2-2W/8-12WP

Abstract Algebra III

Math-5209
TGU

September 13, 2020

Math 1 / 24
Recall [Example 2[Pg.57]]
Let Z be the set of all integers and n > 1; define a ∼ b for a, b ∈ Z if
n | (a − b). Thus relation is an equivalence relation. When a ∼ b, write
a ≡ b mod n (read a congruence b modulo n).

Let [a] = {b ∈ Z | a ≡ b mod n}. Then

[a] = {b ∈ Z | a − b = nk, k ∈ Z}

= {a + nk | k ∈ Z}.

For example, let n = 2. Then

[0] = {0 + 2k | k ∈ Z}

= {2k | k ∈ Z}

= {. . . , −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, . . .}

Math 2 / 24
 [1] = {1 + 2k | k ∈ Z}

= {. . . , −3, −1, 1, 3, 5, . . .}

[2] = {2 + 2k | k ∈ Z}

= {. . . , −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, . . .}

[3] = {3 + 2k | k ∈ Z}

= {. . . , −3, −1, 1, 3, 5, 7, . . .}
Thus [0] = [2] = [4] = · · ·
and [1] = [3] = [5] = · · · .
n o
Let Z2 = [0], [1] .
n o
Define Zn = [0], [1], . . . , [n − 1] .
Define [a] + [b] = [a + b] and [a][b] = [ab].
Math 3 / 24
Example 5[Pg.128]
Let Z6 , the integers mod 6. For [a], [b] ∈ Z6 , define [a] + [b] = [a + b] and
[a][b] = [ab]. Show that Z6 is a commutative ring with unit under given
operations. Is it an integral domain?

+ [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

[0] [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]
[1] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [0]
[2] [2] [3] [4] [5] [0] [1]
[3] [3] [4] [5] [0] [1] [2]
[4] [4] [5] [0] [1] [2] [3]
[5] [5] [0] [1] [2] [3] [4]

Addition of elements in Z6

Math 4 / 24
 [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]
[0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0]
[1] [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]
[2] [0] [2] [4] [0] [2] [4]
[3] [0] [3] [0] [3] [0] [3]
[4] [0] [4] [2] [0] [4] [2]
[5] [0] [5] [4] [3] [2] [1]

Multiplication of elements in Z6

Thus Z6 is a commutative ring with unit element [1] and the identity
element [0].#
[2][3] = [0], but [2] 6= [0] and [3]6= [0]; it is not integral domain.#

Math 5 / 24
Example 6[Pg.128]
Let Z5 , the integers mod 5. For [a], [b] ∈ Z5 , define [a] + [b] = [a + b] and
[a][b] = [ab]. Show that Z5 is a commutative ring with unit under given
operations. Is it a field?

[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [Construct additive Table for Z5 !]

[0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [1] is unit element.
[1] [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [1]−1 = [1], [2]−1 = [3]
[2] [0] [2] [4] [1] [3] [3]−1 = [2], [4]−1 = [4]
[3] [0] [3] [1] [4] [2] Thus Z5 is a field.#
[4] [0] [4] [3] [2] [1]
Multiplicative Table for Z5

Math 6 / 24
Example 7[Pg.129]
Let Zp be the integers mod p, where p is prime. Prove that Zp is a field.
n o
Let Zp = [0], [1], . . . , [p − 1] .
Zp 6= ∅ since it is finite.

(a) For any [a], [b] ∈ Zp ,

[a] + [b] = [a + b].

(b) For any [a], [b] ∈ Zp ,

[a] + [b] = [a + b] = [b + a] = [b] + [a]

since a and b are positive integers.

Math 7 / 24
(c)For any [a], [b] and [c] ∈ Zp ,
 
[a] + [b] + [c] = [a] + [b + c]

= [a + (b + c)]

= [(a + b) + c]

= [a + b] + [c]
 
= [a] + [b] + [c] since a, b, c are positive integers.

(d) There exists an element [0] ∈ Zp such that

[a] + [0] = [a + 0] = [a]

and
[0] + [a] = [0 + a] = [a]

for [a] ∈ Zp . Thus [0] is an additive identity element Zp .

Math 8 / 24
(e) For any [a] in Zp there exists an element [n − a] in Zp such that

[a] + [n − a] = [a + (n − a)] = [a + (−a + n)] = [0]

and

[n − a] + [a] = [(n − a) + a] = [n + (−a + a)] = [0].

Thus, [n − a] is an inverse of [a] in Zp .

(f) By definition, closure law under multiplication is satisfied.

Math 9 / 24
(g)For any [a], [b] and [c] ∈ Zp ,
 
[a][b] [c] = [ab][c]
= [(ab)c]
= [a(bc)]
= [a][bc]
 
= [a] [b][c] since a, b, c are integers.

(h) For any [a], [b] and [c] ∈ Zp ,

 
[a] + [b] [c] = [a + b][c]
= [(a + b)c]
= [ac + bc]
= [ac] + [bc]
= [a][c] + [b][c] since a, b, c are integers.

Similary, we can show that left distributive.Thus Zp is a ring.#

Math 10 / 24
For any [a], [b] ∈ Zp ,

[a][b] = [ab] = [ba] = [b][a]

since a, b are integers.

Thus Zp is a commutative ring.#
For any [a] in Zp ,
[a][1] = [a1] = [a]

and
[1][a] = [1a] = [a].

Thus [1] is an unit element so that Zp is a commutative ring with unit.#

Math 11 / 24
[Cor. (Fermet) Pg.63, If p is a prime and p - a, then ap−1 ≡ 1 mod p].
Let [a] 6= [0]. Then p - (a − 0); p - a.
Thus, by Fermet Cor., ap−1 ≡ 1 mod p.

[ap−1 ] = [1]

[a]p−1 = [1]

[a]p−2 [a] = [1]

Hence [a]p−2 is an inverse of [a] in Zp .

Hence Zp is a field.#

Math 12 / 24
Definition [Pg. 129]
If R is a ring, then a subring of R is a subset S of R which is a ring if the
operation ab and a + b are just the operations of R applied to the
elements a, b ∈ S.

[Let R be a ring. A non-empty subset S of the set R is said to be a

subring of R if S is closed under addition and multiplication in R and S
itself is a ring for those operations].
For S to be a subring it is necessary and sufficient that S be non-empty
and that ab, a ± b ∈ S for all a, b ∈ S.(Prove!)

Proof. To prove that the conditions are necessary:

Suppose that S is a subring of R. Then S is a nonempty set.

Math 13 / 24
Obviously, S is a group under addition, therefore

b ∈ S =⇒ −b ∈ S.

Since S is closed under addition,

a, b ∈ S =⇒ a + b ∈ S.
a, −b ∈ S =⇒ a + (−b) ∈ S
=⇒ a − b ∈ S.

Also, S is closed under multiplication,

a ∈ S, b ∈ S =⇒ ab ∈ S.

Now to prove that the conditions are sufficient: Suppose S ⊂ R and ab,
a ± b ∈ S. From a − b ∈ S,

a∈S =⇒ a − a ∈ S =⇒ 0 ∈ S.

Hence the identity element 0 ∈ S.

Math 14 / 24
Now,
0 ∈ S, a ∈ S =⇒ 0 − a ∈ S =⇒ −a ∈ S.

Hence additive inverse is in S for each a ∈ S. Since S ⊂ R and S is closed

under addition, associative law and commutative law are satisfied under
addition.
Since S ⊂ R and S is closed under multiplication, associative law under
multiplication is satisfied.
Also, left and right distributive laws are satisfied. Thus S is a ring under
the operations on R. Thus S is a subring of R.

Math 15 / 24
Example 12[Pg.131]
Let R be any ring
 and let
(
a b 

S=   a, b, c, d ∈ R .
c d 
Show that S is a ring under matrix addition and matrix multiplication.
 
0 0
0 ∈ R =⇒   ∈ S.
0 0
Thus S 6= ∅.    
a b e f
(a) Let A =  , B =   where a, . . . , h ∈ R. Since R is
c d g h
ring,  
a+e b+f
A+B =  ∈ S.
c+g d+h

Math 16 / 24
  
a+e b+f
(b) A+B =  
c+g d+h
 
e+a f +b
=  
g+c h+d
   
e f a b
=  + 
g h c d
= B+A since a, b, . . . , h ∈ R.
  "   #
a b e f i j
(c) A + (B + C) =  +  + 
c d g h k l
   
a b e+i f +j
=  + 
c d g+k h+l

Math 17 / 24
  
a + (e + i) b + (f + j)
A + (B + C) =  
c + (g + k) d + (h + l)
 
(a + e) + i (b + f ) + j
=  
(c + g) + k (d + h) + l
   
a+e b+f i j
=  + 
c+g d+h k l
"   #  
a b e f i j
=  +  + 
c d g h k l
= (A + B) + C
 
i j
where C =   , i, j, k, l ∈ R.
k l
Math 18 / 24
  
0 0
(d)   is an additive identity element in S since for any
0 0
 
a b
A=  ∈ S,
c d
       
0 0 a b 0+a 0+b a b
 + = = 
0 0 c d 0+c 0+d c d
and
       
a b 0 0 a+0 b+0 a b
 + = = .
c d 0 0 c+0 d+0 c d

Math 19 / 24
    
a b −a −b
(e) −A = −  =  is an additive inverse of A ∈ S
c d −c −d
since
     
−a −b a b 0 0
−A + A =  + = 
−c −d c d 0 0

and      
a b −a −b 0 0
A + (−A) =  + = .
c d −c −d 0 0

  
a b e f
(f ) AB =   
c d g h
 
ae + bg af + bh
=  ∈S since a, . . . , h ∈ R.
ce + dg cf + dh

Math 20 / 24
(g) Matrix multiplication is satisfied associative.
 "   #
a b e f i j
(h) A(B + C) =    + 
c d g h k l
  
a b e+i f +j
=   
c d g+k h+l
 
a(e + i) + b(g + k) a(f + j) + b(h + l)
=  
c(e + i) + d(g + k) c(f + j) + d(h + l)
 
ae + ai + bg + bk af + aj + bh + bl
=  
ce + ci + dg + dk cf + cj + dh + dl
 
ae + bg + ai + bk af + bh + aj + bl
=  
ce + dg + ci + dk cf + dh + cj + dl

Math 21 / 24
    
ae + bg af + bh ai + bk aj + bl
A(B + C) =  + 
ce + dg cf + dh ci + dk cj + dl
     
a b e f a b i j
=   +  
c d g h c d k l
= AB + AC

Similarly, we prove right distributive law. Thus S is a ring under given

operations.#

Math 22 / 24
No.10(b)[Pg.134]
Let R be any ring with unit, S be the ring of 2 × 2 matrices
 over R under
( )
a b 

matrix addition and multiplication. Show that   a, b, c ∈ R is

0 c
a subring of S.
   
a b  0 0
  
Let T =   a, b, c ∈ R . Since   ∈ T , T 6= ∅. Let

0 c 0 0
   
a b d e
A=  and B =   where a, . . . , f ∈ R.
0 c 0 f
 
a±d b±e
Then A ± B =   ∈ T since R is ring.
0 c±f
 
ad ae + bf
Also, AB =   ∈ T since R is ring.
0 cf
Thus T is a subring of S.#
Math 23 / 24
The End

Math 24 / 24