SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY

SEMESTER I 2022/2023

IWA281 COATINGS TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY I

LAB REPORT 2:
Step Growth Polymerization: Preparation of Epoxy Resin

PREPARED BY: GROUP 2

NO. GROUP MEMBERS MATRIC NUMBER Assigned section

1 NG LEE PINK 157677 Discussion

2 NUUR AIN SYAFWA BINTI MOHD FADZIL 158277 Results

3 SHARIFAH ATHIRAH BINTI SYED 158899 Abstract, Introduction

MUHAMMAD AZHARI and Conclusion

4 MOHD HAZREZAN BIN MUSLI 156317 Materials and Methods,

Results

5 CHAN HONG JIE 157200 Discussion

6 RITHINIE MAUREEN ANAK WILLIAM 156358 Abstract, Introduction

RUNGGA and Conclusion

PREPARED FOR:
Ts. Dr. Azniwati Abd Aziz
Dr. Mohammed Danish (MD)
SUBMISSION DATE: 15 DECEMBER 2022
Abstract
Epoxy resins are synthesized in the laboratory in this experiment, conducted for 2 weeks. The
main chemicals used are Bisphenol A, epichlorohydrin, sodium hydroxide (NaOH), toluene,
diethylene triamine, triethylenetetramine,hydrochloric acid, N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF),
potassium hydroxide (KOH) and cresol red indicator. In the first week, the preparation process of
epoxy is done by reacting bisphenol A, epichlorohydrin and distilled water in the reaction flask.
Pallets of NaOH are added after the reaction reflux and temperature is lowered. After some time
the cross linking occurred and epoxy resin was synthesized. In the second week, the experiments
were focused on determination of epoxide equivalent and determination of reactivity of curing
agent. Determination of the epoxide equivalent is done by a titration method with many solutions
such as standard KHP and standardized KOH. Determination of reactivity of curing agent is
done by stirring the mixture of epoxy resin with diethylenetriamine and triethylene tetramine.
Results from the experiment were obtained, the percentage of epoxy resin produced is 33.73%,
the epoxide equivalent is 923. 08 𝑔/mol and the reactivity of the curing agent is higher in
triethylene tetramine rather than diethylenetriamine; both can be cured easily by mixing.
.

Table of Content

1.0 Introduction 1-2

2.0 Materials and Methods

2.1 Materials
3
2.2 Methods 3
5-6
2.3 Function of Each Chemical Used

3.0 Result
7-14
3.1 Calculations

4.0 Discussion
15-17
4.1 Experiment Discussion
18-21
4.2 Industry and General Use of Polyester Resin

5.0 Conclusion 22

6.0 References 23-24

7.0 Appendices 25
1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the United States, the first commercial attempts to make resins from epichlorohydrin
were made in 1927. Dr. Pierre Castan of Switzerland and Dr. S.O. Greenlee of the United States
are both credited with the first synthesis of bisphenol-A-based epoxy resins in 1936. Dr. Castan's
work was licenced by Ciba, Ltd. of Switzerland, which went on to become one of the world's
three largest producers of epoxy resin.

In general, there are two distinct types of polymerization which are addition and
condensation. It is also known as chain-growth and step-growth polymerizations. The reaction of
styrene with a free radical can be used to illustrate chain-growth or addition polymerization. In
chain growth polymerization, the important steps are initiation, propagation, and termination. In
step growth polymerization, there are two classes of polymerization which are
polycondensations and poly additions. Bisphenol A (diphenylpropane) was combined with
epichlorohydrin in this experiment. Bisphenol A has two phenol functional groups at both ends,
according to its molecular structure.

Epoxy resins are pre-polymers with a low molecular weight or polymers with a higher
molecular weight that typically contain at least two epoxide groups. The epoxide group is also
known as the glycidyl or oxirane group. In this experiment, sodium hydroxide serves as the basis
for the reaction between bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin, which results in the formation of an
epoxy resin. The molecular weight of linear epoxy-terminated polyethers can be increased on a
molecular weight basis by increasing the ratio of bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin. At ambient
temperature, it exhibits properties ranging from semi-solid to hard crystalline. The amount of
epoxy decreases as the molecular weight of the resin increases, giving the substance more of a
thermoplastic appearance.

1
 Figure 1: The reaction of bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin

This experiment was conducted for 2 weeks, with the purpose is to expose how the epoxy
resin is prepared as well as its reaction reactivity and applications.

2
2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Materials
Chemicals
1. Bisphenol A 7. 37% Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
2. Epichlorohydrin 8. N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF)
3. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) 9. Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
4. Toluene 10. Potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP)
5. Diethylenetriamine 11. Phenolphthalein indicator
6. Triethylenetetramine 12. Cresol red

Apparatus
1. Reaction flask equipped with a reflux condenser 7. Thermometer
2. Vacuum distillation apparatus 8. Stirrer
3. Temperature monitoring instrument 9. Heating mantle
4. Buchner flask 10. Electronic balance
5. Pipette 11. Stopwatch
6. Dropping funnel 12. Oven

2.2 Methods

First week

Bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin were added together with distilled water into the
reaction flask. They are heated until reflux occurs and stop heating once the reflux is obtained.
The reaction flask is immersed into a water bath to cool down the reaction flask to about 80°C.
Subsequently, 3 pellets of sodium hydroxide are added into the reaction flask until all 5g of
sodium hydroxide is used up. Meanwhile, the temperature is maintained at about 80°C. At each
addition of sodium hydroxide, there will be an increase in temperature and the reaction flask
should be cooled (by immersing it into water until the temperature of the flask is about 95°C)
once it achieves 100°C. After the addition of NaOH is completed, the reaction flask is continued
to be refluxed for 45 minutes. Later, the vacuum filtration apparatus is being set up at the

3
reaction flask to distill off the excess epichlorohydrin. Temperature is then controlled below
150°C. Afterwards, the reaction flask is cooled again and is added with 30ml toluene to
precipitate sodium chloride. The NaCl will be filtered out later by suction filtration. Excess
toluene is being removed by putting back the epoxy resin into the reaction flask and keeping the
temperature below 120°C. Lastly, the epoxy resin is produced and is put in a beaker and then into
the oven at 140°C for 10 minutes to expel the toluene present. The epoxy resin is left for 3 days
and is cooled down to room temperature and weighs the epoxy resin obtained by using electronic
balance.

Second week
Firstly, standard solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) is prepared by dissolving KOH and
potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP) separately with distilled water in a 100ml volumetric flask.
10ml KOH solution is titrated with standard KHP solution with 5 drops of phenolphthalein
indicator. Next, 25 ml of 37% of hydrochloric acid is dissolved in N,N Dimethylformamide
(DMF). 10ml of the mixture is then pipette and titration with standardized KOH with cresol red
indicator. 1g of epoxy resin produced is dissolved in 50ml DMF hydrochloride solution in a
reaction flask. The mixture is heated to 120°C for 20 minutes. Again, the reaction flask is cooled
down and is pipette with 10 ml mixture for titration with standardized KOH solution with cresol
red indicator. As to determine the reactivity of the curing agent, firstly, 2 beakers with 100ml
each is prepared and is used to contain 9g of epoxy resin produced. They were put into a water
bath at 30°C. The beakers were left for 10 minutes to allow the epoxy resin to achieve thermal
equilibrium with the water bath. Later, 1ml diethylenetriamine and 1ml triethylenetetramine is
put separately into 2 different beakers each with 100ml that were already prepared. The mixture
is stirred and the rise of temperature in the beaker was recorded at a 5 minutes interval until one
of it starts to harden.

4
2.3 Function of Each Chemical Used

1. Bisphenol A (BPA)
Bisphenol A (BPA) is the most common ingredient that is usually used for
producing epoxy resin by reacting its hydroxy phenyl group with the epoxy group
of epichlorohydrin.
2. Epichlorohydrin
Epichlorohydrin is the most common ingredient that is usually used for producing
epoxy resin by reacting its epoxy group with the hydroxyl group of Bisphenol A
(BPA).
3. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is added into the reaction flask with the mixture of
bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin. It will react with bisphenol A to produce
bisphenol A sodium salt that will later react with the epoxy group in
epichlorohydrin to produce epoxy resin.
4. Diethylenetriamine (DETA)
Diethylenetriamine is an aliphatic amine that functions as the curing agent for
epoxy resin. It is also needed for us to determine its reactivity towards the epoxy
resin by indicating the temperature change.
5. Triethylenetetramine (TETA)
Triethylenetetramine is an aliphatic amine that functions as the curing agent for
epoxy resin. It is also needed for us to determine its reactivity towards the epoxy
resin by indicating the temperature change.
6. Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is the titrating agent in this experiment in order to
determine the epoxy equivalent and average molecular weight of epoxy resins
produced.
7. N, N-Dimethylformamide (DMF)
N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF) acts as a solvent to dilute concentrated
hydrochloric acid and also to dissolve epoxy resin that is needed to be titrated
with standardized KOH.

5
8. Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
Potassium hydroxide (KOH) is added in this experiment for the determination of
epoxide equivalent by determining the number of moles of the epoxy group in the
resin by doing the titration with Potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP).
9. Potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP)
Potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP) is an acid compound. Its solution is used to
standardize the basic solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) and will be used to
determine the molarity of the standardized KOH by doing the titration.
10. Cresol red indicator
Cresol red is an indicator that is added to detect the endpoint of titration of N, N
Dimethylformamide (DMF) solution with standardized potassium hydroxide
(KOH) by changing its color from orange to light orange.
11. Phenolphthalein
Phenolphthalein is an indicator that is used to detect the change in pH by
observing the color of the solution and can indicate the endpoint of the titration.
For the color observation, phenolphthalein shows colorlessness in acidic solutions
and it will change from colorless to pink when the base is added.

6
3.0 RESULTS
3.1 Calculations:
3.1.1 First Week: Preparation of Epoxy Resin

Chemical used Bisphenol A Epichlorohydrin

Mass (g) 52.44 124.88

Number of moles (mol) 0.23 1.35

Molecular weight (g/mol) 228.00 92.51

Table 3.1.1.1 Weight and number of moles of chemical used

Chemicals used Bisphenol A Epichlorohydrin Sodium Total

hydroxide weight (g)
(NaOH)

Weight (g) 52.44 124.88 5.00 182.32

Table 3.1.1.2 Total weight of chemicals used

7
 Readings Temperature (℃)

1 81.4

2 77.7

3 74.9

4 72.2

5 70.3

6 68.3

7 66.6

8 64.9

9 63.0

10 61.6
Table 3.1.1.3 Changing in temperature of Bisphenol A and Epichlorohydrin mixture when 3
pellets of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is added for 2-minute intervals until 5g of sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) is used up

Materials Empty beaker Empty beaker + epoxy resin Epoxy resin

Weight (g) 63.91 125.41 61.50

Table 3.1.1.4 Weight of materials used

Percentage of epoxy resin produced:

= 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑥𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 (𝑔) ✕ 100%
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠 (𝑔)
= 61.50 ✕ 100%
182.32
= 33.73%

Temperature change of resin after sodium hydroxide pellets are added:

The temperature of Bisphenol A and Epichlorohydrin mixture decreased gradually from the
beginning until the 5g sodium hydroxide pellets are used up in every 2 minute interval.

8
3.1.2 Second Week: Determination of Epoxide Equivalent
(1) Standardization of Potassium Hydroxide (KOH)
Titration of potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP) with 10 ml of potassium hydroxide
(KOH)
Weight of potassium hydroxide (KOH) = 1.18 g
Weight of potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP) = 4.10 g
Molecular weight of potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP) = 204.22 g/mol

Number of moles of KHP (n KHP):

= Weight of KHP (g)
Molecular weight of KHP (g/mol)
= 4.10 g
204.22 g/mol
= 0.0201 mol

Volume of KHP (V KHP):

= 100 ml ÷ 1000
= 0.1 L

Molarity of KHP (M KHP):

= Number of moles of KHP (mol)
Volume of KHP (L)
= 0.0201 mol
0.1 L
= 0.201 mol/L
= 0.201 M

9
 Reading 1 (ml) Reading 2 (ml) Reading 3 (ml)

Initial reading (ml) 0.00 8.90 8.70

Final reading (ml) 8.90 17.60 25.40

Volume of KHP 8.90 8.70 7.80

used (ml)
Table 3.1.2.1 Volume of KHP used for titration

Average volume of KHP used = 8.90 ml+ 8.70 ml +7.80 ml

3
= 8.4667 ml
Standard deviation, S
2
Σ (𝑥−𝑥')
= 𝑛−1

2 2 2
(8.9−8.4667) +(8.7−8.4667) +(7.8−8.4667)
= 3−1

= 0.585947
Reaction equation:
KOH (aq) + KHC8H4O4 (aq) → H2O (l) + K2C8H4O4 (aq)
Net ionic equation:
−
O𝐻 + HC8H4O4 - → H2O (l) + C8H4O42−

Ratio of KOH to KHP = 1:1

(MKOH)(VKOH) = (MKHP)(VKHP)
MKOH = Molarity of KOH
VKOH = Volume of KOH
= 10 ml
1000
= 0.01 L
MKHP = Molarity of KHP
= 0.201 mol/L
VKHP = Volume of KHP

10
 = 8.4667 ml
1000
= 0.0084667 L
MKOH = (MKHP)(VKHP)
VKOH
= 0.201 mol ✕ 0.0084667 L
L 0.01 L
= 0.170 mol / L
= 0.17 M
Therefore, the molarity of KOH is 0.17 M

(2) Standardization of N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) Solution (blank titration)

Reading 1 (ml) Reading 2 (ml) Reading 3 (ml)

Initial reading (ml) 0 5.9 11.7

Final reading (ml) 5.9 11.7 17.4

Volume of KOH 5.9 5.8 5.7

used (ml)
Table 3.1.2.2 Volume of KOH used for blank titration

Average volume of KOH used = 5.9 ml + 5.8 ml+ 5.7 ml

3
= 5.8 ml
2
Σ (𝑥−𝑥)
Standard Deviation, S = 𝑛−1

2 2 2
(5.9−5.8) +(5.8−5.8) +(5.7−5.8)
= 3−1

= 0.1

11
 (3) Titration of Mixture (DMF, Hydrochloric Acid (HCL) and Epoxy Resin) with KOH.

Burette reading (ml)

Initial reading (ml) 0

Final reading (ml) 4.9

Volume of KOH used (ml) 4.9

Table 3.1.2.3 Volume of KOH used for titration of mixture of DMF, HCl and epoxy resin.

Volume of KOH used = 4.9 ml

Number of moles, n = M ✕ V
M is molarity of the solution
3
V is volume of the solution in 𝑚 or L

Number of moles of epoxy group in resin produced = number of moles of HCl

Therefore, number of moles of epoxy group = number of moles of HCl
= number of mole of KOH blank – number of mole
of KOH resin
5.8 𝑚𝑙 4.5 𝑚𝑙
= (0.17 ml / L) ✕ ( 1000
- 1000
)

= (0.17 ml / L) ✕ (0.0058 - 0.0045)

= 0.000221 mol
The number of mole of epoxy group in resin produced is 0.000221 mol

Amount of epoxy resin used in the reaction flask = 1.02 g

Amount of epoxy resin in 10 ml = 10 ml ✕ 1.02 g
50 ml
= 0.204 g of epoxy resin,
Therefore, there are 0.000221 mol of epoxy groups present in the 0.204 g of epoxy resins
Epoxy equivalent is equal to the weight of the polymer which consists of 1 mol of the epoxy
group.
If 0.000221 mol of epoxy group in 0.204g,

12
Then 1 mol of epoxy group will be present in 𝑥 g.
1
𝑥= 0.000221 𝑚𝑜𝑙
× 0. 204 𝑔

= 923. 08 𝑔/mol
In 923.08 g of epoxy resins, 1 mol of epoxy group is present
Average Molecular Weight of Epoxy Resin
Average Molecular Weight = Functionality x Epoxide Equivalent
= 2 × 923. 08 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 1846. 16 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
Assumption: 1 epoxy group formed at the end of each molecular chain

(4) Determination of Reactivity of Curing Agent.

Time (min) Temperature (℃)

Diethylenetriamine (1 ml) Triethylenetetramine (1 ml)

0 29 32

5 30 33

10 31 34

15 32 34

25 33 -
Table 3.1.2.4 Changing of the temperature of curing epoxy resin with curing agent
diethylenetriamine and triethylenetetramine.

After 20 minutes, the beaker containing diethylenetriamine started to harden while for the beaker
containing triethylenetetramine, it started to harden after 15 minutes. Both cannot be stirred
anymore.

13
Graph 3.1.2.1 Graph Time Series Plot of Resin Temperature

14
4.0 Discussion
4.1 Experimental discussion
Bisphenol A (BPA) and epichlorohydrin are used in this experiment as the main materials to
produce epoxy resin. The reaction is under alkaline conditions, in which the sodium hydroxide,
NaOH, is involved to provide such conditions. Supposedly, the reaction between BPA and
epichlorohydrin is exothermic, and the temperature of the reaction will increase. However, from
the observation we had, the temperature of the mixture drops along with the addition of 3 NaOH
pellets every 2 minutes, until all the 5g of NaOH pellets are used up. This may be due to the
NaOH pellets being added is not fast enough and the amount added is not enough to create an
exothermic reaction. The decided time interval may not be suitable. After all the NaOH pellets
are added, the mixture is put under reflux reaction for 45 minutes, which will make the BPA and
epichlorohydrin react completely. To improve the experiment, more NaOH pellets should be
used and the pellets should be added quicker.

Figure 4.1.1: The synthesis of epoxy resin

Source: Ellis, B. (Ed.). (1993). Chemistry and Technology of Epoxy Resins. Springer

Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-2932-9

15
 The epoxy resins produced in the first week is 33.73%, which is a relatively low yield
compared to the other experiment conducted. This may be due to the fact that an exothermic
reaction does not occur during the addition of the NaOH. The slow addition of the NaOH and
insufficient of NaOH could be the main cause of the protonation of BPA which did not complete,
which directly affects the formation of the epoxy resins. The percentage of the product formed
recorded may also be less than the real one due to the fact that not all the product is taken out
from the beaker. The epoxy resin formed is very hard and sticky. During the vacuum distillation
process, some of the epoxy resin stuck on the filter funnel, causing the results to appear lower
than it was supposed to be. To improve the experiment, a larger scoop should be used in order to
take out the epoxy resin more efficiently.

After the second week’s experiment ended, we calculated that the epoxides present in the
resin is 923.08 g/mol. The titration of potassium hydroxide (KOH) was carried out in this
experiment, involving potassium hydroxide (KOH), and potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP).
The indicator used is phenolphthalein, which turns colourless from pink when the equivalent is
achieved. For the titration of N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) with the standardized KOH, cresol
red is used as the indicator. During the experiment, the colour changed from orange to light
orange. A white paper is used to see better the colour change.

It was found that the standard deviation of the titration of KHP with KOH solution is
0.5859467, while the standard deviation of the blank titration is 0.1. The higher value of the
standard deviation of titration of KHP with KOH shows there might be a parallax error of the
KHP. This means that there is more variation of the KHP in volume. The smaller the standard
deviation, the less error will occur, and more accurate data can be retrieved.

For the curing process, two different curing agents are used on the epoxy resin produced
to determine the reactivities. Diethylenetriamine and triethylenetetramine are used as curing
agents. From Graph 3.1.2.1, we can see that the temperature of the mixture during the curing
process increases, showing that both reactions are exothermic reactions. Comparing the 2 lines
plotted, triethylenetetramine releases more heat than diethylenetriamine. The mixture of

16
diethylenetriamine increased from 29℃ initially to 30℃ at the 5th minute, then increased by 1℃
for the next 5 minutes until the 20th minute reached. The mixture of triethylenetetramine
increased from 32℃ initially, to 33℃ for the next 5 minutes, then 34℃ for the 10th minute, and
then the temperature remained. The data recorded for triethylenetetramine are missing one due to
the hardening of the mixture and it is unable to record the temperature. We can see that
triethylenetetramine cures faster than diethylenetriamine. While diethylenetriamine is more
commonly used as the curing agent, the reaction of triethylenetetramine is even faster.
Supposedly, diethylenetriamine should be more reactive since it has hydrogen while
triethylenetetramine has no hydrogen for the crosslinking reaction.

17
4.2 Application of epoxy resin in industry and its general use
Epoxy resin is widely used in industries due to its mechanical properties and their performance
characteristics (Epoxy Resin Industry Trends & Opportunities.Pdf, n.d.). Epoxy resins are
manufactured in different grades, depending on the applications. In general, epoxy resin is used
for surface coatings, adhesives, industrial tooling, the aerospace industry, electronic materials
and biomedical systems.

4.2.1 Surface coatings

The use of epoxy resins in surface coatings are very widespread in many countries, especially in
China. Epoxy resin usage for coatings is anticipated to increase at a rate of 4.2% each year until
2026 (Epoxy Surface Coatings - Chemical Economics Handbook (CEH) _ S&P Global (A
Webpage Review), 2021). The surface coatings may be used to protect the surface, decorate the
surface, or serve a specific purpose, such as protecting food and beverages in metal cans or
acting as antifouling paint for ship bottoms (Ellis, 1993). Epoxy resins are also applied in
electronic, and fibre optics products. The methods to apply the epoxy resins on the surface are
different, depending on the coating thickness, coating speed and type pf finish required. Epoxy
resins have great chemical resistance, easy processing, low shrinkage on cure, physical
resistance, and great adhesion to many substrates (Jin et al., 2015).

18
Figure 4.2.1: The chart showing the usage of epoxy resins in the surface coating by countries in
2021
Source:
https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/ci/products/epoxy-surface-chemical-economics
-handbook.html
4.2.2 Adhesives
Epoxy resin is also the main material to make epoxy adhesive, together with curing agent..Epoxy
adhesive is made by first packaging the curing agent and epoxy components individually. Soon
after the two components are mixed, it will cure (Chen et al., 2019). The epoxy adhesives show
good performance in the application of aircraft, automobiles, bicycles and other products that
require high-strength bonds. Epoxy adhesives are well known for its good adhesion to most types
of substrates and are one of the most important structural adhesives in the industry. Depending
on the type of epoxy resins used, the curing process can be conducted according to the specific
temperature in order to form epoxy adhesives. The market of epoxy adhesives is predicted to be
increased from 5.34 billion USD in 2022 to 7.74 billion USD in 2028 (Global Epoxy Adhesive
Market _ 2017 - 2028 _ Industry Size, Share, Analysis., 2022).

19
4.2.3 Industrial tooling
Initially, the use of epoxy resins in industrial tooling focused on making aircraft and car. In the
current trends, epoxy resin tooling is also used in molds, master models, laminates, casting,
fixtures and other industrial protection aids. The epoxy resins are known as “plastic tooling”,
which is a cheaper and more efficient alternative for metal, wood and other traditional materials.
Metal parts and tubular pipes can be repaired effectively with fibre-reinforced epoxy composites.

4.2.4 Aerospace industry

Epoxy resins made for aircraft applications create a strong bond that will last the duration of a
mission. Epoxy resins can withstand prolonged exposure to space, in contrast to other adhesives
that may fracture when exposed to abrasive environments (High-Performance Epoxy Resins in
Aerospace Applications - Copps Industries, n.d.). Aerospace epoxy resins are able to withstand
radiation, microcracking, extreme temperatures, vacuum conditions, and atomic oxygen. It is
cheap and have a long lifespan, which provides sustainable benefits to the aerospace industry

4.2.5 Electronic materials

Hydrophobic, electrically insulating, mechanically robust, environmentally friendly, thermally
stable, and dielectric qualities are required of ideal electronic materials (Na et al., 2018). Due to
its superior adhesion, decreased density, high strength, good durability, and excellent chemical
resistance, epoxy resin, one of the most commonly used materials for electronic packaging, has
received a lot of interest in the electronic packaging field. It is well known as encapsulation in
semiconductors, which protects the circuit from different environments and damages. The epoxy
composites include particular fillers to enhance the properties of electronic packaging
applications.

20
4.2.6 Biomedical systems
Epoxy resins are widely used in biomedical applications. Medical-grade epoxy resins are
commonly used for making disposable and reusable medical devices, including endoscopes and
infusion pumps. The prosthetics and diagnostic equipment also contain medical-grade epoxies
(Frick, 2014). It is important for the materials making biomedical devices that is hard enough,
chemically inert, have low electrical and high thermal conductivities, and have wide optical
transparency, which the epoxy resins have these properties.

21
5.0 Conclusion
In conclusion, epoxy resin is an important material that is used in many parts of our lives for
example in adhesives, electronic materials and the biomedical industry. The synthesis of epoxy
resin can be prepared in the lab and the epoxide equivalent and reactivity of the curing agent can
be determined. It is important to determine the epoxide equivalent because it acts as a parameter
as it allows the determination of the correct mix ratio of an epoxy system with a curing agent.
The reactivity of the curing agent is also playing an important role in curing kinetics as it can
manage the time of the substance to harden during the curing process.

22
APPENDICES

Epoxy resin obtained 5g of NaOH pellets

Weighing 5g of NaOH pellets

23
References
1. 林, 姿君 (2020) History of epoxy resin, it. Fastfixit. Available at:

https://www.fastfix-it.com/amp/history-of-epoxy-resin?gclid=Cj0KCQiA4uCcBhDdARIs

AH5jyUlfSyPte75cRc6tXPvj1qjcDKX1fTjM_ogg4pBe8dXR4_JvwLaIa9saAvlhEALw_

wcB (Accessed: December 13, 2022).

2. Chen, C., Li, B., Kanari, M., & Lu, D. (2019). Epoxy Adhesives. In A. Rudawska (Ed.),

Adhesives and Adhesive Joints in Industry Applications. IntechOpen.

https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86387

3. Ellis, B. (Ed.). (1993). Chemistry and Technology of Epoxy Resins. Springer Netherlands.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-2932-9

4. Epoxy Resin Industry Trends & Opportunities.pdf. (n.d.). Grand View Research.

https://www.grandviewresearch.com/research-insights/epoxies-resins-polymers-for-nume

rous-applications

5. Epoxy Surface Coatings—Chemical Economics Handbook (CEH) _ S&P Global (A

webpage review). (2021). S&P Global Commodity Insights.

https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/ci/products/epoxy-surface-chemical-eco

nomics-handbook.html

6. Frick, L. (2014, March 26). Epoxies for medical device applications. Machine Design.

https://www.machinedesign.com/fastening-joining/article/21833540/epoxies-for-medical-

device-applications

7. Global Epoxy Adhesive Market _ 2017—2028 _ Industry Size, Share, Analysis. (2022).

Mordor Intelligence.

https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/epoxy-adhesives-market

8. High-Performance Epoxy Resins in Aerospace Applications—Copps Industries. (n.d.).

24
 Copps Industries.

9. Jin, F.-L., Li, X., & Park, S.-J. (2015). Synthesis and application of epoxy resins: A

review. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 29, 1–11.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2015.03.026

10. Na, T., Jiang, H., Liu, X., & Zhao, C. (2018). Preparation and properties of novel

fluorinated epoxy resins cured with 4-trifluoromethyl phenylbenzimidazole for

application in electronic materials. European Polymer Journal, 100, 96–102.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2018.01.026

25