 0:1 = 0 or 7r, the contacting
surfaces being obtained by substituting either of the two values of 0'1 into eqs.(3.22),
namely,

(3.24a)

and

(3.24b)

from which we can draw a few additional conclusions, i.e.,

i) The surfaces degenerate into a common line, which is coincident with 132 ,
3.2. SURFACE GEOMETRY 45

ii) The solution is ideally a cylindrical cam mechanism. In order to have a feasible
mechanism, either the locus of the higher pair should be different from the locus
of 132 or an intermediate rigid body should be included, e.g., a roller.
iii) 132 is parallel to 12 and 13, which leads to a planar mechanism.

3.2.3 Prismatic-Higher-Revolute (PHR) Mechanisms

A prismatic-higher-revolute (PHR) mechanism is similar to an RHP mechanism, the
only difference being that now the input has a prismatic pair and the output a revolute
pair. The output motion is expressed as

(3.25)
Now, considering the input and output pairs, one obtains

(3.26a)

(3.26b)
Furthermore, W3 is expressed as

(3.27)

Substitution of eqs.(3.26) into eqs.(3.9 & 3.10) readily leads to

(3.28a)

(3.28b)

tan ()2 = tan al (3.28c)

b _ <f/al + sinal (3.28d)
2 - <P'

Thus, the general surfaces for a PHR mechanism are obtained by substitution of
eqs.(3.28) into eqs.(3.13), namely,

r2(z2,,x) = al+ sinad<P']

[ -z2sa~ c~s al
[0]
+,x - sin al (3.29a)
- Z2 SIn al COS al

(3.29b)
46 CHAPTER 3. KINEMATICS OF THREE-LINK MECHANISMS

Moreover, in order to have pure rolling, i.e., V32 = 0, al must be 7r /2 or 37r /2.
Since the results are analogous to those of section 3.2.2, one obtains the same con-
clusions given there. According to the results presented in Sections 3.2.2 and 3.2.3,
the theorems below are readily formulated:
Theorem 3.1: For RHP or PHR mechanisms, the contact line of minimum sliding
velocity is parallel to the axis of the revolute pair.
Theorem 3.2: Pure rolling of RHP or PHR mechanisms is achieved if the axis of the
prismatic pair is perpendicular to both the contact line and the axis of the revolute
pair.

3.2.4 Prismatic-Prismatic-Prismatic (PPP) Mechanisms

If both the input and output pairs are prismatic in a cam mechanism, the third pair is
also prismatic and so, the mechanism is termed prismatic-prismatic-prismatic (PPP).
Properly speaking, then, PPP mechanisms are lower-pair mechanisms, and hence,
deserve a special treatment. The underlying input-output function can be expressed
as
(3.30)

This type of mechanism is the exception to the general formulation given in

eqs.{3.9 & 3.10), where the screw parameters, except for W32, are undefined. Conse-
quently, a particular derivation should be considered, i.e., instead of relative angular
velocities, relative translational velocities of the contact point will be analyzed. These
are related as
(2.49)
which can be rewritten as
(3.31)

By comparing eq.{3.31) with eq.{3.1), one can apply a procedure similar to the
one used to derive eqs.{3.7 & 3.8), to obtain

(3.32a)

and
(3.32b)

Upon separation of eqs.{3.32) into primal and dual parts, we can readily obtain

(3.33a)
3.3. PRESSURE ANGLE 47

and

(3.33b)

The dual part of the left-hand side of eq.(3.33a) is zero, and hence,

In general,v.:f: 0, for i = 2, 3, and sin 0'1 :f: o. Thus, for the above equation to hold,
a1 must vanish. Consequently, from the dual part of eq.(3.33b), b2 = O.

Moreover, from eq.(3.30), one can define the relationship

(3.34)

Thus, with the aid of eq.(3.34), V32 and ()2 can be written as

(3.35a)
, SIn
. 0'1
tan () 2 = -'-,Z3
~-----'­ (3.35b)
Z3 cos 0'1 - 1

from which we can draw the conclusions below:

i) The coupling between cam and follower is a lower pair, namely, prismatic.
ii) Since al = b2 = 0, the three IS As are coplanar.

3.3 Pressure Angle

In some cam mechanisms, as we will see in Chapter 5, the cam may play temporarily
the role of the driven element; correspondingly, the follower may play temporarily the
role of the driving element. For this reason, we distinguish here between direct and
inverse operations of the mechanism. The direct operation is defined as that in which
the cam is the driving element, the inverse operation being that in which the cam is
the driven element.
Henceforth we assume that the cam and follower are bounded by the ruled surfaces
R2 and R 3 , respectively. The pressure angle /1. is then defined as that subtended
between the direction of the unit normal to Ri and the direction of the velocity of
the contact point as pertaining to the driven element, which is bounded by R i , for
48 CHAPTER 3. KINEMATICS OF THREE-LINK MECHANISMS

i = 2, 3. Since contact takes place along a line, Iti is derived as a function of A, which
is a parameter defined along that line.
Let ri( ¢, A) be the position vector of a point of the ruled surface 'R.i, defined as

ri(¢, A) = Pi(¢) + Aei(¢) (3.36)

The normal vector ni of'R.i is determined as in eq.(2.55), namely,

In terms of eq. (3.36), ni( ¢, A) becomes

mi
ni = II mi II; mi = (p~ + Ae~) x ei (3.37)

the prime denoting differentiation with respect to ¢.

Moreover, the unit vector Wi, parallel to the follower velocity at the contact point,
is obtained as
(3.38)

Once ni and Wi are known, the pressure angle is derived from the relation

tan Iti
II ni x Wi II
= .:..:...----.:.:. (3.39)
ni· Wi

The value of Iti for the spatial mechanism changes at every point of the contact
line. In order to derive a significant value of Iti for this case, we define it along the
striction curve of 'R.i, as defined in Section 2.3. At the striction curve, A attains the
value AS given below:
/IS
\ pi· ei
= --,-, (3.40)
ei· ei
and hence, Iti is defined as
(3.41)

3.3.1 Pressure Angle of RHR Mechanisms

General expressions of the pressure angle of RHR cam mechanisms for both direct
and inverse operations are now derived. The pressure angle of other types can be
obtained following the same procedure presented here.
3.3. PRESSURE ANGLE 49

Direct Operatioo
The pressure angle is obtained in this case for i = 3. By following the procedure
mentioned above, the unit normal is written as

(3.42)

where the prime denotes differentiation with respect to ¢, and m3 is defined in

eq.(3.37).
From eq. (3.18b), we obtain

-d¢/ sin </J + b~ cos </J]

p~ = [ -d</J' cos </J - b~ sin </J (3.43)
o
and
-</J' cos </J sin f3 - O~ sin </J cos f3]
e~ = [ </J' sin </J sin f3 - O~ cos </J cos f3 (3.44)
-O~ sin f3
O~ and b~ being derived from eqs. (3.16c & 3.16d), namely,
</J" sin 0:1
o~ = C
(3.45a)

and
(3.45b)
with c defined as in eq. (3.17). Combining eqs. (3.42-3.44), we obtain the desired
expression for 03, i.e.,

-(d</J'C</J + b~s</J)cf3 + >'(</J's</Jsf3cf3 - o~c</J)] 1

03 = [ (d</J's</J - b~c</J)cf3 + >,(</J'c</Jsf3cf3 + O~s</J) II II (3.46)
-b~sf3 + >'</J' S2 f3 m3

Now W3 can be written as

dSin </J + >.cos </Jsin f3] 1

W3 = [ dcos </J - ~sin </Jsinf3 ~ (3.4 7)

the cross product of the right-hand side of eq. (3.39) being computed as

db~c</Jsf3 + >'s2f3(b~s</J + </J'dc</J) - >.2</J'S</JS3f3 ]

03 X W3 == [ -db~s</Jsf3 - >'s2f3(b~c</J - </J'ds</J) + >.2</J'C</JS3f3 II e II ~I II (3.48)
-J2</J'cf3 - >'(dO~ - b~sf3cf3) - >.2</J's2f3cf3 3 m3
50 CHAPTER 3. KINEMATICS OF THREE-LINK MECHANISMS

whose magnitude is given by

(3.49)

with the definitions shown below:

A == 4P s4fJ (3.50a)
B == Fs2fJ (3.50b)
C == (b~2 + r/J12 tP)S2fJ + «(J~2 + r/J'2s2fJc 2fJ)tP - 2db~(J~sfJcfJ (3.50c)
D==FtP (3.50d)
E == tP(b~2s2fJ + tPr/J'2 c2fJ) (3.50e)
F == 2r/J'(d(J~cfJ - b~sfJ) (3.50f)

Furthermore, the dot product of the right-hand side of eq. (3.39) is readily ob-
tained as
db~ cos fJ + A2(J~ sin fJ
(3.51)
II e31111 m311
Finally, combining eqs. (3.39, 3.48 & 3.51), the tangent of the pressure angle takes
on the form
v'AA4 + BA 3 + CA 2 +DA + E
tanJl3 = (3.52)
d~ cos fJ + A2(J~ sin fJ

For the planar case, at = 0, and hence, (J2 = fJ = (J~ = 0, A = B = C =

D = 0, and E = d4r/J12. Substituting all these values into eq. (3.52), tan Jl3 reduces
to
d, r/J'(r/J' - 1)
tan Jl3 = - ~ r/J = r/J" (3.53)

For the spherical case, the pressure angle is obtained by taking the limit of tan Jl3
as A tends to infinity (DoCarmo, 1976) in eq. (3.52), namely,

. v'AA4 + BA 3 + CA 2 + DA +E r/J'sinfJ
tanJl3 = 11m - = (3.54)
'\-00 db~ cos fJ + A2(J~ sin fJ (J~

Manipulating the expression for sin fJ, eq. (3.54) can be readily rewritten as

r/J'
tan Jl3 = r/J" v'C (3.55)

with c defined as in eq. (3.17).

3.3. PRESSURE ANGLE 51

If c is evaluated for 01 = 0, .;c = ¢/- 1. Therefore, eq. (3.53) is a particular case

of eq. (3.55).
For the spatial case, eq. (3.52) is evaluated at the striction point, i.e., at .\S as
given by eq. (3.40), which, in terms of eqs. (3.43 & 3.44), becomes

(3.56)

Moreover,
• tl • «() ) = sin.;c01
slnJJ == sIn 2- 01 (3.57a)

¢/ - cos 01
cos {3 == cos( ()2 - od = .;c (3.57b)

d == ~ _ al = ¢/ cos 01 - 1 al (3.57c)
c
and now, substituting eqs.(3.45 and 3.57) into eq.(3.56), one obtains,
r/J'2 r/J" sin 01.;c (3.58)
.\S = (r/J,2 c + r/J"2)c al

which is the expression determining the point at which the pressure angle is evaluated.

Inverse operation
Here, the cam is considered as the driven element; therefore, we derive the expression
for the pressure angle using i = 2. If we follow the same steps as those for the direct
operation, we can readily obtain the expression for the pressure angle as

VA.\4 + B.\3 + 6.\2 + V.\ + E (3.59)

tani'2 = - .
b2b~ cos () + .\2()~ sm ()

where
A == S4()2 (3.60a)

B == FS2()2 (3.60b)

6 == (b~2 + b~)s2()2 + (8~2 + s282C2(2)b~ - 2b2b~8~s82C82 (3.60c)

iJ == Fb~ (3.60d)

E == b~(b~ 2S282 + b~ cos 2 ()2) (3.60e)

F == 2(~()~COS()2 - b~sin()2) (3.60f)

52 CHAPTER 3. KINEMATICS OF THREE-LINK MECHANISMS

For the planar case, 0'1 = 0, and hence, ()2 = ()~ = 0, A=B=6 =D = 0
and E = b~.
Upon substitution of all these values into eq. (3.59), we can reduce tan /L2 to
~ 4>'(4)' - 1)
tan/L2 = - ~ = 4>" (3.61)

For the spherical case, the pressure angle is obtained by taking the limit of tan /L2
as A tends to infinity in eq. (3.59), namely,

. .;AA4 + BA3 + CA 2 + DA +E = sin() 4>' r:.

tan/L2 = 11m --- == -4>"y C (3.62)
~-oo ~~ cos () + A2()~ sin () ()~

where c is defined as in eq.(3.17).

For the spatial case, eq. (3.52) is evaluated at the value of A given by eq. (3.40),
namely, at
~()~ cos ()2 - b~ sin ()2
AS = (3.63)
()~2 + sin 2 ()2
But
.J..' •
•
SIn
()
2 = 'I" SIn
..;c0'1 (3.64a)

cos
()2 = 4>' cos..;c
0'1 - 1
(3.64b)

and hence, eq.(3.63) leads to

(3.65)

3.3.2 Pressure Angle of RHP Mechanisms

The pressure angle of RHP mechanisms is also derived with the procedure introduced
in Section 3.3.1. Thus, from eqs.(3.22), the pressure angle for both direct and inverse
operations can be readily obtained as

_ v(zgsa1cat}2 + z~2s2a1(c2a1 + s(1)2

tan /L3 - " (3.66a)
-Z3 sa1

(3.66b)
3.3. PRESSURE ANGLE 53

Notice that, for 01 = ±11" /2,

z'
tan 1'3 = tan 1'2 = _3_ (3.67)
-zg

3.3.3 Pressure Angle of PHR Mechanisms

The pressure angle of PHR mechanisms for direct and inverse operations is obtained
from eqs.(3.29), namely,

(3.68)

3.3.4 Pressure Angle of PPP Mechanisms

From the results derived in Section 3.2.4, one can obtain the expressions for the
contact surfaces of PPP mechanisms, and then, the pressure angle can be computed.
By following this procedure, the pressure angle is found to be 11"/2 and no transmission
is possible with this type of mechanisms. Nevertheless, with the introduction of a
fourth body, i.e., a roller, a feasible mechanism is possible, as discussed in Chapter 4.
Chapter 4

KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK
MECHANISMS

4.1 Introduction
This chapter is devoted to the study of cam mechanisms with four links. The study of
three-link mechanisms with constant pressure angle is included because these mecha-
nisms are synthesized within our unified framework with the aid of an auxiliary roller,
which thus leads to a four-link mechanism.

(a) (b)
Figure 4.1 Mapping of the geometry of four-link cam mechanisms,
onto the dual sphere.
56 CHAPTER 4. KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS

One fourth dual sphere S4, which represents the roller, is added to the three
already considered in Chapter 3. Thus, a total of six IS As arise now and, accord-
ing to the Aronhold-Kennedy Theorem in the .dual. sph~re, we have f~)Ur ~reat. cir-
cles, each with three poles, namely, CI23 : {P21 , P32 , P3 d, C234 : {P32 , P42 , P43 },
C34I : {P43,At. P 4 d and C4I2 : {P4 t.
P 42 , Ad. The polodes, as defined in Section 2.2,
generated by P 43 and P 42 over S2, are the dual curves of the pitch and contact surfaces
of the cam, the former being used to derive the pressure angle.
Now, a great circle on a dual unit sphere can be defined with at least two points.
Thus, CI23 and C34I , shown in Fig. 4.1a, are defined by the given poles P2I , Al
and P43 •
Moreover, P32 is computed according to the results obtained in Chapter 3. Once
A2 is obtained, both P 43 and A2
define C234 , as shown in Fig. 4.1b. Finally, P 42 is
located by the given dual radius of the roller, represented by a4. The given parameters
as well as the unknown variables for the synthesis of four-link cam mechanisms are
shown in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Notation used for the synthesis of four-link cam mechanisms

Given parameters:
al = al + Eal dual angle between input and output axes
a3 = a3+ Ea3 dual angle between output and roller axes
a4 = a4 + Ea4 dual angle of the roller
~ = tP + fZ2 dual angle of rotation of the cam
~ = 4> + EZ3 dual angle of rotation of the follower
Unknown variables:
()2= ()2 + Eb2 dual arc P2 P32
03 = ()3 + Eb3 dual arc P 32 P 43
6 = Ii + iZ32 dual angle between arc P 32 P 3 and arc P 32 P 43
V = /J + EZ43 dual angle between arc P 3 P 34 and arc P 32 P 43

The components of the dual unit vector e in the frame :F; are represented by [ e ]i.
In order to simplify the notation, the symbol [']i will be omitted for those vectors
given in the frame fixed to S2.

4.2 Roller-Followers
As mentioned above, the dual curve generated by the motion of P43 on S2 represents
the pitch surface of the cam, which is given by the family of lines
(4.1)
4.2. ROLLER-FOLLOWERS 57

with Q, Sand k defined, respectively, in eqs.(2.45a, 2.45c & 3.2).

From eq. (2.19), the point coordinates of the pitch ruled surface n p are defined as
(4.2)
where P43 = e43 x m43.

Thus, e43, m43 and P43 can be readily computed as

(4.3a)

-kls'ljJal - h3a3 - h2z2 + kSSQ:3Z3]

m43 = [ -klc'IjJal - h4a3 + h1z 2 - k6SQ:3Z3 (4.3b)
-k3al - k4a3 + k1z3

(h2k3 + k:c'IjJ)al + (h2k4 + h4kda3

-klhlZ2 + (klk6SQ:3 - k1h2)Z3

-(hlk3 + k:s'IjJ)al - (h 1k4 + h3kl)a3

P43 = -klh2Z2 + (klkssQ:3 + k1h l )Z3
(4.3c)

(hIC'IjJ - h2s'IjJ)k1al + (h 1h4 - h2h3)a3

-(h~ + h~)Z2 + (h2kS + hlk6)SQ:3Z3
where
(4.4a)
(4.4b)
(4.4c)
(4.4d)

ks = c'IjJc¢> + S'ljJS¢>CO:I (4.4e)

k6 = s'ljJc¢> - c'IjJS¢>CQ:1 (4.4f)

( 4.4g)

hI = k3S'IjJ - SQ:3S¢>C'IjJ (4.4h)

h2 = k3C'IjJ + SQ:3S¢>S'IjJ ( 4.4i)

h3 = k2S'IjJ - CQ:3S¢>C'IjJ (4.4j)

h4 = k2C'IjJ + CQ:3S¢>S'IjJ (4.4k)

58 CHAPTER 4. KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS

Now, the dual curve representing the surface of the cam is defined by the trajectory
that 1'42 traces on 8 2 , namely,
AT
== e42 + fm42 = S
A ,. ,. A A ,.

se(t) (tP)Q«(J2)S(D)Q(~)k (4.5)

Furthermore, in order to completely define se, 92 is computed from eqs. (3.10).

The dual angles ~ and 62 are derived below. The former is defined as

(4.6)

0:4 representing the dual radius of the roller.

Moreover, 93 is obtained from the relation
(4.7)

where the vectors appearing in the right-hand side can be expressed in any frame, as
long as all are in the same frame, for the cross and dot products are frame-invariant.
If these vectors are expressed in frame :Fh fixed to S., then,

[e32h = Q(92)k ( 4.8a)

[e43h = Q(0:1)S(¢)Q(0:3)k (4.8b)

and [e234h is defined as

(4.9)

Furthermore, the dual angle 6, shown in Figure 4.1, is obtained as

(4.10)

where
(4.11)

From eqs. (2.19 & 4.5), the point coordinates of the contact surface of the cam are
given as
(4.12)
where P42(t) = e42 X m42.
The transformation dual matrices in eq.(4.5) are the same as those in eq.(4.1),
but with different arguments; therefore, the results given for e42, m42 and P42 are
4.2. ROLLER-FOLLOWERS 59

analogous to those of eqs.( 4.3), namely,

- - - T
e42 = [ -hI, -h2' kI ] (4.13a)

(4.13b)

(h2 k3 + _ktctjJ)~ +J~2k4 + ~4~d{b3 - a4)

-kIhIZ2 + (kIk6S1/ - k7h2)Z32

-(AIk3 -t k]stjJ)b2 :- Chlk4 +]ta..k.){b3 - a4)

P42 = -kIh2Z2 + (klkss1/ + k7h.)Z32
(4.13c)

(hIctjJ - h2StjJ)kI b2 + (hIh4 - h2h3){b3 - a4)

-{hi + hDz2 + {h2ks + h 1 k6)s1/Z32
where

kI = C()2 C1/ - S()2S1/ cli (4.14a)

k2 = c()2C1/cli - S()2 S1/ (4.14b)

k3 = S()2C1/ + c()2S1/cli (4.14c)

k4 = S1/ C()2 + C1/ S()2 cli (4.14d)

ks = ctjJcli + StjJSliC()2 (4.14e)

k6 = stjJcli - CtjJSliC()2 (4.14f)

k7 = s()2s1/sli ( 4.14g)

hI = k3stjJ - s1/sli ctjJ ( 4.14h)

h2 = k3ctjJ + s1/slistjJ (4.14i)

h3 = k 2stjJ - c1/slictjJ (4.14j)

h4 = k 2ctjJ + c1/slistjJ (4.14k)

In order to avoid undercutting, which is a phenomenon that occurs whenever the

follower or the cam cutter cannot follow the desired cam profile (Chen, 1982), the
dual angle &4 must be constrained by

(4.15)
60 CHAPTER 4. KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS

where Pmin is the minimum value of the dual radius of curvature of the dual pitch
curve of the cam, and is evaluated according to eq.(2.70).

Now, the dual angle v = v + fZ43 can be computed as

(4.16)

where
(4.17)

Figure 4.2 ISAs of an RHCR cam mechanism.

The axial motion of the roller with respect to the follower is defined by Z43. In
general, Z43 = Z43(t), the roller-follower pair being cylindrical; however, a revolute
pair is present when Z43 is constant.
Now, in order to derive the expressions for W42 and W43, the Aronhold-Kennedy
Theorem, as stated in eq.(2.51), is applied to the poles of the great circle C234 , namely,

(4.18)
4.2. ROLLER-FOLLOWERS 61

with

[e32h = Q(02)k (4.19a)

[e42h = Q(&.)S(~)Q(&3)S(V)Q(&4)k (4.19b)

[e43h = Q(&.)S(~)Q(&3)k (4.19c)

Figure 4.3 Ruled surfaces of the cam (Rc) and roller (RR)
of an RHeR cam mechanism.
Upon substituting eqs.( 4.19) into eq.(4 .18) and multiplying both sides by QT(02) ,
we obtain
W32k = W42Q(,8)S( ~)Q(&3)S(v)Q(&4)k + W43Q(,8)S( ~)Q(&3)k (4.20)
Notice that QT(02)Q(&t} = Q(,8) and ,8 = &1 - O2,
From the eq.( 4.20), one can readily obtain the relations below:
( 4.21a)
62 CHAPTER 4. KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS

W42 sin 04 cos v = -W32 ( cos p sin 03 + cos &3 cos ~ sin~) (4.21b)

W42 cos 04 = W43 - P

~2( cos cos &3 - sin p sin 03 cos~) (4.21c)
Thus, from eqs.(4.21a & 4.21c),

sinpsin ~
= -.sIna4 sIn v W32
A A

W42 A • A (4.22a)

W43 = W42 cos 04 + W32( cos Pcos &3 - sin p sin &3 cos ~) (4.22b)
Moreover, the dual angle v can be computed following two approaches, one of which
is based on eq.( 4.16), while the other consists of dividing each side of eq.( 4.21a) by
the corresponding side of eq.(4.21b), namely,

sinpsin~
tan v = (4.23)
cos p sin &3 + cos &3 cos ~ sin p
It can be proven that both eqs.(4.16) and (4.23) lead to the same result. However, for
planar mechanisms, eq.(4.23) is undetermined. Nevertheless, if planar mechanisms
are considered as particular cases of spherical mechanisms, eq.(4.23) can be applied
as well, as shown in Subsection 4.2.1.

4.2.1 Revolute-Higher-Cylindric-Revolute (RHCR) Mech-

anisms
For revolute-higher-cylindric-revolute (RHeR) mechanisms, the cam and follower are
coupled to the frame via revolute pairs; therefore, Z2 = Z3 = O. Moreover, ~ = ~(.,p),
and eq.(4.2) can be written as
(4.24)
with

(4.25)

Similarly, eq.( 4.12) is expressed as

rc(.,p,'x) = P42(.,p) + 'xe42 (.,p) (4.26)

with

( 4.27)
4.2. ROLLER-FOLLOWERS
63

a,
1--

Figure 4.4 Three views of the RHCR cam mechanism obtained

from the surfaces of Fig. 4.3.
64 CHAPTER 4. KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS

where O2 , .q and 8 are evaluated with the aid of eqs.(3.16c, 3.16d, 4.6 & 4.10).
A geometric representation of the poles of Fig. 4.1 is shown in Fig. 4.2, where
Pij - Iij and Cijlc - £ijlc. Since 141 and £412 are not needed for this derivation, they
do not appear in Fig. 4.2. Moreover, if &4 is constant, the surface of the roller 'RR, will
be in general a hyperboloid. Under the assumption that -Ao ~ A ~ Ao in eq.(4.26),
where Ao is a design parameter, one obtains the surfaces shown in Fig. 4.3. On the
other hand, if we bound A as: 0.7 Ao ~ A ~ Ao, one can obtain the cam mechanism
shown in Fig. 4.4 in various views.
For the cases when all axes are parallel or intersecting, Z43 is always zero, and
hence, the follower-roller pair becomes a revolute. These two cases are called RHRR
mechanisms. The resulting surface geometry for RHRR mechanisms is rather simple
and can be readily derived from the general formulation given above. However, a
special treatment to compute dual cross products is needed for planar RHRR mecha-
nisms, as discussed in Chapter 2.1 for the analysis pertaining to parallel dual vectors.

Spherical RHRR Mechanisms

For spherical RHRR mechanisms, the dual terms of the dual angles shown in Table 4.1
are all zero and, from eqs.( 4.24 & 4.26), one can see that the pitch and contact surfaces
of the cam reduce to conical surfaces, namely,

rp(t/J, A) = Ae43 (4.28)

ro("', A) = Ae42 (4.29)

where e43 and e42 are defined in eqs.( 4.25 & 4.27), respectively.
Now, ()2 is computed from eq.(3.16c) and, from eqs.(4.7, 4.10 & 4.16), one can
readily obtain

V[C(Q1 - ()2)C<PSD:3 + CQ3S(Q1 - ()2)]2 + S2Q3S2<p

tan ()3 = ~----:---~.,---..,..---;-----,:--:---- (4.30)
CQ3C(Q1 - ()2) - C<PSQ3 S (Q1 - ()2)

tan 6 = SQ3 S <P (4.31)

SQ3 C(Q1 - ()2)C<P + CQ3S(Q1 - ()2)

tan v = --.,.----:--'----"'"--'-:----..,..
C(Q1 -
-S(Q1 -

()2)SQ3+
()2)S<P

()2)
CQ3C<PS(QI -
(4.32)

A typical design of a spherical RHRR cam mechanism is shown in Fig. 4.5.

Example 4.2.1: Given the synthesis parameters of three types of spherical cam
mechanisms as shown in table 4.2 and the displacement program defined as in Fig. 4.6,
4.2. ROLLER-FOLLOWERS 65

,
\
\ \

\
\

Figure 4.5 Spherical RHRR cam mechanism.

Table 4.2 Synthesis parameters of Example 4.2.1

Case at a3 a4
Degrees
1 90 90 8
2 90 70 8
3 70 45 8
66 CHAPT ER 4. KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS
polyno mial motion
where the interva ls oE rise and return are defined by the 3-4-5
projec ted onto a unit sphere.
introdu ced in eqs.(B.4), plot the curves oE the profiles
Solution:
of the cam profiles
The surface of the cam is represe nted by eq.( 4.29), the curves
projec ted onto the unit sphere thus being defined as
- - - T
rc('if;, 1) = e42 == [-hI, -h2' klJ

But,

,
Thus, (}2, (}3 and 8 are compu ted with the aid of eqs.(3.16c, 4.30 & 4.31), namely

_ -1 ( ¢/ sin (Xl )
()
tan
2 -
rp' cos (Xl - 1

Now, conside ring interva ls given in Fig. 4.6, rp and rp' are defined as follows,
7r/4 + h(10x~ - 15xt + 6xn O$:'if;$:7r
{ 7r/4+h 1r <'if; <71r/5 (4.33a)
rp=
7r /4 + h(10x~ - 15x~ + 6x~) 71r/5 $: 'IjJ $: 21r

30h(x~ - 2x~ + xt)/7r 0$:'if;$ :1r

rp' = { 0 1r < 'IjJ < 71r/5 (4.33b)
-150h(x~ - 2x~ + x~)/37r 71r /5 $: 'if; $: 21r

where

'IjJ (4.33c)
h= ~ Xl =-,
6' 1r
4.2. ROLLER-FOLLOWERS 67

-•..
85 ----T-----T-----T-----T-----T-----T-----T-----T-----T-----,
I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I
____ iI _____ iI _____ iI I
_____ i_ I I I _ __ iI _____ iI _____ JI
r! 75

-
•01 I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
C I I I I I I I
I I I I I I
I r I I I I
65 I
----+-----+----
I I I
-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
I
---+-----i
I I I I

I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I
55 ----T-----
I
----T-----T-----T-----T-----T-----T---
I I I r I
T-----'I I I I

""/27T
I I I I I I I I I
It It rt t
I t
I t
I lI It r.
I I I I I I I I
I I I I r I I
45
0.5 0.7 1.0

Figure 4.6 Follower displacement program of Example 4.2.1.

Thus, with the aid of a CAD system, we can plot the curves shown in Fig. 4.7,
where the follower for each case is shown at the lowest position, i.e., at tP = 45°.
Comparing the results obtained here with those reported in (Gonzalez-Palacios and
Angeles, 1991a), where we solved this example by using cycloidal motion, it is appar-
ent that the 3-4-5 motion yields better results from the viewpoint of the maximum
values of first and second derivatives of the displacement program, these values are
5.77% and 8.11% smaller than those obtained with a cycloidal motion, respectively.
However, from the viewpoint of the maximum value of the third derivative, the cy-
cloidal motion is better, since its maximum value is 35.2% smaller. •

Example 4.2.2: Derive an expression for the top and bottom surfaces, U and B, of
a spherical cam as per Fig. 4.8, showing B.

Solution:
If we define U and B as spherical surfaces, we can then generate them by rotating
the arc AB of Fig. 4.9, about the Z-axis, while varying 'Y as described below. Plane
OAB makes an angle u with the XZ plane, this angle being determined as

u = tan- 1 (eTe)
~2 11
e42 e ",
(4.34)

while 'Y varies as a function of e23, namely,

( 4.35)
68 CHAPTER 4. KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS

Output aDs for case 3 Out ut axis for cases 1 & 2

Unit sphere Trajectories of

the projected
Projected roller axes:
profiles:

Input aDs
for all cases

Figure 4.7 Curves of the cam profiles of Example 4.2.1.

4.2. ROLLER-FOLLOWERS 69

Figure 4.8 Boundaries of a cam profile.

x
z

Figure 4.9 Top and bottom surface definition.

70 CHAPTER 4. KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS

Now, a curve on the unit sphere is defined in parametric form, namely,

e(v) = S(u)R(v-y)k, O:$v:$l (4.36)

Thus, U and B are generated by the position vectors u(1/J, v) and b(1/J, v), respec-
tively, of arbitrary points on these surfaces. These vectors are calculated as indicated
below:

u(1/J, v) = Am..",ST(1/J)e(v) (4.37a)

b(1/J, v) = AminST(1/J)e(v) (4.37b)

Based on these results, the solid model of the cams synthesized in Example 4.2.1
can be obtained as shown in Figs. 4.10-4.12. •

Planar RHRR Mechanisms

The ISAs of planar RHRR mechanisms are all parallel, as shown in Fig. 4.13; con-
sequently, the primal terms of ai and Oi. shown in Table 4.1, are all zero and the
parameters ki and hi of eqs.(4.4) take on the values

k1 = 1, k2 = cost/J
k3 = k4 = k7 = h1 = h2 = 0

ks = h4 = cos(1/J - t/J)
ka = h3 = sin(1/J - t/J)

Similarly, parameters ki and hi of eqs.(4.14), take on the values

k1 = 1, k2 = cos C

k3 = k4 = k7 = h1 = h2 = 0

ks = h4 = cos(1/J - c)
ka = h3 = sin(1/J - c)

Now, the pitch and contact surfaces are defined as

rp(1/J, A) = P43 + Ae43 (4.38)

rc(1/J, A) = P42 + Ae42 (4.39)

4.2. ROLLER-FOLLOWERS 71

Figure 4.10 Spherical oscillating cam mechanism. Case 1 of Example 4.2.1.

72 CHAPTER 4. KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS

Figure 4.11 Spherical oscillating cam mechanism. Case 2 of Example 4.2.1.

4.2. ROLLER-FOLLOWERS 73

Figure 4. 12 Spherical oscillating cam mechanism. Case 3 of Example 4.2.1.

74 CHAPTER 4. KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS

with
e43 = e42 = [0, 0, 1 f (4.40)
and

(4.41 )

(4.42)

Figure 4.13 Planar RHRR cam mechanism.

Here, the special theory for parallel dual vectors introduced in Section 2.1 is
applied to derive b3 and S. From eqs.( 4.8),

(4.43a)

(4.43b)
4.2. ROLLER-FOLLOWERS 75

Thus, the dual unit vector e234 is defined by means of eq.(2.44), namely,

(4.44)

where

(4.45a)

(4.45b)

and
(4.46)

Combining eqs. (4.44-4.46) and substituting the dual vectors P32 and e234 into
eq.( 4.10), one can readily obtain

(4.47)

A similar procedure can be followed to derive the dual unit vector [e341h and
evaluate v from eq.(4.16) as

(4.48)

Furthermore, ~ is obtained from eq.(3.16d), namely,

(4.49)

It is apparent that eqs.(4.47, 4.48 & 4.49) can be derived directly from eqs.(4.31,
4.32 & 3.16c), respectively, under the assumption that, for small arcs on the unit
sphere, sin O!j - . aj; .cos O!j - . 1; sin OJ -. bi and cos OJ -. 1. We then conclude that
planar mechanisms can be regarded as a special case of spherical mechanisms.
76 CHAPTER 4. KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS

4.2.2 Revolute-Higher-Cylindric-Prismatic (RHCP) Mech-

anisms
Revolute-higher-cylindric-prismatic (RHCP) mechanisms have revolute and prismatic
pairs as input and output, respectively, and an intermediate cylindrical pair, as shown
in Fig. 4.14. Thus, Z2 = <P = O. The input-output function is given in eq.(3.19) as

(3.19)

Moreover, expanding eq.(4.21a) and knowing from eq.(3.21c) that (}2 = 0, one obtains

(4.50a)
(4.50b)

Now, considering that W42 '" 0 and sin v '" 0, from eq.(4.50a), one concludes that
a4 must be zero and, hence, from eq.(4.50b),

Z3sin at
W42 = .
a4 SlDV
W32 (4.51)

Furthermore, expanding eq.(4.21b) with a4 = 0, one obtains from its primal part the
relationship
0= W32 sin(a3 + at) (4.52)

Moreover, from eq.(3.21a), W32 '" 0, and hence, a3 = -at.

Now, substituting the corresponding values of a3 and <P into eqs.(4.4), one obtains

kt =k2 =1

k3 = k4 = k7 = h t = h2 =0
ks = h4 = cos .,p

k6 = h3 = sin .,p

With these values, the vectors of eqs.(4.3a & 4.3c) take on the form

(4.53)
4.2. ROLLER-FOLLOWERS 77

~- . . .... ........... "'''

,
--
-_.................... ...

Figure 4.14 RHCP cam mechanism.

In order to derive the surface of the cam, the dual unit vectors [e32h and [e43h
are computed from eqs.( 4.8), namely,

(4.54a)

(4 .54b)

It is clear that [e32h and [e43h are parallel, and hence, the theory of parallel dual
vectors introduced in Chapter 2.1 is applied to obtain the expressions below:

(4.55a)
78 CHAPTER 4. KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS

A -Z3 sin a1
Ii =: Ii + = arctan (4.55b)
€Z32
a1 + a3 + Z3,sm
.
a1
+ €o

sinal
Z3
(4.55c)
A

V=:V+€Z43=arctan ( ,.) +€(-Z3cosa1)

- a1 + a3 + z3sma1

Now, substituting O2 = 0 and ." =: 03 - a4 = 0 into eqs.(4.14), one obtains

k1 = 1, k2 = cos Ii

k3 = k4 = k7 = hI = h2 = 0
k5 = h4 = cos(.,p - Ii)
ks = h3 = sin(.,p - Ii)

Thus, vectors e42 and P42 of eqs.(4.13b & 4.13c) take on the forms

(4.56)

RHRP Mechanisms
It was mentioned before that the condition of having a revolute pair between follower
and roller is that Z43 = O. Moreover, from eq.(4.55c),

Therefore, RHRP mechanisms can be obtained if a1 = ±1l" /2.

Additionally, expanding and separating the primal and dual parts of eq.(4.21c),
one obtains

(4.57a)

(4.57b)

Now, with a1 = ±1l"/2, V43 =: dz 43 /dt = 0 and, from eq.(3.21b), V32 = o. Sub-
stitution of these two values into eq.(4.57b) reveals that V42 is zero and pure rolling
between cam and roller is achieved.
4.2. ROLLER-FOLLOWERS 79

4.2.3 Prismatic-Higher-Cylindric-Revolute (PHCR) Mech-

anisms
Shown in Fig. 4.15 is a prismatic-higher-cylindric-revolute (PHCR) mechanism, with
prismatic and revolute pairs providing its input and output motions, respectively, and
an intermediate cylindrical pair. Thus, tP = 0, Z3 = 0, and the input-output function
is given as in eq.(3.25), namely,
(3.25)

Furthermore, it is known from eq.(3.28c) that (}2 = 0:1' Substituting this value
into eq.(4.21a), one can readily obtain the primal and dual parts of the expression
thus resulting, namely,

(4.58a)

(4.58b)

In general, W42 -# 0 and v -# 0, and hence, from eq.(4.58a), sin0:4 must be zero.
Moreover, with sin 0:4 = 0 the primal part of eq.(4.21b) takes on the form

o= -W32 sin 0:3 (4.59)

Thus, from eq.(3.28a), W32 = ±q/V2, and one concludes that sin 0:3 = o.
Now, with tP = sin 0:3 = O,eqs.(4.4) reduce to

k1 = cos 0:1

k4 = sin 0:1 cos ¢

ks = cos ¢
k6 = - sin ¢ cos 0:1

h3 = - sin¢

while vectors e43 and P43 are obtained from eqs.(4.3a & 4.3c), namely,

(4.60)
80 CHAPTER 4. KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS

Figure 4.15 PHCR cam mechanism.

4.2. ROLLER-FOLLOWERS 81

Next, the dual vectors [e32h and [e43h are computed from eqs.( 4.8) as

(4.61a)

(4.61b)

With application of the theory of parallel dual vectors of Section 2.1, one can
obtain, from eqs.(4.7, 4.10 & 4.16), the expressions below:

03 == 03 + (b3 = 0 + (
A J(a3¢/ cos ¢ - sin al)2
¢'
+ (a3¢' sin ¢)2
(4.62a)

a3¢' sin ¢
== S + (Z32 + (0
A

S = arctan ¢ ¢' . (4.62b)

cos - smal
a3
sin al sin ¢
== v + (Z43 + (0 ( 4.62c)
A

v = arctan ,,/..' , /.
a3'1/ + sm al cos 'I'

According to eq.( 4.62b), Z43 = 0, which means that the follower-roller pair is a
revolute; therefore, a PHCR mechanism is, in fact, a PHRR mechanism.
In order to find expressions for e42 and P42, values of 82 = al and 'TJ == 03 - a4 = 0
are substituted into eqs.(4.14) to obtain
kl = cosal

k2 = h4 = cos al cos S
k3 = h2 = sinal

k4 = sin al cos S
ks = cos S

k6 = - sin S cos al

h3 = -sinS

Thus, substituting these values into eqs.(4.13b & 4.13c),

e42 = [ - sin al
0 1 and P42 =
[[(bal + sinat/¢'
3 -
+ (b3 - a4) cos S 1
a4) sin S - sin all cos al
Z2 (4.63)
cos al [(b 3 - a4) sin S - Z2 sin all sin al
82 CHAPTER 4. KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS

Further analysis of eq.( 4.21c) leads to the relations

( 4.64a)

(4.64b)
Now, from eq.(3.28b) V32 = ±V2COSQ}, and hence, pure rolling between cam and
roller is achieved if o} = ±1r /2.
According to the results pertaining to RHCP and PHRR mechanisms, similar
theorems to those for RHP and PHR mechanisms can be stated, namely,
Theorem 4.1: All [SAs of RHCP and PHRR mechanisms, except for the one asso-
ciated with the prismatic pair, are parallel.
Theorem 4.2: Pure rolling between cam and roller on RHCP and PHRR mechanisms
is achieved if the axis of the prismatic pair is perpendicular to all other [SAs.

4.2.4 Prismatic-Higher-Cylindric-Prismatic (PHCP) Mech-

anisms
A prismatic-higher-cylindric-prismatic (PHCP) mechanism is defined with prismatic
pairs in both its input and output motions, and an intermediate cylindrical pair.
Thus, 'IjJ = 0 and ¢> is constant, and the input-output function is given as in eq.(3.30),
namely,
(3.30)
Furthermore, it is known from Subsection 3.2.4 that a} = b2 = O. Upon substitu-
tion of this value into eq.( 4.21a), one can readily obtain the primal and dual parts of
this equation as
( 4.65a)

(4.65b)

In general, W42 #- 0 and v #- OJ therefore, from eq.(4.65a), sin Q 4 must be zero.

Moreover, with sin 04 = 0, the primal and dual parts of eq.(4.2lc) take on the form
(4.66a)

(4.66b)

The desirable PHCP mechanism is one with pure rolling between cam and roller.
Thus, V42 must be zero, and from eq.( 4.66b), V43 is given as
V43 = V32(C(JCQ3 - S(JSQ3C¢» (4.67)
Pitch and contact surfaces are derived with application of eqs.( 4.3 & 4.13).
4.2. ROLLER-FOLLOWERS 83

PHRP mechanisms
The cylindrical pair becomes a revolute pair if V43 vanishes. Thus, from eq.( 4.67), the
coefficient of V32 must be zero, i.e.,

Cf3ca3 - sf3sa3c4> = 0 ( 4.68)

Since f3 is a variable and a3 and 4> are constants, the only solution of eq.(4.68) is
that in which each term vanishes independently, i.e., a3 = ±7r /2 and 4> = ±7r /2.
Now, with 'IjJ = 0, a3 = 11'/2 and 4> = 11'/2, eqs.( 4.4) reduce to
k1 = k3 = h2 = h3 = 0

and vectors e43 and P43 are obtained from eqs.(4.3a & 4.3c), namely,

( 4.69)

Moreover, the dual vectors [e32h and [e43h are computed from eqs.( 4.8), namely,

(4.70a)

(4.70b)

Now, from eqs.(4.7, 4.10 & 4.16), one can readily obtain the expressions below:

83 == ()3 + fb3 = 11'/2 + f[a3cos(a1 - ()2) - z3 sin (a1 - ()2)] (4.71a)

S == {j + fZ32 = 11'/2 + f[a3sin(a1 - ()2) + z3cos(a1 - ()2)] (4.71b)

• _ - sine a1 - ()2)
v =v + fZ43 = arctan ( ()) + fO (4.71c)
cos a1 - 2
Moreover, combining eqs.(3.35b & 4.71c),
sin a1
tan v = -,-:----=-- (4.71d)
Z3 - cos a1
84 CHAPTER 4. KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS

Figure 4.16 PHRP cam mechanism.

In order to find expressions for e42 and P42, values b2 = 1r /2, TJ == 03 - 04 = 1r /2

and 1jJ = 0 are substituted into eqs.( 4.14) to obtain

kl = k3 = k2 = k3 = 0
k2 = - k7 = k4 = - sin O2
k4 = -k6 = cos O2 cosb

Thus, substituting these values into eqs.(4.13b & 4.13c), one obtains

(4.72)

4.3 Pressure Angle

The pressure angle is defined as that comprised between the direction of the unit
normal to the pitch surface Rp and the direction of the velocity of the follower at the
4.3. PRESSURE ANGLE 85

contact point. Thus, the unit normal defined in eq. (2.57) is written as

(4.73)

On the other hand, the unit vector w parallel to the follower velocity at points on
143 is obtained as
(4.74)

where w is the angular velocity of the follower.

Figure 4.17 Graphical representation of the pressure angle.

Thus, the pressure angle is derived as

lin xw
tanJ-l=':":"---~
II (4.75)
n·w

A graphical representation of this definition is shown in Figure 4.17.

4.3.1 Pressure Angle of RHCR Mechanisms

The unit normal of the contact surfaces of RHCR mechanisms is computed from
application of eq.(2.57), with the aid of eq.(4.24). Thus, the three components of u
86 CHAPTER 4. KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS

of eq.( 4.73) in frame F t are given as

Ut = at kt - a3 cos 4>hs - A sin a3 sin 4>hs

U2 = -a3 cos at sin 4>hs + A[cos at cos 4> sin a3hS

+ sin at( 4>' + cos a3hs)]
U3 = sin 4>(at sin a3 - a3 sin aths) + A(l - kths - 4>' cos at)

and

hs = kt - 4>' cos a3 (4.76a)

(4.76b)

Furthermore, from eq.(4.74), w can be expressed as

w = m1 [
a3
-a3 sin 4> + A sin a3 cos 4>
C?Sal cos 4> + A s~n a3 c~s al.sin 4>
1 (4.77)
a3 sm at cos 4> + A sm at sm 4> sm a3

Moreover, the cross product appearing in eq. (4.75) is computed as

A2 d + Af + g
n x w = II e 1111 u II (4.78)

where the components of vectors d, f and g, in frame F1, are given below:

dt =- sin 2 a3 sin 4>h6

d 2 = sin a3[sin at sin a3hS + cos 4>( cos at sin a3h6 + sin2 al)]
d3 = sin a3[sin a3( cos 4> sin a l h 6 - cos aths) - cos at cos 4> sin all
It = - sin a3( at cos at sin a3 sin 2 4> + a3 cos 4>h6)

h = sin 4>[at cos at sin a3k3 - a3(1 - 4>' cos at - cos at cos a3h S)] (4.79)

fa = - sin 4>[at cos at sin a3kt - a3( 4>' sin at + sin at cos a3hs)]
gl = -at a3 cos at cos 4> sin a3 sin 4>

g2 = a3[-at(sina3 - cos 4> cos atk3) + a3sinaths]

g3 = a3 cos at ( -at cos 4>k t - a3hS)
4.3. PRESSURE ANGLE 87

Then, " n x w II can be written as

II 11
= v'AA4 + BA 3 + CA 2 + DA + E (4.80)
nxw IIeliliuli
where

A= IIdll2
B = 2d·f
C = IIfl/2 + 2d . g (4.81 )

D=2f'g

E= IIgl/ 2
Furthermore, the denominator of the right-hand side of eq. (4.75) can be expressed
as
FA2 +GA +H
( 4.82)
n·w= I/el/I/ul/
where
F = sin al sin a3 sin ¢>

(4.83)

Thus, the general expression for the pressure angle is given by

v'AA4 + BA 3 + C A2 + DA + E (4.84)
tanp= FA2+GA+H

Spherical Cam Mechanisms

The pressure angle for spherical cams is derived from eq. (4.78) by taking the limit of
tanp as A -+ 00 (Gonzalez-Palacios and Angeles, 1991a), i.e.,

_ I' v'AA4 + BA 3 + C A2 + DA + E _ VA (4.85)

tanp- A~~ FA 2+GA+H - F

Thus, from eqs. (4.79, 4.81 & 4.83), one can readily obtain the desired general
expression for spherical cam mechanisms, namely,
(¢>' - cos at) sin a3 - sin al cos a3 cos ¢>
tanp = . . "-
SInal sm 'I"
(4.86)
88 CHAPTER 4. KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS

Comparing eq.(4.86) with eq.(4.32) one can find a similitude. In fact, one can
eliminate (}2 from eq.( 4.32) with the aid of eq.(3.16c). Thus, upon reduction, eq.( 4.32)
takes on the form

which, with the aid of eq.(3.16c), becomes

sinal sin tP
tan II = ("I..'1" -
1)" "I..
sIn 0'3 - SIn 0'1 cos 0'3 cos 'I'
(4.88)

Consequently,
1
tanJ.t = - - (4.89)
tan II

.0 ----r----r---,----'----T----r----r---'--- ~----,
: : : : : : : : I :
I I I 1 1 I I I I I
30 1 1 1 I I 1 I I I
----~----~---~----i----t----r----~--- --1
: : : : : :: :
1 I I I I I I I

20 ----t----+----I-----t----t----t---+-- J
: : : : : : :
----J----~----L----~--_0--~-
-f
I
1 I ~ I I I
1 1 I
I II I I I

o~~_+--~,I----~I~--~I~~_r----+---_+~~~----r_--~----~
c
~ I I I I iI
...... I I 1
-10 ----I
1
I
I I
fi\ --+----~----~---~
----~-- ~I I 1 I
I I 1 1 I 1 I I I
1 I I I 1 I 1 I I
-20 ----r---
I I I I
~----;----T----~----r---~----1----1
I I I I

I 1 I 1 I 1 I I I
I I I I 1 1 1 1 I
I I I I I I I I I
____ 1 ____ 1L ___
~ ~
I ____ I ____
~
I ____
~
1 ____ 1L ___
L 1____ J I ____ JI
~

0.5 0.7 1.0

Figure 4.18 Pressure angle distribution for the mechanisms of Example 4.3.1.

Example 4.3.1: Plot the pressure angle distribution for each of the cases of Exam-
ple 4.2.1.1.
4.3. PRESSURE ANGLE 89

Solution:
With the aid of eqs.{ 4.33). we obtain the plots shown in Fig. 4.18 upon substitution
of the corresponding values of at and a3 into eq.(4.86). Furthermore, comparing the
three examples, we conclude that the third one reports better results than the others,
since the cam size is smallest, and the pressure angle remains within smaller bounds.
It is then apparent that, in an optimization procedure, at and a3 can be regarded as
design variables. •

Planar Cam Mechanisms

The pressure angle for planar cam mechanisms is obtained from eq. (4.84) as indicated
below. Since all the ISAs are parallel, at = a3 = O. Moreover, variables kIt k3' hs
and h6 • appearing in eqs. (4.4a), (4.4c), (4.76a) and (4.76b), respectively, take on the
values
kl =1
k3 = 0
hs = 1 - </>'

h6 =0
Furthermore, all components appearing in eq. (4.79) become zero, except for 93,
which reduces to
(4.90)
Consequently,

E = a3 2[a3(</>' -1) - al cos </>]2

F=G=O

H = ala3 sin </>

and the expression for the pressure angle takes on the form
1) - al cos </>
tan Jt = a3( </>' - alSIn,!,
. , /., (4.91)

in agreement with results available in the literature (Rothbart, 1956; Tesar, 1976;
Angeles and Lopez-Cajun, 1991).
Here, it can also be proven that tanJt = 1/tanv ifeq.(4.49) is substituted into
eq.{4.48).
90 CHAPTER 4. KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS

Spatial Cam Mechanisms

We have shown that eq. (4.84) represents the pressure angle for all planar, spherical
and spatial cam mechanisms. In fact, planar and spherical cam mechanisms are
particular cases in which the expressions for the pressure angle are independent of
A. Here we present two more cases as examples of spatial cam mechanisms, namely,
cylindrical and globoidal cam mechanisms in order to show the influence of A on the
pressure angle.
The pressure angle of cylindrical cam mechanisms is derived by taking into account
that a1 = 11"/2 and a3 = o. Consequently, the expression for the pressure angle can
be readily obtained from eq. (4.84) as

A sin cfJ + a3cfJ'

tan p. = ---:-'----,-"-'--
A cos cfJ
(4.92)

On the other hand, a1 = a3 = 11"/2 and a3 = 0 for globoidal cam mechanisms,

eq. (4.84) thus reducing to
AcfJ'
tan p. = - - - ' - - - (4.93)
a1 + AsincfJ

4.3.2 Pressure Angle of RHCP Mechanisms

The unit normal of the cam surface of RHCP mechanisms is computed from applica-
tion of eq.(2.57) and with the aid of eqs.( 4.53). Thus, e~3 = 0 and P~3 is expressed
as
-( a1 + a3) sin,p - Z3 sin a1 cos,p - z~ sin a1 cos,p 1
P~3 = [ -( a1 + a3) cos ,p + Z3 sinOa1 sin ,p - z~ sin a1 cos,p (4.94)

where the prime denotes differentiation with respect to ,po

Now, n is given as in eq.(4.73), with u defined as

u == [-(a1 + a3) - z~sinat, z3sinat, of ( 4.95)

Moreover, the unit vector in the direction of the velocity of the follower on 143 is
given as
w = [0, 1, O]T

From eq.(4.75), one can readily obtain

tanp. =
(a1 + a3 + z~) (4.96)
z3 sina1
4.3. PRESSURE ANGLE 91

4.3.3 Pressure Angle of PHRR Mechanisms

The unit normal of the contact surface of PHRR mechanisms is computed from ap-
plication of eq.(2.57), with the aid of eqs.(4.60). Thus, e~3 = 0 and P~3 is expressed
as

P~3 = [cos (a~:::~:~ ~ sin

at at) ] (4.97)
sin at (a34>' cos 4> - sin at)
where the prime denotes differentiation with respect to Z2. Now, n is given as in
eq.( 4.73) with u defined as

u
a34>' cos 4> - sin
== [ a34>' sin 4> cos at
all (4.98)
a34>' sin 4> sin at

Moreover, the unit vector in the direction of the velocity of the follower on 143 is
given as

From eq.(4.75) one obtains

a34>' - sin at cos 4>

tan fI = -=-:....----=--~ ( 4.99)
sin 4> sin at

4.3.4 Pressure Angle of PHRP Mechanisms

The unit normal of the cam surface of PHRP mechanisms is computed from appli-
cation of eq.(2.57), with the aid of eqs.( 4.69). Thus, e~3 = 0 and P~3 is expressed
as

P~3 = [ ;z~~nal 1 ]
Z3COS at -
( 4.100)

where the prime denotes differentiation with respect to Z2.

Now, n is given, again, as in eq.( 4.73), with u defined as

(4.101)
92 CHAPTER 4. KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS

II

"
II
II
II /
II /

,
II/
~ /
\
\/
\I

------~---------

,/'
--------
o
/'
,/ /
I
I
\,
\ \
'",-

'"

Figure 4.19 Spherical RHHR cam mechanism.

4.4. THREE-LINK MECHANISMS WITH CONSTANT PRESSURE ANGLE 93

Furthermore, the unit vector in the direction of the velocity of the follower on 143 is
given as

w= [-si~all
cos a l

From eq.(4.75), one obtains

z~ - cosal
tan Jl = ~-:----=. (4.102)
sinal

4.4 Three-Link Mechanisms with Constant Pres-

sure Angle
Cam mechanisms with a constant pressure angle are attractive because they involve
rather simple follower shapes. Planar cam mechanisms with a flat-face follower are
good examples of this kind, their followers containing planar surfaces at the cam-
follower interface. Here we study the synthesis of these mechanisms and their spherical
counterparts. However, when dealing with the latter, one cannot speak in general of
flat-face but rather of conical-face followers, as we will show presently.
The approach introduced here for the synthesis of the mechanisms under study
is based on an auxiliary roller in contact with the cam and the follower, which gives
rise to a four-link mechanism, although the mechanism under study is, in fact of
the three-link type. The lines of contact of the roller with the cam and the follower
are, respectively, the IS As 142 and 1 43 , and hence, two higher pairs arise at the cam-
follower interface. A convention is adopted here to distinguish the aforementioned
four-link mechanisms from the three-link mechanisms analyzed in Chapter 2, namely,
the two higher pairs of the roller are indicated as HH in order to emphasize that
these two higher pairs replace a single one. The synthesis of cam mechanisms with a
constant pressure angle is thus rendered similar to the synthesis of cam mechanisms
with roller-followers, the difference here being that the dual angle 0:3 is unknown. On
the other hand, it was proven in Section 4.3 that tan v = 1/ tan Jl, i.e., v = 7r /2 - Jl.
Thus, the dual curve of the cam is given as

(4.103)

and the surface of the cam is derived from

(4.104)
94 CHAPTER 4. KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS

Figure 4.20 Planar RHHR cam mechanism.

This approach is applied to those cases in which pure rolling between the cam
and the roller is achieved, and hence, conical and cylindrical surfaces are considered.
Nevertheless, the condition that the pressure angle be constant eliminates the pure-
rolling motion in mechanisms of this kind, and sliding occurs. The envelopes of the
roller on the follower give rise to a regular cone for spherical RHHR mechanisms and
a plane for planar RHHR, RHHP, PHHR and PHHP mechanisms. The latter are the
well-known planar mechanisms with a flat-face follower. The input-output functions
are the same as for the related RHR, RHP, PHR and PPP mechanisms discussed in
Chapter 3.

4.4.1 RHHR Mechanisms

Figures 4.19 and 4.20 show the two cases of RHHR mechanisms with p. = O. For the
spherical RHHR, the dual terms of the angles of eq.(4.103) are zero, while, for planar
RHHR, the primal terms of the angles no and the dual terms of the angles -J,~ and
v are zero.
4.4. THREE-LINK MECHANISMS WITH CONSTANT PRESSURE ANGLE 95

-------- .-
..... -~-... --- -
...
.........

Figure 4.21 RHHP cam mechanism.

Spherical RHHR mechanisms

With application of eq.(4.103), the surface of the cam is given via vector rc defined

1
as
ks sin a4 - hI cos a4
rc == ).e42 = ). [ -k6 sin a4 - h2 cos a4 (4.105)
sin at sin <p sin a4 + kl cos a4

where k i and hi are defined in eqs.(4.4) and, from eq.(4.85), it is clear that J1, = 0 if
a3 takes the value
sin al cos <p
tan a3 = - - - - - ' - (4.106)
<P' - cos at

Note that spherical mechanisms with a constant pressure angle and zero offset,
i.e., with a4 = 0, give rise to a flat-face follower.
96 CHAPTER 4. KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS

Planar RHHR mechanisms

Vectors e42 and P42 for planar RHHR mechanisms are readily obtained from eqs.(4.103
& 4.104) as

0] [ at cos,p + a3 cos(,p - </J) + a4 sin(.,p - </J) ]

e42 = [~ and P42 = -at sin ,p - a3 sin(,p 0- </J) + a4 cos (,p - </J) (4.107)

Now, from eq.(4.91) one obtains the value of a3 in which I' = 0, namely,
at cos </J
a3 = </J' - 1
(4.108)

4.4.2 RHHP Mechanisms

Considering that, from eq.(4.96), a3 = -at - z~sinat, vectors e42 and P42 of the
surface of the cam are given as

e42 =
0
[~
1 and P42 =
[-z~sinsinatatsincos ++
z~
,p (a4 - Z3 sin at) sin ,p
,p (a; - Z3 sin at) cos .,p
1 (4.109)

Figure 4.21 shows a general case of an RHHP mechanism.

Note that a cam obtained with at i= 7r /2 is of a smaller size than that obtained
with at = 7r /2, for the same displacement program. Hence, angle at can be considered
as a design parameter in minimizing the cam size. However, as angle at decreases,
the sliding between cam and follower increases.

4.4.3 PHHR Mechanisms

Figure 4.22 shows a PHHR mechanism. Vectors e42 and P42, for the cam of this
mechanism, are obtained from eqs.(4.103 & 4.104), namely,

(4. 110a)

and
at + a3 cos </J - a4 sin </J ]
P42 = [ a3 cos at sin </J + a4 cos at cos </J - Z2 cos at sin at (4.110b)
a3 sin at sin </J + a4 cos </J sin at - Z2 sin2 at
4.4 . THREE-LINK MECHANISMS WITH CONSTANT PRESSURE ANGLE 97

W///////////J/J/J/d

Figure 4.22 PHHR cam mechanism.

98 CHAPTER 4. KINEMATICS OF FOUR-LINK MECHANISMS

with a3 obtained from eq.(4.99) as

sin 0'1 cos </>

a3 = </>' (4.111)

4.4.4 PHHP Mechanisms

For this mechanism, Jl is independent of a3. Moreover, one can consider a given value
of Jl, namely, Jl = Jlo, and hence, from eq.(4.102) one obtains

z~ - cos 0'1
tan Jlo = -=--.- - - (4.112)
SInal

Therefore, z~ must be constant and, consequently, both surfaces will have flat faces,
which thus gives rise to wedge cam mechanisms.
Considering that v = 7r /2 - Jlo, one can readily obtain the vectors below:

(4.113)

Figure 4.23 illustrates a PHHP mechanism. Notice that the contact between cam
and follower is a plane, and hence, the HH pair becomes a prismatic pair, a PPP
mechanism thus being obtained.
4.4. THREE-LINK MECHANISMS WITH CONSTANT PRESSURE ANGLE 99

Figure 4.23 PHHP cam mechanism.

Chapter 5

INDEXING MECHANISMS

5.1 Introduction
Mechanisms for intermittent motion and force transmission, termed indexing mech-
anisms, find extensive applications in industry. Mechanisms of this kind for motion
transmission between parallel axes, such as the Geneva mechanism and external and
internal indexing cam mechanisms, have been studied in the past (Guoxun, Zhengyang
and Huimin 1988).
Indexing cam mechanisms (ICM) for skew axes, like the Ferguson indexing cam
mechanism, have been used extensively in industry, but the optimization of their
contact surfaces for minimum friction losses, under various functionality conditions,
has not been given due attention. Although the kinematics of spatial cams has been
studied in the past (Jensen 1965; Chakraborty and Dhande 1977; Koloc and Vaclavik
1988), the minimization of power losses in the synthesis of spatial ICM was addressed
only recently (Gonzalez-Palacios and Angeles, 1990; Gonzalez-Palacios and Angeles,
1992a). In these references, a unified approach to the synthesis of cam and follower
profiles was introduced that is applicable when motion is transmitted either through
direct contact (RHR mechanisms) or through an intermediate roller (RHCR mecha-
nisms), while power losses due to sliding are minimized.
The contact surfaces involved are generated with the application of the theory
presented in Chapters 3 and 4, since this approach satisfies the condition that the
relative velocity at the contact points be of minimum magnitude.
The method introduced in the above-mentioned references is recalled here, within
the general framework developed in Chapters 2, 3 and 4. This method can be ap-
plied to the synthesis of the contact surfaces of both the cam and the follower for a
prescribed indexing output motion of the latter. We assume here that the input cam
rotates at a constant speed, while the relative layout of the axes of both the cam and
the follower is given.
102 CHAPTER 5. INDEXING MECHANISMS

Moreover, indexing cam mechanisms with helical springs to maintain contact have
been designed in the past (Johnson, 1958). However, the use of springs in cam
mechanisms leads to dynamic problems of vibration. Consequently, the design of
planar cam mechanisms with positive motion, i.e., without springs, has been proposed
as an alternative (Jackowski and Dubil, 1967; Wunderlich, 1971; Hunt, 1973). This
concept has been applied to the design of planar ICM (Makino, 1979; Jones and
Tsang, 1987; Gouxun, Zhengyang and Huimin, 1988). In the latter reference, pure-
rolling motion has been achieved. However, the mechanisms thus designed have
the disadvantage that the pressure angle is large, especially at and near the dwell
positions. Other indexing mechanisms like the Geneva mechanism have been studied
(Fenton, 1965, 1975a, 1975b; Ole<Jzki and Szydlowski, 1975), but these mechanisms
have jerk discontinuities and wear problems. The elimination of jerk discontinuities
in this context was reported by Sadek, Lloyd, and Smith (1990).
ICM with direct contact for spatial, spherical and planar motions were intro-
duced by Gonzellez-Palacios and Angeles (1990). A unified approach of ICM with
roller-followers is presented in (Gonzellez-Palacios and Angeles, 1991a,1992b), both
approaches being discussed here for completeness. These formulations are combined
in this chapter to obtain a new type of mechanism that is termed here PRICAM (Pure
Rolling Indexing Cam Mechanism) with positive motion, pure rolling and improved
pressure-angle distribution. The pressure angle vanishes at the beginning and at the
middle of the rise, which makes PRICAM a unique design. The condition applied
on the design of PRICAM is the elimination of wear, and hence, two versions are
proposed here, namely, planar and spherical mechanisms.

5.2 Input-Output Function of Indexing Cam Mech-

anisms (ICM)
In the realm of indexing cam mechanisms, a full rotation of the cam is divided into
two intervals, of lengths t::..,p and 27r - t::..,p, as shown in Fig. 5.1. When the cam rotates
in the second interval, 4> remains constant while, in the first interval, it is defined as

27rr (.,p)
4>(.,p) = - (5.1)
N -t::..,p
where r(x) is a normal input-output junction, namely,

r=r(x), O::;r::;l, O::;x::;l (5.2)

and N is the number of indexing steps for one full rotation of the follower. Various
kinds of functions r(x) are discussed in Appendix B.
0.3. ICM OF RHR TYPE 103

2rr-ll'l{!

21T
N

Figure 5.1 Motion function <I> = <1>( t/J)

5.3 IeM of RHR Type

It was shown in Chapter 2 that, with the application of eqs. (3.16 & 3.18), it is possible
to generate the shapes of two rigid bodies in contact, when transmitting a motion
given by the functional relation <I> = <I>(t/J). Now, with <I>(t/J) defined as in eq.(5.1), one
can readily obtain the surfaces of an ICM of the RHR type (RHR-ICM) by prescribing
the values N, tl.t/J, at and at.
The first and second derivatives of <I> with respect to t/J are readily derived with
the values of Nand tl.t/J, namely,

, 211", ( t/J ) (5.3a)

<I> = N tl. t/J T tl. t/J

(5.3b)

Equations (5.3) are valid in the range 0 ~ t/J ~ tl.t/J. For tl.t/J < t/J ~ 211", <I> = 211"/N
and <1>' = <1>" = o.
The cam and follower surfaces are now defined, as in eqs.(3.18), by the vectors r2
and r3, respectively, as indicated below:

r2
o
1
= b2 [:::;:t/J + A [= :~~ ~ :~:::1
cos (}2
104 CHAPTER 5. INDEXING MECHANISMS

r3 = (~- at) [~:~:4>l + A [=~~:~:~:~:: =::~l

o cos (O ad 2 -

where A defines the thickness of the surfaces, while tan O2 and ~ are computed as in
eqs.(3.16c & 3.16d), namely,
1I 4>' sin at
tan 172 = -,-:....--~-
4>' cos at - 1
4>12 - 4>' cos at
~ = at
4>12 - 24>' cos at + 1

A solid model of the surfaces defined above was implemented on a Silicon Graphics
Power Series Workstation (IRIS 4D/420VGX). Moreover, the motion is simulated for
any value of the four parameters defining the RHR-ICM. Thus, fixing three of them,
the changes of the profile can be appreciated according to the variation of the fourth
parameter.
In order to give a better idea of the software implemented for the above-mentioned
purpose, we present four figures with six still frames each, so that the changes can be
appreciated. Thus, in Fig. 5.2, six RHR-ICM are shown with different values of N,
while in Fig 5.3, ~t/J is given different values. Furthermore, the transition from spatial
to spherical RHR-ICM, when at varies from 1 to 0, is shown in Fig. 5.4. Moreover,
with at = 0 in Fig. 5.5, the cam and the follower have parallel axes and rotate in
the same direction. In this configuration, the mechanism is an internal RHR-ICM.
As at increases, the input and output axes are skew until they become parallel again
with at = 7r. At this value, the cam and the follower rotate in opposite directions,
thus giving rise to an external RHR-ICM. The transition from internal to external
RHR-ICM is shown with four intermediate configurations.

5.4 ICM of RHCR Type

The theory for the synthesis of RHCR mechanisms was already introduced in Sec-
tion 4.2.1 and is applied here to the synthesis of mechanisms of interest. An ICM is
defined by its input-output function, which is given as

(5.4)

where 4>m is the value of 4> upon engagement of the roller with the cam, as illustrated
in Fig. 5.6. For the applications presented in Sections 5.5 and 5.6, 4>m is defined as

(5.5)
5.4. ICM OF RHCR TYPE 105

N=l

N=3

Figure 5.2 Spatial RHR-ICM with At/J = 120°, a1 = 1, 0:'1 = 60°

and 0.25 ~ A ~ 0.85 for six different values of N
106 CHAPTER 5. INDEXING MECHANISMS

t.\jf = 37t14 t.\jf = 37t12

t.\jf = 71t14

Figure 5.3 Spatial RHR-ICM with N = 5, al = 0.8, al = 45°

and 004 ~ A ~ 1.0 for six different values of 6.tjJ
5.4. ICM OF RHCR TYPE 107

Figure 5.4 Transition from spatial to spherical RHR-ICM

with N = 6, ,!::;:,p = 120
0 , 01 = 70 0 and 0.3 ~ A ~ 0.95
108 CHAPTER 5. INDEXING MECHANISMS

Figure 5.5 Transition from internal to external RHR-ICM

with N = 8, 6.tjJ = 2200 , at = 1 and 0.4 :$ .\ :$ 1.0
5.4. ICM OF RHCR TYPE 109

(b)

Figure 5.6 Definition of ¢m for RHCR-ICM: a) internal; b) external

In Fig. 5.6a ¢m is shown for an internal ICM, whereas, in Fig. 5.6b, ¢m is shown for
an external ICM.

There are two approaches to determine the geometry of an RHCR-ICM. The

first one consists of the application of eqs.( 4.27); the second on the application of
eqs.(4.103 & 4.104). The latter was found more reliable from the computational
point of view; it was therefore, applied in USYCAMS-pronounced you see cams,
for Unified Synthesis of Cam Mechanisms- the software written for the interactive
synthesis of cam mechanisms, and outlined in Chapter 7.

Equation (4.103) is rewritten here for quick reference, namely,

where v was defined in eq.( 4.23) as

• 2 - sin ,8 sin ¢
tan v == tan v + fZ43(1 + tan v) = . . .
cos f3 sin 0: 3 + cos 0:3 cos ¢ sin f3
which can be readily expanded in its primal and dual parts, namely,
110 CHAPTER 5. INDEXING MECHANISMS

- sin (3 sin I/>

tan v = cos (3. . (3 cos 'f'
,/,. (5.6a)
SIn 03 + COS 03 SIn
_ a3 sin (3( cos fJ cos 03 - sin 03 sin (3 cos 1/» - d sin 03 . ,/,.
(5.6b)
Z43 - (
cos (3.SID 03 + COS 03 SID. (3 COS 'f'
,/,,)2 • 2 (3 . 2,/,. SIn 'f'
+ SID sm 'f'

Thus, given N, tl.t/J, 1/>( t/J) and the dual angles &l! &3 and &4, which are described
in Table 4.1, the cam profile of an RHCR-ICM can be obtained with the aid of
USYCAMS. However, the dual angle &3 cannot be chosen arbitrarily as discussed in
Section 5.5, where we show how to specify it. A solid model of this type of ICM was
implemented using USYCAMS. The transition from internal to external RHCR-ICM
is shown in Fig. 5.7 with N = 8 and tl.t/J = 2400 , while, in Fig. 5.8, the transition
from spatial to spherical RHCR-ICM is displayed.

5.5 Pure Rolling with Indexing Cam Mechanisms

The last two sections of this chapter are devoted to the synthesis of novel mecha-
nisms that produce indexing motion with pure rolling. Thus, two versions of these
mechanisms are obtained, planar and spherical.

In fact, the mechanisms under study turn out to be the composition of two ele-
mentary mechanisms, namely, the primary mechanism (PM), which is an RHR ICM,
and the secondary mechanism (SM), which is constituted by an RHRR ICM.

The generation of the higher-pair contact surface of both PM and SM is based

on the minimization of the magnitude of the relative velocity at the contact points,
i.e., at the cam-follower pair for the PM and at the cam-roller pair for the SM.
As discussed in Section 3.2.1, for planar and spherical RHR mechanisms, the relative
velocity V32 is zero. Similarly, for planar and spherical RHRR mechanisms, we showed
in Section 4.2.1 that the velocity V42 between cam and roller is zero as well. Thus,
as discussed in Chapters 2 and 3, those surfaces are generated as ruled surfaces and
represented in the parametric form

r(t/J, A) = p(t/J) + Ae(t/J) (5.7)

where r( t/J, A) is the position vector of a point of the surface, t/J is the angle of rotation
of the cam, A is a real number, p is the position vector of the directrix, and e is a
unit vector parallel to the generatrix.
5.5. PURE ROLLING WITH INDEXING CAM MECHANISMS 111

Figure 5 .7 Transition from internal to external RHCR-ICM

with N = 8, tltf; = 240 0
112 CHAPTER 5. INDEXING MECHANISMS

a, =0.6

Figure 5.8 Transition from spatial to spherical RHCR-ICM

with N = 8, t:1'1j; = 240 0 , 01 = 1350 and 0.3 ~ A ~ 0.95
5.5. PURE ROLLING WITH INDEXING CAM MECHANISMS 113

5.5.1 Primary Mechanism

We regard here, as in Chapter 4, planar mechanisms as special cases of spherical
mechanisms. Accordingly, we study the latter first, then the former.

Spherical PM
From the definition of the geometry of spherical RHR mechanisms with al = 0, the
geometry of the spherical PM is given as
-sin 'IjJ sin ()2]
r2 =,\ [ - cos 'IjJ sin ()2 (5.8a)
cos ()2

-sin </>sin( ()2 - o:d ]

r3 =,\ [ - cos </>sin( ()2 - 0:1) (5.8b)
cos( ()2 - o:t)
with ()2 defined as in eq(3.16c), i.e.,
</>' sin 0:1
tan () 2 = -,-:'------"-- (5.9)
</>' cos 0:1 - 1
Moreover, the pressure angle can be computed from eq.(3.55) as,

</>' v'</>'2 - 2</>' cos 0:1 +1

tan Jl = </>" (5.10)

Planar PM
The geometry of the planar PM is defined by the geometry of planar RHR mechanisms
with 0:1 = 0, 1f'. Thus, the position vectors of both cam and follower are derived from
eqs.(3.18a & 3.18b), namely,

(5.11a)

(5.11b)

The pressure angle, in turn, is as defined in eq.(3.61), i.e.,

</>'( </>' ± 1)
tan Jl = </>" (5.12)

the plus and minus signs corresponding to external and internal PM, respectively.
114 CHAPTER 5. INDEXING MECHANISMS

5.5.2 Secondary Mechanism

Spherical SM
The pitch and the cam surfaces for the spherical mechanism are defined as in eqs.( 4.28
& 4.29), namely,

rp
sa3s</>c"p - (sal ca3 + cal sa3 C</> )s"p
== -Xep =.\ [ -sa3s</>s"p - (salca3 + calsa3c</»c"p
1 (5.13)
calca3 - salsa3 c</>

rc == -Xec
S(03 - (4)s6c"p - [S02 C(03 - 0.4) + C02S(03 - (4)c6]s"p 1
=.\ [ -S(03 - (4)s6s"p - [S02C(03 - 0.4) + C02S(03 - (4)c6]c"p (5.14)
C02C(03 - 0.4) - S02S(03 - (4)c6
where O2 , 03 and 8 are given as
Il </>' sin 0.1
tan U2 = -:-:-'-----"-- (5.15a)
</>' cos 0.1 - 1

v[c(al - (2)c</>sa3 + ca3s(al - ( 2))2 + s2a3s2</>

tan03=~----~--~---~--~--­ (5.15b)
ca3c(al - ( 2) - c</>sa3 s (al - ( 2 )
c sa3 s </>
tanu=---~-~~~'----~--~ (5.15c)
sa3c(al - (2)C</> + ca3s(al - ( 2 )
Furthermore, the pressure angle is as defined in eq.( 4.86), i.e.,
(</>' - cos 0.1) sin 0.3 - sin 0.1 cos 0.3 cos </>
tanp = . . "- (5.16)
sIn 0.1 SIn 'I'
In the design of spherical RHRR IeM, N, 1:::!1"p and 0.1 are given as design spec-
ifications. However, 03 cannot be assigned arbitrarily for, beyond a certain bound,
undercutting will occur. The maximum allowable value of 03, defined as a3, can be
derived by analyzing the spherical radius of curvature of the pitch curve r.
In order to generalize the solution, we write the radius of curvature as p =
p("p, 03, 01, N, 1:::!1tf;). Thus, in terms of ep, defined in eq.(5.13), and its first and
second derivatives with respect to "p, p is expressed as (Guggenheimer, 1977)

P = arc tan (
(e'p. e'
,p )3/2 ) (5.17)
ep x ep . e"p
Now, we are interested in those points of r where cusps occur, i.e., where p = o.
First we search for the values "po where p attains a minimum value, i.e., we make
dpjd"p = 0, which readily leads to

(5.18)
5.5. PURE ROLLING WITH INDEXING CAM MECHANISMS 115

The analysis of the motion covers one indexing step and hence, it starts at
= -7C'/N and finishes at ¢>(tl..,p/2) = 7C'/N. For example, for a 3-4-5
¢>(-'~,,'IPl2)
polynomial motion, r/> and r/>' are readily derived from eqs.(BA), namely,
- .,p (5.19)
x = l:!..,p'

1 1
--2-
< x <-
-2 (5.20)

With the aid of symbolic algebra (Wolfram, 1992), we found that .,po = 0 always
satisfies eq.(5.18), i.e., 1(0, a3, aI, N, tl..,p) == 0, as shown in Fig. 5.9. Moreover, we
found graphically that 1 can have one or three real roots; however, the minimum
absolute value of p is found at .,po = O.
Now, 03 is obtained as a solution of p(O, 03, at, N, tl..,p) = O. In view of eq.(5.17),
p is zero if
e~· e~ = 0 (5.21)
Furthermore, from eq.(5.13), e~ at .,p = 0 is readily obtained as
e~(O) = [ - sin al cos 03 + (¢>~ - cos ad sin 03, 0, 0 t (5.22)
where ¢>~ = 157C'/4Nl:!..,p is computed from eq.(5.20) by setting x = O.
Upon substitution of eq.(5.22) into eq.(5.21), we readily derive 03, the maximum
allowable value of a3, as
sinal
tan 03 = - - - - , - - - - - - - (5.23)
157C' / 4N l:!..,p - cos al
Figure 5.9 illustrates the pitch curve for three different values of a3, with the
corresponding plots of p and p'. Notice that, for a3 < 03, p' has three roots but p
attains its minimum always at .,p = O.
These results are now summarized below:
Theorem 5.1: Given aI, N, l:!..,p and the input-output function defined as in eq.(5.1),
the pitch curve of a spherical RHRR lCM reaches a cusp at .,p = 0 if a3 = O2 - aI, O2
being the value of (}2 at .,p = O.
We prove this theorem showing that O2 - al == 03, with 03 defined above as the
maximum value attained bya3. First, we expand tan(02 - al)
- )
tan «() 2 - al =
O
tan 2 - tan al
---~-- (5.24)
1 + tan (}2 tan al
Now, upon substitution of eq.(5.15a) into eq.(5.24), we obtain

(5.25)

thereby completing the proof.

116 CHAPTER 5. INDEXING MECHANISMS

""
, ,
\
''-.....
/

-T+-~--~-L-+-L~----~ F-~--~--~--~--~~ r-~--~--~--~--~-1

-t;.y,/2 1J.y,j2 -1J.,,/2 1J.y,/2 -1J.y,j2 1J.y,/2

Figure 5.9 The pitch curve and the corresponding plots of

p and p' for three values of £¥3.

Planar SM
The geometry of planar SM is defined by the geometry of planar RHRR mechanisms
with £¥l = 7r for external and £¥l = 0 for internal SM. Thus, the pitch and the cam
surfaces are defined according to eqs.( 4.40-4.42) as

(5.26)

(5.27)

where

(5.28a)
5.6. POSITIVE ACTION AND POSITIVE MOTION 117

b3 = v(a3c¢> + a1 - b2)2 + a32s2¢> (5.28b)

• a3 s ¢>
tan v = --~~~--~ (5.28c)
a3c¢> + a1 - b2

The pressure angle is defined in turn as in eq.(4.91), namely,

(5.28d)

The plus sign of the doubly-signed terms in eqs.(5.28a & d) yields an external SM,
whereas the minus, an internal SM.
As a counterpart of the spherical SM, the pitch curve of the planar SM can be
analyzed to determine the maximum allowable value of a3, defined as a3, so that
undercutting can be avoided. Thus, the theorem below is established:
Theorem 5.2: Given at. N, f}.'IjJ and the input-output function defined as in eq.(5.1),
the pitch curve of a planar RHRR lCM reaches a cusp at 'IjJ = 0 if a3 = b2 - at. b2
being the value of b2 at 'IjJ = o.

5.6 Positive Action and Positive Motion

In the design of cam mechanisms we distinguish two kinds of actuating forces at the
contact between the cam and the follower, namely, the force that transmits the mo-
tion to the follower and the force that opposes this motion. The action of each of
these forces is termed here positive action (PA) and negative action (N A), respec-
tively. Moreover, we call positive motion that in which both PA and NA are present
in the transmission, and hence, there are at least two contact points or lines in a
cam follower-system of this type, i.e., two or more cams attached to the input shaft
interacting with two or more followers attached to the output shaft. Notice that cases
like constant-breadth cam mechanisms use the same cam and follower interacting in
two different points.
In order to identify the type of action that takes place on the follower, we resort
to the value of the pressure angle. We assume in the pressure-angle analysis that
friction forces are negligible, and hence, the direction of the contact force is parallel
to the common normal. Furthermore, Jl varies from 00 to 180 0 and PA and N A occur
according to the rule given below:

If 00 ~ Jl < 900 , then PA

If 90 0 < Jl ~ 180 0 , then NA
In Fig. 5.10 we plot the distribution of the pressure angle of both mechanisms for
N = 4, f}.'IjJ = 1200 and a1 = 900 , for an input-output function of the cycloidal type.
Similar curves arise for other input-output functions. It is clear that the combination
118 CHAPTER 5. INDEXING MECHANISMS

1
180

160
-----t-----r----+ IL~-i-----t-----l----+--
I I I I I I I I
140 L---_-_.~----_-~--_--4------~-----+-----~---- -~-----4------~-----
:I :I :I :I :I :I :I :
I
:I NA
_____ I______ L
I _____ I ______ I _____ I I _ ____ L
I _____ I ______ I ____ _
120
~ ~ ~ ~_____ ~ ~

:I :I :I :I :I J.L p :
I
:
I
:
I

-----,------r-----'------r-----t- ---,------r-----'------r-----
I I I I I I I I t
100
I I I I I I I I I
J1- I I I I I I I I t
80 -----~------t-----i------t---
I I I I
-+-----i------}-----i------t-----
I I I I I

J
I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I
60 -----,------r-----'----- -----T-----'------r-----'------r-----
I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I
I I

40
I
I
I
I
I
I
-----~------~-----~-
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
----r-----+-----,------~-----;------r--
PA
:
I
:
I
I
I
:
I
:
I
:
I
lJ..Ls
I
I
I
I
I
I I I I I I I I
20 -----~------~-
I
---4------~-----+-----~---
I I I I
-~-----4------~-----
I I t
, I ' I I I I
I J I I I I I
' - " " , - - '.......1....--.'----,----I--,-------,I
~....I....--.I.-'
o
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Figure 5.10 Pressure angle distribution of PRICAM.

of the two mechanisms satisfy the condition of positive motion. On the first half of
the rise, the primary mechanism is under PA and starts with a zero pressure angle,
while the secondary mechanism is under NA. In the second half, PA is present in
the secondary mechanism, starting with a zero pressure angle. Shown in Fig. 5.11 is
the pressure-angle distribution for three rotations of the cam. The encircled numbers
indicate which roller is interacting with the cam. During the dwell phase, two rollers
interact with the cam and lock the shaft of the follower.
Two prototypes, one planar and one spherical, were designed with the following
char acteristi cs:
- Four indexing steps, i.e., for a full rotation of the cam, the follower rotates 90 0
from one dwell to another.
- The dwell from one index to another is 2/3 of the rotation of the cam.
Prior to the manufacturing of the prototypes, solid models of both designs were
created on a Silicon Graphics Power Series Workstation (IRIS 4D/420VGX) to an-
imate the motion of PRICAM in its two versions. Three dimensional renderings of
these designs are shown in Figs. 5.12 and 5.13, while photographs of the prototypes
are shown in Figs. 5.14-5.17.
5.6. POSITIVE ACTION AND POSITIVE MOTION 119

Figure 5.11 Three cycles of the cam motion

Figure 5.12 Solid model of a planar PRICAM.

120 CHAPTER 5. INDEXING MECHANISMS

Figure 5.13 Solid model of a spherical PRICAM.

5.6. POSITIVE ACTION AND POSITIVE MOTION 121

Figure 5.14 Front view of the planar PRICAM prototype

122 CHAPTER 5. INDEXING MECHANISMS

Figure 5.15 Top view of the planar PRICAM prototype

5.6. POSITIVE ACTION AND POSITIVE MOTION 123

Figure 5.16 Front view of the spherical PRICAM prototype

124 CHAPTER 5. INDEXING MECHANISMS

Figure 5.17 Lateral view of the spherical PRICAM prototype

Chapter 6

THE VOLUMETRIC
PROPERTIES OF CAMS

6.1 Introduction
The subject of this chapter is the accurate and fast calculation of the volumetric
properties of solids of arbitrary shape, paradigms of which are the cams and followers
synthesized in Chapters 3, 4 and 5. The need for accuracy needs no explanation, but
the need for speed is less obvious. In fact cam synthesis, as discussed throughout this
book, is only a stage of the whole mechanical design process, which includes both
element and system optimization. In turn, optimization is unavoidably an iterative
process, which requires a full synthesis of the overall mechanical system at each itera-
tion. Since optimization may sometimes require hundreds of iterations, the relevance
of the economy of computations within the synthesis stage is apparent.
Planar and spherical cam mechanisms contain special classes of solids, namely,
cylinders bounded by planar parallel covers, and cones bounded by spherical concen-
tric surfaces, respectively. In the spatial case, however, these solids are of a more
general type, and cannot be produced with simple primitives. Primitives are elemen-
tary symmetrical shapes, whether planar or solid, which are fully described with a
very limited amount of information. Planar primitives include the circle, the ellipse,
the parabola, the hyperbola, the triangle and the quadrilateral; from these one can
construct, by composition, a broad class of more general shapes. Primitive shapes in
3D include the sphere, the cylinder, the cone, the torus, the ellipsoid, the tetrahedron
and the hexahedron; from these one may construct many other solids. A technique of
solid modeling based on the composition of primitives is known as Constructive Solid
Geometry, or CSG for brevity. We will refer to CSG later on in this chapter.
126 CHAPTER 6. THE VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS

The shapes obtained when synthesizing cams and followers can often be described
either as primitives or as combinations thereof. However, the contact surfaces belong
to a more general class and cannot be composed by eSG using primitives. In this case,
one must apply a more general technique of solid modeling. This term is understood
as the unambiguous representation of solids for computational purposes, as described
in this chapter. Having a solid model of an object is of paramount importance because
such a model allows one not only to render the object graphically on a monitor, but
also to calculate all the geometric attributes of the object.
Of those attributes, we are interested here in the volumetric properties of an
object, also known as its moments. Moreover, of these moments, we are interested
in the first three, the simplest of which is the volume of the solid and is termed the
zeroth moment. The first moment is the weighted volume of the solid, i.e., the product
of the volume by the position vector of the centroid of the solid. The second moment
is a matrix that gives the inertia matrix of the solid.
The importance of the first three moments of solids in mechanical design cannot
be overstated. In fact, if an object is homogeneous, i.e., if the density of the mate-
rial of which the object is made is constant throughout the object, then its volume
is proportional to its weight, while its centroid coincides with its mass center and
its geometric moments of inertia are proportional to its mass moments of inertia, the
proportionality factor being the density. If the density is not constant, which happens
when an object is made of various materials, we can divide the object into homoge-
neous parts. The overall moments are then calculated as the sum of the moments of
the various homogeneous parts. Thus, when designing a moving mechanical element,
we want to avoid inertia loads on the bearings that arise because of both static and
dynamic unbalances of the element. The former refers to an offset of the mass center,
while the latter to an offset of the principal axes of inertia, both with respect to the
axis of rotation. Thus, knowing the volume and the first and the second moments
of a solid we can determine these offsets and eliminate them by either adding or
removing mass from the object; this operation is called balancing. Static balancing
consists of eliminating the offset of the mass center, while dynamic balancing refers
to eliminating the offset of the axis of rotation with respect to the closest principal
axis of inertia.
In the discussion above we talked of the first and second moments of a solid, both
of which involve the position vector of an element of volume. We assume that the
position vector stems from a previously defined point. Whether this point belongs
to the body or not is irrelevant. All that matters is that the same point is used to
calculate the moments of all the points of the object. Usually, the second moment
is defined with respect to the centroid, and hence, the first moment is computed
before the second moment. Using the parallel-axes theorem (Meriam, 1993), the
moment of inertia of a solid with respect to any other point fixed with respect to the
body can be computed once the second moment about the centroid is known. The
6.2. GENERAL FORMULATION 127

moments of inertia form a tensor quantity, and so, are represented by a matrix. This
matrix is termed the inertia matrix of the object; it is of 2 x 2 for planar objects,
3 x 3 for solid objects. The inertia tensor is symmetric and positive-definite. The
former property implies that the eigenvalues of the inertia matrix are all real and its
eigenvectors are mutually orthogonal, the latter that the eigenvalues are positive. The
three mutually orthogonal eigenvectors of the inertia matrix define three mutually
orthogonal directions known as the principal axes of inertia of the object. In the
planar case, there are two principal axes of inertia. When the moment of inertia is
defined at the centroid of the object, the principal axes of inertia are lines passing
through the centroid. Thus, in balancing an object that rotates about a given axis
of rotation, we attempt a} to add or remove mass so that the mass center of the
object lies on the axis of rotation so as to eliminate the centrifugal forces due to the
motion of the mass center, and b) to add or remove mass so that the axis of rotation
coincides with one of the principal axes of inertia, in order to eliminate the gyroscopic
moments predicted by Euler's equations of motion about the mass center (Meriam,
1993). Obviously, the principal axis of inertia that we will try to make coincident
with the axis of rotation is that making the smallest angle with the latter. We call
this principal axis the closest to the axis of rotation.
In computing the volumetric properties of objects in this chapter, we will make
extensive use of the Gauss Divergence Theorem (GDT), as described in (AI-Daccak
and Angeles, 1993). The GDT offers the most economical and accurate way of calcu-
lating volume moments, because it reduces all volume integrals to surface integrals,
and the latter to line integrals. Hence, by a repeated use of the GDT we can cal-
culate the volumetric properties of solids as line integrals. Moreover, if the solid is
approximated by a polyhedron, the line integrals are extremely simple to evaluate,
for they entail integrations only along line segments.
We will start by recalling the GDT in its most general form, as applicable to
v-dimensional spaces, where v can be any integer. Then, we specialize the associ-
ated expressions to two and three dimensions. The chapter includes a description of
MOMENT, the software package that implements these calculations. In describing
MOMENT, we outline the technique allowing us to produce the required database
representing the solid. A few numerical examples are included at the end of the
chapter. Where possible, we compare the results obtained by MOMENT with those
obtained using AutoCADR AMETM, one of the best known CAD systems with the
capability of calculating volumetric properties. The accuracy of MOMENT is made
apparent with these examples.

6.2 General Formulation

Let e" be a v-dimensional Euclidean space, in which a bounded region 'R, is imbed-
ded. The formulas presented here are valid for Euclidean spaces of arbitrary (finite)
128 CHAPTER 6. THE VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS

dimension. A few definitions are first introduced.

The kth moment of 'R is defined as the following integral:

I" = k. /k(r)d'R, k = 0,1,··· (6.1)

Here J,,(r) is a homogeneou.s Ju.nction of kth degree of the position vector r: for any
scalar a, we have
/k(ar) = a"J(r) (6.2)
Moreover, J,,(r) is a kth-rank tensor, and hence, I" also is a kth rank tensor. A kth-
rank tensor is a kth-dimensional array of real numbers, the location of each individual
entry within the array being indicated by an ordered set of k subscripts {i j }j=l, where
each i j runs from 1 to 3 in our case. For example, X3l22 denotes the real number x
located at the (3, 1, 2, 2) address in the array. First-rank tensors are the familiar
Cartesian vectors and second-rank tensors are the familiar 3 x 3 matrices. The most
familiar moments are the first three defined for k = 0, 1 and 2. The zeroth moment
Io is simply the volume of 'R, while the first moment Il is the first-rank tensor, i.e.,
the vector producing the position vector r of the centroid of 'R, namely,

(6.3)
The second moment of 'R, I 2, a second-rank tensor, is the inertia matrix of'R.
Now let ~m(r) be an mth-rank tensor function of r that is homogeneous of degree
m in r, div(~m) denoting its divergence. Let (-) denote the inner product of the
tensor quantities beside it. We recall that the inner product between two tensors, one
of rank m and one of rank n, is in turn a tensor of rank m + n - 2. The divergence
operation involves an inner product, namely, the inner product of the V operator
(a first-rank tensor) by an mth-rank tensor. Hence, the divergence of an mth-rank
tensor is an m'th-rank tensor, with m' = m - 1. The GDT states the relationship

k. is ~m
given below
div( ~m )d'R = . ndS (6.4)
where Sand n denote the boundary of 'R and the outward unit normal of this
boundary, respectively. If the function J,,(r) is such that

(6.5)

then eq.(6.1) reduces to an integral on S by application of the GDT. The relation

between k and m is, clearly, k = m - 1. However, finding a function ~m(r) whose
divergence is a given function J,,(r) can be, in general, a more difficult task than
computing the volume integral of J,,(r) directly. Nevertheless, the computation of
the moments of regions, particularly the first three moments, involves the derivation
of ~m(r) functions that can be readily obtained, as described below. In fact, let V,
6.2. GENERAL FORMULATION 129

q and I denote the volume, the (vector) first moment and the (second-rank tensor)
second moment of 'R, the last two moments being taken with respect to a given point
O. The computation of these quantities can be reduced to that of integrals on S by
application of the GDT, as shown below.

6.2.1 Volume
In order to obtain the volume of 'R from eq.(6.1), fo(r) must be 1. Thus, we need to
find the function ~l whose divergence is unity. To this end, we first expand div(r)
below:

div(r) == V· r == (~et
orl
+ ~e2 + ... + ~e,,). (rIel + r2e2 + ... + r"e,,)
or2 or"
(6.6)

where ri, for i = 1,2, ... ,v, denotes the ith component of vector r in the given
reference frame, and hence,
div(r) = v (6.7)
from which we readily realize that
r
~t(r) =- (6.8)
v
Hence, from eq.(6.4) the volume is expressed as

v =! f r· ndS (6.9)
v is
6.2.2 First Moment
Equation (6.1) represents the first moment of 1<- when h(r) = r. Now we need a
function ~2(r) whose divergence be the position vector rj this function must be a)
a second-rank tensor, and b) quadratic in r. It is now apparent that there are two
functions that can satisfy eq.(6.5), namely, cI(r . r)l and c2rrT, where Ct and C2
are constant coefficients, as yet to be determined, and 1 denotes the v X v identity
matrix. In order to determine CI, we form

div[cI«r. r)l] = CI( !l0 el + !l0 e2 + ... + !l0 e,,)· (r~ + r~ + ... + r~)l
urI ur2 ur"
== 2cI(rtet + r2e2 + ... + r"e,,)· 1 == 2clr (6.10)

and find
1
Cl =-
2
This gives the result
130 CHAPTER 6. THE VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS

Thus,
q =!2 isr (r. r )ndS (6.11)

Now we follow the second alternative. To find C2, we first note that the product
rrT, termed the tensor product of vector r by itself, is a v x v matrix, namely,

T_ rl]
= [: [rl'
~ [ r~~~
...
...
..
rlrV]
r2 r v
1= : ..
rr r2, ... , rv (6.12)

rv rvrl ... r~

We need to find the divergence of a product, such as rrT. Let f(r) and g(r) be two
v-dimensional vector functions of r, the position vector of a point P in ~v. Then,
div(fg T) is a v-dimensional vector, whose jth component is found as

.
[dlv(fg T)] _
j =
a (!igj ) = -a
-a oJ; gj + Ii-a
agj ; j = 1, ... , v (6.13)
ri ri ri

We note that
01,·
- ' gj = [(V' . f)g]j (6.14)
ari
ag· (6.15)
! i -J = [f· V'g]j
ari
and hence,
div(fg T) = (V' . f)g + f· V'g (6.16)
In particular, if f = g = r, then we find

div(rrT) = (V' . r)r + r . V'r, (6.17)

but (V' . r) = v, from eq.(6.7), and V'r = 1, so that

div(c2rrT) = C2(V + l)r (6.18)

from which we obtain

1
C2=-- (6.19)
l+v
IT
( cI>2h = - - rr (6.20)
v+l
This gives the alternative form

q= _1_
1 + v is
r r(r.n)dS (6.21)
6.2. GENERAL FORMULATION 131

6.2.3 Second Moment

The second moment or the volumetric inertia matrix of n is represented as in eq.(6.1)
if h ( r) is defined as
h(r) = (r· r)1 - rrT (6.22)
Thus, cl)3(r) should be a 3rd-rank tensor and cubic homogeneous in r. The three
linearly independent cubic forms in rare (r·r)rl, (r·r)lr and rrr, whose divergences
can be found from the identities of tensor calculus (Brand, 1965), but are not derived
here because they fall beyond the scope of this book. These relations are displayed
below:

div[(r· r)rl] = 2rrT + (r· r)1 (6.23a)

div[(r· r)lr] = (v + 2)(r· r)1 (6.23b)

div[rrr] = (v + 2)rrT (6.23c)

Figure 6.1 Pictorial representation of a 3rd-rank tensor.

The 3rd·rank tensor rrr can be interpreted as a direct generalization of its 2nd-
rank counterpart rrT. Thus, rrr can be regarded as a three-dimensional array, i.e.,
as an array of matrices. Such an array is depicted in Fig. 6.1, which shows a cube
with v slabs, each of which is an v X v matrix, a small cube representing the (i, j)
132 CHAPTER 6. THE VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS

entry of the matrix in the kth slab. The kth slab of the aforementioned cube is thus
the matrix M/c shown below:

XIYIZ/c XIY2 Z /c XIYjZ/c XIY"Z/c

X2YIZ/c X2Y2 Z /C X2YjZ/c X2Y"Z/c

M/c= (6.24)
XiYIZ/c XiY2 Z /C XiYjZ/c XiY"Z/c

X"YIZ/c X"Y2 Z /c x"Yjz/c x"y"Z/c

Note that only two of the three eqs.(6.23) are linearly independent, so that we
can express 41a(r) as a linear combination of 411(r) and 41 2 r), namely,
3 1
41a(r) = (r· r)[2(v + 2) lr - 2r1 ] (6.25)

and, by means of eq.(6.4), I is readily derived as

f 3 1
1= ls r· r[2(v + 2) l(r· n) - 2rnT]dS (6.26)

In the sections below, these general equations are applied to two- and three-
dimensional regions, under a piecewise linear approximation of their boundaries. It
is pointed out that q can be computed by two alternative formulas, as in eq.(6.21).
Moreover, the first is dimension invariant, whereas the second is more suitable for
applications involving piecewise linear approximations, due to the simple forms which
the r· n term produces in such cases. Both formulas will prove to be useful in deriving
practical simple approximation procedures.

6.3 Planar Objects

In this section, eqs.(6.9, 6.21 & 6.26) are applied to 2-dimensional objects by defining
v == 2. Thus, we will derive the formulas to compute the area, the position vector
of the centroid, and the inertia matrix of planar regions n
bounded by a closed
contour C. In order to avoid confusion, we will rename VasA, the area of n. The
computation of these quantities can be reduced to the integration on the boundary C
by application of the GDT, namely,

A =!2 lcf r· ndC (6.27a)

q =!2 lcf (r. r)ndC =!3 lcf r(r· n)dC (6.27b)

1= f r· r[~l(r. n) - !rnT]dC (6.27c)

lc 8 2
6.3. PLANAR OBJECTS 133

Explicit formulas are now derived that apply to a piecewise linear approximation
of the boundary. Thus, if C in eqs.(6.27a-c) is approximated by a closed n-sided
polygon, then
(6.28)

where C. denotes the ith side of the polygon. Thus, eqs.(6.27) can be approximated
as

(6.29a)

(6.29b)

3 1
I::::: E le;[ r· r[-l(r·
n

1 8
n.) - -rnf]dCi
2
(6.29c)

where n. is the unit outward normal vector of C., and therefore constant along the
ith side of the approximating polygon.

Figure 6.2 a) Polygon approximating the boundary C of a region n

b) a segment of the polygon.

Furthermore, let Ai, q. and Ia be the contributions of the ith side Ci of the polygon
to the corresponding integral, and let s.
and ri denote the length and the position
134 CHAPTER 6. THE VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS

vector of its centroid, as shown in Fig. 6.2. From this figure, the reduced calculations
are readily derived, namely,

A; = !n;. f rdC; = !n; . r;s; (6.30)

2 lei 2

Using each of the two formulas of eq.(6.29b), we obtain two alternative expressions
for q;, namely,

(6.31a)

(6.3Ib)

Moreover, by subtracting two times both sides of eq.(6.3Ia) from three times both
sides of eq.(6.31b), we obtain

q; = - {i)(r . r)1 - rrT]dC;} ni (6.32)

The right-hand side of eq.(6.32) is readily recognized to be the projection onto

-n; of the second moment of segment Ci with respect to 0, represented here as J;.
Thus,
qi = -Jini (6.33)
where J i is defined as
(6.34)

Furthermore,
f 3
I; = lei r· r[8(r. n;)l -
IT
2rni ]dCi = 83 1 (ni . Vi ) - IT
2vini (6.35a)

with Vi defined as
Vi == f (r· r)rdC; (6.35b)
lei
Now, r appearing in the integrand of eq.(6.35b) is expressed as

r = ri + u(ri+1 - ri), (6.35c)

where ri and ri+1 denote the position vectors of the end points of Ci . Thus, the
foregoing vectors ~e the position vectors of the ith and the (i + I )st vertices of
the approximating polygon, which are assumed to be numbered in counterclockwise
order, as shown in Fig. 6.2a. Moreover, since the polygon is closed, the sum in the
6.4. SOLIDS 135

subscript ofr is to be understood modulo n, i.e., r n +1 = rl in eq.(6.35c). Substitution

of eq.(6.35c) into eq.(6.35b) yields,

for i = 1, ... , n (6.35d)

where Ai and Bi are the scalars defined as

t-..
A·= r· . r'+l
1
+ -2"
r· . r· + -2..
4
s~
(6.35e)

1 3 2
B-
t-
= 2 r· . r'+l
••
- -2"r' . r' + -4'
s· (6.35f)

Equations (6.30), (6.33) and (6.35a-f) are the relations sought.

6.4 Solids
For solid objects, v = 3 and the general relations (6.9, 6.21 & 6.26) take on the forms

v =.!.3 isf r· ndS (6.36a)

q =~ is (r . r)ndS =~ is r(r . n)dS (6.36b)

1= 1 s
3 1
r· r[-l(r· n) - -rnTjdS
10 2
(6.36c)

where S denotes the bounding surface. Explicit formulas are derived below that
are applicable to piecewise-linear approximations of boundaries of solids of arbitrary
shapes.
One simple approximation of the boundary can be obtained by means of a polyhe-
dron formed by planar polygonal faces. The integrals appearing in eqs.(6.36a-c) then
can be expressed as sums of integrals over the polyhedral faces, the whole boundary
S thus being approximated as
n
S~USi (6.37)
1

which is similar to the approximation appearing in eq.(6.28), except that now each
part Si is a polygonal portion of a plane. The integral formulas, thus, can be approx-
imated as:
136 CHAPTER 6. THE VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS

1
E lSi{ r· DjdSj
n
V ~ - (6.38a)
3 1

q ~ -1 E
2
n
1
{
lSi
1 n
(r· r)DjdSj = -4 E
1
1
Si
r(r· Dj)dSj (6.38b)

n 3 1
I ~ ~ { r· r[-l(r· D.) - -rD!jdS (6.38c)
L.J
1
l.5s.' 10 • 2 • •

Now, let Vi, qj and I; be the contribution of the ith face, Sj, of the polyhedron, to
the corresponding integral, Do" r, and I~i being the area, the position vector of the
centroid and the inertia matrix of the polygon S" respectively, the last two quantities
being taken with respect to O. Thus,

Vi = ~D'. { rdSj = ~D, . r,~, (6.39)

3 lSi 3

The polygon area Do, and its centroid r, are calculated by using the method of
planar regions presented in Section 6.3.
Furthermore, by subtracting two times the second part of (6.38b) from the first
one, the relation shown below is obtained:

q, = -~ lsi [(r· r)D, - (r· Dj)rjdS,

= -~ {lsi [(r· r)l - rrTjdS,} D, (6.40)

The second integral of eq.(6.40) is readily identified as I~" the second moment of
polygon S,. Hence,
1
q, = --I~iD, (6.41 )
2
which is a relation similar to that represented by eq.(6.33), i.e., the contribution of
S, to the first moment of n is recognized to be one-half the projection onto -D, of
the second moment of S" both moments being taken, of course, with respect to the
same point O. The centroidal inertia matrix of the polygon at hand is calculated
using formulas developed for 2-D regions in a plane defined by the polygon. Using
the parallel-axes theorem, we find I~i from the calculated centroidal inertia matrix.
Matrix I~i is thus defined as

(6.42)
6.4. SOLIDS 137

Additionally, one has, for the contribution of the ith polygonal face to the second
moment of the 3-D region under study,

1 f [3 T
Ii = 2 lSi r . r 5(r. oi)l - rOi jdSi

3 1 T
= 10 (Oi . will - 2WiOi (6.43a)

with Wi defined as:

Wi == f (r· r)rdSi (6.43b)
lSi
The integral appearing in eq.(6,43b) is evaluated below. To this end, r is expressed
as
r = ri + Pi (6.44)
where Pi is a vector lying in the plane of the polygon Si that stems from its centroid,
as shown in Fig. 6.3a. Now Wi becomes

Wi = r~.6.ir + ri' (Ai + ail) + hi (6.45)

Ai, ai and hi being the surface integrals over Si defined as

Ai = lSif PiPf dSi (6.46a)

ai = f P~dSi (6.46b)
lSi •
(6,46c)

An exponent k over a vector quantity indicates the kth power of the magnitude of the
vector, i.e., r2 == r· r = IlrW, a notation that will be used throughout this section.
Since Pi of eqs.(6,46) is a vector lying entirely in the plane IIi defined by the
polygon Si, it can be represented uniquely in the 2-D subspace as a 2-D vector of
that plane. Consequently, the GDT can be applied in this 2-D subspace to reduce the
surface integrals (6.46a-c) to line integrals (AI-Daccak and Angeles, 1993), namely,

Ai =~ lsi div(Pi)dSi =~ ki PiPf(Pi . Di)dCi (6.47a)

ai =!4~f div(p~Pi)dSi =!4kf p~(pi' Di)dCii

(6,47b)

(6.47c)
138 CHAPTER 6. THE VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS

x
(a)

v
C,
:::::::::::::: 5, .:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.:.:.:.
.. , .." ... .... ... ..... ........................
....................... , .... ..... ............. .
.

il;.

(b)

Figure 6.3 a) Polygon representing one face of a polyhedron approximating

a closed surface; b) planar view of IIi.
6.4. SOLIDS 139

Here Pi == PiPiPi is a third-rank tensor that is cubic and homogeneous in Pi, whose
divergence is given as

div(Pi) == div(PiPiPi) = (2 + V)PiP; (6.48)

Moreover, Ci denotes the polygonal boundary of Si and fii the outward unit normal
vector of Cj contained in the plane IIi.
Now, let Ci,k denote the kth side of the mi-sided polygon Si joining the kth and
the (k + 1)st vertices, which are numbered counterclockwise when the face of interest
is viewed from outside of the polyhedron. Moreover, a sum over subscript k is to be
understood, henceforth, as modulo mi. Furthermore, the position vector Pi, shown
in Fig. 6.3b, of any point of Ci,k is defined in plane IIi as

Pi = mi,k + hi,k S , o~ S ~ 1, Pi E Ci,k (6.49)

where mi,k and hi,k are defined as

mi,k == ri,k - i'i, hi,k == ri,k+l - ri,k (6.50)

ri,k being the position vector of the kth vertex of polygon Si. Similar to vector Pi,
vectors mi,k and hi,k lie entirely in the plane IIi. Consequently, their representation
as 2-D vectors in that plane is used in order to apply the GDT to reduce the surface
integrals defined over Si to line integrals defined over Ci,k.
Let ni,k be the unit normal vector to Ci,k, and Si,k be the length of the kth side
of Ci, as shown in Fig. 6.3b. Thus, quantities Ai, ai, and hi can be evaluated as
indicated below, keeping in mind that Si,k = Ilhi,kll and Pi . ni,k = mi,k . ni,k, since
hi,k . ni,k = o. Then,
1 (1
4" E
m
Ai = si,k(mi,k· ni,k) 10 PiP; ds (6.51a)
10=1 0

where
(6.51b)
and hence,

(6.51c)

Also,
a't = -41 """
m
L.J s·I,'"L(m·,.·
',Iii n·I,'"L)
11 p~ds
, (6.52a)
10=1 0

where
Pi2 22
= mi,k + mj,k· h i,k S + h i,k
22
S (6.52b)
140 CHAPTER 6. THE VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS

and hence,
fl 2 2 1 2
10 Pi ds = mi,k + mi,k • hi,k + 3" hi,k (6.52c)

Furthermore,
1
b·• = -5 L...J
m
~ S·k(mOk·
It
nOk)
I,',
11 p~p·ds
t I
(6.53a)
k=1 0

where
2 h
2
PiPi = 2
Pimi,k + PiS i,k (6.53b)
whence,

Now that the three surface integrals (6.46a, b, c) have been reduced to line inte-
grals and evaluated in plane IIi, the results obtained in this 2-D subspace should be
mapped to produce the results necessary for calculating Wi in the 3-D space, eq.(6.45).
The scalar quantity ai poses no problems and is readily multiplied by the 3 x 3 iden-
tity matrix 1 in the expression for Wi. The second-rank tensor Ai and the vector
b i in the 2-D subspace are transformed to their counterpart second-rank tensor and
vector, respectively, in the 3-D space, before being substituted in the expression for
Wi·

This completes the calculation of Wi, in terms of which the second moment matrix
of the piecewise-linear approximation of n is determined-see eqs.(6.43a & b). The
above formulas have been implemented in a C code called MOMENT (AI-Daccak,
1989) for computing the global volumetric properties of arbitrary solids approximated
by polyhedra. In Section 6.5 we explain how to prepare the database needed to run
MOMENT.

6.5 An Outline of MOMENT

In previous sections we derived the formulation for the linear approximation of the
volumetric properties of complex regions bounded by a closed surface. Thus, the
problem is reduced to decomposing the bounding surface of a volume into a polyhe-
dron, and hence, it is only necessary to know the position vectors of the vertices in a
given coordinate frame.
As mentioned above, MOMENT was written for computing the global volumet-
ric properties of arbitrary solids. The database needed to run MOMENT, called
MOMENTDB, should be prepared in a systematic form. We ca.n proceed to create
MOMENTDB in three steps, namely,
6.5. AN OUTLINE OF MOMENT 141

i) Limit values:
The number of vertices a and faces f of the solid must be given. Although this
part is the simplest one, this information is important and should be consistent
with the rest of the file, i.e., the program will take the values of a and f as
limits of the two loops that will read the values provided by items ii) and iii).
ii) Vertex coordinates:
The list of vertices should be provided in this part. They are read and stored
in an array of a x 3 elements. Moreover, the kth element, for k = 1, 2, "., a,
is defined as vertk.
iii) Vertex connectivity:
Because the boundary of a solid is approximated by f polygons, it is expected
that one vertex will be common to several polygons, while the polygons may
have different numbers of sides. Therefore, we have two sets of values to pro-
vide at the lth entry, where l = 1,2, "', f. The first set is composed of a
single integer s denoting the number of sides of the lth polygon. The second is
composed of s integers, which, based on the order of the data provided in item
ii), will describe the order of connection of the vertices. As mentioned before,
the vertices must be numbered counterclockwise when the polyhedron is viewed
from outside. Furthermore, each entry being composed by Sk + 1 elements, we
denote it by polYk'

Example 6.5.1: Create the data base needed to compute the volumetric properties
of the parallelepiped of sides 2u, 2v and 2w in the coordinate frame shown in Fig. 6.4,
where 0 is located at the centroid and the coordinate axes are parallel to the edges.
Solution:
For the first part of the database we know that a = 8 and f = 6. For the second part,
we write the coordinates of the vertices in the same order as they are numbered in
Fig. 6.4, and for the third part, it is obvious that n = 4 for all polygons. Hence, we
must give 4 integers describing the order of connection at each entry. The required
database is shown in Table 6.1. •

We can imagine that the boundary surface of the solid representing a cam or a
follower is composed of three regions, namely, 'Re, 'RB and 'RT, which denote the
contact surface, the bottom surface and the top surface, respectively. Furthermore,
the way we have defined 'Re, 'RB and 'RT in Chapters 3 and 4 allows us to approximate
those regions as polygonal faces of three and four sides, as we will show below. Thus,
'Re can be expressed in parametric form as

'Re : r(t/J,,x) = p(t/J) + ,xe(t/J) (6.54a)

142 CHAPTER 6. THE VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS

Figure 6.4 Connectivity of the vertices of a parallelepiped.

Table 6.1 Database of Example 6.5.1.

8 6

u v w
-u v w
-u -v w
u -v w
u v -w
-u v -w
-u -v -w
u -v -w

4 1 2 3 4
4 1 5 6 2
4 2 6 7 3
4 3 7 8 4
4 4 8 5 1
4 8 7 6 5
6.5. AN OUTLINE OF MOMENT 143

If now we discretize the values of.,p and A, we can define the mesh shown in Fig. 6.5a,
which is mapped into 'Rc as illustrated in Fig. 6.5b with the aid of eq.(6.54a). More-
over, a set of polygons for which i is constant while j varies from 1 to n is called a
strip. We can say that the mesh of Fig. 6.5a is composed of m strips of n polygons
per strip. Of course, a strip can be defined the other way around, i.e., as a set of
polygons for which j is constant while i varies from 1 to m.
Similarly, we can create the meshes of 'RT and 'RB, which, in view of eqs.(4.37),
are defined as

'RT: u(.,p, 11) = ST(.,p)[p(lI) + Am,u,e(v)] (6.54b)

'RB: b(.,p, 11) = ST(.,p)[p(lI) + Amine(v)] (6.54c)

where u and b denote the position vectors defining the upper and bottom surfaces,
respectively, while S(.,p) denotes a rotation about the Z-axis by the angle .,p, namely,

COS .,p
- sin.,p O~l
S(.,p) = [ si~ .,p cos .,p (6.55)
o

MI Il ' l. . ·BIll'1"'HJjIl1f1.
rmll~
... . ..
M2
.0. . ..
··· .. ... ..... ... .. .
.,.
... ... ....
! !. ! r:p::: ! ! I !
,.

AA.
· . .
:::tt::: t
.. .. .. .. .. ..

M_t 1 1 t t t t
(a) (b)

Figure 6.5 The contact surface of a cam defined by the region 'Rc.

In the applications we present here, the number of strips q of 'RT is equal to the
number of strips of'RB. Since'Ro is a ruled surface, we can define it with only one
strip. Thus, if we join the three regions, we will obtain the total number of strips of
the solid, namely,
m=2q+l (6.56)
144 CHAPTER 6. THE VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS

(a.) (b)

Figure 6.6 One row of vertices of the first and last strips of the
whole region of a solid cam collapsing into one single vertex.

Let us refer now to Fig. 6.6a, in which we have joined the three regions. In all
the cases we present here, one set of points of the first and last strips coincides in one
vertex, giving the mesh shown in Fig. 6.6b. The nodes of the mesh of Fig. 6.6b are
precisely the vertices of the polyhedron approximating the solid. With the mesh of
Fig. 6.6b, we can obtain two types of solids, that we call here first- and second-class
solids.

a) First-class solids.
In this case, the polyhedron is closed by connecting the last column of the
vertices of Fig. 6.6b with the first column. An example of this case is a solid
of revolution. Now, we are ready to write the algorithm needed to prepare
MOMENTDB:

a.i) For the first part, the number of vertices a and polygons f are readily
obtained in terms of m and n, namely,

a = (m -l)n +2 (6.57a)
f=mn (6.57b)

a.ii) The algorithm applied to write the second part of MOMENTDB is de-
scribed below:
6.5. AN OUTLINE OF MOMENT 145

vertl - rn
k=2
For i =2 till m - 1 do
For j = 1 till n do
vertk - r,j
k=k+1
enddo
enddo
vert a - rml

a.iii) The third part of MOMENTDB, representing the connectivity of the nodes,
can be written with the aid of the algorithm below, that shows three loops.
The first loop is the composition of the strip for m = 1, the second is the
composition of the strips from m = 2 to m = a-I, and the third, the
strip for m = a, namely,
k = 2, l = 1
For j = 1 till n do
if j = n then
polYt - 3, 1, k, k + 1 - n
else
polYt - 3, 1, k, k + 1
endif
k = k + 1, l = l + 1
enddo

k=2
For i = 2 till m - 1 do
For j = 1 till n do
if j = n then
poly t - 4, k, k + n, k + 1, k + 1 - n
else
polYt - 4, k, k + n, k + n + 1, k + 1
endif
k = k + 1, l = l + 1
enddo
enddo
146 CHAPTER 6. THE VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS

For j =
1 till n do
if j = n then
polyt +- 3, k, a, k + 1 - n
else
polYt +- 3, k, a, k + 1
endif
= =
k k + 1, t. t. + 1
enddo

b) Second-class solids.
In this case, the polyhedron is closed by forming extra polygons with the first
and last columns of the vertices of nT, with the corresponding opposite vertices
of no of Fig. 6.6b. In order to illustrate this case, we have prepared an example
having a mesh with q = 3 and n = 5, as shown in Fig. 6.7a, where the shaded
area represents the extra polygons. We include below the algorithm to obtain
MOMENTDB.

b.i) The numbers of vertices a and polygons f are readily obtained in terms of
m and n, namely,

a={m-1){n+1)+2 (6.58a)
f = m{n + 1)-1 (6.58b)

b.ii) The algorithm applied to write the second part of MOMENTDB is de-
scribed below:

vert! +- rll
k=2
For i = 2 till m - 1 do
For j = 1 till n + 1 do
vertic +- rij
k=k+1
enddo
enddo
vert.. +- rml

b.iii) The third part of MOMENTDB, representing the connectivity of the nodes,
can be written with the aid of the algorithm below, that shows four loops.
The first loop is the composition of the strip for m = 1, while the second is
6.5. AN OUTLINE OF MOMENT 147

1.9- ______________ __ ,

"-
'\
'\
8 8 10 12 13 \
" \
\
I
14 15 I

//
16 17 18 19

20 21 22 23 24 17
25
,
,,
I'
26 27 28 28 30 31 I'

32 37 /
/
/
/
"
38
q=3
n=5
(a) a=38
1=41

q= 10
n=45
a=882
1=923

Figure 6.7 a) Rough approximation of a solid of the second class to illustrate

the interconnection of vertices; b) more realistic approximation of the same solid.
148 CHAPTER 6. THE VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS

the composition of the strips from m = 2 to m = a -1, the third loop being
the strip for m = a, and the fourth, the strip with the extra polygons:

k = 2, t = 1
For j = 1 till n do
polYl +- 3,1, k, k+ 1
k = k + 1, [ = [ + 1
enddo

k=2
For i = 2 till m - 1 do
For j = 1 till n do
polYl +- 4, k, k + n, k + n + 1, k + 1
k = k + 1, [ = [+ 1
enddo
k=k+1
enddo

For j = 1 till n do
polYl +- 3, k, a, k + 1
k =k + 1, [ = [ + 1
enddo

For k = 1 till q -1 do
polYl +- 4, 2+(n+1)(k-l), 2+(n+1)(m-k-1),
2 + (n + 1)(m - k - 2), (n + 1)k
polYl+1 +- 4, 1 + (n + 1)(m - k), 1 + (n + 1)k, 1 + (n + 1)(k + 1),
1+(n+1)(m-k-1)
t=[+2
enddo
POIYJ_l +- 4,a,a-(n+1),2
polYJ +- 4, a, 1, 1 + (n + 1),a-1
6.6. VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS IN INDEXING MECHANISMS 149

6.6 Volumetric Properties of Cams in Indexing

Mechanisms
In this section we apply the algorithms presented above to produce MOMENTDB
and thus run MOMENT to compute the volumetric properties of cams and followers.
The first two subsections below are devoted to the elements of the prototypes of
PRICAM, while, in the third subsection, we compute the volumetric properties of
the elements of a spatial three-link indexing cam mechanism.

In order to compare the results of MOMENT, we compute the volumetric prop-

erties of planar PRICAM with AutoCADR Advanced Modeling ExtensionTM, that
uses a ray classification technique (AutoCADR AMETM, 1992). In all cases below,
the subdivision level is 6 and the direction of the rays is parallel to the Y-axis.

To our knowledge, AutoCAD AME provides six commands that create simple
primitive solids, such as boxes or cubes, wedges, cylinders, spheres and tori. It is
also possible to create a solid by extruding or revolving a 2-D region. By combining
those primitives, one can create composite solids with the application of CSG. Thus,
one can calculate the volumetric properties of any solid that is composed of these
primitives. However, the solids we present below, except for those of the planar
PRICAM, are not composite solids; in other words, they cannot be created with the
aid of the tools provided by AutoCAD AME, and hence, we compare MOMENT with
AutoCAD AME only for the aforementioned planar case.

6.6.1 Planar PRICAM

In this section we compute the volumetric properties of the planar PRICAM with
the original dimensions of the prototype shown in Figs. 5.14 and 5.15, whose design
parameters are shown in Table 6.2. Since RT and RB are flat surfaces, it is sufficient
to define q == 1; consequently, m = 3 for all these cases, i.e., for the primary and
secondary systems.

Table 6.2 Planar PRICAM design parameters

at at a3 a3 a4 a4 tJ..,p N
mm deg. mm deg. mm deg. deg.
101.6 180 37.59 180 9.5 0 120 4
150 CHAPTER 6. THE VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS

y y

x z

Figure 6.8 Cam of the primary system of the planar PRICAM.

Primary System

From previous chapters we know that the primary system is an RHR mechanism,
with both cam and follower in direct contact. We compute below the volumetric
properties of both.

i) Cam:

This element is classified as a second-class solid. The position vectors of the

vertices have been computed with respect to the frame shown in Fig. 6 .8, where
Amin = -3.5 mm and Amax = 3.5 mm. We define the number of polygons per
strip as n = 197. Equations (6.58) give

a = (3 - 1){197 + 1) + 2 = 398
f = 3{197 + 1) - 1 = 593

The computed values of V, i' and I are:

6.6. VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS IN INDEXING MECHANISMS 151

Figure 6.9 Follower of the primary system of the planar PRICAM.

152 CHAPTER 6. THE VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS

v = 13452.29 mm3

r = [303~060006l mm
0.0000
17.9502
1= [ 0.0000
0.0000
1.5799
0.0000
0.0000
1 10
X 6

0.0000 0.0000 19.4203

Notice that r = qjV.

On the other hand, the results obtained by AutoCAD are

v = 13408.39 mm3

r = [303~60068l mm
-0.0090
17.8915
1= [ 0.0716
0.0716
1.5748
0.0041
-0.0147
1 10 X 6
0.0041 -0.0147 19.3567

Note the error in the x- and z-components of r and in the off-diagonal entries
of I that are produced with AutoCAD AME.

ii) Follower:

This element is considered as a first-class solid. The frame used as reference to

obtain the position vectors of the vertices is shown in Fig. 6.9, where Ami" =
-3.5 mm and Ama., = 3.5 mm. For this case, n = 796 and, from eqs.(6.57), one
obtains

a = (3 - 1)796 + 2 = 1594
f = 3 X 796 = 2388

with the resulting values of V, r and I given below:

6.6. VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS IN INDEXING MECHANISMS 153

E~X z

Figure 6.10 Cam of the secondary system of the planar PRICAM.

v= 57431.01 mm3

1"=0

1=
[ 48.4064
0.0000
0.0000
48.4064
0.0000
0.0000
1x 10 6 mms
0.0000 0.0000 96.3438
154 CHAPTER 6. THE VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS

The results obtained by AutoCAD are, in turn,

v = 57488.65 mm3

i' = [~~o~~~3l mm
0.0045
48.6170 0.0000 -0.0468]
[
1= 0.0000 48.3567 0.0000 x 106
-0.0468 0.0000 96.5050

Note again the errors obtained with AutoCAD AME.

Secondary System

The secondary system is an RHRR mechanism, in which the roller-follower is com-

posed of primitive elements like cylinders, and parallelepipeds whose volumetric prop-
erties can be computed without difficulty by applying direct formulas, thus dispensing
with linear approximations. However, the cam is rather a complex solid and, for this
case, we apply a linear approximation by considering it as a first-class solid. The co-
ordinates of the vertices are computed with respect to the frame shown in Fig. 6.10.
In this case, Ami.. = -4 mm, Ama., = 4 mm and n = 601. Thus, from eqs.(6.57) one
obtains,

a = (3 - 1)601 +2 = 1204
f = 3 x 601 = 1803

The values of V, i' and I reported by MOMENT are given below:

V = 120094.91 mm3

i' = [~~O~~~3] mm
0.0000
151.6848 0.00002 0.0000 ]
I = [ 0.00002 138.5061 0.0000
0.0000 0.0000 289.0099
6.6. VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS IN INDEXING MECHANISMS 155

while the results obtained by AutoCAD are

v= 119702.70 mm3

i' = [~~O~~~3] mm
-0.0087
151.1397 0.00002 -0.1369]
1= [ 0.00002 138.4635 0.0000
-0.1369 0.0000 288.3321

6.6.2 Spherical PRICAM

In this subsection we present the volumetric properties of the complex elements of
the spherical PRICAM by using the design parameters of the prototype shown in
Figs. 5.16 and 5.17, which are summarized in Table 6.3.

Table 6.3 Spherical PRICAM design parameters

at at a3 a3 a4 a4 t1.,p N
mm deg. mm deg. mm deg. deg.
0 90 0 149.7 0 -7.87 120 4

Primary System
The primary system of the spherical PRICAM is an RHR mechanism. The volumetric
properties of cam and follower are given below:

i) Cam:
This element is a solid of the second class. The position vectors of the vertices
have been computed with respect to the frame shown in Fig. 6.11, where Amin =
62 mm and Am ..., = 72 mm. Moreover, m = 33 and n = 197. Equations (6.58)
give

a = (33 - 1)(197 + 1) + 2 = 6338

f = 33(197 + 1) - 1 = 6533
156 CHAPTER 6. THE VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS

y y

Figure 6.11 Cam of the primary system of the spherical PRICAM.

6.6. VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS IN INDEXING MECHANISMS 157

Figure 6.12 Follower of the primary system of the spherical PRICAM.

The computed values of V, r and I are:

V = 19515.40 mm3

r = [~~.;;~;] mm
55.6596
84.2808 0.0181 0.0548]
1= [ -0.4418 65.6913 -33.824 x 106
-1.0247 -28.8412 26.7892

ii) Follower:

The follower of the primary mechanism is a first-class solid. The frame used as
a reference to obtain the position vectors of the vertices is shown in Fig. 6.12,
where Amin = 55 mm and Amax = 70 mm. For this case, m = 33 and n = 284.
Hence, from eqs.(6.57), one obtains
158 CHAPTER 6. THE VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS

Figure 6.13 Cam of the secondary system of the spherical PRICAM.

6.6. VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS IN INDEXING MECHANISMS 159

a = (33 -1)284 +2 = 9090

f = 33 x 284 = 9372
while the resulting values of V, r and I are

v= lO4947.64 mm3

r = [O.~]
0.0000 mm
52.0738

[ 353.8211 10.1114 0.0000 ]

1= -10.1114 353.8211 0.0000 x 106 mms
0.0000 0.0000 131.8547

Secondary System
Here we analize the cam of the secondary system as a solid of the first class. The
coordinates of the position vectors of the vertices are computed with respect to the
frame shown in Fig. 6.13. Here, Amin = 72 mm and Am..", = 80 mm, while m = 21
and n = 399. Equations (6.57) give a = 7982 and f = 8379. With these values we
can complete MOMENTDB and run MOMENT to obtain V, r and I, namely,

V = 147808.57 mm3

0.00646]
r = [ -0.70032 mm
56.61330
667.2946 0.0224 0.06977]
1= [ 0.lO87 681.7080 6.3141
0.1131 9.3424 363.0885

6.6.3 Spatial Mechanisms

In this subsection we analize a spatial RHR indexing mechanism, i.e., a mechanism
whose input and output axes are non-parallel and non-intersecting. The design pa-
rameters are shown in Table 6.4, followed by the results obtained for the two elements.

i) Cam:
160 CHAPTER 6. THE VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS

z
Figure 6.14 Cam of a spatial ICM.
6.6. VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS IN INDEXING MECHANISMS 161

Figure 6.15 Follower of a spatial ICM.

162 CHAPTER 6. THE VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CAMS

Table 6.4 RHR Indexing mechanism design parameters

at at ' Ami.. Am..", tl.tP N

mm deg. mm mm deg.
50 75 75 100 150 5

The cam is a second-class solid. With m = 21 and n = 107, we obtain, from

eqs.(6.58), the number of vertices and polygons approximating the. boundary
of the cam, namely, a = 3962 and f = 4157. The coordinates of the vertices
are computed with respect to the frame shown in Fig. 6.14. The volumetric
properties are:

v = 49815.20 mm3
13.3146]
r = [ 30.7274 mm
82.4824
387.4937 -24.6628 -40.5894]
[
1= -7.6414 351.2679 -117.8718 x 106
-36.3799 -110.7701 67.1700

ii) Follower:
The follower is a solid of the first class with m = 21 and n = 475; eqs.(6.57)
give a = 9502 and f = 9975. The coordinates of the vertices are obtained with
respect to the frame shown in Fig. 6.15. Thus, the volumetric properties are
given as

v = 381106.08
r = [ ~:~~~~ ] mm
77.9070
2568.468 112.046 0.0000 ]
.1= [ -112.046 2568.468 0.0000 X 106
0.0000 0.0000 1049.2261

For clarity in the presentation, the number of polygons shown in Figs. 6.8-6.15 is
smaller than the number used to compute the volumetric properties.
Chapter 7
AN OUTLINE OF USYCAMS

7.1 Introduction
In the last twenty years or so, computer graphics has become a fundamental tool for
the study of mechanisms, as made apparent by the software available in this area.
We can cite IMP (Integrated Mechanisms Program) as one of the earliest software
packages developed for the analysis of arbitrary linkages (Sheth and Uicker, 1972).
A few years later KINSIN III, a package meant for the synthesis of mechanisms, was
introduced (Rubel and Kaufman, 1977). The graphical part of these early packages
consisted essentially of 2-D lines. More mechanism software with improvements in
their graphics has been produced, such as LINCAGES (Erdman and Gustafson, 1977),
MINN-DWELL (Kota et al., 1987) and SIXPAQ (Gonzalez-Palacios and Angeles,
1991b).
Software for the CAD/CAM of planar cams was developed by De Fraine (1982),
while Koloc and Vaclavlc (1988) produced software for the analysis and synthesis
of 2-D and 3-D cam mechanisms. In this chapter we outline USYCAMS (Unified
Synthesis of Cam Mechanisms), our platform for the interactive synthesis of cams,
with strong graphics support.
Given that modern workstations provide a highly integrated environment for com-
putation and interaction, our goal in the development of USYCAMS is that it should
be easy to use and as general as possible. Following these criteria, the user of USY-
CAMS need not be a CAD expert, although a certain familiarity with the theory
of cam mechanisms is expected, in order to exploit the capabilities of USYCAMS.
Solving complex problems like undercutting with visualization aids reduces to moving
the mouse around the appropriate menus.
Although this chapter is based on the theory presented in the previous chapters,
it is self-contained and can be studied once the basic terminology and concepts of the
first four chapters have been grasped. We intend that this chapter should be under-
standable for readers with only fundamental knowledge of cam kinematics. However,
164 CHAPTER 7. AN OUTLINE OF USYCAMS

the reader unfamiliar with this discipline is advised to read Chapter 1 first.
USYCAMS has many applications. It can be used to give an introduction to
cam mechanisms in an undergraduate course, or to solve complex design problems
involving, e.g., undercutting of spatial cam mechanisms, in a graduate design course.
Furthermore, USYCAMS can be regarded as a sophisticated design tool for indus-
trial applications involving dimensioning, balancing, dynamic analysis, simulation and
finite-element analysis (FEA) for stress, strain and thermal calculations. Note that
USYCAMS provides a data base for useful mesh generation in FEA, but is limited
to the handling and production of geometric and kinematic information.

7.2 On-Line vs. Off-Line Synthesis

The off-line synthesis of mechanical systems in general, and of cams, in particular,
is defined here as the process whereby the user precomputes, with a set of geometric
parameters, the information needed as input data for a graphics program that pro-
duces both numerical and graphical renderings of the system under synthesis. For
example, the off-line synthesis of a four-bar linkage consists of inputting precomputed
link lengths and one value of the input angle, while producing i) numerical values of
the Cartesian coordinates of the joint centers involved and all remaining joint angles,
and ii) a graphical rendering of the foregoing numerical results. In on-line synthesis
the user supplies the geometric information directly to the graphics program with the
aid of an input device like a mouse or a joystick; the user interacts with the program
producing graphical results.
We have developed USYCAMS to supply the mechanical designer with a universal
tool for the synthesis of planar, spherical and spatial cam mechanisms; it is a platform
for the interactive synthesis of such mechanisms.

7.3 General Description of USYCAMS

We give an outline of USYCAMS for a Silicon Graphics Inc. IRIS workstation. It
can run on other UNIX workstations with suitable graphics software and hardware,
but then, obviously, all device-dependent features must be modified.
At the outset, we divide the window into five viewports, VPl, VP2, VP3, VP4
and VP5, as shown in Fig. 7.1. Each of these viewports serves a specific function:

VPl: This part of the screen is devoted to rendering the solid models and
animating the mechanism under design.

VP2: This viewport displays the main menu in two modes, namely, passive
and active. In passive mode, VP2 tells the user what kind of mechanism is in
7.3. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF USYCAMS 165

I VP2
I

VP3

VPl

VP4

I VP5
I
Figure 7.1 Distribution of view ports.

the process of synthesisj in active mode, the user can interact with the program
and choose the type of mechanism desired.

VP3: This viewport shows the design parameters such as 01 03, 04 and >.,
introduced in Chapters 3 and 4. VP3 interacts simultaneously with VPl, so
that a change in any of the parameters is reflected in the solid models of the
mechanism.

VP4: Like VP3, VP4 interacts with VPlj this viewport shows the parameters
pertaining to the input-output function.

VP5: If at least one of the parameters of VP3 or VP4 is active, a sliding bar
appears in VP5, so that the user can modify the parameter values by moving
the cursor, with the aid of the mouse, along this bar.
166 CHAPTER 7. AN OUTLINE OF USYCAMS

Figure 7.2 Interactivity of the five viewports.

Figure 7.2 shows the global flowchart of interaction of the five viewports. select_vpl
is the procedure that decides which type of solid model will be displayed on VPl.

7.4 Main Menu

The main menu is iconized and displayed in VP2j the user can choose the type of
mechanism to be synthesized by clicking these icons with the mouse. Thus, VP2 is
divided into seven sections called POSi, for i = 0,1,2, ... ,6, as described below:

P~SO POS1 POS2 POS3 POS4 POS5 POS6

VP3
VP1

Figure 7.3 Icons of the main menu.

7.4. MAIN MENU 167

P~SO POSl POS2 POS3 POS4 POSS POS6

VP3
VPl

Figure 7.3 Icons of the main menu.

POS6: The user can exit VP2 any time by selecting this icon, VP2 thus switch-
ing into passive mode.

The icons selected will stay highlighted in order to remind the user which type of
mechanism has been chosen. Both the icons and the flowchart of the main menu are
shown in Figs. 7.3 and 7.4, respectively.

7.4.1 Main Loop

As mentioned above, viewport VPl is used to display the solid model representation
of the mechanism selected in VP2. If we look at Fig. 7.5, we notice that there are up
to sixteen different types of mechanisms with independent synthesis procedures, which
are identified with the labels shown at the right-hand side of Fig. 7.5; for example, if
the user wants to synthesize a four-link cam mechanism with oscillating motion in the
follower, with a revolute pair as input and a prismatic pair as output, the procedure
chosen for this selection is defined as vpL4_oscrp. The flowchart sample of these
procedures is shown in Fig. 7.6. In the synthesis of one of the sixteen mechanisms
the user will be working most of the time in its corresponding procedure, which is the
reason why we call it the main loop.
All sixteen procedures have similar structures; what changes in each case is only
the synthesis algorithm, construct...surfaces, the procedures to generate the solid
models of cam and follower, draw_solids, and the procedures to draw the icons of
VP3 and VP4, namely, draw_icons.
At the main-loop level, USYCAMS performs the algorithm of the flowchart of
Fig. 7.6, namely,
168 CHAPTER 7. AN OUTLINE OF USYCAMS

Figure 7.4 Flowchart of the main menu.

7.4. MAIN MENU 169

select_vpl
r----- ----------------------------------------------------------------------
,,---------------------------------------------- ,
,
I

'lIS'

Three-Link
Mechanisms
L ____ _

,,,
,
,,,
,,,
,,,
,,
Four-L i n k : NO
Mechanisms : Indexing vpL4..incLpp
____________________________ ~_~:_~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-:_~-:_~~~~~~-_~~~-_~-_~~~J

Figure 7.5 Flowchart of the select_vpl procedure.

170 CHAPTER 7. AN OUTLINE OF USYCAMS

lWN LOOP

Figure 7.6 Flowchart of the procedures of VPl.

7.4. MAIN MENU 171

1. The procedure construct-Burfaces is called. Here, the cam and the follower
surfaces are synthesized, based upon results obtained in previous chapters.

2. With the aid of the graphics library supported by the Silicon Graphics Power Se-
ries Workstation (IRIS 4D/420VGX) or compatible, the procedure draw_solids
is called to generate the contact surfaces. The information needed in this proce-
dure is the set of position vectors and the corresponding normals of the surfaces,
which are generated by construct-Burfaces.

3. The icons of VP3 and VP4 are updated according to the design-parameter
selection given in the main menu.

4. The position of the mouse is verified, so that, if it is outside the five viewports,
the program goes to step 14; otherwise, it continues with the next step.

5. The position of the mouse is verified, so that, if it is in POSO and the left button
is pressed, the user exits the loop and returns to VP2. If the latter condition is
not reached, the program goes to step 6.

6. The user can choose any design parameter at this time by locating the mouse
and pressing the left button in any of the icons shown in the viewports VP3 and
VP4. If at least one of these is chosen, USYCAMS goes to the next step, leaving
highlighted the icons chosen; otherwise, USYCAMS goes to step 12. This step
works in the same way to deactivate any highlighted icon.
7. The user can vary the value of the parameters highlighted in VP3 and VP4 by
locating the mouse in VP5 and moving the sliding bar as desired with the left
button pressed. If the mouse is not in VP5, USYCAMS goes to step 12.

8. The design parameters highlighted in VP3 and VP4 are updated according to
the motion of the sliding bar of VP5.

9. Same as step 1.

10. Same as step 2.

11. Similar to step 3. The difference here is that only the highlighted icons are
updated according to the numerical variations given by the sliding bar.

12. By moving the mouse around VPl, while pressing the left or middle buttons, or
both simultaneously, we can store the difference of two consecutive events for
the subsequent step. If we do not press any button, USYCAMS goes to step 14.

13. Rotations, translations and scalings are updated here according to the button
combination given in step 12. With the left button pressed, the solid models
rotate in order to have different points of view; with the middle button pressed,
172 CHAPTER 7. AN OUTLINE OF USYCAMS

osc I osc !I I osc I I osc I

PROG.
~ DISP. PROG:
I PROG. I I PROG. I
~ .-/' DR OR
r-=-- ORR I~ TYPE: I ----- I
-----
II -........ HARt.lONIC
===
-........
L . . . - - - RDR TYPE:
CYCLOIDAL
OK OK RR Il OK 3-4 5 POLYN. OK HARMONIC
4-5-6-7 POLYN. CYCLOIDAL
t.lOD. TRAP. 3-4-5 POLYN.
OTHER 4-5-6-7 POLYN.
t.lOD. TRAPEZ.
OTHER

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 7.7 sm_io_selection menu for oscillating mechanisms.

the models are translated along any direction parallel to the plane of the screen;
with both pressed simultaneously, the models are scaled so that they can be
zoomed in.
14. The solid model of cam and follower are regenerated according to the informa-
tion given in the previous steps, while the program continues with step 4.

The names of the sixteen subroutines labeled generically as construct-suriaces,

draw_solids and draw_icons of the corresponding procedures of VP1 are listed in
Table 7.1.

7.5 Submenus
The icons displayed in the viewports VP3 and VP4 are the submenus of USYCAMS.
First we outline the submenu that appears when VP2 is active and POS5 is selected;
we call this submenu the input-output function selection sm_io_selection. Then we
describe the three subroutines draw_icons shown in Table 7.1.

7.5.1
When we discussed POS5 in Section 7.4, we mentioned that this submenu is displayed
with the aim of providing more information about the input-output function. As
shown in Fig. 7.4, this submenu has two possibilities, namely,
1. OSC...Jllenu: When an oscillating mechanism is chosen, the submenu shown in
Fig. 7.7a is displayed in VP4. By selecting icon PROG., the user can choose
one of the displacement programs listed below:
7.5. SUBMENUS 173

Table 7.1 Names of VPl subroutines

VPl construct-Burfaces draw-Bolids draw_icons

vpl...3_osc..rr cs...3_osc..rr ds_3_osc..rr

vpl...3_osc..rp cs...3_osc..rp ds_3_osc..rp di...3_osc

vpl...3_osc_pr cs...3_osc_pr ds_3_osc_pr

vpl...3_osc_pp cs...3_osc_pp ds_3_osc_pp

vpl...3_ind..rr cs...3_ind..rr ds_3_ind..rr

vpl...3_ind..rp cs...3_ind..rp ds_3_ind..rp di...3_ind

vpl...3_ind_pr cs...3_ind_pr ds_3_ind_pr

vpl...3_ind_pp cs...3_ind_pp ds...3_ind_pp

vpL4_osc..rr cs_4_osc..rr dsA_osc..rr

vpL4_osc..rp cs_4_osc..rp dsA_osc..rp

vpL4_osc_pr csA_osc_pr dsA_osc_pr

vpL4_osc_pp csA_osc_pp dsA_osc_pp dL4

vpL4_ind..rr csA_ind..rr dsA_ind..rr

vpL4_ind..rp cs_4_ind..rp ds_4_ind..rp

vpL4_ind_pr cs_4_ind_pr dsA_ind_pr

vpL4_ind_pp csA_ind_pp dsA_ind_pp

174 CHAPTER 7. AN OUTLINE OF USYCAMS

i) Dwell-rise-dwell-return (DRDR).
ii) Dwell-rise-return (DRR).
iii) Rise-dwell-return (RDR).
iv) Rise-return (RR).
As in item 1, the user can choose the type of function for the rise and return
phases, as shown in Figs. 7.7c and d, respectively. The user exits this submenu
by pointing the OK icon. Figure 7.8 shows the flowchart of this procedure.

2. ind..menu: This submenu appears when the user chooses an indexing mecha-
nism. In this case the type of function desired for the rise phase is selected
by pressing the left button on the icon with the curve as shown in Fig. 7.9a;
then, another submenu will be displayed showing a list of typical input-output
functions, as shown in Fig. 7.9b. Once the function is selected, the user exits
this submenu by pointing the OK icon. This procedure is illustrated in the
flowchart of Fig. 7.10.

Three-link cam mechanisms with constant pressure angle can be synthesized with
the aid of this submenu. The possible four combinations of kinematic pairs used
at the input and the output share the same icons displayed in VP3 and VP4. The
procedures that draw these icons are called vp3_3_osc and vp4...3_osc.
The icons displayed in VP3 are described below:

1. With this icon, the user can animate the mechanism. There are three options
to select with this icon: a) counterclockwise rotation of the cam for the case of
revolute pair and translation for the case of prismatic pairs; b) no motion; and
c) clockwise rotation of the cam for the case of revolute pair and translation
for the case of prismatic pairs. Moreover, the numerical value of the relative
position of the cam with respect to the frame is printed.

Icons 2-7 below are used to print the numerical values of the various parameters,
.namely,

2. The distance between input and output axes, at, in the selected units;

3. The angle between input and output axes, at, in degrees;

4. The radius of the auxiliary roller, a4, in the selected units;

5. The angle of the auxiliary roller, a4, in degrees;

7.5. SUBMENUS 175

OSCJDenu

NO

Figure 7.8 Flowchart of osc...menu.

176 CHAPTER 7. AN OUTLINE OF USYCAMS

~
/~YPE:
HARMONIC
OK CYCLOIDAL
3 4 5 POLYN.
4-5-6-7 POLYN.
MOD. TRAPEZ.
OTHER

(a) (b)

Figure 7.9 sm_io_selection menu for indexing mechanisms.

indJIlenu

NO

Figure 7.10 Flowchart of ind...menu.

7.5. SUBMENUS 177

CD I 101g~1
® I 1~.n.851
0 lal -f6-60~1

~
1~SE: HARMONIC. 1
RETURN: CYCLOIDAL
8) 1~!n..241
® a! -f6-8.351
I
b~1
10.178 :J II I
® IAI ~ul 1 ~6~ 1 10.287 I-il I
(})
1 ~7~ I 10.219 I=l
I
IA. 1-?a7SI

(a) (b)

Figure 7.11 Icons of the dL3_osc submenu;

a) VP3 viewport and b) VP4 viewport.

6. The initial point along the contact line of cam and follower, determined by AI;

7. The end point along the contact line of cam and follower, determined by A2.

Now we describe the icons displayed in VP4. Note that there are four types of
displacement programs. However, all of them can be generated from the DRDR type
by defining either one of the two dwells or both equal to zero. Therefore, the icon
displayed in VP4 will contain the form DRDR.

1. The type of input-output function is printed in this area.

2. The interval of oscillation of the follower is printed in this icon. When the
output pair is a revolute, the value is given in degrees; if the output pair is
prismatic, it is given in the chosen units of length.

3. The starting value of the input-output function is printed in this icon. When
the output pair is a revolute, the value is given in degrees; if the output pair is
prismatic, it is given in the chosen units of length.
178 CHAPTER 7. AN OUTLINE OF USYCAMS

4. The displacement program for one period of the cam is drawn in this icon.

5. The first interval of the function is printed as a percentage of one period of the
cam motion. When the displacement program is either RDR or RR, this value
is initialized as zero.

6. The second interval of the function is printed as a percentage of one period of

the cam motion.

7. The third interval of the function is printed as a percentage of one period of the
cam motion. When the displacement program is either DRR or RR, this value
is initialized as zero.

The icons of VP3 and VP4 of the submenu dL3_osc are shown in Fig. 7.11.

When three-link indexing cam mechanisms are chosen from the main menu, the pos-
sible four combinations of kinematic pairs used at the input and the output share
the same icons displayed in VP3 and VP4. The procedures that draw these icons are
called vp3_3_ind and vp4-.3_ind.
The icons displayed in VP3 are described below:

1. With this icon, the user can animate the mechanism. There are three options
to select: a) counterclockwise rotation of the cam for the case of revolute pair
and translation for the case of prismatic pairs; b) no motion; and c) clockwise
rotation of the cam for the case of revolute pair and translation for the case of
prismatic pairs. Moreover, the numerical value of the relative position of the
cam with respect to the frame is printed.

Icons 2-7 below are used to print the numerical values of the various parameters,
namely,

2. The distance between input and output axes, aI, in the selected units;

3. The angle between input and output axes, aI, in degrees;

4. The initial point along the contact line of cam and follower, determined by AI;

5. The end point along the contact line of cam and follower, determined by A2.

The icons displayed in VP4 are described below:

1. The type of input-output function is printed in this area.

7.5. SUBMENUS 179

CD I?fQI?f1
1~ln~851
lal~&O~1
~
I CYCLOIDAL I
IAI ~221
® IAI 1-:3751 ~~
I 0
I I I . 10•75 1

I ® 1 I A 31

(a) (b)

Figure 7.12 Icons of the dL3_ind submenu;

a) VP3 viewport and b) VP4 viewport.

2. The starting value of the input-output function is printed in this icon. When
the output pair is a revolute, the value is given in degrees; if the output pair is
prismatic, in the chosen units of length.

3. The displacement program for one indexing step is drawn in this icon.

4. The interval of the function is printed as a percentage of one period of the cam
motion.

5. The number of periods of the cam for one period of the follower is shown in this
Icon.

The icons of VP3 and VP4 of the submenu dL3_ind are shown in Fig. 7.12.

7.5.4 dL4
When four-link cam mechanisms are chosen from the main menu, both oscillating and
indexing mechanisms share the same icons displayed in VP3, whose procedure to draw
180 CHAPTER 7. AN OUTLINE OF USYCAMS

the icons is called vp3_4. If the user selects an oscillating mechanism, USYCAMS
will display in VP4 the icons shown in Fig. 7.llb. On the other hand, if the user
selects an indexing mechanism, USYCAMS will display in VP4 the icons shown in
Fig. 7.12b.

CD 10QI?f1
® lalA.asl
® lal -f6-so.sl
8) Ia3 A.72 1

® Ia~ -f6-42.31

® la.A.121
(j) Ia. -f6-3.871
® IAI p 0.1221
® IA2 I 0.8751

Figure 7.13 Icons of VP3 of the DL4 submenu.

The two possible types of the icons of VP4 are already described in the last two
subsections. We describe the icons of VP3 below:
1. With this icon, the user can animate the mechanism. Three options are avail-
able, namely, a) counterclockwise rotation of the cam for the case of revolute
pair and translation for the case of prismatic pairs; b) no motion; and c) clock-
wise rotation of the cam for the case of revolute pair and translation for the
case of prismatic pairs. The numerical value of the relative position of the cam
with respect to the frame is printed.

Icons 2-9 below are used to print the numerical values of the various parameters,
namely,

2. The distance between input and output axes, aI, in the selected units;
7.6. SYNTHESIS PROCEDURES 181

3. The angle between input and output axes, aI, in degrees;

4. The distance between the output axis and the axis of the roller, a3, in the
selected units;

5. The angle between the output and the axis of the roller, a3, in degrees;

6. The radius of the roller, a4, in the selected units;

7. The angle of the roller, a4, in degrees;

8. The initial point along the contact line of cam and follower, determined by ..\1;

9. The end point along the contact line of cam and follower, determined by "\2,

The icons of VP3 of the submenu dL4 are shown in Fig. 7.13.

7.6 Synthesis Procedures

In this section we outline the sixteen construct...surfaces synthesis procedures listed
in the second column of Table 7.1. We specify the synthesis parameters needed
to execute each procedure and describe the most important underlying algorithm,
namely, the generation of the database containing the nodes of cam and follower
surfaces, called cam....surf and fol...surf, respectively.

Procedure cs~_osc...rr is called for the synthesis of three-link oscillating cam mech-
anisms with constant pressure angle. There are two possible configurations, namely,
planar and spherical. Both input and output pairs are revolutes, and hence, the
input-output function is given as

which is defined in the procedure osc~enu and updated in the procedure vp4_3_osc,
where .,pj, (h and ,pi, for j = 1, 2, "', n, are generated.

i) Planar mechanism.
For reference, this type of mechanism is best known as cam mechanism with
oscillating flat-face follower. When the user points the cursor in the icon aI,
USYCAMS uses this part of the procedure. Other than .,ph ,pj and ,pi, this
procedure expects values of at, a4, ..\1 and "\2,
182 CHAPTER 7. AN OUTLINE OF USYCAMS

The algorithm that generates cam_surf is displayed below:

For i = 1 till 2 do
For j = 1 till n do

a1 cos ¢>j
a3 - ¢>j - 1

enddo
enddo

ii) Spherical mechanism. When the user points the cursor in the icon aI, USY-
CAMS switches to spherical mechanisms. Besides "pj, ¢>j and ¢>j, this procedure
expects values of all 04, >'1 and >'2.
The algorithm that generates cam_surf is displayed below:
7.6. SYNTHESIS PROCEDURES 183

For i = 1 till 2 do
For j = 1 till n do

sin a1 cos <Pi)

a3 +- arctan ( -,--=---~
<Pi - cos a1

k3 +- sin a1 cos a3 + cos a1 sin a3 cos <Pi

ks +- cos tPi cos <Pi + sin tPi sin <Pi cos a1

ks +- sin tPi cos <Pi - cos tPi sin <Pi cos a1

h1 +- k3 sin tPi - sin a3 sin <Pi cos tPi

calLsurfii +- Ai [
ks sin a4 - h1 cos a4
-ks sin a4 - h2 cos a4
1
sin a1 sin <Pi sin a4 + k1 cos a4

enddo
enddo

Procedure cs_3_osc...rp is called for the synthesis of three-link oscillating cam mecha-
nisms with constant pressure angle, revolute coupling as input and prismatic coupling
as output, known as cam mechanism with translating fiat-face follower.

The input-output function is given as

which is defined in the osc..Jllenu procedure and updated in the vp4_3_osc procedure,
where tPj, Z3i and z~i' for j = 1, 2, ... , n, are generated.

This procedure expects values of tPj, Z3i and z~i' which are generated internally,
and a1, a4, A1 and A2, whose values can be changed by using the VP3 viewport.

The algorithm that generates cam_surf is described below:

184 CHAPTER 7. AN OUTLINE OF USYCAMS

For i = 1 till 2 do
For j = 1 till n do

[
-Z~j sin a1 COS"pj + (a4 - Z3j sin ad sin"pj
Z~j sin a1 sin "pj + (a4 - Z3j sin (1) COS"pj
1
o
enddo
enddo

The cs_3_osc_pr procedure is called for the synthesis of three-link oscillating cam
mechanisms with constant pressure angle, prismatic coupling as input and revolute
coupling as output.

The input-output function is given as

which is defined in the osc...lIlenu procedure and updated in the vp4_3_osc procedure,
where Z2j, (Pi, and <Pj, for j = 1, 2, ... , n, are generated.

This procedure expects values of Z2j, <Pj, and <Pj, which are generated internally,
and the values of at. at, a4, Al and A2, which the user provides with the aid of the
VP3 viewport.

Now we include the algorithm that generates cam_surf:

7.6. SYNTHESIS PROCEDURES 185

For i =
1 till 2 do
For j = 1 till n do

sin at cos tPj

a3 +- tPi

Cam-BUrfij +- [ a3 cos at
at + a3 cos tPj - a4 sin tPj
sin tPj + a4 cos at cos tPj - Z2j cos at sin at
1+
a3 sin at sin tPj + a4 cos tPj sin at - Z2j sin 2 at

enddo
enddo

It is apparent that this type of mechanism has the restriction that tP' =I OJ otherwise
a3 becomes unbounded.

Procedure cs_3_osc_pp is called for the synthesis of three-link oscillating cam mech-
~isms with constant pressure angle and prismatic pair in both input and output
couplings.

The input-output function is now given as

which is defined in the osc...menu procedure and updated in the vp4_3_osc procedure,
where Z2j, Z3j, and Z~j, for j = 1, 2, "', n, are generated.

This procedure expects values of Z2j, Z3j, and Z~j' which are produced by USY-
CAMS, and the values of at, a4, At and A2, which the user provides with the aid of
the VP3 viewport.

The algorithm that generates cam_surf is now described:

186 CHAPTER 7. AN OUTLINE OF USYCAMS

For i =
1 till 2 do
For j = 1 till n do

arctan ( --"",-:-.- - -
z~; - cos 0 1 )
Jlo 4-
slnol

enddo
enddo

Three-link indexing cam mechanisms with minimum sliding along the line of contact
can be synthesized with this procedure. In this case, both input and output pairs are
revolutes.

The input-output function is given as

which is defined in the indJDenu procedure and updated in the vp4...3_ind procedure,
where .,pil <P; and <Pi, for j = 1, 2, ... , n, are generated.

This procedure expects values of .,pj, <Pj and <Pi, which are produced internally, and
the values of at. Ot, .AI and .A2, which the user can choose from the icons displayed
in VP3.

The algorithm that generates cam_surf and foLsurf is displayed below:

7.6. SYNTHESIS PROCEDURES 187

For i = 1 till 2 do
For j = 1 till n do

()2 _ arctan ( I <Pj sin O't )

<Pj cos O't - 1

c - /<p? - 2<pj COSO'I +1

<p'.2 - <p'. cos O't
b2 - 3
c32 at

enddo
enddo

Procedure cs_3_ind..rp is called for the synthesis of three-link indexing cam mech-
anisms with minimum sliding at the higher pair contact, revolute coupling as input
and prismatic coupling as output.

The input-output function is given as

which is defined in the osc...menu procedure and updated in the vp4_3_osc procedure,
where tPj, Z3j and Z~j' for j = 1, 2, ... , n, are generated.

This procedure receives internally the values of tPj, Z3j and Z~j' and, from the user,
the values of at, O't, Al and A2, which are chosen from the icons of VP3.

Below we describe the algorithm that generates cam_surf and foLsurf:

188 CHAPTER 7. AN OUTLINE OF USYCAMS

For i = 1 till 2 do
For j = 1 till n do

caLSurf;i ~ z;i,ina, [-,~~;i] +~; m

+ ad]
foLsurf;j +- [ -(Z~j.sinal
Z3j SIn al COS al
-Z3j sinal

enddo
enddo

Procedure cs_3_ind_pr is called for the synthesis of three-link indexing cam mech-
anisms with minimum sliding at the higher pair, prismatic coupling as input and
revolute coupling as output.

The input-output function is given as

which is defined in the oscJlIenu procedure and updated in the vp4_3_osc procedure,
where Z2j, ¢>j, and ¢>}, for j = 1, 2, ... , n, are generated.

This procedure receives internally the values of Z2j, ¢>j, and ¢>j, and, from the user,
the values of at, aI, Al and A2, which can be chosen from the icons of VP3.

The algorithm that generates cam_surf and foLsurf is included below:

7.6. SYNTHESIS PROCEDURES 189

For i = 1 till 2 do
For j = 1 till n do

at + sin at! <Pi ] [0]

[ -z2i8a~ c~s at + Ai - sin at
- Z2; sm at cos at

sIn
. at [ cos<Pi
. ] [0]
foLsurfi; +- ~ - s~n <Pi + Ai ~

enddo
enddo

It is apparent that this type of mechanism has the restriction that <P' f. OJ other-
wise, a3 becomes unbounded.

cs....3_ind_pp:
Although theoretically three-link indexing cam mechanisms with minimum sliding
and prismatic pair in both input and output couplings can be synthesized, according
to the results obtained in Section 3.2.4, this configuration is not feasible. If the user
choses this option, USYCAMS will display a message saying that it is not possible to
synthesize this type of mechanism.

The synthesis procedures of four-link oscillating and indexing cam mechanisms with
revolute pairs at the input and output couplings are similar. What makes the differ-
ence between these procedures is the displacement program.
The input-output function is given as

<P = <p( tP)

which is defined in the osc..menu or ind..menu procedures and updated in the vp4....3_osc
and vp4....3_ind procedures, respectively. In either case, tPj, <Pi and <Pi, for j =
1, 2, ... , n, are generated.
Procedures csA_osc...rr and csA_ind...rr involve all planar, spherical and spatial
cases. Here the user can visualize the smooth transformation from one configuration
to another. The algorithm that generates cam_surf is relatively long, and for this
reason it is not included here. Nevertheless, we outline the algorithms that generate
the database for planar and spherical cam surfaces. The reader interested in the
190 CHAPTER 7. AN OUTLINE OF USYCAMS

general algorithm is referred to Section 4.2.1, where the corresponding formulation is

introduced.

Besides the values of tP;, tPj and tPi, which are generated by USYCAMS, this
procedure expects values of at. at. a3, a3, a4, a4, ~t and ~2' which are given by the
user with the aid of the VP3 viewport.

i) Planar mechanisms. This mechanism is best known as planar cam mechanism

with oscillating roller-follower.

For i = 1 till 2 do
For j = 1 till n do

- tP7 - tPi cos at

-
~
j - 2tP'j cos at + 1 at
tPl2

ba j(a3ctPj + at - b2 )2 + a32s2tPj
8
- arctan ( a3 s tPj
a3ctPj + at - ~
)

1+
cam_SUrfij
- [ =",;6,+ cos(",; - 5)(1" - a.)
- sin tPj~ - sin~tPj - 8)(ba - a4) ~i [0, 0, 1]

enddo
enddo

ii) Spherical mechanisms. This mechanism is best known as spherical cam mecha-
nism with oscillating roller-follower.
7.6. SYNTHESIS PROCEDURES 191

For i = 1 till 2 do
For j = 1 till n do

f)2 4- arctan ( ,cP'; sin 01 )

cPj cos 01 - 1

v'[C(OI - (}2)CcPjS03 + C03S(01 - (}2»)2 + S203S2cPj)

f)3 4- arctan (
C03C(01 - f)2) - CcPjS03 S (01 - f)2)

D 4- C 0 3C(01 _ ()2):~:S~jC03S(01 - f)2»)

k3 4- sin (}2 cos( (}3 - (4) + cos (}2 sin( (}3 - (4) cos 6

cam_surf;j 4- ),; [
- k3
-k3
sin .,pj + sin( f)3 - (4) sin Dcos .,pj
cos.,pj - sin( f)3 - (4) sin 6 sin.,pj
1
cos (}2 cos( (}3 - (4) - sin (}2 sin( (}3 - (4) cos 6
enddo
enddo

csA_osc-rp and cs_4_ind-rp:

Procedures cs_3_osc-rp and cs_3_ind-rp are called for the synthesis of four-link os-
cillating and indexing cam mechanisms with revolute coupling as input and prismatic
coupling as output, the difference between these two procedures being the displace-
ment program. For oscillating mechanisms, the mechanism is best known as cam
mechanism with translating roller-follower.
The input-output function is given as

which is defined either in the osc...menu or ind...menu procedures and updated in the
vp4..3_osc or vp4_3_ind procedures, depending on the user selection. In these proce-
dures .,pj, Z3j and Z~j' for j = 1, 2, ... , n, are generated.
Besides .,pj, Z3j and Z;j' which are generated by USYCAMS, these procedures
expect values of at, Ot, a3, a4, ),t and ),2, which are given by the user with the aid of
the icons of the VP3 viewport.
The algorithm that generates cam_surf is now outlined:
192 CHAPTER 7. AN OUTLINE OF USYCAMS

For i = 1 till 2 do
For j = 1 till n do

enddo
enddo

Procedures cs_3_osc_pr and cs_3_pr are called for the synthesis of four-link oscil-
lating and indexing cam mechanisms, respectively, with prismatic coupling as input
and revolute coupling as output.

The input-output function is given as

which is defined either in the osc...lIIenu or vp4~_ind procedures and updated in

the vp4_3_osc or vp4~_ind procedures, depending on the user selection. In these
procedures Z2j, ¢>j, and ¢>j, for j = 1, 2, ... , n, are generated.

Besides Z2j, ¢>j, and ¢>j, which are generated by USYCAMS, these procedures
expect values of aI, aI, a3, a4, Al and A2, which are given by the user with the aid of
the icons of the VP3 viewport.

We now outline the algorithm that generates cam_surf:

7.6. SYNTHESIS PROCEDURES 193

For i = 1 till 2 do
For j = 1 till n do

j(a3<Pi cos <pj - sinat)2 + (a3<Pi sin <pj)2

b:i +- <Pi

a3 <Pj sin <Pj

{}c +-
arctan (
,,/,.1 ,,/,. •
)
a3'1'j cos 'l'j - sm a1

a1 + sin a1I<Pj + (b:i - a4) cos 6] [0]

cam...surfij +- [ [(b:i - a4) sin 6 - Z2jSa1] cos 0'1 + Ai - sin a1
[( b3 - a4) sin 6 - Z2j sin a1] sin a1 cos a1
enddo
enddo

Procedures cs_3_osc_pp and cs..3_ind_pp are called for the synthesis of four-link
indexing and oscillating cam mechanisms, respectively, with prismatic pairs at both
the input and the output.

The input-output function is given as

which is defined either in the osc.JIlenu or ind.Jllenu procedures and updated in the
vp4..3_osc or vp4_3_ind procedures, depending on the user selection. In these proce-
dures Z2j, Z3j, and Z~j' for j = 1, 2, "', n, are generated.

Besides Z2j, Z3j, and Z~j' which are generated by USYCAMS, these procedures
expect values of a1, a3, a4, A1 and A2, which are given by the user with the aid of the
icons of VP3.

The algorithm that generates cam_surf is included below:

194 CHAPTER 7. AN OUTLINE OF USYCAMS

For i = 1 till 2 do
For j = 1 till n do

Z~j sinal )
(}2 +- arctan ( -:-,-""-----:-
Z3j cosal - 1

ba +- [a3 cos( al - (}2) - Z3j sin( al - (}2)]

Z32 +- [a3 sin( al - (}2) + Z3j cos( al - (}2)]

cam_SUrfij +- [ (ba-a4)cos~2-z32sin(}2
(ba - a4) sin (}2 + Z32 cos (}2 - Z2j
1+~i [~l
0

enddo
enddo

thereby completing the description of the individual synthesis algorithms.

7.7 Application Example

As an example of the application of USYCAMS for other design problems than the
synthesis of cams, we take the synthesis of a drive for a shaking machine. Shaking
machines find many applications in industry, e.g., for mixing fluids, for screening of
grains or ore, etc. Note that these operations are essentially different from those
meant to be accomplished with cam mechanisms. Nevertheless, as we show here, the
underlying drive mechanism can be readily synthesized with the aid of USYCAMS.
The drive is meant to produce an advancing motion of a rotor with a periodic
acceleration program that accelerates in part of the cycle and decelerates in the rest
of it. Moreover, we want to produce this motion with a driving shaft rotating at a
uniform angular velocity, while the driven shaft rotating intermittently, with non-zero
mean velocity.
The mechanism we choose for the synthesis of this problem is of the RHR type.
Thus, the input-output function is of the form

Given these characteristics, the function we apply here is similar to that of the cy-
cloidal motion, namely,

4> = ~ (x - 2~ sin 211"x), O<x=~<1

- 211" - , O<k<1 (7.1)
7.7. APPLICATION EXAMPLE 195

Table 7.2 Synthesis parameters of a shaking mechanism.

Type al 01 Amin Am ..", k N

mm deg. mm mm
Planar 100 180 -4 4 0.5 3
Spherical 0 135 40 80 0.5 3
Spatial 50 135 40 80 0.5 3

where N is the number of rotations of the driving shaft for one full rotation of the
driven shaft and k is a constant that is introduced to control motion and geometric
characteristics. In cycloidal motion, k = 1.
With the application of USYCAMS, we have provided the synthesis parameters,
shown in Table 7.2, for the solution of three configurations, namely, planar, spherical
and spatial. The three solutions are displayed in Figs. 7.14-7.16.
196 CHAPTER 7. AN OUTLINE OF USYCAMS

Figure 7.14 Planar shaking mechanism.

7.7. APPLICATION EXAMPLE 197

Figure 7.15 Spherical shaking mechanism.

Figure 7.16 Spatial shaking mechanism.

Chapter 8

THE CAD OF CAM

MECHANISMS

8.1 Introduction
This chapter concerns the use of commercial CAD systems in the synthesis and design
of cam mechanisms. We divide the chapter into two parts: a) the synthesis of planar
cam mechanisms using CAD systems; and b) case studies of complete mechanical
designs of the complex cam mechanisms synthesized in Chapter 5, i.e., PRICAM in
its two versions, planar and spherical.
The section on the CAD-based synthesis of planar mechanisms is meant to in-
troduce a novel graphical procedure that makes extensive use of the capabilities of
commercial CAD software. The features that we use here are the plotting of func-
tions, the rotation and translation of planar rigid figures, and the determination of
intersections of lines and curves. Here, we assume that the displacement function
of the follower is given as a smooth explicit function of the input variable, so that
its derivative is available. In some instances, such a displacement function may not
be available, but only a discrete set of input-output pairs. In this case, a smooth
interpolation of this set will be necessary before the derivative can be determined.
If only a discrete set of points is available for the functions needed in the synthesis
procedures, interpolation does not represent any difficulty for AutoCADTM. This
software has two different types of interpolation, namely, generation of a smooth
curve passing through the given points, and generation of a spline curve supported
by .the points.
200 CHAPTER 8. THE CAD OF CAM MECHANISMS

",/
D

--
---------h B
----
hi

, / \ Il; bz t ""
,f
---~~::~----~
\
\
\ "
,,.."",-
A,
/ '
/
""

'- ' - - - , / '

(tI) (b)

Figure 8.1 RHRR mechanism layout

8.2 CAD-Based Methods. Planar Applications

Graphical methods for the synthesis of cam mechanisms could be considered obsolete
with present-day computer technology. However, the ever increasing availability of
CAD systems makes graphical methods of cam synthesis worth revisiting.
In this section we revisit graphical methods of planar cam synthesis and propose
a novel CAD-based method. In the realm of traditional graphical methods (Roth-
bart, 1956; Jensen, 1965; Chen 1982), the cam profile is obtained as the tangent
curve to a sequence of placements of the geometric entity-circle, line or arbitrary
curve-representing the follower. The accuracy of the profile thus obtained is totally
dependent upon the drafting skill of the user. With CAD systems there is no need
for drafting skill; now the problem is the digital approximation of the tangent curve.
This problem was overcome in the early days of CAD/CAM technology with the in-
troduction of envelopes (Struik, 1961; Wilson, Sadler and Michels, 1983; Backhouse
and Jones, 1990), that yield the cam profile coordinates directly and eliminate the
inaccuracies of tangent-curve tracing. While the envelope method is very reliable and
has found extensive acceptance, it is still essentially a numerical method that does not
exploit the interactive capabilities of CAD systems. This state of affairs prompted
us to propose an innovation in the rendering of the profile. This innovation consists
of finding the contact points between cam and follower, in a totally graphical and
interactive fashion that exploits features available in commercial CAD systems.
8.2. CAD-BASED METHODS. PLANAR APPLICATIONS 201

The theory presented in Chapters 3 and 4 is the basis of the method introduced
here. The profile of a three-link mechanism is used as a reference for the construction
of a four-link mechanism; in other words, RHR and RHP mechanisms are the two
basic groups of the four types of mechanisms discussed here. These four types pertain
to two families, the {RHRR, RHHR} family based on RHR mechanisms, and the
{RHRP, RHHP} family, based on RHP mechanisms. Although not included here,
the synthesis of those groups pertaining to PHR and PPP mechanisms can follow
the same methodology. We assume henceforth that all geometric parameters of the
cam have been either prescribed by an experienced cam designer, or determined
using an optimization procedure, as described in detail in (Angeles and Lopez-Cajun,
1991). Moreover, contrary to conventional graphical methods, we assume that an
accurate expression for the derivative of the output variable with respect to the input
variable, <p'( 'I/J), is available. This assumption is plausible; even if the input-output
function is given as a discrete set of input-output pairs, we can always form a smooth
interpolation using spline functions.
All procedures discussed below can be readily automated with the aid of a CAD
system. We have implemented them in AutoCADTM.

8.2.1 RHRR Mechanisms

An illustration of the cam mechanism discussed in this section is shown in Fig. 4.13.
The parameters given at the outset are shown in Fig. 8.1a, where: al is the distance
between the centers of the fixed revolutes; a3 the distance between the fixed and
moving revolute centers of the follower; a4 the radius of the roller; <Po the angle of the
follower corresponding to the lowest position of the follower; and b..<p is the rise of the
follower.
Once the parameters are fixed, we start by rotating the segment AB through an
angle <Po + b..<p /2, so that the chord CD is parallel to the ordinate of the displacement
coordinate frame, as shown in Fig. 8.1b. Thus, the displacement program is based on
the length of the chord CD, namely, the chord of the arc with radius a3 subtending
angle DBC. Then, as the follower rotates, the projection of an arbitrary position of
the center of the roller onto segment CD is represented by h, i.e.,

(8.1)
where

h 2 . b..<p (8.2)
9 = a 3 s1nT

is the length of the chord, while T is the normal input-output function defined as in
eq.(B.1).
202 CHAPTER 8. THE CAD OF CAM MECHANISMS

h
\---------------
I

\
------}----------- ------------------
hgT

--------- --

Figure 8.2 Difference between </Jg and </Jr

With the application of eq.(8.2), the actual angle of displacement of the follower,
</Jr, and the angle of displacement obtained graphically, </Jg, are identical only at the
ends of the follower motion and at the middle point of this motion. In any other
position there is a difference, which, when normalized with respect to !::l.</J, is denoted
bye, and measures the relative error involved, i.e.,

(8.3)

Moreover,

</Jr = (!::l.</J)T (8Aa)

!::l.</J
</J = - -SIn
• -1
-
Ii (8Ab)
9 2 a3

where Ii, as shown in Fig. 8.2, is given as

(8.5)
Now, upon combining eqs.(8.2, 804 & 8.5) with eq.(8.3), we obtain from the latter

e(T) =~- T - _1_ sin- 1 [(1 _ 2T) sin !::l.</J] (8.6)

2!::l.</J 2
The maximum value of e, for a given value of !::l.</J, can be computed as eM = e( TM),
where TM is obtained from the equation de! dT = O. For example, for a cycloidal
input-output motion, TM is given as
8.2. CAD-BASED METHODS. PLANAR APPLICATIONS 203

I
I
____________ J I _____________ L
I ____________ ~I ____________ J I _____________ IL ______ _
0.008 I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I
0.00& ------------,-------------r------------t------------,-----------
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
O.OCU ------------~-------------r------------t------------
I I I
------------r------------
I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
------------,-------------r---------
I I
,------------,-------------r------------
I I I
I I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I

o 10 20 50 10

Figure 8.3 Plot of ema., vs. l1</>

(8.7)

Thus, with fl.</> = 30° for example, eM = 0.00221. A plot of eM vs. fl.</> is shown
in Fig. 8.3. The magnitude of eM is apparently negligible for the purposes of this
chapter, and hence, eq.(8.2) can be considered as an acceptable approximation.
The coordinate axes ~ and tP are located as shown in Fig. 8.1b, where b2 is
defined in Chapter 4 as the distance from the axis of rotation of the cam to the
contact line between cam and follower of the RHR mechanism, as recalled below for
quick reference:

</>'
~= - - a t (4.49)
</>' - 1
Further, the cam is considered fixed and the frame of the mechanism is rotated
in the opposite direction of the desired rotation of the cam. Thus, for tP = tPs,
the corresponding points of h and ~ are projected into the arc A and the line C,
respectively, as shown in Fig. 8.4. Then, the loci of C' and E for tPs are readily
obtained, where C' and E are nothing but 143 and 1 32 , respectively.
Finally, we determine F, the contact point between cam and roller, as the inter-
section of the circle with center C' and radius a4 with segment EC', as indicated in
Fig. 8.4. This procedure is repeated for each tPi, where i = 0, 1, "', n, and n is the
number of subdivisions of the full rotation of the carn. The locus of point F thus
resulting, shown in Fig. 8.5, is the desired cam profile.
204 CHAPTER 8. THE CAD OF CAM MECHANISMS

1\
1/

f\ V
f\ 1/

Figure 8.4 Contact point for 'I/J = 'l/Js of the RHRR mechanism

II.
./
,/
/
/
;'
/

1. .
I

Figure 8.5 Cam profile of the RHRR mechanism

8.2. CAD-BASED METHODS. PLANAR APPLICATIONS 205

-----------h
bL
-~--- ----
7' ' ........ , ""

// !/Ja+¥
( -----}l---
\
\
\
w'---. /
. ""
\., ........"", ,.../
/
'-------

(II) (b)

Figure 8.6 RHHR mechanism layout

8.2.2 RHHR Mechanisms

The type of mechanism studied here is shown in Fig. 4.20. As stated in Chapter 4,
the synthesis of RHHR mechanisms is similar to the synthesis of RHRR mechanisms,
with only two important differences: a) the distance a3 is variable; and b) the pressure
angle is identically zero, i.e., segment EC is always perpendicular to segment BC, as
shown in Fig. 8.6a.
The reference value of a3 is a30 == a1 cos ¢o, and is obtained as shown in Fig. 8.6a.
Thus, hg is computed as

hg . a¢
= 2a3Qs1nT (8.8)

Figure 8.7 shows the procedure to find the cam-follower contact point for .,p = .,ps,
where a3 is variable. This profile is designed with zero offset, i.e., with a4 = 0, as
shown in Fig. 8.8.
U a4 =f. 0, the profile is obtained from that obtained with zero offset and auxiliary
circles of radius a4 as discussed in Section 4.4.1. The intersection of these circles with
the dashed lines give the points of the desired profile, as shown in Fig. 8.9.

8.2.3 RHRP Mechanisms

A mechanism of the kind discussed in this section, with a1 = -1r /2, is shown in
Fig. 4.14, the given parameters being shown in Fig. 8.10. The ordinates of the two
206 CHAPTER 8. THE CAD OF CAM MECHANISMS

/
///7~~~~~:~:~~- ~ -JI. I II III I.
.............0 \, 0 , I I • • to 11 ID
\
' .I
"
/ / ' I bl
/ ' \,
.i ." --
f --t--.
I. I• a. ! j
I
\ \ .
\ \ I
\ \. i
'\, "...... ./ , .,
, -.-.- / ~I
''\.''- /'
'- , /'

" ' -" ---- -- --- ........ ' /'

Figure 8.7 Contact point for tP = tPs of the RHHR mechanism

Figure 8.8 Cam profile of the RHHR mechanism with a4 =0

8.2. CAD-BASED METHODS. PLANAR APPLICATIONS 207

-----, --1- \
'
\
'
" \
',,~

,,/
I .
\ .'*
,
\
, /
/

.1 f•
,/
/
:-¥
,/'
.;i:

Figure 8.9 Cam profile of the RHHR mechanism with a4 =I- 0

208 CHAPTER 8. THE CAD OF CAM MECHANISMS

I _________ ~ __- L__. -

,/" I ',,- ""

~ ,I i \. z~t
~!-t-------~----~
, \ I / ""

\ t"-! /
"- , I /' '
"'---....--'
I

Figure S.10 RHRP mechanism layout

coordinate frames are parallel to the direction of motion of the follower. According
to eq.(3.2Id), ~ = z~("'), which we abbreviated here as ~ = z~.

Once the plots of Z3 and z~ are obtained either graphically or numerically, their
ordinates are projected onto line C, as showri in Fig. 8.11 for the value of", = "'5'
The i-points from Z3 are rotated through the angle "'i,
while the i-points from z~ are
"'i
rotated through the angle + 7r /2. Hence, the pitch curve of the RHRP mechanism
and the cam profile of the RHP mechanism, respectively, are readily obtained.
The points of the cam profile are determined as the intersections of the circles of
radius a4 with segment Ee', the profile thus obtained being shown in Fig. 8.12.

8.2.4 RHHP Mechanisms

The procedure to plot the cam profile for the RHP mechanism is the same as that
followed in Section 8.2.3, the points of the cam profile of the RHHP mechanism being
obtained likewise. The only difference here is that a3 = 0 for '" = 0, as shown in
Fig. 8.13, and, as discussed in Chapter 4, a3 changes so that the pressure angle is
zero; in other words, segment EF is always perpendicular to the face of the follower,
as shown in Fig. 8.14 for", = "'5.
The profile obtained is shown in Fig. 8.15.
8.2. CAD-BASED METHODS. PLANAR APPLICATIONS 209

/' 012341
/ %~
/
/
I
\
\
\
\'- ....... IE
' -/
- """-.--t--
I "/'

Figure 8.11 Contact point for .,p = .,ps of the RHRP mechanism

..

Figure 8.12 Cam profile of the RHRP mechanism

210 CHAPTER 8. THE CAD OF CAM MECHANISMS

Figure 8.13 RHHP mechanism layout

~~--~--~-------~ r-
1/ 1\
1I ~

"
)

~ /
\ V
\)

Figure 8.14 Contact point for tP = tPs of the RHHP mechanism

8.3. CASE STUDIES 211

Figure 8.15 Cam profile of the RHHP mechanism

8.3 Case Studies

The design of cam or other mechanisms is a much more complex process than that of
mechanism synthesis. In fact, mechanism synthesis is itself a more involved task than
we have discussed in this book. According to Hartenberg and Denavit (1964), the
kinematic synthesis of mechanisms can be divided into a) number synthesis, b) type
synthesis and c) dimensional synthesis. In number synthesis, the kinematician deter-
mines the number of links or moving parts in a given mechanism; in type synthesis,
a decision is made about the nature of the mechanism to be used to accomplish a
given function . Such a decision involves choosing among a linkage, a cam mechanism,
a gear train, a belt-pulley transmission or a combination of these. Tradeoffs must be
taken into account here that enable the designer to choose between the simplicity of
manufacturing a linkage, and the complex shapes that must be machined to produce
a cam. The ease of manufacture of linkages must be weighed against their limited
versatility when it comes to meeting pointwise conditions over the whole operation
cycle, as compared with the functional flexibility of a cam mechanism. Moreover,
conditions permitting, it is sometimes possible to accomplish the same function with
a planar, a spherical or a spatial device, whether a linkage or a cam mechanism. We
have only given simple geometric conditions in Chapter 3 that allow the designer to
212 CHAPTER 8. THE CAD OF CAM MECHANISMS

decide on the type of cam mechanism to be used. That is, if the axes between which
motion is to be transmitted are parallel, then a planar cam mechanism should be
used; if the axes are intersecting, then a spherical cam mechanism is needed; if the
axes are skew, then a spatial mechanism is required. We have assumed at the out-
set that a cam mechanism is required, thereby doing away with type synthesis. For
cam mechanisms, the issue of number synthesis was simplified to deciding whether to
include a roller or not. If no roller is included, then the number of links involved is
three; otherwise, it is four.
The last stage of kinematic synthesis, dimensional synthesis, has been the focus of
this book. In this stage, the fundamental dimensions of the linkage are determined,
based on the kinematic and static conditions at hand. Kinematic and static condi-
tions are those dictated only by the purely motion-transmission characteristics. These
characteristics pertain to a) a given input-output function and b) force-transmission
features such as pressure angle. Other conditions like functionality and those aris-
ing from a comprehensive mechanical analysis, which we shall term here mechanical
considerations, are left aside in determining what we have called the fundamental
dimensions of the mechanism. Mechanical considerations pertain to stress and strain
distributions, wear, fatigue and the like. In the discussion below we focus only on
some functional conditions that involve decisions based more on expert knowledge
than on analysis or algorithms.
The object of this discussion is, then, the production of practical manufacturing
drawings that will allow the machine-tool shop to produce the various pieces with the
prescribed tolerances, and that will lead to a feasible and affordable assembly for an
acceptable operation of the mechanism. In laying out the manufacturing drawings, we
assume that we have a suitable piece of CAD software at our disposal. Commercial
mechanical-oriented CAD software has its scope and limitations. Standard CAD
software for mechanical drawings allows the user to perform a certain set of basic
functions, namely,

• specify and render primitives (points, line segments, circular arcs, planes, cylin-
ders, spheres, tori, etc.);

• solve simple geometric problems involving primitives (find intersections between

lines; find centers of circles; draw perpendiculars to lines; etc.)

• distinguish between visible and hidden lines or between physical lines at the
boundaries of bodies and reference lines by means of various thicknesses and
types, e.g., continuous vs. dashed lines;

• obtain dimensioning and tolerancing using established norms (ANSI, ISO, etc.);

• distinguish between different moving pieces by means of patterns;

8.3. CASE STUDIES 213

• produce standard mechanical parts like screws, chamfers, fillets, keyways, etc.

While most mechanical elements can be produced with the sole aid of primitives,
cam profiles and surfaces need a special treatment, as do helical, bevel and hypoid
gears. The challenge is to produce the complex shapes of cams with commercial CAD
software. We do it by first producing the databases describing the complex shapes
involved by means of the techniques studied in Chapters 3, 4 and 5 as well as in
Section 8.2. Once these databases are available, we have to supply them to the CAD
software in a suitable format, as described in the user's manuals of this software.

In the subsections below we illustrate the use of CAD software for the rendering
of manufacturing drawings with two specific examples.

8.3.1 The Manufacturing Drawings of the Planar PRICAM

The success of a planar cam mechanism is measured by the accuracy obtained in the
parallelism between the input and the output axes. The accuracy of this parallelism
dictates that of the assembly of the remaining pieces, and the overall mechanism.
Figure 8.I6a shows structural elements that are ancillary to the cam mechanism
itself, namely, a) the two supporting elements with flat surfaces parallel to the sur-
face on which the mechanism is mounted and b) the four-piece frame composed of
plates with medium planes perpendicular to the supporting surface. The first two
elements are basically plates as well, each with a vertical rib to accommodate the
four-piece frame. The latter could have been fabricated in many ways, but we chose
to make it in four pieces for economy of production. We coud have used a single block
and removed material by machining; that would have been very costly in terms of
machining operations and wasted material. The drawback of designing the frame in
four parts is the loss of parallelism and perpendicularity upon assembly, which would
have been very precisely controlled if the whole part had been machined out of one
single block. The advantage of doing it in four parts, on the other hand, is the ease
of assembly, that would have been rather challenging if a single block had been used.
Our prototype is for demonstration only, and so, the four-piece frame was cut of
two transparent, colorless plexyglass 9-mm thick plates and two aluminum I5-mm
thick plates.
Other design details that we took into account are the support of the input or
cam shaft and of the output or follower shaft. The former is supported as a cantilever
beam, while the latter as a clamped-clamped beam. For demonstration purposes
the input shaft is to be driven manually, but we account in this design also for a
mechanical drive, and so we assume that the input shaft will be subjected to both
torsional and axial loads. We use an array of two single-row ball bearings to minimize
bending. Because the contact between cam and follower takes place along cylindrical
214 CHAPTER 8. THE CAD OF CAM MECHANISMS

surfaces of generatrices parallel to the shaft axes, no axial forces are transmitted
from the cam to the follower, and so the output shaft can be safely assumed to be
subjected to no axial force. For this reason, and because the loads are moderate, we
chose single-row ball bearings to support this shaft. More details of the frame-base
design are visible in Fig. 8.16.
Figure 8.17a shows a side view and a front view of the cam. For economy of
machining, we designed this element in two pieces fastened with screws. The right
part of the side view is the cam of the primary mechanism, while the left part is the
cam of the secondary mechanism. Both parts were machined using a three-axis NC
vertical machining center with data points produced with the procedure described in
Section 7.6.
The follower is shown in both side and front views in Fig. 8.17b. This element is
machined of one single plate, again, in the same NC vertical machining center used
for the cam profiles. The data to produce the contours were obtained as described in
Section 7.6.

8.3.2 The Manufacturing Drawings of the Spherical PRI-

CAM
The spherical prototype of PRICAM, as synthesized in Section 5.5, has certain simi-
larities with its planar counterpart. It consists of a frame and the mechanism itself.
The frame is composed of a parallelepiped that, at first glance, resembles a cube, i.e.,
the lengths of its edges are very close to each other. An essential difference between
the two prototypes is that here the concern is no longer the parallelism between input
and output axes; the concern here is rather twofold: intersection and perpendicular-
ity. To accommodate both, we mount the output axis on holes that have a I-mm
clearance, in order to adjust the mounting of this shaft with screws. Here, as in the
design of the planar prototype, we assume that the cam shaft is subjected to both
torsion and axial force, while the follower cam is subjected only to torsion and radial
force. The cam shaft is mounted as a cantilever beam on the frame, as in the planar
case. Here we use a double-row ball bearing to mount the cam shaft.
Details of the cam of this mechanism are shown in Fig. 8.19a. It is apparent from
this figure that the cam was cut out of a single aluminum block. The side view of
the cam shows the cam of the primary mechanism on the concave side of the piece,
while the convex side is the secondary mechanism. The follower was cut in one single
piece as well, as shown in Fig. 8.19b. The machining of both the cam and the follower
called for a 4-axis NC machine tool, given the spherical geometry involved.
The material used in the two prototypes was aluminum, for these are meant for
demonstration purposes only. Aluminum is not only lighter than steel, but also much
easier and cheaper to machine; For production machines, which are in operation
8.3. CASE STUDIES 215

around the clock, and subjected to heavy loads, aluminum would have been out
of the question. More likely, steel would have been used and, moreover, due to the
contact between surfaces, a surface treatment of the cam and follower contact surfaces
would have been mandatory. We have not addressed these issues here.
216 CHAPTER 8. THE CAD OF CAM MECHANISMS

. .D or
IIIIdIlIfI..h;
PUC-A
(a)
lit

~
..'" .
PUC-8
(b)

Figure 8.16 a) Top and b) front views of planar PRICAM

 217
8.3. CASE STUDIES

"'"
~"".--
IIcGlLL \lNIVBIISJTY
..
-, DOD 11'
I!IIoIIJI!L.IIt
. .. . , _ " J",yI.. PUC-01

(a)

";i,f
[
[
20UIf ItJIIft ..

1I -J
Section A-A'

. .IS or

PUC-oz
(b)

Figure 8.17 a) Cam and b) follower of planar PRICAM

218 CHAPTER 8. THE CAD OF CAM MECHANISMS

I
I

-----@-----
J
* g

DAm BY
~
SPHIC-A

(a)

".
~............
II.GIIL 1lIiIVBRSI'n'
IIP'I. II _ _ _

"I 'UTlIIOIf D.IoD JrI

EU-1: .&. ~
!IfIJU~ lJalUJIIHH 1IJDlJIIS. ::., :: _ I . ..... SPHIC-B

(b)

Figure 8.18 a) Front and b) lateral views of spherical PRICAM

8.3. CASE STUDIES 219

..
--
, Dan :JT
~tLl .ll. I1AUII!lLIIoJ
..... I, ~ SPHIC-OI

(a)

~ lIoGUL 0NIVBRSm'
~1IPt" _ _ ..,
DAD .,.
I1AUII!lLIIoJ
SPHIC-02

( b)

Figure 8.19 a) Cam and b) follower of spherical PRICAM

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Company, Inc.

Sugimoto, K, and Duffy, J., 1982, "Application of Linear Algebra to Screw Systems,"
Mechanism and Machine Theory, Vol. 17, pp. 73-83.

Takano, M., and Toyama, S., 1979, "Dynamics of Indexing Cam Mechanism and
Speed-Up of Its Motion," Proc. 5th World Congress on Theory of Machines and
Mechanisms, Montreal, Vol. 2, pp. 1408-1411.

Tesar, D. and Matthew, G. K., 1976, The Dynamic Synthesis, Analysis, and Design
of Modeled Cam Systems, Lexington Books, Lexington (Massachusetts).

Vadasz, A., F., and Soni, A., H., 1979, "Analytical Determination of the Space
Burmester Lines for Cylindric-Cylindric Cranks," Proc. 5th World Congress on The-
ory of Machines and Mechanisms, Montreal, Vol. 2, pp. 1036-1039.

Veldkamp, G., R., 1967a, "Canonical Systems and Instantaneous Invariants in Spatial
Kinematics," J. Mechanisms, Vol. 3, pp. 329-388.

Veldkamp, G. R., 1976, "On the Use of Dual Numbers, Vectors and Matrices in Instan-
taneous, Spatial Kinematics," Mechanism and Machine Theory, Vol. 11, pp. 141-156.

Waldron, K J., 1972, "A Method of Studying Joint Geometry," Mechanism and
Machine Theory, Vol. 7, pp. 347-353.

Wiederrich, J., L., and Roth, B., 1975, "Dynamic Synthesis of Cams Using Finite
Trigonometric Series," Journal of Engineering for Industry, Trans. ASME, Vol. 97,
pp. 287-293.

Willis, R., 1841, Principles of Mechanism, London.

230 APPENDIX A. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Wilson, C. E., Sadler, J. P. and Michels, W., J., 1983, Kinematics and Dynamics of
Machinery, Harper & Row, Publishers, New York.

Wolfram, S., 1992, Mathematica, Wolfram Research, Inc., Version 2.1, Champaign,
Illinois.

Wunderlich, W., 1971, "Contributions to the Geometry of Cam Mechanisms with

Oscillating Followers", J. Mechanisms, Vol. 6, pp. 1-20.

Xiao, D. Z." and Yang, A. T., 1989, "Kinematics of Three Dimensional Gearing,"
Mechanism and Machine Theory, Vol. 24, No.4 pp. 245-255.

Yang, A., T., 1963, Application of Quaternion Algebra and Dual Numbers to the
Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms, Doctoral Dissertation, Columbia University, New
York City, No. 64-2803 (University Microfilm, Ann Arbor, Michigan).

Yang, A. T., Freudenstein, F., 1964, "Application of Dual-Number Quaternion Al-

gebra to the Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms", J. Appl. Mech. Trans. ASME, 31,
pp. 300-308.

Yang, A., T., 1974, "Calculus of Screws," Basic Questions of Design Theory, in W.
R. Spillers (editor), American Elsevier Publishing Co., Inc., New York, pp. 265-281.

Yang, A., T., Kirson, Y., and Roth, B., 1975, "On a Kinematic Curvature Theory for
Ruled Surfaces," Proc. 4th World Congress on Theory of Machines and Mechanisms,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Vol. 4, pp. 737-742.

Zhong-Tang, R., Jing-Ping, H., 1989, "Synthesis of Planar Cam Mechanisms Based
on Theory of Conjugate Surfaces," Vortragssammelband II IFToMM-Symposium K ur-
vengetriebe, Berlin, pp. 73-83.

Zigo, M., 1967, "A General Numerical Procedure for the Calculation of Cam Profiles
from Arbitrarily Specified Acceleration Curves," J. Mechanisms, Vol. 2, pp. 407-414.
Appendix B
DISPLACEMENT PROGRAMS

The functions describing the rise or return in the displacement program of the syn-
thesis of cam mechanisms have been studied extensively in the literature (Rothbart,
1956; Jensen, 1965; Tesar and Matthew, 1976; Chen, 1982; Angeles and Lopez-Cajun,
1991). Because of the scope of this book, only some of the functions of those types
having the property of zero velocity and acceleration at the ends of the rise (or return)
phase are included here. Moreover, these functions are defined in normal form, i.e.,
if x and T denote normalized input and output variables, then

T = T(X), o ::; T ::; 1, 0::; x ::; 1 (B.1)

B.l Generalized Input-Output Function

In the theory presented in Chapters 3 and 4, the dimensions and symbols of the
variables of the input-output functions change according to the type of kinematic
pair of the mechanism to be considered. Two kinds of pairs have been assumed either
for the input or the output motions, namely, revolute and prismatic. Thus, a total of
four combinations are achieved, namely, RR, RP, PR and PP, which are applicable
to both three- and four-link cam mechanisms. However, all of them can be regarded
as one generalized input-output function, namely,

cp(X) = hT(X) (B.2a)

h being the rise of the follower and T the normal input-output function, as defined
in eq.(B.l) and shown in Fig. B.I. Definitions of cp, h, and x, for each of the four
types of the mechanisms mentioned above are shown in Table B.I. The derivatives
of cp( x) are taken with respect to "p or Z2, depending on the type of input motion at
hand. Thus, the chain rule is applied to cp to obtain its first and second derivatives
with respect to the input variable, and denoted by cp' and <p", thereby obtaining
232 APPENDIX B. DISPLACEMENT PROGRAMS

1.0-r------------.. . . . .--------=-----,

T ~5 -------------------------------- --------------------------------

o 0.5 1.0
:I:

Figure B.t Normalized input-output function

•
Table B.t Generalized Input-Output Function

Type cp= h= x= x'=

R-R ¢(1/1) tl.¢ 1/1 / tl.1/1 dx/ d1/1 = 1/tl.1/1
R-P Z3( 1/1) tl.z3 1/1 / tl. 1/1 dx/ d1/1 = 1/tl.1/1
P-R ¢(Z2) tl.¢ Z2/tl.Z2 dx/dz2 = 1/tl.z2
P-P Z3(Z2) tl.Z3 Z2/ tl.z2 dx / dZ2 = 1/ tl.Z2

, h ,dT
cp = x - (B.2b)
dx
cp" = h X I2~T
- (B.2c)
dx 2

where x' is defined as in Table B.l

B.2 Cycloidal Function

The cycloidal function satisfies the condition of zero velocity and zero acceleration at
the ends. This function and its first and second derivatives are displayed below:
B.3. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS 233

r = x -
1 . 2
211' SIn 11' x (B.3a)
dr
dx = (1 - cos 211'x) 0~ X ~ 1 (B.3b)
fllr 2 . 2 (B.3c)
dx 2 = 1I'sm 1I'X

B.3 Polynomial Functions

If the rise is represented by a polynomial, then its coefficients are determined from the
conditions to be satisfied. The methodology to determine the polynomial coefficients
can be found in (Dudley, 1948; Angeles and Lopez-CajUn, 1991). Some of the solutions
are presented below:

B.3.1 3-4-5 Polynomial

(B.4a)
(B.4b)

(B.4c)

B.3.2 4-5-6-7 Polynomial

r = 35x4 - + 70x 6 - 20x 7

84x 5 (B.5a)
dr
dx = 140x3 - 420x 4 + 420x 5 - 140x6 (B.5b)
fllr
dx 2 = 420x 2 - 1680x3 + 2100x 4 - 840x 5 (B.5c)

B.4 Combined Functions

In order to improve the performance of the basic curves as defined above, designers
have tried combinations of them. The aim has been to produce a follower motion
with bounded jerk. One of these combinations is the called the trapezoid function,
which is a combination of cubic and parabolic curves. This type, from the point of
view of the maximum value of fllr / dx 2 , is slightly better than the cycloidal curve
(Chen, 1982). From the same point of view, an even better function was proposed,
234 APPENDIX B. DISPLACEMENT PROGRAMS

the modified trapezoidal function (Neklutin, 1959), which replaces the cubic curves
by cycloidal curves. This function is described below, a detailed derivation being
found in (Tesar and Matthew, 1976; Chen, 1982).

B.4.1 Modified Trapezoidal Acceleration

T = 0.09724612(4x - .!.1r sin 41rx) (B.6a)

dT 1
dx = 0.3889845(1 - cos 41rx) O<x<-
- 8 (B.6b)

~: = 4.888124 sin 41rX (B.6c)

T = 2,444406184x 2 - 0.22203097x + 0.00723407 (B.6d)

1 3
~: = 4.888124x - 0.22203097 -<x<-
8 - 8
(B.6e)
d2T
dx 2 = 4.888124 (B.6f)

T = 1.6110154x - 0.0309544 sin (41rx - 1r) - 0.3055077 (B.6g)

dT 3 1
dx = 1.6110154 - 0.3889845 cos (41rx - 1r) '8 ~ x < '2 (B.6h)

~: = 4.888124 sin (41rx - 1r) (B.6i)

T = 1.6110154x + 0.03009544 sin (41rx - 21r) - 0.3055077 (B.6j)

dT 1 5
dx = 1.6110154 + 0.3889845 cos (41rx - 21r) '2 ~ x < '8 (B.6k)

~: = -4.888124 sine 41rX - 21r) (B.61)

T = 4.6660917x - 2,44406184x 2 - 1.2292648 (B.6m)

dT 5 7
dx = 4.6660917 - 4.888124x -<x<- (B.6n)
8 - 8
d2T
dx 2 = -4.888124 (B.6o)
BA. COMBINED FUNCTIONS 235

r = 0.6110154 + 0.3889845x + 0.0309544 sin (411"x - 311") (B.6p)

dr 7
dx = 0.3889845[1 + cos( 411" X - 311")] 8~x ~ 1 (B.6q)

~: = -4.888124 sin (411"x - 311") (B.6r)

Appendix C

SYMBOLIC DUAL ALGEBRA

In Chapter 2 we discussed dual numbers as the basic tool for the formulation intro-
duced in Chapters 3 and 4. Some derivations of these chapters are rather difficult
to obtain by hand. However, with the aid of Mathematica, a software package for
symbolic computations (Wolfram, 1992), we succeeded in obtaining and simplifying
results. Since operations with dual numbers are not available in Mathematica, we
wrote our own functions, called Dualfunctions. These functions are presented below
in alphabetical order.

General definitions like the dual unit f, identified in the code as ee, as well as the
sine and the cosine of dual numbers, should be written in the first line of the program,
namely,

Unprotect[Power]; Unprotect[Sin]; Unprotect[Cos];

ee~n_ := 0 /; n >= 2;
dtrigrule = {Sin[Dual[x_ + ee y_]] :> Sin[x] + ee y Cos [x] ,
Cos [Dual [x_ + ee y_]] :> Cos [x] - ee y Sin [x] ,
Sin[Dual[ee y_]] :> ee y ,
Cos[Dual[ee y_]] :> 1,
Sin [Dual[xJ] : > Sin [x] ,
Cos [Dual [xJ] : > Cos [x]};
Protect [Power] ; Protect[Sin]; Protect[Cos];

Moreover, we define de cross product of two vectors as:

cross [v_, u_]:= {v[[2]] u[[3]] - u[[2]] v[[3]],

u[[l]] v[[3]] - v[[l]] u[[3]],
v[[l]] u[[2]] - u[[l]] v[[2]J}
238 APPENDIX C. SYMBOLIC DUAL ALGEBRA

To simplify expressions in Dualfunctions we apply the following rules:

Unprotect[Sqrt]
Sqrt [a_-2] :- a;
Protect [Sqrt] ;

trigrule ... {Sin [xx.] -nn_Integer : >

Sin[xx]-(nn-2) - Cos[xx]-2 Sin[xx]-(nn-2) /; nn > 1,
xx_ (yy_ + zz_) : > xx yy + xx zz
};

trigrule2 - {Cos [xx.] -nn-Integer : >

Cos[xx]-(nn-2) - Sin[xx]-2 Cos[xx]-(nn-2) /; nn > 1,
xx_ (yy_ + zz_) :> xx yy + xx ZZ
};
C.l. CROSSUNITDUAL 239

C.I Cross U nitDual

BeginPackage["CrossUnitDual''',''DecompDual''']

CrossUnitDual: :usage = "Evaluates the dual cross product of

two dual unit vectors"
Begin[" 'private' II]

« rules

CrossUni tDual [u_. v.J : =

Block[{e1x,e1y,e1z,e1,m1x,m1y,m1z,m1,p1,
e2x,e2y,e2z,e2,m2x,m2y,m2z,m2,p2,b},
{e1x,m1x}=DecompDual[u[[1]]];
{e1y,m1y}=DecompDual[u[[2]]];
{e1z,m1z}=DecompDual[u[[3]]];
e1 z {e1x,e1y,e1z} II. trigrule;
m1 = {m1x,m1y,m1z};

{e2x,m2x}=DecompDual[v[[1]]];
{e2y,m2y}=DecompDual[v[[2]]];
{e2z,m2z}=DecompDual[v[[3]]];
e2 = {e2x,e2y,e2z} II. trigrule;
m2 = {m2x,m2y,m2z};

If[e1===e2,
p1=cross[e1,m1];
p2=cross[e2,m2] ;
b = Sqrt[(p2[[1]]-p1[[1]])-2+(p2[[2]]-p1[[2]])-2+
(p2[[3]]-p1[[3]])-2];
b = b II. trigrule;
PowerExpand[(p2-p1 + Global'ee cross[p1,p2])/b]

cross [u, v]
]
]

End[]

EndPackage []
240 APPENDIX C. SYMBOLIC DUAL ALGEBRA

C.2 DecompDual
BeginPackage [II DecompDual ' II]

DecompDual: :usage • "Returns the primal and dual parts of a dual number"

Begin [II 'private' II]

DecompDual[ex~ :-
Block[{ex2,dual,real},
ex2 = Collect[ex,Global'ee];
dual • Coefficient[ex2,Global'ee];
If[FreeQ[ex2,Global'ee],Return[{ex2,O}]];
real • If[Head[ex2] ==- Plus,
Drop[ex2,{Position[ex2,Global'ee] [[1,1]]}],
o
] ;
{real,dual} (* real+Global'ee dual*)
]

End[]

EndPackage []
C.3. DIVDUAL 241

C.3 DivDual
BeginPackage[IIDivDual t l l ]

DivDual: :usage • "Returns a dual number from division of

two dual numbers II

Begin [II 'private' II]

Di vDual [lL. y.J :.

Block[{x1.realx.dualx.y1.realy.dualy}.
xi • Collect[x.Global'ee];
dualx - Coefficient[x1.Global'ee];
If[FreeQ[x1.Global'ee]. realx = xi.
realx = If[Head[x1] === Plus.
Drop[x1.{Position[x1.Global'ee] [[1.1]]}].
o
]
] ;
y1 = Collect[y.Global'ee];
dualy • Coefficient[y1.Global'ee];
If[FreeQ[y1.Global'ee]. realy· y1.
realy • If[Head[y1] === Plus.
Drop[y1.{Position[y1.Global'ee] [[1.1]]}].
o
]
] ;
realx/realy + Global'ee (dualx/realy - realx dualy/realy-2)
]

End[]

EndPackage []
242 APPENDIX C. SYMBOLIC DUAL ALGEBRA

C.4 SqrtDual
BeginPackage ["SqrtDual'" , "DecompDual' " , "Di vDual' ,,]

SqrtDual: :usage • "Evaluates Sqrt [pa + ee da]"

Begin [" 'private' II]

« rules

SqrtDual [n..J :-
Block[{pn,dn} ,
{pn,dn} • DecompDual[n];
pn - pn / / . trigrule2;
dn = dn / / . trigrule2;
If[pn --- 0,
(* "Sqrt of a dual number undefined"*)
Global'undefinedsqrt

Sqrt[pn] + Global'ee dn/2/Sqrt[pn]

]
]

End[]

EndPackage []
C.5. TANDUAL 243

C.5 TanDual
BeginPackage[ITanDual'I,IDecompDual'I,IDivDual'"]

TanDual: :usage • "Evaluates a dual angle tan(da)=tan(a)+

ee h (1+tan A2(a). Returns: num., den. and offset"

Begin [II , private' II]

« rules

TanDual [IL, d.J : •

Block[{pn,dn,pd,dd,a,h},
{pn,dn} .. DecompDual[n];
{pd,dd} .. DecompDual[d];
pn· pn II. trigrule2;
dn .. dn II. trigrule2;
pd • pd II. trigrule2;
dd - dd II. trigrule2;
If[pd -== 0,
h '" (dn pd - pn dd)/pn A2;
{pn,pd,h}

h=(dn pd - pn dd) / (pnA2 + pd A2);

{pn,pd,h}
]
]

End[]

EndPackage []
244 APPENDIX C. SYMBOLIC DUAL ALGEBRA

C.6 UnitDual
BeginPackage[IUnitDual'I,IDecompDual'"]

UnitDual: :usage • "Evaluates a dual unit vector from an arbitrary dual vecto

Begin [II' pri vate' II]

UnitDual[ex.J :-
Block[{x1,x2,a1,a2,a3,b1,b2,b3,nx1,x3},
{a1,b1} • DecompDual[ex[[1]]];
{a2,b2} - DecompDual[ex[[2]]];
{a3,b3} - DecompDual[ex[[3]]];
xt-{a1,a2,a3};
x2-{b1,b2,b3};
nx1-Sqrt[x1. xi];
x3=cross[cross[x1,x2],x1];
x1/nx1+Global'ee x3/nx1~3
]

End[J

EndPackage [J
INDEX
A conjugate surfaces, 1.2.1
accurate calculattion, 6.1 connectivity, 6.5
active viewport, 7.3 constant
Aronhold-Kennedy Theorem, 1.4, 2.2, breadth cam mechanism, 5.6
3.1,4.2 pressure angle, 4.4
asymptotic normal, 2.3 constructive solid geometry (CSG), 6.1,
AutoCADR, 6.1 6.6
AMETM, 6.1, 6.6 contact surface, 4.2, 4.2.1, 4.2.2, 4.2.3,
auxiliary roller, 4.1, 4.4 4.2.4, 5.1, 6.5
axial piston pump, 1.2.1 cusp, 5.5.2
cycloidal motion, 4.2.2, 5.2, 5.6
B cylindrical
backlash, 1.2.1 cam mechanism, 3.2.2,4.3.1
balancing pair, 1.1, 4.2, 4.2.3
dynamic, 6.1 surface, 3.2.2, 4.1
static, 6.1 cylindroid, 1.2.2
bearing clearance, 1.2.1
bottom surface, 4.2.2, 6.5 D
dextrous, 2.1
c differential geometry, 1.2.2
cam direct
kinematics, 7.1 contact, 5.1
mechanism, 1.1 operation, 3.3, 3.3.1
cam-follower offset, 1.2.1 directrix, 2.3
canonical systems, 1.2.2 displacement program, 4.2.1
central Divergence Theorem, 6.1, 6.2
closest principal axis of inertia, 6.1 driven element, 3.1, 3.3
normal,2.3 driving element, 3.1, 3.3
point, 2.3 dual
composite solid, 6.6 algebra, 1.4
computer graphics, 7.1 arc, 4.1
conical angle, 2.1, 4.2.1
face follower, 4.4 angular velocity, 2.2, 3.2
surface, 4.4 curve, 1.2.2, 4.2
246 INDEX

matrix, 1.2.2, 2.1, 4.2 fiat-face follower, 3.1, 4.4.1

number, 2.1 follower, 1.1
part, 2.1, 3.2 roller, 1.1
pitch curve, 4.2 frame, 1.1, 3.1
quaternion algebra, 1.2.2 Frenet equations, 2.3
radius of curvature, 2.3, 4.2 fundamental dimensions, 8.3
rotation, 2.1
G
scalar, 2.1
Gauss Divergence Theorem see Diver-
screw matrix, 2.1
gence Theorem
space, 3.1
generatrix, 2.3, 5.5
unit vector, 2.1, 3.2, 4.1
geodesic
unit sphere, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1
curvature, 2.3
unity, 2.1, 3.2
Frenet equations, 2.3
vector, 2.1
geometric properties, evaluation, 6.1,6.6
dwell, 5.1, 5.6
Geneva mechanism, 1.2.1, 5.1
dynamic
gyroscopic moment, 6.1
synthesis, 1.2.1
globoidal cam, 4.3.1
unbalance, 6.1
great circle, 2.2, 4.1, 4.2
dynamics, 1.2.1
H
E helical springs, 5.1
envelope theory, 1.2.1 homogeneous
error, 1.2.1 function, 6.2
assembly, 1.2.1 object, 6.1
manufacturing, 1.2.1 hyperboloid of one sheet, 2.3, 4.2.1
Euclidean hypoid gears, 2.1
norm, 2.1
space, 2.1, 2.2, 6.2 I
external iIidexing cam mechanism, 1.1, 3.1, 5.1,
RHR-ICM, 5.3 5.1
secondary mechanism (SM), 5.5.2 indexing step, 5.2, 5.5.2
inertia matrix, 6.1
F input-output function, 3.1,3.2.1,3.2.2,
fast calculation, 6.1 3.2.3,3.2.4,4.3,5.3,5.6, 7.3
Ferguson indexing mechanism, 5.1 instan screw axis (ISA), 1.2.2
finite instantaneous invariants, 1.2.2
differences, 1.2.1 Integrated Mechanisms Program (IMP),
-element analysis (FEA), 7.1 7.1
trigonometric series, 1.2.1 interactive synthesis, 7.1
first-class solid, 6.5 interactivity, 7.2
five-link mechanism, 1.2.1 intermittent motion, 1.2.1
INDEX 247

internal negative action, 5.6

RHR-rCM, 5.3 node, 6.5
secondary mechanism (SM), 5.5.2 noise in cams, 1.1.1
inverse operation, 3.3, 3.3.1 norm of a dual vector, 2.1
ISA,1.2.2 normalized function, 5.2

J o
jerk, 1.2.1 off-line synthesis, 7.2
on-line synthesis, 7.2
K optimization of cam mechanisms, 1.2.1
kinematic 1.1 oscillating follower, 1.2.1, 7.4
pair, 1.1
higher-pair, 1.1, 3.1, 5.5 p
lower-pair, 1.1, 3.1 parallel
synthesis, 1.2.1 -axes theorem, 6.1, 6.4
kinematics, 1.2.1 dual vectors, 2.1, 4.2.2, 4.2.3
KINSIN III, 7.1 parallelepiped, 6.5
passive viewport, 7.3
L pitch,2.1
line coordinates, 2.1
curve, 5.5.2
LINCAGES, 7.1 ruled surface, 4.2,4.2.1,4.2.2,4.2.3,
M 4.2.4, 5.5.2
Mathematica, Appendix C planar cam mechanism, 1.2.1,3.1,3.2.2
mean-value theorem, 6.1 Plucker coordinates, 2.1
mechanical considerations, 8.3 point coordinates, 2.1, 4.2
mechanism, 1.1 pole of the motion, 2.2, 3.1
mesh, 6.5 polode, 2.2, 4.1
minimization of cam size, 1.2.1 polynomial equation of motion, 1.2.1
minimum sliding, 3.1 polydyne, 1.2.1
velocity, 3.2, 3.2.3 positive
MINN-DWELL,7.1 action, 5.6
MOMENT,6.1 -definite matrix, 6.1
moment,6.1 motion, 1.2.1, 5.1, 5.6
of a region, 6.2 power losses, 5.1
of inertia, 6.1, 6.2 prescribed motion, 3.1
MOMENTDB, 6.5 pressure angle, 1.2.1, 3.1, 3.3, 4.1, 4.3,
motor, 1.2.2 5.1, 5.5, 5.6
multi-piston pump, 1.2.1 primal part, 2.1, 3.2
primary mechanism, 5.5, 5.6
N primitive solid, 6.1, 6.6
natural trihedron, 2.3 principal axis of inertia, 6.1
248 INDEX

prismatic-higher-cylindric-revolute (PH CR) axis, 2.2

mechanism, 4.2.3 pair, 1.1, 3.1
prismatic-higher-cylindric-prismatic (PH CP) screws
mechanism, 4.2.4 calculus of, 1.2.2
prismatic-higher-revolute (PHR) mech- contrary, 1.2.2
anism, 3.2.3 reciprocal, 1.2.2
prismatic-higher-revolute-prismatic (PHRP) repelling, 1.2.2
mechanism, 4.2.4 system of, 1.2.2
prismatic pair, 1.1, 3.1, 4.2.3 theory of, 1.2.2
prismatic-prismatic-prismatic (PPP) mech- second-class solid, 6.5
anism, 3.2.4 secondary mechanism, 5.5, 5.6
proper dual number, 2.1 Silicon Graphics Inc. IRIS workstation,
profile, 1.2.1, 3.1 7.3
profiled-follower mechanism, 1.2.1 single disk planar cam, 1.2.1
pure SIXPAQ,7.1
dual number, 2.1 slider-crank mechanism, 1.2.1
-rolling, 3.2.1,3.2.3,4.2.2,4.2.3,4.2.4, sliding velocity, 3.2
4.4, 5.1 solid
indexing cam mechanism (PRI- model, 4.2.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.6
CAM), 5.1, 6.6 modeling, 6.1
spatial
R cam mechanism, 1.2.1, 3.1, 3.2.2
radial cam mechanism, 1.2.1 linkage, 1.2.2
revol u te-higher-cy lindrical-prismatic (RH CP) spherical
mechanism,4.2.2 cam mechanism, 1.2.1, 3.1
revolute-higher-cylindrical-revolute (RHCR) indicatrix, 2.3
mechanism,4.2.1 linkage, 1.2.2
revolute-higher-prismatic (RHP) mech- pair, 1.1
anism, 1.4, 3.2.2 surface, 4.2.2
revolute-higher-revolute (RHR) mecha- static unbalance, 6.1
nism, 1.4, 3.2.1 striction curve, 2.3, 3.3
revolute-higher-revolute-revolute (RHRR) strip, 6.5
mechanism, 4.2.1 symbolic algebra, 5.5.2
revolute pair, 1,1, 3.1, 4.2, 4.2.2, 4.2.3, symmetric matrix, 6.1
residual vibration, 1.2.1 synthesis procedure, 7.4.1
rotating follower, 3.1
ruled surface, 1.2.2, 2.3, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, T
5.5 tensor, 6.2
product, 6.2.2
s theorem of three axes, 1.2.2
screw top surface, 4.2.2, 6.5
INDEX 249

translating follower, 3.1, 3.2.2

U
undercuting, 4.2,5.5.2, 7.1
unit normal, 2.3
UNIX workstation, 7.3
USYCAMS, 5,4, 7.1

V
vector basis, 2.1
vertex, 6.5
viewport, 7.3

W
weighted volume, 6.1
 Mechanics
SOliD MECHANICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Series Editor: G.M.L. Gladwell
Aims and Scope of the Series
The fundamental questions arising in mechanics are: Why?, How?, and How much? The aim of this
series is to provide lucid accounts written by authoritative researchers giving vision and insight in
answering these questions on the subject of mechanics as it relates to solids. The scope of the series
covers the entire spectrum of solid mechanics. Thus it includes the foundation of mechanics;
variational formulations; computational mechanics; statics, kinematics and dynamics of rigid and
elastic bodies; vibrations of solids and structures; dynamical systems and chaos; the theories of
elasticity, plasticity and viscoelasticity; composite materials; rods, beams, shells and membranes;
structural control and stability; soils, rocks and geomechanics; fracture; tribology; experimental
mechanics; biomechanics and machine design.

I. RT. Haftka, Z. Giirdal and M.P. Kamat: Elements of Structural Optimization. 2nd rev.ed.,
1990 ISBN 0-7923-0608-2
2. J.J. Kalker: Three-Dimensional Elastic Bodies in Rolling Contact. 1990
ISBN 0-7923-0712-7
3. P. Karasudhi: Foundations of Solid Mechanics. 1991 ISBN 0-7923-0772-0
4. N. Kikuchi: Computational Methods in Contact Mechanics. (forthcoming)
ISBN 0-7923-0773-9
5. Not published.
6. J.F. Doyle: Static and Dynamic Analysis of Structures. With an Emphasis on Mechanics and
Computer Matrix Methods. 1991 ISBN 0-7923-1124-8; Pb 0-7923-1208-2
7. 0.0. Ochoa and J.N. Reddy: Finite Element Analysis of Composite Laminates.
ISBN 0-7923-1125-6
8. M.H. Aliabadi and D.P. Rooke: Numerical Fracture Mechanics. ISBN 0-7923-1175-2
9. J. Angeles and C.S. Lopez-Cajun: Optimization of Cam Mechanisms. 1991
ISBN 0-7923-1355-0
10. D.E. Grierson, A. Franchi and P. Riva: Progress in Structural Engineering. 1991
ISBN 0-7923-1396-8
II. RT. Haftka and Z. Giirdal: Elements of Structural Optimization. 3rd rev. and expo ed. 1992
ISBN 0-7923-1504-9; Pb 0-7923-1505-7
12. J.R Barber: Elasticity. 1992 ISBN 0-7923-1609-6; Pb 0-7923-161O-X
13. H.S. Tzou and G.L. Anderson (eds.): Intelligent Structural Systems. 1992
ISBN 0-7923-1920-6
14. E.E. Gdoutos: Fracture Mechanics. An Introduction. 1993 ISBN 0-7923-1932-X
15. J.P. Ward: Solid Mechanics. An Introduction. 1992 ISBN 0-7923-1949-4
16. M. Farshad: Design and Analysis of Shell Structures. 1992 ISBN 0-7923-1950-8
17. H.S. Tzou and T. Fukuda (eds.): Precision Sensors, Actuators and Systems. 1992
ISBN 0-7923-2015-8
18. J.R. Vinson: The Behavior of Shells Composed of Isotropic and Composite Materials. 1993
ISBN 0-7923-2113-8

Kluwer Academic Publishers - Dordrecht I Boston I London

 Mechanics
SOUD MECHANICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Series Editor: G.M.L. Gladwell

19. H.S. Tzou: Piezoelectric Shells. Distributed Sensing and Control of Continua. 1993
ISBN 0-7923-2186-3
20. W. Schiehlen: Advanced Multibody System Dynamics. Simulation and Software Tools. 1993
ISBN 0-7923-2192-8
21. C.-W. Lee: Vibration Analysis of Rotors. 1993 ISBN 0-7923-2300-9
22. D.R. Smith: An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics. 1993 ISBN 0-7923-2454-4
23. G.M.L. Gladwell: Inverse Problems in Scattering. An Introduction. 1993 ISBN 0-7923-2478-1
24. G. Prathap: The Finite Element Method in Structural Engineering. 1993 ISBN 0-7923-2492-7
25. J. Herskovits (ed.): Structural Optimization '93. 1993 ISBN 0-7923-2510-9
26. M.A. Gonzalez-Palacios and J. Angeles: Cam Synthesis. 1993 ISBN 0-7923-2536-2

Kluwer Academic Publishers - Dordrecht I Boston I London