For other uses, see 

Tennis (disambiguation).

Tennis

French singles player Guillaume Rufin serves to Czech

player Tomáš Berdych in a tennis match at the Australian Open

Highest governing body International Tennis Federation

First played 19th century, Birmingham, England,

Characteristics

Contact No

Team members Singles or doubles

Mixed-sex Yes, separate tours and mixed

Type Outdoor or indoor

Equipment Ball, racket, net
 Venue Tennis court

Glossary Glossary of tennis terms

Presence

Country or region Worldwide

Olympic Part of Summer Olympic

Paralympic Part of Summer Paralympic

Tennis is a racket sport that is played either individually against a single opponent (singles) or between two
teams of two players each (doubles). Each player uses a tennis racket that is strung with cord to strike a
hollow rubber ball covered with felt over or around a net and into the opponent's court. The object of the
game is to manoeuvre the ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a valid return. The player
who is unable to return the ball validly will not gain a point, while the opposite player will. [1][2]
Tennis is an Olympic sport and is played at all levels of society and at all ages. The sport can be played by
anyone who can hold a racket, including wheelchair users. The modern game of tennis originated
in Birmingham, England, in the late 19th century as lawn tennis.[3] It had close connections both to various
field (lawn) games such as croquet and bowls as well as to the older racket sport today called real tennis.[4]
The rules of modern tennis have changed little since the 1890s. Two exceptions are that until 1961 the
server had to keep one foot on the ground at all times, [5][6] and the adoption of the tiebreak in the 1970s.[7] A
recent addition to professional tennis has been the adoption of electronic review technology coupled with a
point-challenge system, which allows a player to contest the line call of a point, a system known as Hawk-
Eye.[8][9]
Tennis is played by millions of recreational players and is a popular worldwide spectator sport. [10] The
four Grand Slam tournaments (also referred to as the majors) are especially popular: the Australian Open,
played on hardcourts; the French Open, played on red clay courts; Wimbledon, played on grass courts; and
the US Open, also played on hardcourts.[11]

Contents

 1History
o 1.1Predecessors
o 1.2Origins of the modern game
 2Equipment
o 2.1Rackets
 o 2.2Strings
o 2.3Balls
 3Manner of play
o 3.1Court
o 3.2Play of a single point
o 3.3Scoring
o 3.4Rule variations
 4Match play
o 4.1Continuity
o 4.2Ball changes
o 4.3On-court coaching
 5Stance
o 5.1Open stance
o 5.2Semi-open stance
o 5.3Closed stance
o 5.4Neutral stance
 6Shots
o 6.1Grip
o 6.2Serve
o 6.3Forehand
o 6.4Backhand
o 6.5Other shots
 7Tournaments
o 7.1Grand Slam tournaments
o 7.2Men's tournament structure
o 7.3Women's tournament structure
 8Players
o 8.1Professional players
o 8.2Grand Slam tournament winners
o 8.3Greatest male players
o 8.4Greatest female players
 9Officials
 10Junior tennis
 11Injuries
 12In popular culture
 13See also
 14References
 15Further reading
 16External links

History
Main article: History of tennis

Predecessors
Painting from Cremona; end of the 16th century

Jeu de paume in the 17th century

Historians believe that the game's ancient origin lay in 12th-century northern France, where a ball was
struck with the palm of the hand.[12] Louis X of France was a keen player of jeu de paume ("game of the
palm"), which evolved into real tennis, and became notable as the first person to construct indoor tennis
courts in the modern style. Louis was unhappy with playing tennis outdoors and accordingly had indoor,
enclosed courts made in Paris "around the end of the 13th century".[13] In due course this design spread
across royal palaces all over Europe.[13] In June 1316 at Vincennes, Val-de-Marne, and following a
particularly exhausting game, Louis drank a large quantity of cooled wine and subsequently died of
either pneumonia or pleurisy, although there was also suspicion of poisoning.[14] Because of the
contemporary accounts of his death, Louis X is history's first tennis player known by name. [14] Another of the
early enthusiasts of the game was King Charles V of France, who had a court set up at the Louvre Palace.
[15]

It was not until the 16th century that rackets came into use and the game began to be called "tennis", from
the French term tenez, which can be translated as "hold!", "receive!" or "take!", an interjection used as a
call from the server to his opponent.[16] It was popular in England and France, although the game was only
played indoors, where the ball could be hit off the wall. Henry VIII of England was a big fan of this game,
which is now known as real tennis.[17]
An epitaph in St Michael's Church, Coventry, written c. 1705, read, in part:[18]
Here lyes an old toss'd Tennis Ball:
Was racketted, from spring to fall,
With so much heat and so much hast,
Time's arm for shame grew tyred at last.
During the 18th and early 19th centuries, as real tennis declined, new racket sports emerged in England. [19]
The invention of the first lawn mower in Britain in 1830 is believed to have been a catalyst for the
preparation of modern-style grass courts, sporting ovals, playing fields, pitches, greens, etc. This in turn led
to the codification of modern rules for many sports, including lawn tennis, most football codes, lawn bowls
and others.[20]

Origins of the modern game

Augurio Perera's house in Edgbaston, Birmingham, England, where he and Harry Gem first played the modern game of
lawn tennis

Between 1859 and 1865 Harry Gem, a solicitor, and his friend Augurio Perera developed a game that
combined elements of racquets and the Basque ball game pelota, which they played on
Perera's croquet lawn in Birmingham, England.[21][22] In 1872, along with two local doctors, they founded the
world's first tennis club on Avenue Road, Leamington Spa.[23] This is where "lawn tennis" was used as the
name of an activity by a club for the first time.
In Tennis: A Cultural History, Heiner Gillmeister reveals that on 8 December 1874, British army
officer Walter Clopton Wingfield wrote to Harry Gem, commenting that he (Wingfield) had been
experimenting with his version of lawn tennis "for a year and a half". [24] In December 1873, Wingfield
designed and patented a game which he called sphairistikè (Greek: σφαιριστική, meaning "ball-playing"),
and which was soon known simply as "sticky" – for the amusement of guests at a garden party on his
friend's estate of Nantclwyd Hall, in Llanelidan, Wales.[25] According to R. D. C. Evans, turfgrass agronomist,
"Sports historians all agree that [Wingfield] deserves much of the credit for the development of modern
tennis."[19][26] According to Honor Godfrey, museum curator at Wimbledon, Wingfield "popularized this game
enormously. He produced a boxed set which included a net, poles, rackets, balls for playing the game –
and most importantly you had his rules. He was absolutely terrific at marketing and he sent his game all
over the world. He had very good connections with the clergy, the law profession, and the aristocracy and
he sent thousands of sets out in the first year or so, in 1874." [27] The world's oldest annual tennis
tournament took place at Leamington Lawn Tennis Club in Birmingham in 1874. [28] This was three years
before the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club would hold its first championships at Wimbledon, in
1877. The first Championships culminated in a significant debate on how to standardise the rules. [27]

Lawn tennis in the US, 1887

In the United States in 1874, Mary Ewing Outerbridge, a young socialite, returned from Bermuda with
a sphairistikè set. She became fascinated by the game of tennis after watching British army officers play.
[29]
 She laid out a tennis court at the Staten Island Cricket Club at Camp Washington, Tompkinsville, Staten
Island, New York. The first American National championship was played there in September 1880. An
Englishman named O.E. Woodhouse won the singles title, and a silver cup worth $100, by defeating
Canadian I. F. Hellmuth.[30] There was also a doubles match which was won by a local pair. There were
different rules at each club. The ball in Boston was larger than the one normally used in New York.
On 21 May 1881, the oldest nationwide tennis organization in the world [31] was formed, the United States
National Lawn Tennis Association (now the United States Tennis Association) in order to standardize the
rules and organize competitions.[32] The US National Men's Singles Championship, now the US Open, was
first held in 1881 at the Newport Casino, Newport, Rhode Island.[33] The US National Women's Singles
Championships were first held in 1887 in Philadelphia.[34]

Tennis doubles final at 1896 Olympic Games

Tennis also became popular in France, where the French Championships date to 1891, although until 1925
they were open only to tennis players who were members of French clubs. [35] Thus, Wimbledon, the US
Open, the French Open and the Australian Open (dating to 1905) became and have remained the most
prestigious events in tennis.[36][37] Together, these four events are called the Majors or Slams (a term
borrowed from bridge rather than baseball).[38]

Lawn tennis in Canada, c. 1900

In 1913, the International Lawn Tennis Federation (ILTF), now the International Tennis Federation (ITF),
was founded and established three official tournaments as the major championships of the day. The World
Grass Court Championships were awarded to Great Britain. The World Hard Court Championships were
awarded to France; the term "hard court" was used for clay courts at the time. Some tournaments were
held in Belgium instead. And the World Covered Court Championships for indoor courts were awarded
annually; Sweden, France, Great Britain, Denmark, Switzerland and Spain each hosted the tournament.
[39]
 At a meeting held on 16 March 1923 in Paris, the title "World Championship" was dropped and a new
category of "Official Championship" was created for events in Great Britain, France, the US and
Australia [40] – today's Grand Slam events.[39][41] The impact on the four recipient nations to replace the "world
championships" with "official championships" was simple in a general sense: each became a major nation
of the federation with enhanced voting power, and each now operated a major event. [39]
The comprehensive rules promulgated in 1924 by the ILTF have remained largely stable in the ensuing 80
years, the one major change being the addition of the tiebreak system designed by Jimmy Van Alen.[42] That
same year, tennis withdrew from the Olympics after the 1924 Games, but returned 60 years later as a 21-
and-under demonstration event in 1984. This reinstatement was credited by the efforts of then ITF
president Philippe Chatrier, ITF general secretary David Gray and ITF vice president Pablo Llorens, with
support from International Olympic Committee president Juan Antonio Samaranch. The success of the
event was overwhelming, and the IOC decided to reintroduce tennis as a full-medal sport at Seoul in 1988.
[43][44]
International Tennis Hall of Fame at the Newport Casino

The Davis Cup, an annual competition between men's national teams, dates to 1900. [45] The analogous
competition for women's national teams, the Fed Cup, was founded as the Federation Cup in 1963 to
celebrate the 50th anniversary of the founding of the ITF. [46]
In 1926, promoter C. C. Pyle established the first professional tennis tour with a group of American and
French tennis players playing exhibition matches to paying audiences. [37][47] The most notable of these early
professionals were the American Vinnie Richards and the Frenchwoman Suzanne Lenglen.[37]
[48]
 Players turned pro, would no longer permitted to compete in the major (amateur) tournaments. [37]
In 1968, commercial pressures and rumours of some amateurs taking money under the table led to the
abandonment of this distinction, inaugurating the Open Era, in which all players could compete in all
tournaments, and top players were able to make their living from tennis. [49] With the beginning of the Open
Era, the establishment of an international professional tennis circuit, and revenues from the sale of
television rights, tennis's popularity has spread worldwide, and the sport has shed its middle-class English-
speaking image[50] (although it is acknowledged that this stereotype still exists). [50][51]
In 1954, Van Alen founded the International Tennis Hall of Fame, a nonprofit museum in Newport, Rhode
Island.[52] The building contains a large collection of tennis memorabilia as well as a hall of fame honouring
prominent members and tennis players from all over the world.[53]

Equipment
Main article: Tennis technology
Part of the appeal of tennis stems from the simplicity of equipment required for play. Beginners need only
a racket and balls.[1]

Racket of Franjo Punčec in a wooden frame – late 1930s

Rackets
Main article: Racket (sports equipment) § Tennis
Wooden racket – c. 1920s

The components of a tennis racket include a handle, known as the grip, connected to a neck which joins a
roughly elliptical frame that holds a matrix of tightly pulled strings. For the first 100 years of the modern
game, rackets were made of wood and of standard size, and strings were of animal gut. Laminated wood
construction yielded more strength in rackets used through most of the 20th century until first metal and
then composites of carbon graphite, ceramics, and lighter metals such as titanium were introduced. These
stronger materials enabled the production of oversized rackets that yielded yet more power. Meanwhile,
technology led to the use of synthetic strings that match the feel of gut yet with added durability.
Under modern rules of tennis, the rackets must adhere to the following guidelines; [54]

 The hitting area, composed of the strings, must be flat and generally uniform.
 The frame of the hitting area may not be more than 29 inches (74 cm) in length and 12.5 inches
(32 cm) in width.
 The entire racket must be of a fixed shape, size, weight, and weight distribution. There may not be any
energy source built into the rackets.
 The rackets must not provide any kind of communication, instruction or advice to the player during the
match.
The rules regarding rackets have changed over time, as material and engineering advances have been
made. For example, the maximum length of the frame had been 32 inches (81 cm) until 1997, when it was
shortened to 29 inches (74 cm).[55]
Many companies manufacture and distribute tennis rackets. Wilson, Head and Babolat are three of the
most commonly used brands; however, many more companies exist. [56] The same companies sponsor
players to use these rackets in the hopes that the company name will become better known by the public.

Strings
Main article: Strings (tennis)
There are multiple types of tennis strings, including natural gut and synthetic stings made from materials
such as nylon, kevlar, or polyester[57]

Two different tennis strings of lengths 12m (left), and 200 m (right)

Natural gut
The first type of tennis strings available were natural gut strings, introduced by Babolat. They were the only
type used until synthetic strings were introduced in the 1950s. Natural gut strings are still used frequently
by players such as Roger Federer. They are made from cow intestines, and provide increased power, and
are easier on the arm than most strings.[58]
Synthetic
Most synthetic strings are made from monofilament or multifiliament nylon strings. Monofilament strings are
cheap to buy, and are used widely by many recreational level players for their all round performance, while
multifilament strings are created to mimic natural gut more closely by weaving together fibres, but are
generally more expensive than their monofilament counterparts.[57] Polyester strings allow for more spin on
the ball than any other string, due to their firm strings, while keeping control of the ball, and this is why
many players use them, especially higher player ones.[59] Kevlar tennis strings are highly durable, and are
mostly used by players that frequently break strings, because they maintain tension well, but these strings
can be stiff on the arm.[60]
Hybrid strings
Hybrid stringing is when a tennis racket is strung with two different strings for the mains (the vertical
strings) and the crosses (the horizontal strings). This is most commonly done with two different strings that
are made of different materials, but can also be done with two different types of the same string. A notable
example of a player using hybrid strings is Roger Federer, using natural gut strings in his mains and
polyester strings in his crosses.[61]

Balls
Main article: Tennis ball

A tennis racket and balls.

Tennis balls were originally made of cloth strips stitched together with thread and stuffed with feathers.
[62]
 Modern tennis balls are made of hollow vulcanized rubber with a felt coating. Traditionally white, the
predominant colour was gradually changed to optic yellow in the latter part of the 20th century to allow for
improved visibility. Tennis balls must conform to certain criteria for size, weight, deformation, and bounce to
be approved for regulation play. The International Tennis Federation (ITF) defines the official diameter as
65.41–68.58 mm (2.575–2.700 in). Balls must weigh between 56.0 and 59.4 g (1.98 and 2.10 oz).[63] Tennis
balls were traditionally manufactured in the United States and Europe. Although the process of producing
the balls has remained virtually unchanged for the past 100 years, the majority of manufacturing now takes
place in the Far East. The relocation is due to cheaper labour costs and materials in the region.
[64]
 Tournaments that are played under the ITF Rules of Tennis must use balls that are approved by the
International Tennis Federation (ITF) and be named on the official ITF list of approved tennis balls. [65]

Manner of play
The dimensions of a tennis court

For individual terms, see Glossary of tennis terms.

Court
Main article: Tennis court

Tennis court in Petäjävesi, Finland

Tennis is played on a rectangular, flat surface. The court is 78 feet (23.77 m) long, and 27 feet (8.2 m) wide
for singles matches and 36 ft (11 m) for doubles matches.[66] Additional clear space around the court is
required in order for players to reach overrun balls. A net is stretched across the full width of the court,
parallel with the baselines, dividing it into two equal ends. It is held up by either a cord or metal cable of
diameter no greater than 0.8 cm (1⁄3 in).[65] The net is 3 feet 6 inches (1.07 m) high at the posts and 3 feet
(0.91 m) high in the centre.[66] The net posts are 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the doubles court on each side or,
for a singles net, 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the singles court on each side.
The modern tennis court owes its design to Major Walter Clopton Wingfield. In 1873, Wingfield patented a
court much the same as the current one for his stické tennis (sphairistike). This template was modified in
1875 to the court design that exists today, with markings similar to Wingfield's version, but with
the hourglass shape of his court changed to a rectangle. [67]
Tennis is unusual in that it is played on a variety of surfaces. [68] Grass, clay, and hard courts of concrete or
asphalt topped with acrylic are the most common. Occasionally carpet is used for indoor play, with
hardwood flooring having been historically used. Artificial turf courts can also be found.
Lines
The lines that delineate the width of the court are called the baseline (farthest back) and the service line
(middle of the court). The short mark in the centre of each baseline is referred to as either the hash mark or
the centre mark. The outermost lines that make up the length are called the doubles sidelines; they are the
boundaries for doubles matches. The lines to the inside of the doubles sidelines are the singles sidelines,
and are the boundaries in singles play. The area between a doubles sideline and the nearest singles
sideline is called the doubles alley, playable in doubles play. The line that runs across the centre of a
player's side of the court is called the service line because the serve must be delivered into the area
between the service line and the net on the receiving side. Despite its name, this is not where a player
legally stands when making a serve.[69]
The line dividing the service line in two is called the centre line or centre service line. The boxes this centre
line creates are called the service boxes; depending on a player's position, they have to hit the ball into one
of these when serving.[70] A ball is out only if none of it has hit the area inside the lines, or the line, upon its
first bounce. All lines are required to be between 1 and 2 inches (25 and 51 mm) in width, with the
exception of the baseline which can be up to 4 inches (100 mm) wide, although in practice it is often the
same width as the others.[69]

Play of a single point

Two players before a serve.

The players or teams start on opposite sides of the net. One player is designated the server, and the
opposing player is the receiver. The choice to be server or receiver in the first game and the choice of ends
is decided by a coin toss before the warm-up starts. Service alternates game by game between the two
players or teams. For each point, the server starts behind the baseline, between the centre mark and the
sideline. The receiver may start anywhere on their side of the net. When the receiver is ready, the server
will serve, although the receiver must play to the pace of the server.
For a service to be legal, the ball must travel over the net without touching it into the diagonally opposite
service box. If the ball hits the net but lands in the service box, this is a let or net service, which is void, and
the server retakes that serve. The player can serve any number of let services in a point and they are
always treated as voids and not as faults. A fault is a serve that falls long or wide of the service box, or
does not clear the net. There is also a "foot fault" when a player's foot touches the baseline or an extension
of the centre mark before the ball is hit. If the second service, after a fault, is also a fault, the server double
faults, and the receiver wins the point. However, if the serve is in, it is considered a legal service.
A legal service starts a rally, in which the players alternate hitting the ball across the net. A legal return
consists of a player hitting the ball so that it falls in the server's court, before it has bounced twice or hit any
fixtures except the net. A player or team cannot hit the ball twice in a row. The ball must travel over or
round the net into the other players' court. A ball that hits the net during a rally is considered a legal return
as long as it crosses into the opposite side of the court. The first player or team to fail to make a legal
return loses the point. The server then moves to the other side of the service line at the start of a new point.
[71]

Scoring
Main article: Tennis scoring system
"Break point" redirects here. For software term, see Breakpoint.
Game, set, match

The scoreboard of a tennis match.

Game
A game consists of a sequence of points played with the same player serving. A game is won by the first
player to have won at least four points in total and at least two points more than the opponent. The running
score of each game is described in a manner peculiar to tennis: scores from zero to three points are
described as "love", "15", "30", and "40", respectively. If at least three points have been scored by each
player, making the player's scores equal at 40 apiece, the score is not called out as "40–40", but rather as
"deuce". If at least three points have been scored by each side and a player has one more point than his
opponent, the score of the game is "advantage" for the player in the lead. During informal games,
advantage can also be called "ad in" or "van in" when the serving player is ahead, and "ad out" or "van out"
when the receiving player is ahead; alternatively, either player may simply call out "my ad" or "your ad"
during informal play.
The score of a tennis game during play is always read with the serving player's score first. In tournament
play, the chair umpire calls the point count (e.g., "15–love") after each point. At the end of a game, the chair
umpire also announces the winner of the game and the overall score. [72]
Set
A set consists of a sequence of games played with service alternating between games, ending when the
count of games won meets certain criteria. Typically, a player wins a set by winning at least six games and
at least two games more than the opponent. If one player has won six games and the opponent five, an
additional game is played. If the leading player wins that game, the player wins the set 7–5. If the trailing
player wins the game (tying the set 6–6) a tiebreak is played. A tiebreak, played under a separate set of
rules, allows one player to win one more game and thus the set, to give a final set score of 7–6. A tiebreak
game can be won by scoring at least seven points and at least two points more than the opponent. In a
tiebreak, two players serve by 'ABBA' system which has been proven to be fair. [73] If a tiebreak is not played,
the set is referred to as an advantage set, where the set continues without limit until one player leadsby a
two-game margin. A "love set" means that the loser of the set won zero games, colloquially termed a "jam
donut" in the US.[74] In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the winner of the set and the overall
score. The final score in sets is always read with the winning player's score first, e.g. "6–2, 4–6, 6–0, 7–5".
Match
A match consists of a sequence of sets. The outcome is determined through a best of three or
five sets system. On the professional circuit, men play best-of-five-set matches at all four Grand
Slam tournaments, Davis Cup, and the final of the Olympic Games and best-of-three-set matches at all
other tournaments, while women play best-of-three-set matches at all tournaments. The first player to win
two sets in a best-of-three, or three sets in a best-of-five, wins the match. [75] Only in the final sets of matches
at the French Open, the Olympic Games, and Fed Cup are tiebreaks not played. In these cases, sets are
played indefinitely until one player has a two-game lead, occasionally leading to some remarkably long
matches.
In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the end of the match with the well-known phrase "Game,
set, match" followed by the winning person's or team's name.
Special point terms
Game point
A game point occurs in tennis whenever the player who is in the lead in the game needs only one more
point to win the game. The terminology is extended to sets (set point), matches (match point), and even
championships (championship point). For example, if the player who is serving has a score of 40–love, the
player has a triple game point (triple set point, etc.) as the player has three consecutive chances to win the
game. Game points, set points, and match points are not part of official scoring and are not announced by
the chair umpire in tournament play.
Break point
A break point occurs if the receiver, not the server, has a chance to win the game with the next point. Break
points are of particular importance because serving is generally considered advantageous, with servers
being expected to win games in which they are serving. A receiver who has one (score of 30–40 or
advantage), two (score of 15–40) or three (score of love–40) consecutive chances to win the game
has break point, double break point or triple break point, respectively. If the receiver does, in fact, win their
break point, the game is awarded to the receiver, and the receiver is said to have converted their break
point. If the receiver fails to win their break point it is called a failure to convert. Winning break points, and
thus the game, is also referred to as breaking serve, as the receiver has disrupted, or broken the natural
advantage of the server. If in the following game the previous server also wins a break point it is referred to
as breaking back. Except where tiebreaks apply, at least one break of serve is required to win a set
(otherwise a two-game lead would never occur).