Chapter 2

Dynamic Behaviour of Electric Drives

Fundamental Torque Equations: A motor usually drives a load through some transmission system. If
the load is directly coupled to motor, the load rotates at the same speed of the motor. If the load is
connected to the motor through some gear mechanism, the load will rotate at a speed other than motor
speed. Sometimes the load may undergo a translational or linear motion. Whatever it may be, it is
convenient to represent the motor load system by an equivalent rotational system as shown in figure.

Equivalent motor – load system

Let J = Polar moment of inertia of motor-load system referred to the motor shaft, kg-m2
Wm = instantaneous angular velocity of the motor shaft, rad/sec
T = Instantaneous value of developed motor torque. N-m
TL = Instantaneous value of load torque (also called as resisting torque), referred to
motor shaft, N-m
Load torque includes friction and windage torque of the motor
The torque equation can be written as
dm
T  TL   Jm   J
d dJ
 m
dt dt dt

The moment of inertia may be constant or variable, depending on type of load, the inertia will be
variable incase of mine winders, reel drives, industrial robots, etc..

Considering constant moment of inertia,

d m
Then T  TL  J
dt
The above equation shows the motor torque is balanced by load torque TL and a dynamic
torque ). It is clear that the term dynamic torque is present only when speed is changing with
respect to time. That means, dynamic torque exists only when motor is accelerating or decelerating
(during transient periods).

The drive accelerates or decelerates depends on sign of the dynamic torque.

If T > TL dynamic torque is positive and the motor drive accelerates

T < TL  dynamic torque is negative and the motor drive decelerates

T = TL  the motor drive is in steady state with constant speed.

In other words it can be stated that if the motor develop a torque which is greater than load torque, the
additional torque is utilized to accelerate the motor. If the motor developing a torque which is less than
load torque, the motor decelerates. If the motor is developing a torque equal to load torque,
the motor drive will operate with constant speed. If the drive requires fast transient response,
the drive should develop large amount of torque when compared to load torque and the drive
should have moment of inertia as minimum as possible.

Classification of load torques

Loads can be of two types-those which provide active torques and those which provide passive
torques

i) Active torques :Load torques which has the potential to drive the motor under
equibibrium
 These are due to either gravitational force or deformation in elastic bodies
 It is closely connected to the potential energy
 Active torques continue to act in the same direction even after the direction
of the drive has been changed

ii) Passive Torques:

 These are due to friction or due to shear and deformation in inelastic
bodies like lathes, fans, pumps, etc
 They always oppose motion
 With change of direction of motion, the sense of torque also changes.
Eg: when a weight is lifted up, the friction torque adds to the useful
torque, but when lowered down it subtracts from the later.

Components of load Torqueare due to the friction or due to Sh

The load torque Tl can be divided into following components:

Friction Torque TF Friction will be present at the motor shaft and also in various parts of the
load. TF is the equivalent value of various friction torques referred to the motor shaft

Windage Torque TF When motor runs wind generates a torque opposing the motion

TW  Cm
2

Torque required to do useful mechanical work( TL )

Nature of this torque depends on particular application.

 It may be dependent or independent of speed.

 It may be time variant or invariant
 Its nature may also change with load’s mode of operation

Variation of friction torque with speed is shown below

Its value at stand still is much higher than its value slightly above zero speed.

Friction torque can resolved into three components.

Viscous Friction ( TV ) It varies linearly with speed

TV  Bm B = Viscous Friction constant

Coulomb Friction( Tc ) It is independent of speed

Stand still Torque( Ts ) It is present only at standstill. Hence it is not taken into account for dynamic
analysis .

Hence for finite speeds,

Tl  TL  Bm  TC  Cm
2
Load torque

( TC  Cm ) is very small compared to Bm and negligible compared to TL

2
Here

- Tl  TL  Bm ---------------- x

Coupling Torque

If there is a torsional elasticity in the shaft coupling the load to the motoran additional
component of load torque known as coupling torque will be present.
Te  K e   e
K e = Torsion angle of coupling in radians

 e = Rotational stiffness of the shaft in N-m/rad

In most cases Te is neglected because the shaft is assumed to perfectly stiff.

Referring torque and moment of inertia from one axis to other axis:
An electric drive in industrial applications is required to drive the different loads through
different mechanisms, such as gears, V-belts and crank shafts. Usually the speed of the load will
be different when such mechanisms are used. The load may be either rotational or translational
(linear motion). It is important to find the equivalent moment of inertia and torque from one
axis to other axis or referred to motor shaft.

Loads with rotational motion: let us consider a motor driving two loads, load (1) is directly
connected to the motor and load (2) is connected through gear wheel with teeth ratio n and n1.

Let J  equivalent moment of inertia

Tl  equivalent load torque
Jo  moment of inertia of motor and load (1)
Wm  speed of the motor and the load (1)
Tlo  torque of load (1)
J1  moment of inertia of load (2)
Wm1  speed of load (2)
Tl1  torque of load (2)
a1  gear tooth ratio, and is given by
ƞ1  transmission efficiency of gears

Now, if the transmission losses are neglected, then the total (equivalent) kinetic energy is equal
to the kinetic energy of various parts. In this case equivalent kinetic energy is equal to the
kinetic energy of load (1) and load (2)

Dividing the above equation by

- - - - (1)

Also power output of the motor must be equal to sum of total power taken by the loads, then
Dividing the above equation with

- - - - (2)

the above equations (1) and (2) can be rewritten in more general form when many number fo
loads are connected to the motor drive.

Assume that one load is directly connected to the motor and there are m number of loads with,

moment of inertia J1, J2, ………. Jm

gear ratio a1, a2, ……….am
load torques T1, T2,……….Tm
transmission efficiencies ƞ1, ƞ2, ……… ƞm

then the equivalent moment of inertia and the equivalent toque are given by

Loads with translational motion: let us consider a motor driving two loads, load (1) is directly
connected to the motor and load (2) is connected through a transmission system converting
rotational motion to linear motion.

Let J  equivalent moment of inertia

Tl  equivalent load torque
Jo  moment of inertia of motor and load (1)
Wm  speed of the motor and the load (1)
Tlo  torque of load (1)
M1  mass of load (2)
V1  velocity of load (2)
F1  Force with translational motion of load (2)
ƞ1  transmission efficiency
Now, if the transmission losses are neglected, then the total (equivalent) kinetic energy is equal
to the kinetic energy of various parts. In this case equivalent kinetic energy is equal to the
kinetic energy of load (1) and load (2).

Dividing the above equation with

( )

Also power output of the motor must be equal to sum of total power taken by the loads, then

Dividing the above equation by

( )

Assume that one load is directly connected to the motor and there are m number of loads with
translational motion with,

Velocities v1, v2,………vm and Masses M1, M2, ………Mm

( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

Calculation of time and energy loss in transient operations:

Starting, braking, reversing the rotation, speed changing, etc.. are transient operations. Time of
transient operation depend on time constants of the system. In case of electric motors, usually
electrical time constants are very less and transient time will be mainly decided by the
mechanical constants of the motor.

Transient time and energy loss can be calculated using speed – torque and speed - current
characteristic. The torque equation is given by
d m
T  TL  J
dt
In transient operations the speed will change, the time taken for the drive to change speed
from Wm1 to Wm2 can be obtained by using the above equation.

) )

∫
) )

Above equation can be evaluated only if both the torques are expressed in terms of speed and
also they are of integral form. Otherwise the integral is evaluated graphically as shown below.

Lets us assume that T and Tl expressed as a function of speed (Wm). For different speeds,
calculate the value of ) )
. Plot the graph between Wm Vs )
. The time of
)
transient operation can be calculated by calculating the area under curve(shaded area) as
shown in figure below. Actually the time cannot be calculated up to final speed as it results in
infinite time( it is like when a stone is thrown into water, the water circles will be extended up
to infinity). So if the final speed is Wme, the transiest time is calculated up to Wm2 which is given
by

Wm2 = Wm1 + 0.95 (Wme - Wm12)

Energy dissipated in the motor winding during transient operation can be calculated using
speed – torque and speed – current characteristic.

Energy dissipated in motor winding during transient operation is give by ∫

It can be calculated as follows,

From the graphical solution of ∫ )

, it is possible to draw Wm Vs t curve. Using
)
this curve and steady state speed – current curve, i2 Vs t curve can be obtained. Then the area
under the curve multiplied by winding resistance R will gives the energy dissipated in the motor
winding during transient operation.

If the winding resistance is not constant, then i2R Vs t curve is plotted. In this case area under
the curve represents the energy dissipated in the motor winding during transient operation.

Multi quadrant operation of Drive:

For consideration of multi quadrant operation of drives, it is useful to establish suitable

conventions about sign of speed and torque. The normal direction of the motor rotation is
usually taken as positive and the motor torque which produce the positive rotation of the
motor is considered as positive torque. If the drive rotates in both directions, the positive speed
is considered arbitrarily (randomly). In loads involving up-down motions, the speed of the
motor which causes upward motion is treated as positive speed. A motor operates in two
modes, motoring (converting electrical energy into mechanical energy) and braking/generating
(converting mechanical energy into electrical energy).For better understanding of speed,
torque and power notations, let us consider operation of a hoist in four quadrants as shown in
figure.

Four quadrant operation of a motor driving hoist load

A hoist consists of a rope wound on a drum coupled to the motor shaft. One end of the rope
connected to a cage which is used to transport man or material from one level to other level.
Other end is connected a counter weight.

Counter weight > Empty cage weight

Counter weight < Loaded cage weight

The load torque is also indicated on the diagram. The load torque is difference of counter
weight and the cage weight. For I and IV quadrants the load torque is positive as loaded cage
weight is more than counter weight. And for II and III quadrants the load torque is negative as
empty cage weight is less than counter weight. Power is product of torque and angular velocity,
sign of power can be calculated by each quadrant by considering sign of torque and angular
velocity in that quadrant.

Operation of hoist is explained in various quadrants as follows

Quadrant I: Loaded cage is moving upwards, the drive should rotate in counter clockwise
direction and the motor should develop torque in the same direction. Since the speed and
torque are positive, the power is also positive and the mode of operation is forward motoring.

Quadrant II: Empty cage is moving upwards, the drive should rotate in counter clockwise
direction. As the counter weight is greater than empty cage, the load itself will try to drive the
motor in counter clockwise direction. To avoid accidents, the motor should develop braking
torque which is opposite to the direction of rotation. In this quadrant the speed is positive and
the torque is negative, power is negative, the mode of operation is forward braking.

Quadrant III: Empty cage moving downwards, the drive should rotate in clockwise direction. As
the counter weight is greater than empty cage, the motor has to develop reverse torque. In this
quadrant the speed is negative and the torque is negative, power is positive, the mode of
operation is reverse motoring.

Quadrant IV: Loaded cage moving downwards, the drive should rotate in clockwise direction.
As the loaded cage weight is greater than counter weight, the load itself will try to drive the
motor in clockwise direction. To avoid accidents, the motor should develop braking torque
which is opposite to the direction of rotation. In this quadrant the speed is negative and the
torque is positive, power is negative, the mode of operation is reverse braking.

Example problem:

A drive has the following parameters:

J = 10 kg-m2, T = 100 – 0.1N N-m, passive load torque Tl = 0.05N, N-m
Where N is speed in RPM
Initially the drive is operating in steady state. When the motor is reversed, the characteristic
changed to T = - 100 – 0.1N, N-m. Calculate the time of reversal.

Sol:
In steady state, T = Tl  100 – 0.1N=0.05N  N= 666.7 RPM

After reversal, the steady state speed is  - 100 – 0.1N= 0.05N  N=-666.7 RPM

From equation ,
As )

∫ ∫

Taking N1=666.7 RPM and N2=0.95 X (-666.7)=-633.4 RPM

The above equation cannot be solved as it will result in natural log of negative numbers, which
is mathematically not possible,
The above equation can be modified as
∫ ∫

|
Substituting the upper and lower limits
( )) ) ( ) )

4.9138) -ln (190.8281)]

-t = -25.58
t = 25.58 sec.
Tutorial Problems:
1. A drive has the following parameters:
T = 150 – 0.1 N, where N is the speed in RPM
Load torque Tl = 100 N-m
Initially the drive is operating in steady state. The characteristics of the load torque are
changed to Tl = -100 N-m. Calculate the initial and final equilibrium speeds.
(Ans: 500 RPM and 2500 RPM)
2. A motor is used to drive a hoist. Motor characteristics are given by
Quadrants I, II and IV: T = 200 – 0.2N, N-m
Quadrants II, III and IV: T = -200-0.2N, N-m
Where N is the speed in RPM.
When hoist is loaded, the net load torque Tl = 100, N-m and when it is un loaded, the
net load torque is Tl = -80 N-m obtain equilibrium speeds for operation in all four
quadrants.
(Ans: Quadrant I: 500 RPM, Quadrant II: 1400 RPM, Quadrant III: -600 RPM, Quadrant IV: -1500 RPM)
3. Calculate the starting time of a drive with following parameters
J = 10 kg-m2, T = 15 + 0.5Wm and Tl = 5 + 0.6Wm
(Ans: 299.57 sec)
4. A drive has following parameters: J = 1 kg-m2, T = 15 – 0.01N, N-m and passive load
torque Tl = 0.005N N-m, where N is the speed in RPM.
Initially the drive is operating in steady state. Now it is to be reversed. For this motor
characteristic is altered such that T = -15 – 0.01N N-m for passive as well as negative
values of N. Calculate the reversal time.
(Ans:25.57 Sec)