Air Transportation and Operation BANED1-721

AIR

TRANSPORTATION

AND

OPERATION

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UNIT – I
Air Transportation Industry: Introduction to airline industry and economics, determination
of operating costs, Airline route selection and scheduling, Methods of describing peaking,
planning of flight operations, special topics in airline operations, Emergence of Low Cost
Carrier (LCC).
Aircraft characteristics affecting airport design, Functions of airport, Components of an
airport, Airport layouts and configurations, Geometric design of the airfield, Wind Rose
Diagram, Geometric design of the airfield, Design alternatives, Airport operations manual.

Introduction to airline industry and economics

A century after the first commercial flight, the aviation industry continues to offer a variety of
exciting and rewarding career options for qualified professionals. “Aviation” is a growing industry
with very practical purposes. Worldwide, airlines carry more than 3 billion passengers a year and
deliver about one-third of traded goods by value. Aviation sector employment also is seen as
strong. Airlines employ about 2.5 million workers and expect “to accelerate the pace of hiring over
the next year”. Overall, about 9 million people are employed in the global aviation sector. In the
United States alone, there are almost 20,000 airports. Whether you are interested in working for a
major airline carrier, an international airport, a government agency or a general aviation service
provider, an associate’s or bachelor’s degree in aviation management can provide the foundational
and specialised knowledge needed to succeed in a range of careers. As we all know that airline
industry has seen much development after the post-World War II period. With the progress in
aviation techniques, airlines have paved a way for making travel and tourism better in every way.
Hence, it plays a major role in the travel and tourism. The airline industry exists in an intensely
competitive market. Observing a growth of 17.62% over the past year and with the recent
development, there has been a significant increase in the airline opportunities. Both domestic and
international airlines require trained professional on the airports for different kinds of jobs
including ground staff, flight attendants, ticketing counters as well as air hostesses. Thus, looking
at the wider scope of the airline industry, it is very much beneficial for the travel industry.

Scope of Aviation
India at a Glance India is the seventh-largest country by area and the second-most populous with
a population of over 1.35 billion. India is one of the fastest growing economies of the world and
is likely to become the fifth-largest in 2019.The history of the Indian subcontinent dates back 5000
years to the Indus Valley Civilization which gives it its name. It is a melting pot of all major
religions of the world – Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism, Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism, Judaism and
Zoroastrianism. It has a rich biodiversity with Himalayas in the north, the Thar Desert in north-
west, Bay of Bengal to its east and Arabian Sea to its west; with various rivers and forests across
the country.
A nuclear weapon state, India, shares its land border with two other nations with nuclear capability
– China and Pakistan – and countries like Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar. It has the
third-largest standing army in the world and the fifth-largest defense budget. It has a robust space
progra mme with the capability to launch its own satellites. Its leading industries
include IT, pharmaceuticals, automotive and telecom.
India is parliamentary democracy with an independent judiciary and free media. It has 29 states
and 7 union territories with a huge diversity in terms of language, cuisine and culture.

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Indian Aviation Industry

The Indian aviation market is on high growth path. Despite global headwinds on crude oil and
currency, domestic passenger traffic in the period January-November 2018 grew by 19.2% year
on year. Total passenger traffic to, from and within India, during April-November 2018
grew by around 15% year on year.
As per IATA, the number of global departures during calendar year 2018 is projected at around
4.3 billion, a growth of 6% over the previous year. In contrast, in December2018, India
completed 52 consecutive months of double digit growth. Yet, many feel, India is just scratching
the surface.
This stupendous growth has catapulted India among the top seven aviation markets with 187
million passengers (to, from and within India) in FY2017-18. India today handles the third-
largest domestic traffic after USA and China. It is expected to become the third-largest market
(domestic plus international) by 2022 and gradually reduce the gap with the top two nations over
the next decade.

The Growth Drivers

The civil aviation industry is vulnerable to several intrinsic and extraneous risks. These include
economic boom and bust cycles, volatility in oil price and exchange rates, natural disasters,
epidemics, infrastructure challenges, protectionism, wars and political upheavals, etc. The Indian
civil aviation industry has managed to exhibit significant resilience against these risks over the
last two decades. Some of the key reasons behind the rapid growth of the Indian aviation sector
include:
(a) Steady growth in the Indian economy, which is now poised to become the fifth largest after
US, China, Japan and Germany.
(b) Domestic open skies which allows new airlines to freely enter the market subject to stipulated
norms.
(c) Partial open skies in international routes wherein India’s neighbouring countries and those
outside a 5000 km radius from the capital New Delhi can have unlimited flights to designated
international airports in India.
(d) Growth of highly competitive Low Cost Carriers (LCC) in India.
(e) Development and operation of leading airports at Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Bengaluru,
Hyderabad and Cochin through the Public Private Partnership (PPP). Many more are on the
anvil.
(f) Formulation of the industry-friendly National Civil Aviation Policy 2016 (NCAP 2016) that
covers almost all aspects of Indian aviation.
(g) Opening up of regional airports in India’s hinterland through the landmark Regional
Connectivity Scheme (RCS) popularly known as UDAN (‘Ude Desh ka Aam Nagrik’).
(h) Removal of FDI limits for almost all sub-sectors like airports, air cargo, ground handling,
general aviation, Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul (MRO), etc.
(i) Liberalisation of global Wing rights with all Indian carriers having a fleet of 20 aircraft free to
fly abroad.
(j) Clear intent of the government to leverage the strengths of the private sector by way of
privatisation of the national carrier Air India, helicopter company Pawan Hans and operation of
large government-owned airports through PPP.

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Opportunities in Airlines

Considering the extent of the airline industry, there are a number of options for a career in the
airline industry. Airlines are always in need of certified professionals for different kind of jobs
on the airport. These jobs include ground staff, flight attendants as well as administration.
Apart from the above mentioned, you can also find other options such as a job of pilot. Now, let
us look at some of the types of pilot jobs:
 Cargo Pilots: They fly every kind of cargo airlines such as UPS, FedEx, etc.
 Airline Pilots: They fly all the domestic or international airlines.
 Corporate Pilots: They fly the inglenook, high-end aeroplanes for the high class commuters.
 Aerial Firefighter Pilots: It is combined with other options, which is based on contracts and
requirements.
 Military Pilots: They fly specialised aircrafts in order to transport equipment and to
accomplish combat missions.
Thus, there are endless opportunities in the airline industry. If you are planning to get into the
industry, you must have completed the IATA certification courses which are provided at
different institutes throughout India. Also, there are a number of institutes in India, offering
different courses in travel and tourism which can help you to get into the travel industry.

Determination of operating costs

Aircraft variable operating costs are important factors in the evaluation of FAA investment and
regulatory programs that concern the time spent in air transportation. The variable operating
costs of aircraft affect aircraft operators directly and users of air service indirectly in the form of
higher or lower fares or taxes. Fixed aircraft costs may also be important in evaluating the effects
of FAA investment and regulatory programs that affect fleet size, cause aircraft to be more
productive, or cause aircraft to be out of service for extended periods of time.
To put airline costs in perspective, this section first shows the relationship of aircraft
operating costs to total airline operating costs and then presents another disaggregation of total
airline costs. After this, aircraft operating costs are presented in more detail. Costs in this section
are shown for air carrier, general aviation and military equipment types. Data are presented for
aircraft categories identical to those in Section 3 above.
Cost data are defined for air carrier and general aviation aircraft as variable or fixed.
Variable costs change in proportion to aircraft usage, and include fuel and oil, maintenance and
crew costs.1 Fixed costs show little or no change in proportion to changes in activity. For
example, in the short-term, a change in activity may not affect an operator’s decision about a
specific aircraft or fleet of aircraft. In the longer-term, the operator could change its fleet and
ownership costs.
There are two estimates of fixed costs provided. The first is fixed accounting charges
including depreciation, insurance, and rental charges reported by carriers in Form 41, or which
have been estimated for GA aircraft. The second is provided for commercial aircraft only. If an
FAA initiative improves system efficiency, an operator may be able to provide the same service
with fewer aircraft; alternatively, an FAA initiative may cause aircraft to be out of service or to
be removed from the fleet entirely. In either case, an estimate of the benefit or cost to the carrier
of an FAA initiative would include the carrier’s opportunity costs—the value of the aircraft in its
next best use. One immediate alternative use of an aircraft might be to lease it out to another

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operator. Since there is a well-defined market for operating (short-term) leases for most aircraft
types, one can use the average monthly lease rate as a good proxy for the benefit or cost over a
defined period of time.

Average versus Incremental Cost

By necessity, the operating cost data presented in this chapter represent average costs.
Cost categories such as ownership costs are reported separately so they can be included or
excluded in a specific analysis. However, economists typically look at the concept of incremental
costs (i.e., the changes in costs from small changes in levels of activity). Incremental costs may
differ from the average costs used in this chapter, but the data from Form 41 and other sources
using average costs are well-accepted industry standards. Analysts are cautioned, however, that
average costs may not always be the most appropriate measure

Direct and Indirect Costs

Table 4-1 shows direct and indirect operating expenses for Group III air carriers.2 As can
be seen, direct costs are about 48 percent of total costs for major passenger air carriers and about
35 percent of total costs for all-cargo air carriers. The direct costs will be examined in more
detail later in this chapter. However, this table provides a perspective on overall carrier costs and
the relative magnitudes of each category of costs. Industry costs for carriers filing Schedule P-7
of Form 41 totaled $166.4 billion for passenger air carriers and $44.7 billion for all-cargo air
carriers in 2018. Overall, the average total operating cost per block hour for passenger air
carriers was $8,916 and the average cost for all-cargo air carriers was $28,744 in 2018.

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General aviation operating costs

Data Sources for Operating Costs

The source for the variable and fixed operating costs for general aviation aircraft was The
Aircraft Cost Evaluator, published by Conklin & de Decker.8 Costs assume an operator of one or
two aircraft of a given model, and do not reflect lower prices which may be available through
bulk purchases. The following variable cost categories were obtained from The Aircraft Cost
Evaluator for use in this study:
 Fuel & Oil
 Fuel (assuming fuel price of $5.13 per gallon for avgas and $4.73 for turbine fuel
(Jet A)—costs based on a Conklin & de Decker survey of FBOs (Fixed Base
Operators) at major general aviation airports in the United States
 Fuel Additives
 Lubricants
 Maintenance
 Maintenance Labor
 Parts Airframe/Engine/Avionics
Engine Restoration
 Thrust Reverser Overhaul
 Propeller Overhaul
 APU Overhaul
 Dynamic Components/Life Limited Parts
 Crew Salaries (based on NBAA Salary Survey and other sources)
 Captain
 Co-pilot
 Flight Engineer/Other
 Benefits
Maintenance labor costs represent the average cost of routine, scheduled, and
unscheduled maintenance labor. Labor hours are based on data from operator experience,
manufacturer's data and surveys. Crew salaries are derived for each aircraft type from a

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recognized pilot salary survey, and benefits are typically an additional 30 percent of wages.
Salaries are counted for the entire crew, which depending on the aircraft type can consist of a
captain, copilot and flight engineer. Crew salaries and benefits are divided by Conklin & de
Decker’s estimated annual flight hours for that model in order to obtain hourly crew costs. The
Aircraft Cost Evaluator also provided the following fixed costs:
 Hangar Rental
 Insurance
 Hull
 Single Limit Liability
 Miscellaneous Overhead
 Recurrent Training
 Aircraft Modernization
 Navigation Chart Services
 Refurbishing
 Computerized Maintenance Management Program
 Weather Service
 Other Fixed Cost
 Fractional Cost/Year + Tax

Airline route selection and scheduling

Scheduled Airlines
Scheduled airlines, like the major flag carriers, operate flights according to schedules drawn up
to cover several months or even years at a time. These airlines are thus committed to flying the
planes for the said periods on the said routes whether they are filled or not. In so doing, they
offer a predictable range of services and can thus be booked up to 1 year in advance in some
cases. Also, they nowadays often operate in codeshares with other carriers to offer even more
services but, to do so, the importance of keeping to schedules is emphasised. Scheduled flights
are thus preferred by most travelers, especially business flyers.

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Non-scheduled Airlines
A Non-scheduled airline is a company that offers unscheduled air transport services of
passengers or goods at an hourly or per mile/kilometer charge for chartering the entire aircraft
along with crew. A non-scheduled airline may hold domestic or international licences or both
and operates under the regulations prescribed by its respective Civil Aviation Authority

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Emergence of Low Cost Carrier (LCC)

Low Cost Carriers (LCCs)
In 2015, the global aviation network carried 3.5 billion passengers on 34 million scheduled
departures (preliminary figures). By 2030, current projections suggest those numbers will nearly
double. Low-Cost Carriers have played a major role in this extraordinary expansion of aviation
over the past quarter century, and there is every expectation that they will continue to do so. Low-
cost carriers carried 984 million passengers in 2015, which was 28 per cent of the world total
scheduled passengers. This marked a 10 per cent increase compared to 2014, which means Low-
Cost Carriers experienced a passenger growth rate that was about one and a half times the rate of
the world total average passenger growth.

What underlies the LCC success story?

First, the growth of LCCs has gone hand-in-hand with market liberalization. As domestic aviation
markets have been progressively deregulated in many countries and as market-oriented air services
agreements have increasingly became the new international norm, LCCs have seized the
opportunity to offer innovative air services that have spawned new passenger demand, the so-
called "Southwest effect".

 For example, Ryanair, easyJet, and other European LCCs have taken advantage of the creation of
a common aviation area in the European Union to capture 41% of the seat capacity on scheduled
services in Europe in 2015. In Africa, where market access barriers remain high, the share of
LCCs within the region is at 9%. In Asia, the LCC share in 2015 accounts for 23%.
 A second observation: although LCCs have pursued a number of different business models,
common to all is a laser-focus on the customer: identifying what prospective airline passengers
value—that is, what they are willing to pay for—and then offering them products to meet that
demand.
 Third: in a cyclical industry subject to surges in the cost of fuel, not to mention crises such as
terrorist attacks and health scares, LCCs have understood that maintaining a competitive advantage
requires a relentless drive to cut costs, expand revenues, and maximize efficiency.
Airport Planning and Design
Fundamentally, the airport is a point of connectivity in the transportation system. At the ends
of a trip the airport provides for the change of mode from a ground to air mode or vice versa.
As such, the airport is often analyzed using the schematic of Figure. 4.1, with the airport’s
airside consisting of approach airspace, landing aids, runways, taxiways, and aprons, all leading
to the gate where the passenger (or cargo) passes through; and the airport’s landside consisting
of the areas where the passenger (or cargo) is processed for further movement on land: the
arrival and departure concourses, baggage handling, curbsides, and access to parking lots,
roads, and various forms of transit. Most design aspects of the airport must reflect the
composite understanding of several interrelated factors. Factors include aircraft performance
and size, air traffic management, demand for safe and effective operation, the effects of noise
on communities, and obstacles on the airways. Various disciplines of engineering are called into
use in airport planning and design

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FUNCTIONS OF AIRPORT
An airport essentially works as a facilitator and its functions vary as per its size. However
looking at the various functions of an airport we can broadly group them in three categories:
Essential operational services, Traffic handling services, and Commercial activities.
Essential services include maintenance of runways, terminal, hangers, building & ATC,
telecommunications, security, fire and ambulance services. Different countries have different
rules in providing these services depending on the mature of government control over the airport
authority. In India, till now all these facilities are provided and controlled by government through
various agencies.
Traffic handling services include provision of loading and &loading of baggage, delivery of
baggage through conveyer belts at the lounge, processing of passengers and providing required
services to the passengers. Here also difference exists among airports in different countries. For
example in many European countries these services are provided by airlines or special handling
agents. In India these services are provided by the airport authorities.
Commercial activities include shops, duty free shops, restaurants, bars, car-hire booths, offices of

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travel agencies and airlines, tourist information centre, foreign currency exchange facility and
other services for customers. Generally, either in the terminal building or in its vicinity these
facilities are available. These facilities and services may be provided by airport authorities or by
any public private body.
At the same time, there are certain other agencies like the Customs, security (police),
emigration department, etc. which are very much present at the airport but are not a part of the
airport management. Each one of these agencies has its own regulations, laws, roles and duties
defined by the government. Yet, in public eye they are part of airport regulations and in most of
the cases have a bearing on an airport's image.
The forms of ownership and management of airport largely determine the nature of facilities and
services available at any airport. Though in most of the countries airports are owned by
government, there are also countries where airports are owned by public private companies.
In India, National Airports Authority, an autonomous body, under the Ministry of Civil Aviation
manages the airports and controls the various facilities and services provided by Indian airports.
Major airports in India are located in Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. Besides these all
state capitals and important cities have airports. Functions of different airports depend on the
number of aircraft movements, number of passengers and volume of freight. This outline of
functions provides a general idea of the different areas which should be the concern of airport
managers.

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Components of an airport

Components of Airport
1. Runway
2. Taxiway
3. Apron
4. Terminal building
5. Control tower
6. Hanger
7. Parking

Runway
Runway is a paved land strip on which landing and takeoff operations of aircrafts takes place. It is
in leveled position without any obstructions on it. Special markings are made on the runway to
differ it from the normal roadways. Similarly, after sunset, specially provided lightings are helped
the aircrafts for safe landing. Many factors are considered for design of runway. The direction of
runway should be in the direction of wind. Sometimes cross winds may happen, so, for safety
considerations second runway should be laid normal to the main runway. The number of runways
for an airport is depends upon the traffic. If the traffic is more than 30 movements per hour, then
it is necessary to provide another runway. Runway can be laid using bitumen or concrete. Bitumen
is economic but concrete runways have long span and requires less maintenance cost. The width
of runway is dependent of maximum size of aircrafts utilizing it. The length of runway is decided
from different considerations like elevation of land, temperature, take off height, gradients etc.

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There are different runway patterns are available and they are
 Single runway
 Two runways
 Hexagonal runway
 45-degree runway
 60-degree runway
 60-degree parallel runway
Single Runway
Single runway is the most common form. It is enough for light traffic airports or for occasional
usages. This runway is laid in the direction of wind in that particular area.
Two Runway
Two runway contains two runway which are laid in different directions by considering cross winds
or wind conditions in that particular area. The runways may be laid in the form of L shape or T
shape or X shape.
Hexagonal Runway
This is the modern pattern of system of runway laying. In which the takeoff and landing
movements of aircrafts can be permitted at any given time without any interference. This is most
suitable for heavy traffic airports or busiest airports.
45 Degree Runway
45 degree run way is opted when the wind coverage for same airfield capacity is greater. This is
also termed as four-way runway.
60 Degree Runway
When the wind in that area is prevailing in many directions, so, it is difficult to decide the direction
in which runway is to be laid. In that case, 60-degree runway is opted which looks like triangular
arrangement of runways.
60 Degree Parallel Runway
It is the extension of 60-degree runway, which is opted when the wind coverage is greater in other
two directions then it is obvious that the third runway is to be chosen. But if the air traffic is more,
then it is difficult to control the operations. Hence, another runway is required parallel to the using
one. For that purpose, 60-degree parallel runway is suitable.

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Taxiway
Taxiway is path which connects each end of the runway with terminal area, apron, hanger etc.
These are laid with asphalt or concrete like runways. In modern airports, taxiways are laid at an
angle of 30 degree to the runway so that aircrafts can use it to change from one runway to other
easily. The turning radius at taxiway and runway meets should be more than 1.5 times of width of
taxiway

Apron
Apron is a place which is used as parking place for aircrafts. It is also used for loading and
unloading of aircrafts. Apron is generally paved and is located in front of terminal building or
adjacent to hangers. The size of area to be allotted for apron and design of apron is generally
governed by the number of aircrafts expected in the airport. The aircraft characteristics also
considered while design. Proper drainage facilities should be provided with suitable slope of
pavement. Sufficient clearances must be provided for aircrafts to bypass each other.

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Terminal Building
Terminal building is a place where airport administration facilities takes place. In this building,
pre-journey and post journey checking’s of passengers takes place. Lounges, cafes etc. are
provided for the passengers. Passengers can directly enter the plane from terminal buildings
through sky bridge, walkways etc. Similarly, the passengers from plane also directly enter into the
terminal building.

Control Tower
The control tower is a place where aircrafts under a particular zone is controlled whether they are
in land or in air. The observation is done by the controller through radars and information is carried
through radio. The controller from the control tower observes all the aircrafts with in that zone and
informs pilots about their airport traffic, landing routes, visibility, wind speeds, runway details,
etc. based on which the pilot decides and attempts safe landing. So, control tower is like nerve
system of an airport.

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Hanger
Hanger is a place where repairing and servicing of aircrafts is done. Taxiway connects the hanger
with runway so, when a repair needed for an aircraft it can be moved to hanger easily. It is
constructed in the form of large shed using steel trusses and frames. Large area should be provided
for Hanger for comfortable movement of aircrafts.

Parking
This is a place provided for parking the vehicles of airport staff or passengers which is outside the
terminal building or sometimes under the ground of terminal building.

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Airside Layout and Design

Design begins with the knowledge of both the performance and physical characteristics of the
aircraft that will use the airport. The approach or landing speed defines an aircraft category as A,
B, C, or D. The designation of aircraft size is based on grouping aircraft according to the length
of their wingspan, called aircraft design group (ADG), as follows:
 Group I: up to but not including 49 ft (15 meters)
 Group II: 49 ft (15 m) up to but not including 79 ft (24 m)
 Group III: 79 ft (24 m) up to but not including 118 ft (36 m)
 Group IV: 118 ft (36 m) up to but not including 171 ft (52 m)
 Group V: 171 ft (52 m) up to but not including 214 ft (65 m)
 Group VI: 214 ft (65 m) up to but not including 262 ft (80 m)

The important physical characteristics of the aircraft affecting airport design are maximum takeoff
weight (W), wingspan (A), length (B), tail height (C), wheel base (D), nose to centerline of main
gear (E), undercarriage width (1.15 ¥ main gear track, F), and line-of-sight/obstacle-free zone at
the nose of the aircraft. For reference, these are presented for the Boeing 727 in Fig. Figure displays
a major problem faced by aircraft as they land and travel on the runway, taxiway, or taxi-lane
system. The pilot’s view of the ground directly in front of the aircraft is obscured by the nose. This

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blind zone for the pilot is known as the object-free zone (OFZ) and is important for safe ground
movement of aircraft. It affects the geometric design of
the runway and taxiway.

Runway Length
The length of the runway is determined by the aircraft, maximum takeoff weights, engine
capabilities, landing and braking capabilities, flap settings, and required safety factors. For
example, the runway length for landing must be capable of permitting safe braking if
touchdown occurs one third the length of the runway past the threshold. The runway must also
be long enough to meet the obstacle-free capability to permit each aircraft to take off with one
engine out. The stopping zone must include ample stopping distance in case the pilot chooses
to abort takeoff just before rotating to become airborne (called stopway). The runway safety
areas are a must for airport control. Figure shows the stopway, to prevent accidents at the end of
the runway, and the clearway, also called the runway protection zone.
The altitude of the airport and the temperature also have a significant impact on the airport
runway length, because lift capability is proportional to the air density, which diminishes as the
altitude and temperature increase. Figure illustrates how dramatic that change is for a Boeing
727-200 with a JT8D-15 engine, a takeoff weight of 150,000 pounds, and its wing flaps
set at 20 degrees. The requirement for longer runways increases significantly as the altitude of
the site above sea level increases. At an average temperature of 65 degrees Fahrenheit, the
increase is from 4900 feet at sea level to 8660 feet at an altitude of 8000 feet, or about 370 feet of
added runway for each 1000-foot increase in altitude.

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Runway and Taxiway Width and Clearance Design Standards

The FAA has developed a set of standard dimensions that determine runway width, separations
between runways and taxiways, safety areas around runways and taxiways, shoulder width
(possible areas of lessthan- full-strength pavement), pads to deflect jet blast, object-free areas,
and the like. These standards are a function of approach speed and aircraft size. Figure 5.6
presents the overall dimensions that are involved in parallel railways and taxiways. Figure 5.7
shows the plan view of major runway parabolic vertical curves are used for geometric design, as
shown in Fig.

Runway Gradients

Longitudinal Gradient
The desire at any airport site is to have the runways and taxiways as level as possible, allowing
for drainage with the design of the transverse grade. In many locations the grading for a
perfectly level site would be too expensive when most aircraft can easily accept 1% grade.
Where longitudinal grades are used, parabolic vertical curves are used for geometric design, as
shown in Fig. The penalty for gradients is to reduce the effective runway length by 10 feet
per foot of difference between maximum and minimum elevation of the runway [FAA, 1992].
and the lowest point along the runway of 70 feet, the effective runway length for MATOW
calculations would be 9500 (10,200 – 70 10) feet.
Line of Sight
The line-of-sight requirements also determine the acceptable profile of the runway. Any two
points 5 feet above the runway centerline must be mutually visible for the entire runway or if
on a parallel runway or taxiway for one half of the runway. Likewise, there needs to be a clear
line of sight at the intersection of two runways, two taxiways, and taxiways that cross an active
runway. Most line-of-sight requirements are within 800 to 1350 feet of the intersection,
depending on the configuration.
Transverse Gradients
The transverse gradients are important to ensure adequate drainage from the runways and the
taxiways. The plan view shown in Fig. indicates the typical gradients that are included in
runways and taxiways. The chief concern is drainage and the line of sight to adjacent runways
or taxiways

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Drainage

Drainage on the airport surface is a prime requisite for operational safety and pavement
durability. The drainage design is handled like most drainage for streets and highways.
Avoidance of ponding and erosion of slopes that would weaken pavement foundations is critical
for design. Because of the need for quick and total water removal over the vast, relatively flat
airport surface, an integrated drainage system is a must. Runoff is removed from the airport by
means of surface gradients, ditches, inlets, an underground system of pipes, and retention
ponds. Figure 5.9 shows one portion of an airport drainage system. Because of their large
contiguous area, aprons are critical and must have an adequate sewer system. Runoff water
treatment is required when there are fuel spills or during the winter, when a deicing chemical is
used.
Airport Lighting and Signing

Runway
Lighting and signing of the runway shown in Fig. 5.10 provide the pilot visual cues to ensure
alignment with the runway, lateral displacement, and distance along the runway. Runway edge
lights standing no more than 30 inches and no more than 10 ft from the runway edge are 200 ft
or less apart and are white, except for the last 2000 ft of runway, when they show yellow.
Centerline lights are white and set 2 ft off the centerline of the runway, except for the last 3000
ft. In this area they are alternating red and white for 2000 ft, and they are red 1000 ft from the
runway end. When aircraft are approaching the runway to land, the pilot determines the
threshold because it is marked by a bar of green lights. However, those lights show red when
aircraft approach the end of the runway from the other direction. As shown in Fig. 5.11 painted
markings also indicate where the aircraft is relative to distance past the threshold. Exits,

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particularly high-speed exits, are clearly marked by signs placed at a distance of 1200 to 1500 ft
before the exit.

Airfield
The airfield is marked with a variety of signs delineating the taxiways, stoplines, holding areas,
and the like. Blue lights indicate taxiway edges. Stop bars before crossing or entering an active
runway are yellow. There have been a number of accidents and near accidents on the ground,
especially when the visibility is low. The FAA is experimenting with a new lighted stop bar. The
controller controls the lights. When the bar is lit there are now center lights ahead, creating a
black hole effect. Once the aircraft is permitted on the runway, the light bar is extinguished and
the taxiway/runway lights are illuminated to guide the pilot onto the runway for takeoff [FAA,
1993b]. Typical airfield markings give the pilot directions to the ramp, parking areas, fuel, gates,
areas for itinerant aircraft, ramps for military aircraft, cargo terminals, international terminals,
and other airside functions. Visual cues also aid the pilot in docking the aircraft at the gate.
Generally there is also an airline ground employee with handheld signal lights to direct the pilot
as the aircraft pulls into the gate. Figure 5.12 shows the FAA’s 1993 guide to airfield signs.

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Approach to the Runway

The approach lighting system (ALS) dictates the navigation and approach capability. Light bars
may extend as much as 3000 feet from the threshold along the aircraft’s desired glide path.
Lighting systems are available to provide runway glide slope cues indicating whether the pilot is
above, below, right, or left of the hypothetical wire representing the proper descent trajectory.
The visual approach slope indicator systems (VASIS) provide at the side of the runway red and
white light bars. The precision approach path indicator (PAPI) system provides upper and lower
lights of red and white that in various combinations indicate whether the pilot is too low or too
high. For example, an all-white bar indicates the aircraft is on a glide slope greater than 3.5
degrees, while an all-red bar is less than 2.5 degrees. Equal red and white indicates the aircraft
is on the 3-degree glide slope. Positioning along the glide path is accomplished by the use of
light bars extending from the runway along the flight path. There are several different approach
lighting systems, as suggested in Fig. For precision approaches (category I, II, or III) ILS, the
high-intensity approach lighting system with sequenced flashing lights (ALSF) is employed. The
ALS consists of light bars 3000 ft from the threshold. From 3000 to 1000 ft the lights are a
sequenced flasher that gives the appearance of a rolling ball leading to the runway centerline.
From 1000 ft (inner marker) to the threshold there are white light bars in the center and bars of
red lights on either side of the centerline spaced 100 ft apart. An extra light bar is
placed at 500 ft to provide an added visual cue.

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Runway Pavement Design

Pavement design methods are based on the gross weight of the aircraft. Since it is impracticable
to develop design curves for each type of aircraft, composite aircraft are determined and loads
are converted from the actual aircraft to the design aircraft, the design aircraft being the one that
requires the greatest thickness of pavement. The traffic forecast, which includes the mix of
aircraft anticipated, is converted to a traffic forecast of equivalent annual departures. FAA
Advisory Circular AC150/5320-6C CHG 2 [1978] presents a number of curves to be used to
design the pavement thickness for both flexible and rigid pavements

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Geometric design of the airfield

Geometric design of runways and taxiways

TAXIWAY
Taxiways are defined as paths on the airfield surface for the taxing of the aircraft and are
intended to provide linkage between one part of the airfield and another part of the airfield. What
it wants to say is that we are trying to provide the connectivity for those aircrafts, which are
reaching or arriving on any of the airport, so that they can taxi on this particular lane away from
the active runway strip on which the continuous movements are going on and in that sense it
provides a connectivity between the different locations or different parts of any airport and all
those such connectivity's are termed as taxiways.
Taxiway is the paved way rigid or flexible which connects runway with loading apron or service
and maintenance hangers or with another runway. They are used for the movement of aircraft on
the airfields for various purposes such as exit or landing, exit for takeoff etc. The speed of
aircraft on taxiway is less than that during taking off or landing speed.

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The taxiway should be laid on such a manner to provide the shortest possible path and to prevent
the interference of landed aircraft taxying towards loading apron and the taxiing aircraft running
towards the runway. The intersection of runway and taxiway should be given proper attention
because during turning operation, this part comes under intense loading. If it is weaker then the
aero plane may fell down from taxiway. Its longitudinal grade should not be greater than 3%
while it s transverse gradient should not be less than 0.5%. It is also provided with a shoulder of
7.5m width paved with bituminous surfacing. The taxiway should be visible from a distance of
300m to a pilot at 3m height from the ground.

Taxiway Lights
Taxiway Edge Lights: Taxiway edge lights are blue in color and line the taxiways.
Airports often have green taxiway centerline lights, as well. Clearance Bar Lights - Set inside the
taxiway, clearance bar lights are steady yellow and are meant to increase the visibility of a hold
line or a taxiway intersection at night.
Stop Bar Lights - Only installed at select airports, stop bar lights are meant to reinforce
an ATC clearance to cross or enter a runway in low visibility situations (low IMC). They're
in-pavement lights that are steady red and extend across the taxiway at a hold short line.
Once a pilot is cleared onto the runway, the stop bar lights will be turned off.
Runway Guard Lights - A pair of two steady yellow lights that are positioned at each side
of the taxiway at the hold short line, the runway guard lights are meant to draw attention
to the hold short line - the area where a taxiway meets the runway.
Runway Lights
Runway End Identifier Lights (REILs): A pair of white flashing lights, one on each side of the
approach end of the runway, that help identify the runway from taxiways at night. Runway Edge
Light Systems (HIRL/MIRL/LIRL): The runway edge lights are steady white lights on the edges
of the runways. On instrument runways, the white lights change to yellow during last 2,000 feet,
or half the runway length, whichever is less, and then they turn red as the aircraft reaches the end
of the runway. They can be high—intensity.
Runway Centerline Lighting System (RCLS) - On some precision runways, a runway
centerline light system is installed, with white lights spaced at 50-ft intervals on the
centerline of the runway. With 3,000 feet remaining, the white lights change to
alternating white and red, and then all red during last 1,000 feet.
Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL) - Touchdown zone lights are steady white lights placed
in two rows next to the centerline, starting at 100 feet and extending to the midpoint of
the runway, or 3,000 feet beyond the threshold, whichever is less.
Land and Hold Short Lights - When land and hold short operations (LAHSO) are in
effect, flashing white lights may be seen across the runway at the hold short line.
Other runway lighting may include Runway Status Lights (RWSL), which includes
Runway Entrance Lights (RELs), the Takeoff Hold Light Array (THL), Runway
Intersection Lights (RILs), and the Final Approach Runway Occupancy Signal (FAROS).
These lights work in conjunction with surveillance systems and are fully automated. They
assist in informing pilots and ground vehicle operators when it's safe to enter or cross a
runway

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Wind Rose Diagram

A wind rose is a graphic tool used by meteorologists to give a succinct view of how wind speed
and direction are typically distributed at a particular location. Historically, wind roses were
predecessors of the compass rose (found on charts), as there was no differentiation between a
cardinal direction and the wind which blew from such a direction. Using a polar coordinate
system of gridding, the frequency of winds over a time period is plotted by wind direction, with
color bands showing wind speed ranges. The direction of the longest spoke shows the wind
direction with the greatest frequency.
Type – I: This type of wind rose is illustrated in fig. the radial lines indicate the wind direction
and each circle represents the duration of wind. The values are plotted along the north
direction in fig similarly other values are also plotted along the respective directions. All plotted
points are then joined by straight lines. The best direction of runway is usually along the
direction of the longest lone on wind rose diagram. If deviation of wind direction up to 22.5º +
11.25ºfrom their direction of runway is thus along NS direction of landing and takeoff is
permissible the percentage of time in a year during which runway can safely be used for landing
and takeoff will be obtained by summing the percentages of time along NNW, N, NNE, SSE, S
and SSW directions. This comes to 57.6 percent. The total percentage of the time therefore
comes to 57.0 + 13.5 = 70.5. This type of wind rose does not account for the effect of cross
wind component.
Type – II: This type of wind rose is illustrated in fig. the wind data as in the previous type is used
for this case. Each circle represents the wind intensity to some scale. The values entered in each
segment represent the percentage of time in a year during which the wind having a particular
intensity blows from the respective direction. The procedure for determining the orientation of
runway from this type of wind rose is described below. Draw three equi spaced parallel lines on
a transparent paper strip in such a way that the distance between the two nearby parallel lines
is equal to the permissible cross wind component. This distance is measured with the same
scale with which the wind rose diagram is drawn the permissible cross wind component is
25kph. Place the transparent paper strip over the wind rose diagram in such a way that the
central line passes through the centre of the diagram. With the centre of wind rose rotate the
tracing paper and place it in such a position that the sum of all the values indicating the
duration of wind within the two outer parallel lines is the maximum. The runway should be thus
oriented along the direction indicated by the central line. The wind coverage can be calculated
by summing up all the percentages.

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Method Of Drawing Wind Rose Diagram (Type-I):

(1) Make total of Columns 2, 3, and 4.
(2) Assume suitable scale according to the maximum value of column o col. (5)
(3) Divide the maximum value at least 5 equal parts and draw draw concentric circles taking
radius
as each part as shown in figure.
(4) Now mark each value of column (5) corresponding to col. (1) on radial radial directions.
(5) Join all points with straight and then you will get a figure just like leafs of rose flower known
as wind rose.
(6) The direction of leafs will give you direction of runway which is known as the best
orientation
of runway.
(7) The value of grand total in Percent (x%) is known as the maximum wind coverage.
(8) Subtract grand total, x % (maximum wind coverage) from 100 that is (100-x ) % = y %.
(9) The value y % is known as calm period which shows that the intensity of wind less than 6.4
km/hr at thhe site of airport.

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Design alternatives
Description of Runway Alternatives
All of the runway development alternatives (except Alternative 1) include the construction of a
parallel taxiway, associated lighting, and required pavement markings, in accordance with FAA
AC 150/5300-13, for an Airport Reference Code of C-III.

Alternative 1 (No-Build)
Alternative 1 involves no new runway construction and is generally described as
follows:
• Displace threshold approximately 900 feet at the Runway 6 end
• Displace threshold approximately 500 feet at the Runway 24 end
• Implement standard RSA 1,000 feet beyond both runway thresholds
• 6,000-foot runway length available for take-offs on Runway 6
• 5,600-foot runway length available for take-offs on Runway 24
This alternative may require the relocation, construction, and/or the acquisition of the
following:
• CAT II Approach Lighting System (R/W 24 end)
• Runway centerline lighting system
• Touchdown zone lighting system (R/W 24 end)
• Aviation easement acquisition
Alternative 1 does not meet the runway length requirements. It is not practical to implement
the required runway safety area, runway object free area, or runway protection zones, and
also provide the runway length that is needed to satisfy aviation demand for the planning
period. Therefore, at this time, Alternative 1 (No-Build) is not considered feasible and it is
the consultant's recommendation not to evaluate it further.

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Alternative 2
Alternative 2) is generally described as follows:
• Extend Runway 24 end 900 feet
• Displace threshold approximately 900 feet at the Runway 6 end
• Implement standard RSA 1,000 feet beyond both runway thresholds
• 6,500-foot runway length available for take-offs on Runway 24
• 7,400-foot runway length available for take-offs on Runway 6
Erie International Airport-Master Plan – Final Report
6-4
Alternative 2 may require the relocation, construction, and/or the acquisition of the
following:
• CAT II Approach Lighting System (R/W 24 end)
• Runway centerline lighting system
• Touchdown zone lighting system (R/W 24 end)
• Road relocation/closure
• Land acquisition
• Residential/commercial relocation
• Avigation easement acquisition/obstruction removal
With Alternative 2, the runway length requirement for take-off on the Runway 6 end is
nearly achieved with the implementation of declared distances. The runway length needed
for take-off on the Runway 24 end cannot be achieved, even with the implementation of
declared distances. Alternative 2 is considered a reasonable and feasible alternative to
evaluate further, since it comes close to satisfying the runway length requirement for taking
off on Runway 6.

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Alternative 3
Alternative 3 is generally described as follows:
• Extend Runway 24 end 1,900 feet
• Displace threshold approximately 900 feet at the Runway 6 end
• Implement standard RSA 1,000 feet beyond both runway thresholds
• 7,500-foot runway length available for take-offs on Runway 24
• 8,400-foot runway length available for take-offs on Runway 6
This alternative may require the relocation, construction, and/or the acquisition of the
following:
• CAT II Approach Lighting System (R/W 24 end)
• Runway centerline lighting system
• Touchdown zone lighting system (R/W 24 end)
• Road relocation/closure
• Land acquisition
• Residential/commercial relocation
• Avigation easement acquisition/obstruction removal
With Alternative 3, the runway length requirement for take-off on the Runway 6 end can be
achieved and is exceeded with the implementation of declared distances. The runway length
needed for take-off on the Runway 24 end can also be achieved with the implementation of
declared distances. Therefore, Alternative 3 is considered a reasonable and feasible
alternative to evaluate further.

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Alternative 4
Alternative 4 is generally described as follows:
• Extend Runway 24 end 1,100 feet
• Extend Runway 6 end 900 feet
• Displace threshold 1,000 feet at Runway 6 end
• Implement standard RSA 1,000 feet beyond both runway thresholds
• 7,500-foot runway length available for take-offs on Runway 24
• 8,500-foot runway length available for take-offs on Runway 6
Alternative 4 may require the relocation, construction, and/or the acquisition of the
following:
• CAT II Approach Lighting System (R/W 24 end)
• Runway centerline lighting system
• Touchdown zone lighting system (R/W 24 end)
• Road relocation/closure
• Land acquisition
• Residential/commercial relocation
• Avigation easement acquisition/obstruction removal
With Alternative 4, the runway length requirement for take-off on the Runway 6 end can be
achieved and is exceeded with the implementation of declared distances. The runway length
needed for take-off on the Runway 24 end can also be achieved with the implementation of
declared distances. However, Alternative 4 affects an additional westerly community and
two roads (Asbury Road and Powell Avenue) rather than one (Powell Avenue) as shown in
other alternatives. It exceeds the runway lengths requirements in general and only benefits
take-offs on Runway 6 (which is not the primary runway end for take-offs and landings).
With these reservations, Alternative 4 is considered a reasonable and feasible alternative to
evaluate further.

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Alternative 5
Alternative 5 includes a new primary runway orientation at the existing site and
is generally described as follows:
• Construct a new 7,500-foot runway
• Implement standard RSA 1,000 feet beyond both runway thresholds
This alternative may require the relocation, construction, and/or the acquisition of the
following:
• CAT II Approach Lighting System (R/W 24 end)
• Runway centerline lighting system
• Touchdown zone lighting system (R/W 24 end)
• Road relocation/closure
• Land acquisition
• Residential/commercial relocation
• Avigation easement acquisition/obstruction removal
A reorientation of a runway may be considered to provide better wind coverage or additional
runway length on a constrained site. Based on the current analysis, it is not practical to
reorient Runway 6-24 because the construction of a new runway at a different orientation
requires complete new construction of the runway, increasing overall project costs
dramatically. In addition, it may require the Airport to be closed for a period of time to
accommodate the required construction activity.
Improved wind coverage for a potentially re-oriented runway would make this alternative a
more desirable alternative to consider given that the primary runway only meets wind
coverage criteria for winds in excess of 16 knots. Based on a review of the wind coverage at
the Airport, a re-oriented runway parallel to the existing railroad would not improve wind
coverage. A re-orientated runway parallel to the railroad would decrease the wind coverage
by approximately one percentage point.
The inconvenience to the traveling public together with the loss of revenue that would result
if the Airport were to close during construction, and impacts to residential neighborhoods
that were not previously impacted, weighed against any potential benefits, make this
alternative not practical or economically feasible.
If it were demonstrated that re-orienting the runway was the best option for meeting the
aviation demand for the planning period, relocating the Airport would then become an
alternative that should be re-visited and evaluated in detail. At this time, Alternative 5 is not
considered feasible and it is the consultant's recommendation not to evaluate it further.

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Alternative 6 (for planning purposes only)

Alternative 6) is generally described as follows:
• Extend Runway 24 end 2,500 feet
• Displace threshold approximately 900 feet at the Runway 6 end
• Implement standard RSA 1,000 feet beyond both runway thresholds
• 8,100-foot runway length available for take-offs on Runway 24
• 9,000-foot runway length available for take-offs on Runway 6
This alternative may require the relocation, construction, and/or the acquisition of the
following:
• CAT II Approach Lighting System (R/W 24 end)
• Runway centerline lighting system
• Touchdown zone lighting system (R/W 24 end)
• Road relocation/closure
• Land acquisition
• Residential/commercial relocation
• Avigation easement acquisition/obstruction removal
A preliminary analysis indicates that it is impractical to implement the required runway
safety area and runway protection zones with a 2,500-foot extension of Runway 24. The
purpose and need for a 9,000-foot runway has not been established or subsequently approved
by the FAA. This alternative is provided for planning purposes only to illustrate the potential
impacts associated with an extension as shown. At this time, Alternative 6 is not considered
a reasonable and feasible alternative to evaluate further.

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Airport operations manual

Operations Manual (OM) describes your operation and acts as the go to resource to ensure
everyone on your team can operate safely and efficiently together. Known by a variety of names
such as Flight, Company or General Operations Manual, a quality OM can improve everything
from streamlining processes to onboarding new employees.

An Operations Manual May Be Required

Depending on the state of registry of the aircraft and location of the primary business, an OM
may be required by the relevant regulatory authorities. Additionally, even for operators that are
not required to have an OM, it may still be recommended depending on areas and types of
operation. A few examples are as follows:
 Part NCC operators – Required, regardless of number of pilots. Part NCC can also apply to
single-pilot aircraft.
 Bermuda-registered operators (OTAR Part 125) – Required, regardless of pilot count.
 FAA-registered operators
o Part 135 – Required
o Part 91 – Strongly recommended
 Operators following a third party standard (e.g., IS-BAH, AUVSI Top Certification, etc.) –
Required

It Can Improve Business Efficiency and Safety

The main advantage of having an OM is that your procedures and policies are formalized and
standardized by being consolidated in one manual . The OM helps ensure business continuity for
yourself, when contracting personnel, making additions to the team, or even helping with staff
turnover. It will always be clear to the team what’s expected of them since they can reference the
manual if questions should arise. Without this standardization, two people might perform the
same duty in different ways, which could lead to efficiency, or worse, safety problems. An OM
can also help ensure all personnel are following the same guidance to prevent misunderstandings.

Operations Manual for Single-pilot Operators

As a single-pilot operator, it’s easier to “bend” the rules for yourself. When you are flying with
someone else, the other person can tell you if you’re deviating from procedures, but when you’re
alone, it’s more difficult to realize this may be happening. Having an Operations Manual (OM)
can help set boundaries and encourages you to stick to the rules. An OM can become a checklist,
and you can track how many times you deviate from the manual. If this happens too often, you
can self-check your operation, analyze risks, and adjust what you are doing accordingly.

Every day examples:

Simplify Maintenance
As a single pilot operator, it’s unlikely you would be doing your own maintenance or have an in-
house team. If you are working with contract maintenance then the OM can be used to inform
any Approved Maintenance Organization (AMO) working on the aircraft of what you expect in
terms of maintenance. This might typically be done by giving them a copy of the maintenance
control system.

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 Show Commitment to Safety

Having an OM with an SMS that is appropriate for a single pilot operation can help you
demonstrate to your passengers your commitment to safety and ensuring professional standards
of service.

Operations Manual for FBO Operators

Standardizing policies and procedures in one document will provide your team with a resource to
use when they have questions about what is expected of them or how to perform a task. This is
particularly useful if you have seasonal employees, temp/contract workers, or certain roles with
higher turn-over. Standardization also encourages safety and helps maintain customer service
levels since personnel will be performing tasks in a consistent way.
Every day examples:
 Ensure Customer Service
There are many different customers passing through an FBO on any given day. Some you may
see regularly and others only once. Formalizing the expected procedures across your entire team
will ensure everyone is operating the same way and in return your customers will always be
getting the same experience every time they visit your facilities.
 Establish Emergency Response
Depending on the operation it may or may not be best to have a standalone Emergency Response
Plan. For those operations where a separate ERP doesn’t make sense, the OM will commonly
contain a basic Emergency Response Plan to be used when responding to a variety of
emergencies.
 Streamline Training and On-boarding
From ground personnel to administrative staff, as you bring on new employees, contractors, or
move personnel from one department to another, the OM can be used as the basis for training.
The manual should cover items like ground support equipment, security procedures, SMS, and
both ramp and facility operations.

Operations Manual for Drone Operators

Most drone departments are either still young or likely just getting started, so it’s even more
important to have a documented standard for operating to ensure improved safety. The OM will
give you and your teams guidance for areas such as safety, mission operations, emergencies,
training, maintenance, and security. Formalizing procedures is also advantageous when
competing for contracts, since it can be used as evidence that the department is going above and
beyond to ensure jobs are done safely, effectively, and to a consistent level of quality.
Every day examples:
 Demonstrate Safety
It is becoming more and more common that commercial drone operators prove they are operating
to a minimum safety standard. An OM with SMS is a common requirement for third-party audit
standards.
 Ensure Consistency Across a Variety of Missions
Your crews may be operating different types of missions and/or in different operating
environments. Where and what they are doing may change on a rotating basis or each day.
Documenting procedures for operations based on location and mission should ensure they have a
preflight resource they can consult to review procedural and safety requirements.

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Operations Manual for Larger Operations

Having an OM for larger operations is especially useful in getting everyone on the same page.
For a large group of people, it’s easier to have standardized procedures in place, particularly
when team members are rarely together in the same location. An OM also helps decrease
complexity during onboarding and offboarding.
The OM can be critical when operating different aircraft types or for different types of missions,
as it should contain SOPs unique to each aircraft and mission. Additionally, in cases when it is
appropriate, differences in scheduling, duty times, training, and security guidance should also be
outlined. Some operators go so far as to have a separate Operating Procedures section for each
aircraft or mission type so they are clearly different with little to no overlap.
Every day examples:
 Simplify Infrequently Used Processes
It can be hard to remember exactly what you need to do for things you don’t do regularly or only
do once a year. Documenting these important processes, such as PIC upgrade requirements, crew
training requirements, aircraft parts handling, etc. will give you an easy to follow checklist
without having to go back and dig through past records.
 Allow Your Team to be More Efficient
All kinds of new situations are likely to pop-up for your team during their day-to-day. Describing
procedures for specific scenarios, such as what circumstances require a FRAT or MRAT to be
used, or the requirements to fly into an airport that is particularly risky, small, etc., will ensure
the guidance they need is always readily available.
Getting a Customized Operations Manual
AviationManuals makes creating a customized Operations Manual – with SMS included – really
easy. Bringing together our knowledge from working with thousands of operators, combined
with regulatory sources, industry best practices, IS-BAO, AUVSI Top Program, and more, we
can work with you to build a manual that reflects the needs of your particular operation.

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