ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART

AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

E T HI OPI A
Cover photographs: ©FAO/AU/Yohannes Zirotti
 ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART
AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

Melaku Jirata, Sebastian Grey and Edward Kilawe

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Addis Ababa 2016
DISCLAIMER
Recommended citation:
FAO, 2016.
Ethiopia Climate-Smart Agriculture Scoping Study.
by Jirata, M., Grey, S. and Kilawe, E.
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

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CONTENTS
PREFACE v
Acknowledgements vi
Acronyms vii
Executive Summary ix

1
Background 1
1.1 Land, Agriculture and Food Security 1
1.2 Objective of the Study 2
1.3 Study Methodology 2

2
Farming Systems and CSA Technologies and Practices 3
2.1 Existing Farming Systems 3
2.2 Climate-Smart Agriculture Practices 5
2.2.1 CSA Practices and Technologies Implemented and Adopted 5
2.2.2 Traditional CSA Practices 17
2.3 CSA and Biophysical Conditions 18

3
CSA Programmes and Projects

20

4
Stakeholders in CSA Activities 25
4.1 Government Ministries, Departments and Units 25
4.2 NGOs 27
4.3 International Development Agencies 29
4.4 Research Organizations 29

5
Policies, Strategies and Institutions Relevant to CSA 31
5.1 Policies and Strategies 31
5.2 Institutions 34
5.3 Effectiveness of CSA Policies, Strategies and Institutions 35

6
Gender and CSA 36

7
Conclusions and Recommendations 37
7.1 Conclusions 37
7.2 Key Challenges to Implementing CSA in Ethiopia 38
7.3 Untapped Opportunities 39
7.4 Recommendations 40

References 41

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | iii

Figures
Figure 1: Importance of smallholder farming systems in Ethiopia 4
Figure 2: GHG emissions in Ethiopian agriculture in 2012 5
Figure 3: Summary of some common CSA practices in Ethiopia 13
Figure 4: Summary of key policies relevant to CSA in Ethiopia 33

Boxes
Box 1: Case Study 1 - Debremawi Learning Watershed Site 6
Box 2: Socio-economic and environmental impacts of conservation agriculture 9
Box 3: Conservation agriculture principles, practices and technologies in Ethiopia 10
Box 4: Challenges to conservation agriculture promotion in Ethiopia 12
Box 5: Case Study 2 - Adoption of conservation agriculture in Sibusire woreda
of Oromia Regional State 14
Box 6: Conservation agriculture on vertisols in Ethiopia 19
Box 7: Use of the chisel plough for conservation agriculture in Ethiopia 23
Box 8: Conservation agriculture research in Ethiopia 29

iv | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

Preface
Agriculture is the mainstay of the Ethiopian population and a key sector of the country’s economy. However, on
account of climatic, social and institutional factors contributing to low production and productivity, agriculture is
unable to feed the population.

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA), as defined and presented by FAO at the Hague Conference on Agriculture, Food
Security and Climate Change in 2010, contributes to the achievement of sustainable development goals. It integrates
the three dimensions of sustainable development (economic, social and environmental) by jointly addressing food
security and climate challenges. CSA is composed of three main pillars – sustainably increasing agricultural productivity
and incomes; adapting and building resilience to climate change; and reducing and/or removing greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions, where possible.

This report on CSA in Ethiopia was initiated by the FAO Sub-regional Office for Eastern Africa to identify and
document existing CSA practices in the country that enable stakeholders to understand the opportunities and
constraints of adopting particular CSA technologies or practices. There is opportunity to use this information to
inform agricultural related policies, programmes and projects in the country with the aim of sustainably increasing
agricultural production and productivity; building resilience to climate-related hazards; and contributing to climate
change mitigation.

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | v

 Acknowledgements
FAO acknowledges the contribution of COMESA through the project “FAO Technical Support to the COMESA-EAC-
SADC Programme on Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region (OSRO/
RAF/307/COM)" which has enabled this study and is providing support to other activities aimed at promoting the
upscaling of conservation agriculture and other climate-smart agricultural practices in Eastern and Southern Africa.

The report was prepared by FAO consultant Melaku Jirata and edited by Edward Kilawe and Sebastian Grey from
the FAO Sub-regional Office for Eastern Africa (FAOSFE) and Amare Mengiste of FAO Ethiopia.

The authors express their gratitude to Mitzi du Plessis for managing the editing, design and layout of the publication
in collaboration with graphic designer Elke Momberg.
©FAO/Giulio Napolitano

vi | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

Abbre viations/acronyms

ADLI agricultural development-led industrialization

AfDB African Development Bank
AGP Agricultural Growth Programme
ATA Agricultural Transformation Agency
ACSAA Africa Climate-Smart Agriculture Alliance
AU African Union
BBM broad bed maker
BERSMP Bale Eco-Region Sustainable Management Programme
BOA Bureau of Agriculture
CA conservation agriculture
CAADP Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program
CAWT conservation agriculture with trees
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CCF-E Climate Change Forum - Ethiopia
CDM Clean Development Mechanism
CFGB Canadian Foodgrains Bank
CGIAR Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research
CRGE Climate Resilient Green Economy
CSA climate-smart agriculture
CIMMYT International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center
DA development agents
DRMFS Disaster Risk Management and Food Security
DRSLP Drought Resilient and Sustainable Livelihoods Programme
ECRGE Ethiopian Climate-Resilient Green Economy
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EIAR Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EPACC Ethiopian Programme of Adaptation to Climate Change
FACASI Farm Mechanization and Conservation Agriculture for Sustainable Intensification
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
FGD focus group discussion
FRC Forestry Research Centre
FSP Food Security Programme
FTCs farmers training centres
GDP gross domestic product
GGWSSI Great Green Wall of the Sahara and the Sahel Initiative
GHG greenhouse gas

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | vii

GM-UNCCD Global Mechanism of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
GTP Growth and Transformation Plan
HABP Household Asset Building Programme
icipe International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology
ICRAF International Centre for Research in Agroforestry
ILRI International Livestock Research Institute
IPMS improving productivity and market success
ISD Institute for Sustainable Development
KII key informant interview
LWRC Land and Water Resource Centre
MERET Managing Environmental Resources to Enable Transitions
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
MRV measurement reporting and verification
NAMA Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions
NAPA National Adaptation Program of Action
NARS National Agricultural Research System
NCATF National Conservation Agriculture Task Force
NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development
NGO non-governmental organization
OFWE Oromia Forest and Wildlife Enterprise
PSNP-PW Productive Safety Net Programme – Public Works
RDPS Rural Development Policy and Strategy
REDD+ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation
REST Relief Society of Tigray
SG2000 Sasakawa Global 2000
SIMLESA Sustainable Intensification of Maize-Legume Cropping System for
Food Security in Eastern and Southern Africa
SLM sustainable land management
SLMP Sustainable Land Management Programme
SMS subject-matter specialists
SNNPR Southern Nations, Nationalities and People’s Region
SOC soil organic matter content
TVET technical vocational education and training
UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNFCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
WFP (United Nations) World Food Programme

viii | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Agriculture is the mainstay of the Ethiopian population Agricultural Research (CGIAR) and numerous NGOs.
and a key sector of the country’s economy. The Ethiopian government has put in place a number
of policies, strategies and laws that are designed to
However, on account of climatic, social and institutional support climate change mitigation and adaptation
factors contributing to low production and productivity, and sustainable development. Although the current
agriculture is unable to feed the population. The current policies, strategies and laws related to climate change
study on climate-smart agriculture (CSA) was initiated to and sustainable agriculture in Ethiopia are adequate,
identify and document existing CSA practices in Ethiopia they lack detailed guidelines, manuals and action plans
that enable stakeholders to understand the opportunities and are not sufficiently mainstreamed into existing
and constraints of adopting particular CSA technologies programmes and projects.
or practices.
There is a lack of adequate research findings on CSA
The study methodology includes a desk review of relevant practices in Ethiopia for the various agro-ecology, soil
information, in-depth key informant interviews, collection type, rainfall pattern, farming system, temperature and
of primary qualitative and quantitative data, as well as moisture ranges. Hence, research projects on CSA
field visits to districts undertaking agricultural activities should be supported. Data on CSA and on conservation
pertinent to CSA. agriculture in particular, are insufficient at all levels.

The study indicated that, as part of the improvement Ethiopia lacks knowledge and skills pertaining to
of livelihoods and food security, numerous traditional CSA and conservation agriculture in particular. For
as well as innovative climate adaptation and mitigation purposes of knowledge dissemination, a comprehensive
agricultural development activities are conducted. capacity development approach that builds on the sound
Conservation agriculture is one of the key CSA activities assessment of the needs of all stakeholders is required.
conducted in Ethiopia from 1998 onwards. Since then, Within diversified extension service delivery there is a
numerous trials and development work on conservation need to build the capacity of all NGOs and conservation
agriculture have been undertaken. agriculture implementing organizations with major
emphasis on the extension directorate of the Ministry
Conservation agriculture is promoted mainly by NGOs of Agriculture. It is through the extension system that
and the private sector with support from agricultural the technologies reach the wider community.
offices at all levels. This study found that the promotion
of conservation agriculture technology has been affected
by a lack of common understanding as well as other social
and environmental issues that include open grazing
and complete removal of crop residues. The study also
indicated that there is untapped opportunity for the
wide-scale promotion of conservation agriculture.

Major stakeholders promoting climate-smart agricultural

activities in Ethiopia include the Ministry of Agriculture,
international organizations (FAO, United Nations World
Food Programme), the National Agricultural Research
System (NARS), the Consultative Group for International
©FAO/Giulio Napolitano

“There is untapped opportunity for the

wide-scale promotion of conservation
agriculture.”

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | ix

 ©FAO/AU/Yohannes Zirotti
BACKGROUND
1
1.1 Land, Agriculture and Food Security erratic and unreliable rainfall and the failure of current
agricultural techniques to mitigate such conditions;
The constitution of Ethiopia expressly provides that inefficient use by farmers of agricultural resources such
land and all natural resources are the property of the as soil amendments; and rainwater that contributes to soil
State and the people of Ethiopia. The constitution and degradation. Other contributory factors include limited
the subsequent land laws have created free access to use of improved seed and fertilizers and inadequately
rural land to whosoever wishes to engage in agricultural resourced agricultural extension systems. Moreover,
activities. In reality, free access to land is not practically the dry lowlands experience erratic rainfall at times with
applicable. However, land can be acquired through very severe droughts, the impact of which, together with
inheritance, donation or land transfer through lease land degradation, human population growth and climate
contract. Agricultural land in Ethiopia cannot be sold. change, has greatly impaired the country’s economic and
social development and its food security status.
Agriculture has always been the backbone of the Ethiopian
economy. Agriculture in Ethiopia includes crops, Managing climate variability will help reduce vulnerability
livestock, forestry, fisheries and apiculture. It is the most and pave the way for adaptation to climate change.
important sector of the national economy and the main Climate information and policies are very fundamental
source of livelihoods for 85 percent of the population. to deal with the impacts of climate variability and change
Yet the agriculture sector in Ethiopia is characterized on development and resource management problems.
by low productivity and is unable to meet the food A climate-smart agriculture (CSA) production system
security needs of the people and the country. Ethiopia would consider understanding systems and clients to
is hence characterized by food insecurity emanating enhance institutional capacity for the implementation
from environmental challenges and other structural and and upscaling of CSA practices and approaches.
institutional factors.
The adaptive capacity of communities and the
Smallholder agricultural production remains low, responsiveness of institutions to facilitate actions in CSA
particularly for cereal crops, which is attributed to need to be integrated into research and development.

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | 1

It is therefore important to have a proactive platform for In-depth key informant interviews
governmental institutions, NGOs, donors, the private Key informant interviews (KIIs) were conducted with
sector and civil society organizations in Ethiopia to fill officials and experts from relevant government ministries
gaps and enhance collective action on CSA. and departments as well as from various international,
national, community-based, civil-society and private-
1.2 Objective of the Study sector organizations. The interviews were conducted
in accordance with a discussion guide based on the
The CSA scoping study was initiated by FAO with terms of reference for the report. The KIIs helped to
the objective of identifying and documenting existing identify the roles and responsibilities of organizations
CSA practices in Ethiopia that enable stakeholders to at national, regional and woreda (district) levels as well
understand the opportunities and constraints to adopting as existing constraints and opportunities to promote
particular CSA technologies or practices. Major activities and scale up CSA.
conducted included:
Collection of primary qualitative and quantitative
• reviewing CSA practices and technologies that have data
been adopted and implemented; Field visits were conducted to woredas that are undertaking
• identifying key CSA programmes and projects; agricultural activities pertinent to CSA. Data were
• mapping of stakeholders involved in past and present collected through participatory rapid assessment methods.
CSA activities; This involved interviewing farmers and conducting focus
• identifying constraints faced by the farmers and group discussions with farmers and extension agents. In
opportunities in using the various techniques; addition, discussions were held with input dealers on
• identifying key policies and institutions relevant to various aspects of their operations.
CSA in the country;
• identifying the impact of CSA practices and policies
on gender equity;
• identifying key challenges and untapped opportunities;
and
• providing recommendations that stem from the
analysis.

1.3 Study Methodology

The main study methodology involved the collection

of primary and secondary data on CSA from various
sources. More specifically the study involved:

Desk review of relevant information

This required a desk review and sourcing of information
from available sources which included reports and
documents on CSA in Ethiopia, CSA meeting and
conference proceedings, annual progress reports for some
CSA projects, organizational databases and the Internet.
©FAO/AU/Yohannes Zirotti

It involved the review of current policy documents,

guidelines, strategies and manuals related to CSA in
Ethiopia. These documents were reviewed throughout
the study period and key issues were identified for further
interrogation and consideration. Information from the
desk review was moreover used to inform the design of
the data collection tool (questionnaire).

2 | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

 ©FAO/AU/Yohannes Zirotti
2
FARMING SYSTEMS AND CLIMATE-SMAR T
AGRICULTURE TECHNOLOGIES AND PR AC TICES

2.1 Existing Farming Systems bean, field peas, lentils, chickpeas and haricot beans; oil
seeds like sesame, linseed, niger seed and rapeseed; and
The farming system in Ethiopia can be classified into five different types of fruits and vegetables (Central Statistical
major categories – the highland mixed farming system, Agency of Ethiopia, 2011). Even though the country is
lowland mixed agriculture, the pastoral system, shifting known to produce various types of crops, food insecurity
cultivation and commercial agriculture (Befekadu and is a major challenge.
Berhanu, 2000).

In Ethiopia over 95 percent of the annual gross total “Diverse agro-ecological conditions enable
agricultural output of the country is said to be generated
Ethiopia to grow a large variety of crops,
from smallholder farmers with an average farm size
which include cereals like teff, wheat,
ranging from 0.5 to 2 hectares. The contribution of
medium to large-scale commercial farms to gross total maize and barley; pulses like horse bean,
agricultural output is only about five percent (Central field peas, lentils, chickpeas and haricot
Statistical Agency of Ethiopia, 2011). Smallholder beans; oil seeds like sesame, linseed, niger
agriculture is the focus of this study. seed and rapeseed; and different types of
fruits and vegetables.”
The existence of diverse agro-ecological conditions enables
Ethiopia to grow a large variety of crops, which include
cereals like teff, wheat, maize and barley; pulses like horse

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | 3

Ethiopia has the largest livestock population in Africa and
the tenth largest in the world. Livestock is an integral part

©FAO/Giulio Napolitano
of the farming systems in the country. It is the source of
many social and economic values such as food, draught
power, fuel, cash income, security and investment in both
the highlands and the lowlands as well as the pastoral
farming systems. As in the case of crops, the sector makes
a significant contribution to GDP and is a major source of
foreign exchange. However, the livestock resource of the
country is also characterized by low productivity levels.
At present the per capita consumption of milk and meat
is estimated to be the lowest in the world.

The government of Ethiopia has given top priority to

the agricultural sector and has taken a number of steps
to increase productivity. The strong dependence of the
country on agriculture, which is very sensitive to climate
variability and change, is a cause for concern.

Ethiopia’s annual greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions

were estimated at 150 Mt CO2e in 2010, with 50 percent
and 37 percent of these emissions resulting from
the agricultural and forestry sectors respectively. In
agriculture, livestock production accounted for more than
40 percent of the emissions, while in forestry the main
culprit was deforestation for expansion of agricultural
land, which accounted for over 50 percent of forestry-
related emissions, followed by fuelwood consumption
at 46 percent of forestry-related emissions. Figure 2
indicates the major sources of GHG emissions within
the agriculture sector1 of Ethiopia. The largest proportion
of emissions results from enteric fermentation, followed
by manure left on pasture, both of which are related to
livestock production.

Farming system Smallholder agriculture Commercial agriculture

Highland mixed agriculture 95% of the annual gross total

agricultural output of the
Lowland mixed agriculture country
Commercial farms contribute
to only 5% of gross total
Pastoral and agropastoral agricultural output
farming Average farm size ranging
from 0.5 to 2 hectares
Shifting cultivation

Figure 1: Importance of smallholder farming systems in Ethiopia

1 FAOSTAT, 2015

4 | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

 Burning – Crop residues 0% 4% Burning – Savannah
Crop residues 1%

Manure left on pasture 37% 53% Enteric fermentation

Manure applied to soils 1% 2% Manure management

Synthetic fertilizers 2% 0% Rice cultivation

Figure 2: GHG emissions in Ethiopian agriculture in 2012 (FAOSTAT, 2015)

2.2 Climate-Smart Agriculture Practices Currently, agricultural development activities carried out
in the country are supported by a number of policies,
Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is defined by FAO (2010) strategies and institutions. Of the numerous agricultural
as agriculture that sustainably increases productivity, development activities conducted, mention should be
enhances resilience of livelihoods and ecosystems, reduces made of those that are considered important in addressing
and/or removes greenhouse gases (GHGs) and enhances issues related to climate change and are contributing
achievement of national food security and development to climate change adaptation and mitigation. Such
goals. agricultural practices in Ethiopia include integrated
watershed management, integrated soil fertility
CSA includes proven practical techniques such as management, sustainable land management, conservation
mulching, intercropping, conservation agriculture, agriculture, agroforestry, crop residue management,
crop rotation, integrated crop-livestock management, composting, promotion of improved livestock feed and
agroforestry, improved grazing and improved water rangeland management.
management. CSA also involves innovative practices
such as improved weather forecasting, early-warning Integrated watershed management: Ethiopia is one of
systems and climate-risk insurance. CSA aims to get the countries seriously affected by land degradation, and
existing technologies off the shelf and into the hands addressing this problem is a major priority for the country.
of farmers, as well as to develop new technologies such In Ethiopia integrated watershed management is conducted
as drought-tolerant or flood-tolerant crops to meet the through various projects and programmes, which include
demands of the changing climate. the Sustainable Land Management Programmes (SLMP1
and SLMP2), Managing Environmental Resources to
2.2.1 CSA practices and technologies implemented Enable Transitions to more Sustainable Livelihoods
and adopted (MERET) project, Productive Safety Nets Programme
As part of livelihoods and food security improvement, – Public Works (PSNP-PW) and numerous NGOs. CSA
a multitude of agricultural development activities are in SLMP2 refers to proven practical techniques — such
conducted in Ethiopia, both traditionally and innovatively. as mulching, intercropping, conservation agriculture,

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | 5

no-till, crop rotation, cover cropping, integrated crop- Reports indicate that land and crop production and
livestock management, agroforestry, improved grazing productivity have increased due to an increase in land
and improved water management — and innovative available for cultivation, increased availability of water for
practices such as use of drought-resistant food crops. In irrigation, improvement in the fertility status of the soil
an effort to implement this programme in many parts of as well as improved agronomic practices. It is reported
the country, reports indicate that to date about 1 708 100 that soil organic matter content sequestration can be
hectares of land were treated under area closures; and achieved by implementing sustainable land management
appropriate physical and biological soil conservation practices that add high amounts of biomass to the soil,
methods were applied to 2 076 000 hectares of land. cause minimal soil disturbance, conserve soil and water,
improve soil structure and enhance activity and species
diversity of soil fauna (Woodfine, 2009).

Box 1: Case Study 1 - Debremawi Learning Watershed Site

Debremawi Watershed is located in the Yilmanadensa District of Amhara Regional State. It has an estimated
total area of 700 hectares, with a total population of 3 000 households in two kebeles –Debremawi and
Fereswega. The area is characterized by midland agro-ecology and adequate rainfall. Agriculture in the form of
crop production and livestock rearing is the mainstay of the population. Maize is the main crop grown, while
teff, barley, faba bean and haricot bean are also major crops in the watershed. Farmers in the watershed also
rear cattle and small ruminants (sheep and goats). Agricultural productivity in the watershed is constrained
by numerous factors, particularly severe soil erosion and a decline in soil fertility, which are compounded by
the complete removal of crop residue for livestock feed and fuelwood while inadequate extension services
also play a role. It is to deal with this challenge that an NGO known as the Water and Land Resource Centre
(WLRC), in collaboration with Amhara Region Natural Resource Management Bureau, started an intervention
in 2012. The objective was to curb environmental degradation, improve agricultural productivity and contribute
to increased food security of the population. In order to accomplish this objective, activities conducted in
the watershed include physical soil conservation, demonstration of improved crop varieties and improved
livestock management.

Capacity building in the community through training of development agents and farmers and provision of
inputs like improved seeds are conducted by the NGO. In addition, the community is assisted in developing
their resilience to climate change and environmental degradation through creating community consensus on
these and other environmental hazards. As a result of the WLRCs’ work, the community agreed to enclose
degraded land and to use it for animal feed through a cut-and-carry system.

Enclosure of the degraded lands and avoiding open grazing

has brought a tremendous change to the environment of
the area within a short period of time. Within two years,
degraded lands were covered with vegetation (trees and
grasses) and gullies had started refilling. Since open grazing
is avoided, some portion of the crop residues are left on
the soil, which leads to increased soil organic matter. Soil
©FAO/Melaku Jirata

erosion has been drastically reduced and water infiltration

has improved. Farmers have begun adopting crop varieties
that are suitable to their environment and local needs. The
work done so far has created suitable conditions for farmers
to adopt other CSA technologies such as conservation
agriculture, small-scale irrigation, planting of fruit trees Debremawi Learning Watershed with lush
and establishment of feed lots. vegetation on previously degraded land

6 | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

Integrated soil fertility management: The Ministry on the plots of 77 farmers by Sasakawa Global (SG2000),
of Agriculture has recently been placing emphasis on Makobu and regional agricultural development bureaus.
soil fertility management so as to increase agricultural
productivity and overcome the current challenges of On average, the yields of the 1998/99 conservation
food insecurity. Some programmes currently underway agriculture demonstration plots were similar to the
by the Ministry of Agriculture include national soil average yield of conventional tillage plots. During this
fertility mapping, management of vertisols and acidic initial introduction period of conservation agriculture,
soils, collection of information on soils from various further trials were carried out between 1999 and 2003
stakeholders and implementation of soil fertility at the Jima, Bako and Melkasa research centres on
management practices recommended by research. maize, sorghum and teff. These trials indicated that
Improving farmers’ capacity in improved soil fertility conservation tillage plots gave higher yields compared
management is a programme conducted nationwide, with the conventional tillage (Tesfa, 2001; Worku, 2001;
mainly through national and regional extension. A Tolesa, 2001). The studies also indicated lower production
number of NGOs and development partners are also costs for conservation agriculture fields. The general
undertaking agricultural development activities related pattern emerging from these data is that yields increase
to soil fertility improvement. The main activities being both in the short and long term as a result of conservation
promoted include training and promotion of appropriate agriculture. This is consistent with reviews of research
fertilizer application, composting, crop rotation and in Latin America, Africa and Asia that conclude that
intercropping with a focus on improving food security. conservation agriculture yields are between 20 to 120
As a result, large numbers of farmers have adopted percent higher than those in conventional agriculture
improved fertilizer application, compost preparation (Kassam et al., 2009; Derpsch et al., 2010). There are
and application as well as intercropping. Recent reports several mechanisms by which conservation agriculture
indicate that due to the improved extension services in can improve yields. Mulching and residue management
these areas, significant improvements have been made can increase soil fertility and the availability of nutrients
in crop productivity. to plants. Improved water availability throughout the
cropping cycle is another key mechanism of yield
As part of integrated soil fertility management, promotion improvement or stabilization.
of composting was set as a target in the climate change
component of the Growth and Transformation Plan Since the initial trials and introduction, conservation
(GTP). Hence the Ministry of Agriculture, through its agriculture has been promoted by different organizations
regional offices, is promoting the preparation and use including FAO, the Agricultural Transformation Agency
of compost as a major agricultural extension activity in (ATA), the International Maize and Wheat Improvement
all regional states of Ethiopia. Compost is an organic Center (CIMMYT) and a number of NGOs such as
matter resource that has the ability to improve the Ethiopia Wetland, FH Ethiopia, Self Help Africa, AGRA,
chemical, physical and biological characteristics of soils. Canadian Foodgrains Bank and Wolayita Terepeza
The advantages of using organic manure include the Development Association, among others. In 2010 FAO, in
addition of nutrients to the soil and the sequestration collaboration with the Federal and Regional Agricultural
of carbon dioxide, thereby reducing its adverse effects Offices, provided technical and financial support for
on global warming. conservation agriculture promotion in Ethiopia.
Accordingly, 24 conservation agriculture demonstration
Although activities carried out so far are encouraging, plots were established, involving 600 smallholder farmers
agricultural production in Ethiopia is characterized in 12 woredas of the Amhara, Oromia and Tigray regions.
by low crop productivity owing to a decline in soil FAO also introduced a range of conservation agriculture
fertility. The lack of appropriate and adequate soil fertility equipment including jab planters and oxen-drawn seed
management is still a major challenge in smallholder and fertilizer planters in those same woredas in 2010 and
agricultural production. supported the training of 72 extension agents to conduct
conservation agriculture farmer field schools, of which
Conservation agriculture: In Ethiopia, soil conservation 32 were also trained in the assembly and operation of
practices such as reduced tillage have long been undertaken conservation agriculture equipment. In 2012 and 2013,
by farmers; however, the promotion of conservation ATA supported 6 000 farmers in seven woredas to practise
agriculture technology began in earnest in 1998 through conservation agriculture as well as training 327 experts
the joint promotion and demonstration of the technology and 750 development agents in conservation agriculture

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | 7

in selected woredas in the country. ATA’s target for 2014 Wondwossen et al. (2008) reported that adopters of three
was to have 50 000 farmers practising conservation components of conservation agriculture (mulching,
agriculture in 57 woredas across the country. CIMMYT, minimum ploughing and crop rotation) have higher
in collaboration with national and regional research yields than non-adopters. Similarly, adoption of the three
organizations (for example the Ethiopian Institute of components substantially increases labour productivity
Agricultural Research [EIAR]), has been conducting (yield per unit of labour). Wondwossen et al. (2008)
conservation agriculture trials and demonstrations in further reported that farmers in teff-growing areas have
numerous parts of the country through a programme stronger incentives to adopt conservation agriculture
known as Sustainable Intensification of Maize-Legume technology as teff is more labour intensive than maize.
Cropping Systems for Food Security in Eastern and The report also indicated that crop yields increase as more
Southern Africa (SIMLESA). components of conservation agriculture are adopted, and
that the amount of labour per unit of crop yield declines
In terms of adoption of conservation agriculture, as more components of conservation agriculture are
information from various sources indicates that in areas practised, implying that there are labour savings from full
where conservation agriculture has been adequately adoption of all the conservation agriculture principles.
demonstrated, for example in some parts of Amhara,
Oromia and Tigray, adoption has been reported to be It has also been reported that in areas where weed
significant. Some of these areas include West Gojam problems are prevalent, most farmers will easily adopt
Zone, East Gojam Zone and South Gonder Zone of herbicide use as part of their farming practice. In Adaa
Amhara Regional State and West Wollega Zone, East District, where teff crop is important, farmers practise
Wollega Zone, South Shewa Zone and West Shewa Zone minimum ploughing, which is much more affordable
of Oromia Regional State. These are areas that are known since teff requires frequent ploughing. Conservation
for teff and maize production. agriculture saves more labour on teff, which requires
intensive ploughing four to six times before planting.
A study conducted at Bako and Adaa woreda of Oromia Minimum tillage also represents an important economic
Region indicated that more than half (57.4 percent) of appeal to farmers in terms of reducing production costs,
the sample respondents were found to be adopting a particularly expenditure on labour, seeds and other
component or more of the conservation tillage technology yield-improving inputs.
package. Among these adopters, 10 percent have used only
one component, 75 percent have used two components In general, however, adequate data on the adoption
and 15 percent have used all three components. Bako and of conservation agriculture in Ethiopia are not well
Adaa are maize and teff-growing woredas, respectively. documented and available at all levels.
©FAO/Tamiru Legesse

8 | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

Box 2: Socio-economic and environmental impacts of conservation agriculture

Environment, biodiversity and soils: Conservation agriculture has a significant impact in reducing soil
erosion through increased rainwater infiltration and buildup of soil organic matter for increased soil moisture
storage. Conservation agriculture can improve biodiversity at farm and community level and support improved
ecosystem services such as water and nutrient cycling. It can also support flood control through improved
water infiltration in agricultural fields.

Climate change mitigation: Evidence on conservation agriculture, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and
carbon sequestration indicates that conservation agriculture can help mitigate climate change by reducing
existing emission sources and sequestering carbon in soils and plant biomass. Baker et al. (2007) estimate
that the conversion of all croplands to conservation tillage globally could sequester 25 Gt C over the next
50 years. This is equivalent to 1 833 Mt CO2-eq/yr, making conservation tillage among the most significant
opportunities from all sectors for stabilizing global GHG concentrations. Scaling down these global estimates
to the continental, landscape or plot scale to estimate the mitigation potential of conservation agriculture in
sub-Saharan Africa entails considerable challenges. Overall there is insufficient information on the GHG
impacts of conservation agriculture practices, especially for developing countries in the tropics and subtropics
(Milder et al., 2011).

Soil fertility: In terms of soil fertility, the improved soil structure resulting from conservation agriculture
enhances aeration and other conditions required for efficient nutrient cycling. Soil organic matter has been
found to increase significantly over time in conservation agriculture systems, primarily due to the introduction
of additional organic matter as crop residues or mulch and to the reduction or elimination of tillage, which
tends to accelerate the oxidation of soil organic matter (Hobbs et al., 2008; Kassam et al., 2009). Zero tillage
systems are also associated with increased levels of available phosphorus in the upper soil layer (e.g. 0-5 cm),
due largely to the role of biological processes in phosphorus cycling (Milder et al., 2011).

Water management: Conservation agriculture has been found to have beneficial effects on water management
and water-use efficiency. With an increase in soil organic matter and root density under conservation agriculture,
water infiltration and water holding capacity are improved, making water more available throughout the
farming cycle. Kassam et al. (2009) reported that for each percent increase in soil organic matter, an additional
150 m3/ha of water can be stored in the soil (in Sintayehu, 2011). Surface mulches and improved soil pore
structure also increase infiltration and absorption capacity, while reducing evaporation. These benefits help
reduce the risk of erosion and flooding during heavy rains, contribute to aquifer recharge and make more
water available for crops.

Food security: Sustained and stable food production generated by conservation agriculture systems can
significantly improve the food security and nutritional status of vulnerable households and communities.
Conservation agriculture can help stabilize yields in the face of climate shocks such as droughts by reducing
evapotranspiration and regulating soil temperatures as well as supporting the management of pests and diseases
in crop production if appropriate crop rotations and combinations are used. These benefits are especially
important for poor and vulnerable smallholder farming households.

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | 9

 Box 3: Conservation agriculture principles, practices and technologies in Ethiopia

In the past, soil tillage has been associated with increased soil fertility. It has recently been recognized that,
in the long term, this process leads to a reduction of soil organic matter. Soil organic matter not only provides
nutrients for the crop, but is also a crucial element for the stabilization of soil structure. Therefore, most soils
degrade under prolonged intensive arable agriculture. This structural degradation of the soils results in the
formation of crusts and compaction, ultimately leading to soil erosion and reduced agricultural productivity.
As a result, the conservation agriculture components that are currently being promoted include:

Reduced tillage: In Ethiopia, land preparation is mainly carried out with a view of getting rid of weeds, but it
also helps in breaking compacted soils and improves moisture infiltration. However, moisture infiltration is
much better in soils that are less tilled but not compacted by the effect of overgrazing. Conservation agriculture
using reduced tillage in Ethiopia has been demonstrated on maize, wheat, teff, sorghum, faba bean and onion
and has shown successful results. Upscaling of conservation technology is currently under way.

Crop residue management: The success of conservation agriculture in Ethiopia is highly dependent on
crop residue management. Crop residues provide protective cover for the soil and increase soil infiltration.
Research has shown that when 35 percent of the soil surface is covered with uniformly distributed residues,
splash erosion will be reduced by up to 85 percent. Approximately two tons of maize residues per hectare are
necessary to obtain 35 percent soil cover, which has been established as the minimum amount required for
achieving a substantial reduction in relative soil erosion (Tolesa, 2001). In many parts of the country, however,
crop residues have traditionally been used for multiple purposes including fuel, building materials and animal
feed, which conflict with their use in conservation agriculture. Among these, livestock-related use (feed) is
probably the most widespread in the country.

Crop rotation and intercropping: In a system with reduced mechanical tillage based on mulch cover and
biological tillage, alternatives have to be developed to control pests and weeds. Practising crop rotation and
intercropping has many advantages, which include reduced risk of pest and weed infestations; better distribution
of water and nutrients through the soil profile; exploration for nutrients and water of diverse strata of the soil
profile by roots of many different plant species, resulting in a greater use of the available nutrients and water;
increased nitrogen fixation through certain plant-soil biota; improved balance of nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium (N-P-K) from both organic and mineral sources; and increased formation of organic matter. Better
nutrient management through crop rotation can decrease nitrogen fertilizer use by up to 100 kg N per hectare
per year, substantially lowering related greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (nitrous oxide has a global warming
potential 310 times greater than CO2) as well as reducing the costs of production. Reduced synthetic fertilizer
use also leads to reduced greenhouse gas emissions from the manufacturing process and transportation
(PANW, 2012). However, in most parts of the Ethiopian farming system farmers hardly practise crop rotation
and mono-cropping is the dominant cropping system.

10 | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

As part of expediting the adoption of conservation conservation agriculture taskforce members from
agriculture, a technical committee was established in the Government, development partners, research, CSOs and
Extension Directorate of the MoA in 2005 with the major the private sector to provide support for the promotion
objective of enhancing the promotion of conservation and coordination of conservation agriculture across
agriculture. The conservation agriculture technical the country.
committee was not successful for a number of reasons,
among others the restructuring of the agricultural offices As a result of past work and present promotional efforts,
and a lack of broad-based committee representation. conservation agriculture has been adopted by a number
Since then a number of workshops and studies have of smallholder farmers in many parts of the country.
been conducted on conservation agriculture in Ethiopia. However, the promotion and adoption of conservation
Most recently, in March 2014, the MoA and FAO, with agriculture technology is constrained by various factors,
funding from COMESA, held a national stakeholders which include weak integration into existing extension
meeting (called a National Conservation Agriculture planning, prevalence of open grazing, shortage of livestock
Taskforce Formation Workshop) to discuss how to feed, removal of crop residue for animal feed and firewood,
improve coordination of conservation agriculture in and lack of knowledge on appropriate cropping systems,
the country. The meeting resulted in the development crop rotations and intercropping combinations, among
of terms of reference and nomination of national other factors (see Box 4).

©FAO/AU/Yohannes Zirotti
Severe land degradation caused by overgrazing

©FAO/Tamiru Legesse

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | 11

 Box 4: Challenges to conservation agriculture promotion in Ethiopia

Despite conservation agriculture having been introduced in Ethiopia over 16 years ago, adoption of the
practice remains low and has not progressed as fast is it could have. Some of the challenges in the promotion
and adoption of conservation agriculture in the country are listed below:

Inadequate integration of conservation agriculture into the Agricultural Extension Service: Conservation
agriculture promotion in Ethiopia has been implemented mainly by NGOs and private sector organizations,
while emphasis given by responsible government institutions like the Ministry of Agriculture, in particular the
Agricultural Extension Directorate, has not been sufficient in the past. In particular, conservation agriculture is
not adequately integrated into the existing agricultural extension delivery system of the MoA. In addition, since
conservation agriculture has mostly been implemented by NGOs, there has not been adequate government
follow-up, support and appropriate monitoring to ensure sustainability and wide adoption of the practice.

Open grazing system: Open grazing is a challenge not only to conservation agriculture in Ethiopia, but also
to overall agricultural development and environmental sustainability. Open grazing results in the removal of
crop residues from conservation agriculture fields and causes soil compaction that results in hard pans and
difficulty in planting using simple planters or simple rippers that are suitable for smallholders. If livestock are
accustomed to feeding on crop residues, a conflict of interest can be created when crop residues need to be
kept for mulching. Crop-livestock conflicts need to be considered when promoting conservation agriculture.

Lack of alternative energy sources: In most parts of rural Ethiopia, crop residue is not only used as a livestock
feed, but also as a fuelwood for cooking purposes. Most farmers do not have woodlots and hence crop residue
is one of the main sources of fuelwood for cooking. In promoting conservation agriculture there is a need to
consider mechanisms to support farmers to access alternative energy sources.

High input prices: Prices for high-quality inputs such as herbicides, fertilizer, improved seeds and implements
have been steadily increasing in Ethiopia and at times the prices are beyond the capacity of many smallholder
farmers. One example is non-selective herbicides which, according to farmers, have more than doubled in price
within three years. A means of supporting smallholder farmers to access inputs so that they can undertake
conservation agriculture and other CSA practices is needed.

Lack of availability of required inputs and equipment: It has frequently been reported that inputs such as
non-selective glyphosate-based herbicides are difficult to access and those that are available are not effective,
thus making it difficult for farmers to adopt conservation agriculture owing to weed problems. The same
applies to other inputs required for practising conservation agriculture such as seeds for rotation crops as well
as conservation agriculture implements such as rippers and direct seeders, which are not available at times
or, when available, are of poor quality.

Shortage of credit facilities: Credit service is an important factor that influences adoption of agricultural
technologies, especially for poor farmers who often have limited financial resources for purchasing agricultural
inputs and implements.

12 | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

 CSA practice Components Why it is climate smart
Conservation • Reduced tillage • Carbon sequestration
agriculture • Crop residue management – • Reduce existing emissions
mulching, intercropping • Resilience to dry and hot spells
• Crop rotation/intercropping with
cereals and legumes
Integrated soil • Compost and manure management, • Reduced emission of nitrous oxide and
fertility management including green manuring CH4
• Efficient fertilizer application • Improved soil productivity
techniques (time, method, amount)
Small-scale irrigation • Year-round cropping • Creating carbon sink
• Efficient water utilization • Improved yields
• Improved food security
Agroforestry • Tree-based conservation agriculture • Trees store large quantities of CO2
• Practised both traditionally and as • Can support resilience and improved
improved practice productivity of agriculture
• Farmer-managed natural regeneration
Crop diversification • Popularization of new crops and crop • Ensuring food security
varieties • Resilience to weather variability
• Pest resistance, high yielding, tolerant • Alternative livelihoods and improved
to drought, short season incomes
Improved livestock • Reduced open grazing/zero grazing • Improved livestock productivity
feed and feeding • Forage development and rangeland • GHG reduction
practices management • CH4 reduction
• Feed improvement
• Livestock breed improvement and
diversification
Other • In situ water conservation/harvesting • Resilience of agriculture
• Early-warning systems and improved • Improved incomes
weather information • Reduced emissions
• Support to alternative energy – fuel- • Reduced deforestation
efficient stoves, biofuels • Reduced climate risk
• Crop and livestock insurance
• Livelihoods diversification (apiculture,
aquaculture)
• Post-harvest technologies (agro-
processing, storage)

Figure 3: Summary of some common CSA practices in Ethiopia

©FAO/AU/Yohannes Zirotti

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | 13

 Box 5: Case Study 2 - Adoption of conservation agriculture in Sibusire woreda of Oromia Regional
State

Sibusire is one of the woredas in the East Wollega Zone of Oromia Regional State where smallholder farmers
have adopted conservation agriculture. Ecologically the woreda is characterized by highland, midland and
lowland agro-ecology accounting for 70 percent, 20 percent and 10 percent of the land, respectively. Maize
is the dominant crop of the woreda, followed by teff and sorghum. Other crops like faba bean, field peas and
haricot bean are grown, but in smaller quantities.

The topography of the land is rugged, with numerous hills and dales as a result of which soil erosion is the
major form of land degradation. The overall crop productivity of the woreda is low owing to a decline in soil
fertility emanating from erosion, mono-cropping and a lack of adequate knowledge on improved agronomic
practices. Moreover, crop residue is completely removed, mainly for household fuelwood and livestock feed.
The remaining organic matter is burned for land-clearing purposes.

SG2000 Ethiopia began an intervention in the woreda in 2001 with the aim of improving overall crop productivity.
Conservation agriculture is one of the technologies employed. Woreda subject matter specialists (SMS),
development agents (DAs) and farmers were intensively trained in conservation agriculture practices which
included reduced tillage, crop residue management and crop rotation. Farmers were trained in appropriate
weed management technologies, with major emphasis on the application technique of non-selective herbicides,
particularly Roundup. Numerous maize and teff conservation agriculture demonstrations were conducted
and successful demonstration field days were organized.

In 2014 the report from the woreda office indicated that over 4 000 smallholder farmers were practising
conservation agriculture on an estimated 3 500 hectares of land, mainly on maize and teff crops. As part of
this study, visits were made to two of the kebeles – Chari and Burka-atalo. Agro-ecologically, Chari kebele is
mid-altitude with maize as the dominant crop, while Burka-atalo is high altitude and teff is the dominant crop.
Focus group discussions conducted with both teff and maize farmers in these kebeles indicated that the yield
of both crops under conservation agriculture is higher than the conventional method. Farmers also reported
a marked reduction in soil erosion, better build-up of soil organic matter and improved rainwater infiltration.
The main reasons for adoption of conservation agriculture reported by these farmers were improved yield and
the time-saving nature of conservation agriculture. Women farmers explained that conservation agriculture is
“pro poor”. Women farmers and both married and women-headed households benefited from conservation
agriculture technology, mostly through reduction in time spent in the fields.
©FAO/Melaku Jirata

©FAO/Melaku Jirata

Conservation agriculture in Chari kebele of Sibusire woreda, Oromia Regional State

14 | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

Agroforestry: Agroforestry is an old agricultural activity
traditionally practised in many parts of Ethiopia. The
practice involves the integration of trees and shrubs into
farmland either through planting or natural regeneration.
In Ethiopia, the moringa tree is traditionally interplanted
with sorghum and other crops in Konso, Omo, Burji, Sena
and Mele woredas of SNNP Regional State. Currently,
the Agricultural Extension Directorate of the MoA has
identified the use of this tree as an important technology
for climate change adaptation and promotion is under
way in South and North Welo, East and West Hararghe
and Sidama Zones, among others, through seed collection

©FAO/Melaku Jirata
and establishment of nurseries. The Ministry provides
training on the environmental, agricultural and nutritional
importance of the tree to encourage its use.

In northern Ethiopia, the Relief Society of Tigray (REST)

has been promoting agroforestry in many parts of the
region as part of sustainable agriculture. Agroforestry is
one of the key agricultural activities conducted in SLM
Programme 1. The Agricultural Extension Directorate has
also developed a technology package for wider promotion
of Faidherbia albida in Ethiopia. In 2011 the government
of Ethiopia announced a national programme to plant over
100 million Faidherbia trees in farmers’ fields as part of the
activities outlined in the Climate Resilient Green Economy
(CRGE) Strategy. Organizations such as ICRAF are also

©FAO/Melaku Jirata
conducting research into agroforestry that includes field
trials of different tree species as well as planting densities
and tree-crop combinations and their impact on agricultural
yields and the physical environment.

The agroforestry practices being promoted and tested

are intended to address issues of soil fertility, soil erosion
and diversification of farm produce as well as agricultural
yield, resilience to climate variability (for example through
provision of shade during hot spells) and creation of
favourable microclimates for certain crops. Integrating
perennial trees or shrubs in agricultural lands used both
for crop production and grazing in Ethiopia has been
documented to improve soil cover and ensure green cover
during the off-season (Kitalyi et al., 2011). In addition,
research is ongoing into the use of conservation agriculture
©FAO/Melaku Jirata

with trees (CAWT), a technology that combines agroforestry

and conservation agriculture. CAWT on farm trials in
Boset and Meiso woredas in Oromiya Region by the
Forestry Research Centre (FRC) using a mix of Sesbania
and Faidherbia showed mixed results in terms of maize yield
when compared with conventional tillage and conservation Agroforestry promoted by Sustainable Land
agriculture. Other tree species that have been used in Management Programme I in Gagusashikudad
agroforestry in Ethiopia include Calliandra and Cajanus. woreda of Amhara Region

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | 15

Crop rotation and intercropping: In Ethiopia the removing bad odours from poultry farms as well as
promotion of crop rotation is conducted in many parts for removal of mucilaginous substances. The use of
of the country as a regular extension programme. The effective microorganisms has the potential to improve
importance of crop rotation in improving soil structure, productivity. However, the potential to mitigate climate
reducing soil degradation and improving yields is well change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions through
documented. Increased levels of soil organic matter managing microbial processes requires more research.
enhance water and nutrient retention and decrease Some research has been done in Ethiopia on the use of
synthetic fertilizer requirements. Crop rotation effectively effective microorganisms to increase the productivity
delivers on both climate change adaptation and mitigation. and growth rate of broilers.
Better nutrient management through crop rotation
can decrease the use of nitrogen fertilizer and related
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with the “The area under small-scale irrigation
production, transportation and use of chemical fertilizers
infrastructure increased from 853 000
(PANW, 2012).
hectares in 2009 to 2 084 760 hectares
Use of effective microorganisms: Effective micro- in 2013. The area under irrigated crop
organisms (EM) are mixed cultures of beneficial natural production stood at 1 231 660 hectares in
fermentative microorganisms that can be applied to 2013.”
increase the necessary microbial diversity needed for
living. The use of EM technology has expanded in the
last two decades from crop production to water treatment, Small-scale irrigation: Ethiopia has embarked on the
odour control, animal husbandry, human health and promotion and implementation of small-scale irrigation
numerous other industrial treatments. This technology across the country. Consequently, the area under small-
has recently been promoted by the private sector and scale irrigation infrastructure increased from 853 000
NGOs. Effective microorganisms improve the digestibility hectares in 2009 to 2 084 760 hectares in 2013, while
of livestock feed, shorten the time for composting and the area under irrigated crop production stood at
are used for many other agricultural purposes such as 1 231 660 hectares in 2013 (MoA, 2014). Irrigation

©FAO/AU/Yohannes Zirotti

16 | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

and water availability increase biomass and contribute include smallholder-friendly post-harvest technologies
significantly to improved crop and forage productivity. like multi-crop threshers, maize shellers, solar fruit
The availability of irrigation infrastructure and sufficient driers and improved grain storage structures in many
water for crop and livestock production can also parts of Ethiopia.
increase the number of cropping seasons and reduce
the risks associated with rain-fed agriculture and the 2.2.2 Traditional CSA practices
rearing of livestock in a drought-prone and water-
scarce country. This can have a significant impact Various types of traditional CSA practices have been
on food security and climate change adaptation. In implemented and adopted in Ethiopia. Such practices
irrigated agriculture, appropriate water management include the Derashe Traditional Conservation Agriculture,
is a requirement for efficient water utilization coupled Konso Cultural Landscape, Hararghe Highland Traditional
with improved agronomic practices. There is a need to Soil and Water Conservation, Hararghe Cattle Fattening,
ensure that appropriate training on agronomy and water Hararghe Small-Scale Traditional Irrigation, Ankober
management is given along with support to develop Manure Management and Traditional Agroforestry in
irrigation infrastructure. In the absence of irrigation, Gedeo Zone, East Shewa Zone, East Wollega Zone and
many farmers have practised different forms of rainwater West Gojam Zone.
harvesting, including in-field rainwater harvesting as
well as more advanced practices such as roof rainwater Traditional conservation agriculture is practised in a
harvesting. These techniques can support farmers to number of places in Ethiopia, one of which is Derashe
retain water for improved crop resilience to weather (Sagandoye valley) special woreda in SNNP Regional State.
variability, particularly mid-season dry spells. Sagandoye valley in Derashe District is characterized
by rainfall irregularity in terms of onset, dry spells and
Crop diversification and improved variety early cessation. Therefore, food insecurity caused by
popularization: As part of ensuring food security, the low agricultural production and productivity is a major
government of Ethiopia, international organizations and challenge. As a result of the challenge, farmers in the
NGOs are involved in the development and popularization valley have long practised traditional conservation
of new crops and crop varieties at community and agriculture on an estimated 11 000 hectares. Under
household level. Initiatives like the Eastern Africa this traditional practice, sorghum and maize are grown
Agricultural Productivity Project (EAAPP), SLM without tilling the land. Seed placement is conducted in
and the Agricultural Growth Programme (AGP) that rows using pointed sticks. Weeding is done frequently,
are implemented by the government and NGOs are even during the dry season when there are no crops on
conducting crop variety popularization activities. Crop the farm. After harvesting, crop residues are laid on the
varieties that are resistant to pests and diseases will reduce ground following the contour in a rectangular manner to
the need for pesticides; they also reduce carbon emissions conserve moisture from rain. Animals are not allowed
by decreasing pesticide demand as well as the number to enter the farm and there is no crop residue removal
of in-field applications. However in recent years, as a at all. However, there is no systematic crop rotation and
result of climate variability, wheat rust such as yellow rust intercropping, and promotion of these aspects requires
and stem rust has become a big challenge in the major support from the extension service.
wheat-growing areas of the country, causing complete
devastation of crops. Maize virus is also becoming a Traditional conservation agriculture practices are also
major threat in areas where maize is grown, especially carried out by smallholder farmers in many woredas of
in warm climate regions of Ethiopia. the Gambella and Benishangul-Gumuz regions. Here
the hoe is the main traditional implement used for seed
Post-harvest handling: Climate change will continue to placement without frequent ploughing of the land.
exert its influence not only on agricultural production, However, similar to the Derashe District, traditional
but also on post-harvest aspects. This will require conservation agriculture in Benishangul-Gumuz and
some attention in terms of climate-smart post-harvest Gambella regions is not accompanied by crop rotation.
technologies; for example losses incurred from pests such
as grain weevil may increase with rising temperatures, The Konso Cultural Landscape is located in an SNNP
while there may also be losses from the effect of floods. Regional State close to Derashe Special Woreda. The area
Increasing temperatures may also reduce the period in is characterized by hilly terrain and soil erosion is the
which agricultural produce can stay fresh. As a result, major form of environmental degradation. Farmers in
technologies that have been promoted in the country Konso practise a highly sophisticated yet traditional brand

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | 17

 of terracing, agroforestry and manure management that 2.3 CSA and Biophysical Conditions
consistently provides good harvests and maintains the
integrity of the land. This traditional soil conservation The Rural Development Policy and Strategy Document
activity has contributed to significant reductions in soil (MOFED, 2003) states that Ethiopia is characterized by
erosion and has also supported climate change adaptation. the existence of many agro-ecological zones, which differ
As a result of its traditional land terracing practices, the in terms of rainfall, soil types, altitude and the like. It
Konso Cultural Landscape is now registered as a UNESCO further states that all development efforts will be based
World Heritage Site. on detailed development plans for each agro-ecological
region so as to bring about the maximum possible growth
As in the Konso special woreda, farmers in the Hararghe in each region, thereby accelerating and sustaining the
highlands are following traditional soil and water country’s overall agricultural development.
conservation practices. In addition to soil conservation,
farmers in Hararghe zones are practising small-scale water For drought-prone regions, the policy states that special
harvesting and river diversion, which they utilize for attention will be given to the regeneration of natural
irrigated crop production. Traditional animal fattening resources as well as soil and water conservation and
(mixed crop-livestock agriculture) is also practised in environmental protection as a matter of great importance.
Hararghe through a cut-and-carry system. In addition, The strategy for regions with reliable rainfall is to increase
there are traditional agroforestry practices in places like crop production and productivity while undertaking
East Showa, East and West Wollega and West Gojam natural resources development. Agroforestry and animal
Zone, particularly in Bure and Wonberima woredas. In resources development are areas that can be greatly
Ankober woreda of Amhara Region, farmers traditionally expanded.
spread animal manure on crop fields, as a result of which
significant increases in crop biomass and yield have In Ethiopia various projects and programmes are
been reported. implemented in the different agro-ecological zones of
the country. PSNP-PW is implemented in moisture-deficit
These and a number of other traditional CSA practices food-insecure districts. Such districts are characterized
take place across Ethiopia. This traditional knowledge by drought and low moisture, contributing to low crop
needs to be documented and tapped in order to develop production and productivity. The SLM programme is
sustainable and appropriate CSA technologies for the implemented mainly in districts with adequate rainfall
country. that are affected by severe land degradation, mostly as
a result of erosion and inappropriate land-management
©Graphicstock

18 | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

practices. The Drought Resilient and Sustainable of soils, which include lithosols and vertisols. This is in
Livelihoods Program (DRSLP), which is funded by the line with the report of Lamourdia (2010) which states
African Development Bank (AfDB), is implemented in that conservation agriculture is adaptable to all kinds of
pastoral and agropastoral areas of the country. These climatic, soil and cropping conditions.
are areas characterized by a harsh climate caused by
high temperature. The programme focuses on natural In Ethiopia it was reported that mean temperature
resources management and livestock infrastructure increased by 1.3°C from 1960 to 2006, with more hot
development as a means to address resilience, productivity days and nights and fewer cold days and nights. The
and environmental degradation challenges. temperature is highly variable from year to year and
season to season (FDRE, 2011). Climate data over the
Conservation agriculture in Ethiopia is practised in past 55 years (1951 to 2005) indicate that there has been
various agro-ecological zones, from low to high altitude, a warming trend in the annual minimum temperature
as well as different temperature and rainfall ranges. (NAPA, 2007). It is also reported that Ethiopia is
Conservation agriculture technology is mainly adopted vulnerable to accelerated soil erosion caused by existing
in mid-agro-ecological zones with adequate rainfall. pressures and degradation of its land area, 79 percent of
Such districts are located in East and West Gojam, East which has a slope greater than 16 percent, and 25 percent
and West Wollega and West Shewa zones. Conservation of which has a slope greater than 30 percent (FDRE, 2011).
agriculture technology is also adopted for a wide range

Box 6: Conservation agriculture on vertisols in Ethiopia

Vertisols occupy about 12.7 million hectares of land in Ethiopia, of which 7.6 million hectares (approximately
60 percent) are in the highlands (Tekalign et al., 1993). Most of the vertisols are prone to excess water and
poor workability and are underutilized. Vertisols are very susceptible to erosion and as a result the intensity
of degradation on vertisols is becoming very severe, which has an adverse effect on agricultural production
and productivity. Common crops grown on vertisols are teff, wheat, barley, chickpea, lentil, faba bean and
fenugreek (Trigonellafoenum graecum), but the yields of these crops are quite low as a result of water logging
and a lack of improved technology.

In an experiment carried out on vertisols in Ethiopia it was reported that grain and straw yields of plots that
were prepared using broad bed maker (BBM) and minimum tillage averaged 1.4t/ha and 3.37t/ha respectively
compared with significantly low corresponding yields of 0.91t/ha and 2.36t/ha respectively from conventionally
tilled plots (Joint Vertisol Project Progress Report No 9). This finding indicates that conservation agriculture
can be promoted effectively in vertisol areas of the country where the dominant crops are small cereals like
teff, wheat and barley.

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | 19

 ©FAO/AU/Yohannes Zirotti
CSA PROGR AMMES AND PROJEC TS
3
Climate-Smart Agriculture in Southern Ethiopia: This provides credit and agricultural extension services to
project is implemented jointly by Farm Africa and SOS support vulnerable households to engage in both farm
Sahel, Self Help Africa and Vita in 15 woredas. Through and non-farm activities. The HABP has demonstrated
its landscape approach, the project is aimed at sustainable the value of combining social protection with livelihoods
land management. Activities employed include the diversification activities to improve household resilience.
promotion of agroforestry, small-scale irrigation, soil The Climate-Smart Initiative seeks to strengthen these two
and water conservation, small ruminant rearing, cut- important food security programmes. The programme
and-carry livestock feed promotion and promotion of aims to strengthen the contribution of PSNP and HABP
value-chain crops such as pepper. to climate resilience, focusing on fine-tuning of existing
PSNP-PW and HABP livelihoods activities to make them
Climate-Smart Initiative for PSNP and HABP more climate-smart. The programme is financed by the
beneficiaries: The PSNP programme began in 2005 as World Bank and Care Ethiopia and implemented by a
a joint programme by the government of Ethiopia and consortium of partners including Farm Africa, ICARSA
a consortium of donors in response to chronic food and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI).
insecurity in rural Ethiopia. The programme operates The Climate-Smart Initiative includes actions such as
as a safety net, targeting transfers to poor households supporting access to climate and weather information for
in two ways — through public works (PW) and direct smallholder farmers as a means of climate risk reduction.
support. The PSNP reaches more than seven million
people and is currently operating in 319 woredas in the
country. The PSNP is linked to the Household Asset
“The PSNP reaches more than seven
Building Programme (HABP), another core element of
the national Food Security Programme (FSP). Together,
million people and is currently operating
the programmes help build households’ food security in 319 woredas in the country.”
and their ability to cope with disasters. The HABP

20 | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Agriculture. Members include staff from MoA, EIAR,
Degradation (REDD+): REDD+ aims to reduce ATA, Institute for Sustainable Development (ISD) and
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and icipe. The work being conducted by icipe is seeking to
enhance the role played by conservation and sustainable adapt and implement the push–pull technology for the
management of forests in climate change mitigation. increasingly arid and hot conditions associated with
By creating financial value for carbon stocks, it aims climate change as well as to identify, test and select new
to show the value of forests. Now under the Ministry drought-tolerant crops and plants that can be incorporated
of Environment and Forests, it was one of the early into the push–pull system.
priorities in the CRGE. Thus REDD+ is evolving in
the context of a policy environment that is promoting Enhancing income of smallholder farmers through
reforestation and afforestation as a way of tackling integrated soil fertility management: The project is
land degradation. The country has been taking steps also known as the AGRA soil health project and is being
regarding the undertaking of REDD+ readiness studies, implemented in forty woredas of the four main regions –
conducting national forest assessments, setting reference Amhara, Oromia, Tigray and SNNP Regional States. It has
levels, identifying safeguards, testing forest management a number of components that focus on addressing acidic
models and developing national forest monitoring and soils, upscaling of new fertilizers, p-fertilizer application
measurement reporting and verification (MRV) systems on soil test base and conservation agriculture.
among other assessments that can inform the country’s
national REDD+ strategy and programme.
“REDD+ aims to reduce emissions from
One of the REDD+ projects is the Bale Mountains Eco-
deforestation and forest degradation, and
Region REDD+ Project, which builds on the Bale Eco-
Region Sustainable Management Programme (BERSMP)
enhance the role played by conservation
that has been running since 2007 and is implemented and sustainable management of forests in
by the Oromia Forest and Wildlife Enterprise (OFWE) climate change mitigation.”
and the NGOs Farm Africa and SOS Sahel Ethiopia
with funding from the Norwegian Government. It is
the first large-scale REDD+ pilot project in Ethiopia. Humbo Assisted Natural Regeneration Project
The aim of the project is to enhance the biodiversity (Afforestation and Reforestation): The project was
and ecological processes of the Bale Mountains and developed by World Vision Australia and is supported
improve the wellbeing of the community. The project by the World Bank Bio Carbon Fund. It is one of the first
is working on improving traditional activities such as registered clean development mechanism (CDM) forestry
beekeeping, furniture making, processing of wild coffee projects in Africa, covering 2 728 hectares. The livelihoods
and production of eco charcoal from bamboo. This of the community at Humbo and Soddo woredas where
provides opportunity for the community to earn money the project operates depend mainly on mixed agriculture,
without cutting down trees. The project is expected to crop production and livestock rearing, while some
result in an estimated 18 million tonnes of CO2e emission members of the community are participating in off-
reductions over the 20-year project lifetime. farm activities. The project involves the regeneration of
2 728 hectares of degraded native forests with indigenous,
Climate-Smart Push-Pull Technology Promotion: This bio-diverse species. These forests act as a carbon sink to
technology is promoted jointly by the International Centre mitigate climate change while at the same time building
of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe) and Jima Zone environmental, social and economic resilience for future
Agricultural Office. The project started in Boterbecho climate change impacts.
woreda in 2013 and is operating in nine kebeles. So far
1 080 farmers have participated in the demonstration To date, 2 728 hectares of degraded forest that were
of green leaf desmodium and Barachiaria grass for the continually being exploited for wood, charcoal and fodder
control of maize stalk borer. This technology is reported extraction have been protected, and are now being restored
to be effective for the control of the parasitic weed and sustainably managed. Over the 30-year crediting
striga in maize and sorghum fields as well. Information period, it is estimated that over 870 000 tonnes of carbon
obtained from icipe indicated that a national technical dioxide equivalent will be removed from the atmosphere,
committee was established in February 2014 within the making a significant contribution to mitigating climate
Agricultural Extension Directorate of the Ministry of change (World Vision, 2006).

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | 21

Crops surrounding reforested areas also benefit through

©FAO/Tamiru Legesse
modification of the microclimate, which comes about through
a combination of reduced wind speed, lower temperatures,
higher humidity and greater infiltration of water into the
soil. The resulting healthier crops and livestock are essential
to community members’ nutritional status, health and
livelihoods, so the implications for development are enormous
(World Vision, 2009).

“MERET operates in five regions and one

administrative council in 72 woredas covering
500 sub-watersheds. Beneficiaries are about
1.5 million per annum (40 percent of which
are women).”

MERET Project: Managing Environmental Resources to

Enable Transition to More Sustainable Livelihoods (MERET)
is a WFP-supported project initiated in the 1980s. This marked
the beginning of large-scale soil and water conservation in
Ethiopia. The main objective is to increase the ability of
food-insecure households to meet necessary food needs
and improve livelihoods through land rehabilitation, proper
natural resources management, productivity enhancement,
asset creation and diversification of livelihoods.

MERET operates in five regions and one administrative

council in 72 woredas (Tigray [17], Amhara [23], Oromia
[16], SNNP [12], Somali [3] and Diredewa [1]) covering
500 sub-watersheds. Beneficiaries are about 1.5 million per
annum (40 percent of which are women). The major activity
components are water harvesting, reforestation, seedling
production, soil fertility management and construction of
farmland terraces.

Agricultural Growth Project: The Agricultural Growth

Project (AGP) of Ethiopia is aimed at increasing agricultural
productivity and market access for key crop and livestock
©FAO/Sebastian Grey

products in targeted woredas, with increased participation

of women and youth. It has three components:

(i) agricultural production and commercialization;

(ii) small-scale rural infrastructure development and
management; and
(iii) AGP management, monitoring and evaluation (M&E).

22 | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

The Ex-Ante Carbon-Balance (c-balance) Analysis for
the Agricultural Growth Project (AGP) in Ethiopia Box 7: Use of the chisel plough for
showed that the net effect of AGP is to create a carbon conservation agriculture in Ethiopia
(C) sink of 5.9 MtCO2e over 20 years, which represents
the balance between the GHG emitted (mainly as a The traditional chisel plough is the main implement
consequence of the increased use in agro-chemicals used by farmers for land preparation in Ethiopia.
and of the infrastructure planned) and C sequestered The chisel plough is suitable for furrow preparation
(essentially through scaling-up of best practices). The for row crops, particularly maize, sorghum and
adoption of sustainable agricultural practices could pulse crops. It is also suitable for teff and other
therefore be seen as complementary to the intensification small cereals to undertake only one pass before
of crop production, not only for the relevant agronomic sowing without much disturbance of the soil. It is
implications, but also from a climate change mitigation thus a suitable conservation agriculture implement.
point of view. However, in recent years with massive promotion
of teff line planting, farmers complain of a lack of
Sustainable Intensification of Maize-Legume Cropping teff row planters.
Systems for Food Security in Eastern and Southern
Africa (SIMLESA): This project is currently implemented
by CIMMYT in collaboration with federal and regional Sustainable Land Management (SLM) Programme: The
research centres. It is part of the African Food Security first phase of the SLMP (SLM I) was launched in 2008.
Initiative (AFSI). It focuses on maize as the main staple It has successfully introduced a number of sustainable
and legumes as an important dietary protein source for land management practices and rehabilitated thousands
the rural poor. SIMLESA started operating in Ethiopia of hectares of degraded land using physical and biological
in 2010 to increase farm-level food security and income measures in 45 selected woredas and watersheds. The
through conservation agriculture technologies that second phase (SLMP II) for the period 2013-2019 builds
ensure sustainability and productivity. The programme on the results of SLMP I. The SLM II Programme covers six
is operating in eight federal and regional research centres regions, 90 new and 45 existing woredas or watersheds and
in 17 districts. Activities so far indicated yield increment 937 kebeles (SLM II project document, 2013). Direct and
attained under conservation agriculture over years across indirect beneficiaries of the project include an estimated
locations (Shimeles, 2014). 1 850 000 people in six regions namely Oromia; Amhara;
Tigray; Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples’
The aim of the programme is to improve farm-level Regional State; Gambela; and Benishangul-Gumuz. SLM
food security and productivity, in the context of climate II introduced measures to address climate change or
risk and change, through the development of more variability related risks and to maximize greenhouse gas
resilient, profitable and sustainable farming systems (GHG) emission reductions so as to meet targets in the
that overcome food insecurity for significant numbers Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) and the Climate
of farmers. The programme promotes the use of maize- Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) goals, while reducing
legume technologies of adapted varieties and develops land degradation and improving land productivity of
comprehensive agronomic packages that increase smallholder farmers.
productivity and sustainable intensification of maize-
legume cropping systems. The project has four components, of which component
1 on integrated watershed and landscape management is
Farm Mechanization and Conservation Agriculture crucial as far as CSA is concerned. In this component,
for Sustainable Intensification (FACASI) Programme: promotion and adoption of conservation agriculture
The fundamental hypothesis of FACASI is that lack technologies was described as a key agricultural activity.
of labour, animal draught power and engine power is Other CSA activities mentioned in this programme
limiting productivity of many farming systems in sub- are integrated soil fertility management, small-scale
Saharan Africa. The FACASI programme supports the irrigation schemes, integrated tree-food crop-livestock
SIMLESA and other conservation agriculture initiatives systems at the homestead, poultry and animal fattening,
in the country through evaluation and demonstration of beekeeping and management of public and communal
two-wheel tractor-based technologies for conservation lands through promotion of activities like soil and water
agriculture. Partners in this programme include EIAR conservation measures, water harvesting structures,
and CIMMYT. forest and woodland management practices and the like.

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | 23

Drought Resilient and Sustainable Livelihoods Africa Climate-Smart Agriculture Alliance (ACSAA):
Programme (DRSLP) in Ethiopia: The programme is The ACSAA, also known as the AU-NEPAD-INGO
hosted in the Livestock Development Sector of MoA and Alliance for Scaling-Up Climate-Smart Agriculture
began in 2013. The principal objectives are to contribute in Africa, was announced in June 2014 at the African
to poverty reduction, food security and sustainable Union (AU) Summit in Malabo. The main aim of the
economic growth through enhanced rural incomes. The alliance is to support the rapid scaling-up of CSA to
programme seeks to improve livelihoods and resilience six million farming households across Africa through
of the pastoral production system in the Afar and Somali the collaborative efforts and practical, on-the-ground
Regional States of Ethiopia. The programme includes experience of Alliance members in agricultural research
natural resources management activities such as water and implementation. The Alliance is coordinated by a
resource development, rangelands management and soil pan-African steering committee that is convened by
and water conservation, along with various capacity- NEPAD and comprises international NGO members –
building activities. Care International, Concern Worldwide, Catholic Relief
Services, Oxfam and World Vision; and technical members
Great Green Wall for the Sahara and the Sahel Initiative – FAO, FANRPAN, FARA and CGIAR. The Alliance is
(GGWSSI): The GGWSSI, a programme that stretches unique in that NGOs are explicitly recognized for their
across 12 countries in the Sahara and Sahel regions, involvement with communities and thus their ability to
aims to support the efforts of local communities in the promote CSA at grassroots level. The Alliance is closely
sustainable management and use of forests, rangelands linked with NEPAD’s programmes on agriculture and
and other natural resources. It also aims to contribute climate change, which are targeting having 25 million
to climate change mitigation and improve food security farmers practising CSA by 2025. Three “fast-start”
and livelihoods of people in the Sahel and the Sahara. In countries have been identified for Alliance activities
Ethiopia the GGWSSI is meant to reinforce the Climate (Ethiopia, Niger and Zambia), and activities are expected
Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) Strategy. The GGWSSI to expand to other countries in the future. Concern
is an African Union programme supported by the Food Worldwide has been selected as the interim convener
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations for Ethiopia. FAO will be supporting technical aspects
(FAO), the European Union and the Global Mechanism of of the work in Ethiopia.
the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
(GM-UNCCD).

©FAO/AU/Yohannes Zirotti

24 | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

 ©FAO/AU/Yohannes Zirotti
STAKEHOLDERS IN CSA AC TIVITIES
4
4.1 Government Ministries, Departments Sustainable Land Management (SLM) Coordination
and Units Unit: The SLM Coordination Unit operates within the
Natural Resources Management Directorate of the MoA
Ministry of Agriculture (MoA): The MoA houses several and was established to undertake the physical and financial
projects, programmes and units that are involved in management of the SLM programme. This involves the
the implementation of climate-related activities. Such development, planning and management of watershed
projects, programmes and units include SLM, AGP, PSNP, resources, development and implementation of strategies
MERET and CRGE and various pastoral and agropastoral and programmes, and the provision of technical support
livelihoods improvement projects. to regional SLM implementing offices. The unit consists of
a team of experts including a national project coordinator,
Climate-Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) procurement and financial management specialists, M&E
Coordination Unit: The MoA has established a dedicated experts and technical experts in diverse disciplines.
CRGE coordination unit with a full-time coordinator and
technical experts. The CRGE coordination unit is assigned
to lead, steer, mainstream and monitor the performance “The Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture
of the agriculture sector’s components of the CRGE. It is
houses several projects, programmes
also implementing a pilot project known as the CRGE
and units that are involved in the
fast-track project. The project started in 2014 and is
operating in 27 woredas of the four main regions with implementation of climate-related
the aim of developing best practices for mainstreaming activities.”
climate-resilience activities at grassroots level. CRGE
focal persons at regional level are assigned to coordinate
Regional CRGE Technical Working Groups that give Soil Information and Fertility Directorate: This is a
guidance to regional and district level CRGE activities. new directorate under the Natural Resources State
At the community (kebele) level the development agents Minister of MoA, established with the aim of collecting
(DAs) serve as the CRGE focal persons. and disseminating knowledge on soil fertility.

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | 25

The directorate is working with ATA, EIAR and AGRA. Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA): The
The AGRA soil health project is hosted in this directorate, Agricultural Transformation Agency is an organization
which is currently operating in 40 woredas of the four established with the aim to transform the agriculture
main regions. Major activities of the soil health project sector and realize the interconnected goals of food security,
include promotion of conservation agriculture, scaling-up poverty reduction and human and economic development.
of new fertilizers and maintenance of soil laboratories. Within ATA there is a directorate responsible for climate
and environmental issues. The directorate is currently
Managing Environmental Resources to Enable working on numerous climate-related activities, which
Transitions to more Sustainable Livelihoods (MERET) include research on conservation agriculture and
Coordination Unit: The MERET project coordination identification of climate-resilient agricultural activities.
unit functions within the structure of the federal and So far plastic rain gauges have been established in
regional agricultural offices. The unit is answerable to the 28 woredas and there is a plan to establish 100 000 plastic
Natural Resources Management Directorate of the MoA. rain gauges across the country in 2015. In addition,
The project is financed by WFP and its main objectives conservation agriculture promotion and demonstration
are rehabilitation of degraded areas and livelihoods activities were conducted in 54 woredas of Tigray, Amhara,
improvement of the people and community in the SNNP and Oromia.
project site.
Ministry of Environment and Forests: Environmental
Agricultural Growth Programme (AGP) Coordination degradation is a key issue in Ethiopia. In light of this,
Unit: The AGP project aims to increase agricultural the Ministry of Environment and Forests as the national
productivity and market access for key crop and livestock institution in charge of environmental and forest
products in targeted woredas, with focused attention to development issues has assumed a regulatory role and
women and youth. Project management is located within coordinates various activities within line ministries,
the MoA (Agriculture Sector). Coordination of AGP agencies and non-governmental organizations. The
activities is undertaken through a high-level steering mandate of the Ministry includes implementation issues
committee at the federal, regional and woreda levels for like institutional coordination, legislative framework and
overall oversight and decision-making on major issues; monitoring, evaluation and review provisions.
and AGP coordination units at the federal and regional
levels as well as dedicated focal persons at the zonal and
woreda levels for day-to-day management.

©FAO/AU/Yohannes Zirotti

26 | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

4.2 NGOs agriculture demonstrations in Ethiopia on selected
maize-growing peasant farmers’ plots. As a direct result
NGOs play a major role in the welfare and livelihoods of SG2000’s efforts from 1998 to 2006, more than 2 500
of communities in the country. A number of them plots of maize and teff were planted under conservation
are actively involved in agriculture and food-security agriculture in different parts of the country, primarily in
programmes. Examples of NGOs that are involved in Oromia, Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples’
CSA-related activities are CCF-E, SG2000 Ethiopia, Self Regional State and Amhara regions. SG2000 has also
Help Africa, Farm Africa and FH Ethiopia. sponsored research on conservation agriculture in
Ethiopia that has been carried out at Jima, Bako and
Climate Change Forum - Ethiopia (CCF-E): The CCF-E Melkasa research centres focusing on maize, sorghum, teff
is a multi-stakeholder group that meets regularly to and wheat, particularly at the initial stage of conservation
discuss national responses to climate change. The CCF-E agriculture introduction. SG2000 has also sponsored and
serves a broader coordination function by bringing participated in various national conservation agriculture
together government, national and international NGOs, workshops carried out since 1998. Currently, SG2000
academia and research institutes, and bilateral, regional is promoting high-yielding crop varieties as well as
and multilateral donors to meet and co-operate on quality protein maize in 24 maize-dominant districts
a wide array of climate change-related issues. The of the country.
NGO is also implementing climate change adaptation
agricultural activities in woredas like Lume, Dugda
and Adama. Climate change-related activities of the “As a direct result of SG2000’s efforts
NGO include biological soil conservation, physical soil
from 1998 to 2006, more than 2 500 plots
conservation, water harvesting and small-scale irrigation,
of maize and teff were planted under
and promotion of horticulture crops for livelihoods
diversification. conservation agriculture in different parts
of the country.”
Farm Africa: Farm Africa is a registered charity
organization that has been working directly with
communities in Eastern Africa for over 25 years. Self Help Africa: Self Help Africa is an international
Programme countries include Kenya, Ethiopia, Tanzania, charity that promotes and implements long-term rural
South Sudan and Uganda. In Ethiopia, Farm Africa development projects in Africa. Self Help Africa works
has been operating since 1988 with a mission to reduce with local partners to support the provision of good
poverty through strengthening the ability of African quality local seed and planting materials. Activities include
farmers to grow their incomes and manage their natural assistance to local communities to multiply their own
resources sustainably. With its various projects in the seed, and provision of support for rural groups so that
area of climate change, the organization is operating in they can get certification for the seed that they produce.
over 30 woredas in Ethiopia. Some of the climate-related Along with improved seed production, the programme
projects are: promotes conservation agriculture, particularly crop
residue management, intercropping and crop rotation.
• Climate-smart agriculture in 15 woredas of SNNP Activities include the improvement of soil fertility through
Regional State. It has been jointly implemented with compost preparation and utilization as well as support
SOS Sahel, Self Help Africa and Vita since June 2014. in the promotion of Aybar broad bed maker (Aybar
• Climate-smart initiative for PSNP beneficiaries. The BBM) in vertisol-affected communities for drainage of
project is financed by the World Bank through CARE excess water.
Ethiopia and has been operating in four woredas of
the Hararghe and Bale zones of Oromia Region since Canadian Foodgrains Bank (CFGB): CFGB is a
2013. partnership of 15 Canadian churches and church-based
• The Bale REDD+ project: This joint project with SOS agencies working together to end global hunger. CFGB
Sahel is operating in 13 woredas of Bale Zone. has established programme areas in Ethiopia, Kenya and
Tanzania where conservation agriculture has been locally
SG2000 Ethiopia: In the 1998 crop season, SG2000 adopted and proven to improve soil health, farmers’
– in collaboration with Monsanto Central Africa Inc. profitability and overall system resilience. The CFGB
and Makobu Enterprises PLC – initiated conservation network is well known for delivering an extensive large-

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | 27

scale conservation agriculture programme in sub-Saharan Land and Water Resource Centre (LWRC): One of
Africa. The programme, in partnership with eight NGOs the objectives of the LWRC is to establish modern
(known informally as a conservation agriculture hub), is learning watersheds in the Abay Basin and undertake
currently operating in Afar, Oromia, Somali and SNNP research-supported participatory integrated watershed
Regional States of Ethiopia. development activities. It is also intended to design an
upscaling strategy based on the lessons learned from
FH Ethiopia is implementing a project known as the the learning watersheds to be applied at the basin level.
Food Security and Economic Growth Programme as part To this end, the NGO has established seven learning
of a consortium of six NGOs coordinated by Save the watersheds in seven woredas and has started applying
Children in Benishangul-Gumuz Regional State. In seven research-supported watershed development interventions
of the woredas the major activity conducted is natural to improve water and land management and people’s
resource management, while in two districts, Sirba-Abay livelihoods in the watershed. The project was initiated
and Belew, conservation agriculture demonstration in 2012 and is operating in seven woredas of Amhara
plots were established in 2013 to promote climate-smart and Oromia regional states.
agricultural technologies and practices. The programme
provides training to development agents and farmers.
“The Land and Water Resource Centre
Wolayita Terepeza Development Association is a local
has established seven learning watersheds
NGO working within Wolayita Kale Hiwot Church in
two woredas of the Wolayita Zone, namely Kindokoyisha
in seven woredas and has started
and Ofaworedas. In the two woredas, conservation applying research-supported watershed
agriculture (reduced tillage, mulching and crop rotation) development interventions to improve
was demonstrated on maize crops on the plots of 40 water and land management and people’s
farmers in 2012. In 2013 the project involved 260 livelihoods in the watershed.”
farmers and the number of farmers hosting conservation
agriculture demonstration plots were increased. The
project is financed by the Canadian Foodgrains Bank.

©FAO/AU/Yohannes Zirotti

28 | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

4.3 International Development Agencies livestock feeds and improving livestock productivity.
These organizations are working primarily with national
In Ethiopia there are numerous international development and regional research institutes.
agencies that are working with government and civil
society organizations in climate change mitigation and Ethiopia’s National Agricultural Research System
adaptation, as well as in areas related to the implementation (NARS): NARS comprises the national Ethiopian Institute
of CSA. Some of the key agencies are the World Bank, of Agricultural Research (EIAR), seven regional research
FAO, GIZ, WFP and USAID. institutes, higher learning institutions, NGOs and private
companies involved in research. Research efforts are
World Vision Ethiopia: World Vision is a Christian augmented by CGIAR centres that support different
relief, development and advocacy organization working agricultural research projects to contribute significantly
to create lasting change in the lives of children, families to research in partnership with the government system.
and communities living in poverty and injustice. World Currently, national as well as regional research centres are
Vision has a long history of community development involved in climate-related studies such as conservation
work in Ethiopia and a strong legacy of community- agriculture, agroforestry, development of improved
based forestry programmes. One of the climate-smart varieties (including drought-resistant varieties) and
activities of World Vision Ethiopia is the Humbo Forestry efficient irrigation water application techniques.
and Forest Reclamation Project located in Humbo and
Soddo woredas of SNNP Regional State.
Box 8: Conservation agriculture research
Care Ethiopia has been involved in a wide range in Ethiopia
of initiatives related to climate-smart agriculture as
mentioned in the sections above. Research on conservation agriculture in Ethiopia
began in the year 2000 at Jima, Bako and Melkasa
FAO has a long history of support to conservation research centres on maize, sorghum and teff crops
agriculture and other climate-smart practices globally in collaboration with SG2000 and the respective
and in Ethiopia. FAO has in the past supported the regional agricultural development bureaus. The
MoA to demonstrate conservation agriculture to 600 objective of the research was to verify the effectiveness
smallholder farmers on 24 demonstration plots in 12 of conservation agriculture technology under the
woredas of Amhara, Tigray, Oromiya and SNNP regions. Ethiopian farming system. The results of this initial
FAO has also supported the introduction of conservation research indicated that conservation agriculture plots
agriculture equipment including jab planters and oxen- gave higher yields compared with the conventional
drawn seed and fertilizer planters in those same woredas tillage (Tesfa, 2001, Worku 2001, Tolesa 2001). This
in 2010. FAO supported the training of 72 extension was also consistent with research conducted in Latin
agents in conducting conservation agriculture farmer field America, Asia and other parts of Africa that had
schools, of which 32 were also trained in conservation concluded that conservation agriculture yields are
agriculture equipment assembly and operations. In between 20 to 120 percent higher (depending on
addition, FAO organized an experience-sharing visit to location) than those in conventional agriculture
Zambia for Ethiopian government staff so as to create (Kassam et al., 2009; Derpsch et al., 2010). To
awareness and bring back learning on conservation date, a number of other research organizations
agriculture from that country. are involved in conservation agriculture research
including CGIAR centres such as icipe, CIMMYT,
4.4 Research Organizations ICRAF, ICARDA, ILRI, IWMI and CIAT, who
are conducting research mostly in partnership
There are many international research organizations in with Ethiopia’s National Agricultural Research
Ethiopia that include universities, CGIAR centres such as System (NARS) including the Ethiopian Institute
icipe, CIMMYT, ICRAF, ICARDA, ILRI, IWMI and CIAT, of Agricultural Research (EIAR), regional research
all of which are working on climate-smart agriculture institutes as well as higher learning institutions
in one way or another. CIMMYT, for example, is one such as universities and also with NGOs and
of the organizations involved in the SIMLESA project. private companies.
ICRAF is working on issues around agroforestry in
Ethiopia, while ILRI is involved in research related to

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | 29

Private sector by supplying inputs such as non-selective herbicide
(glyphosate), which is crucial to get rid of complex
The private sector has a vital role to play in the promotion weeds during land preparation. Other agrodealers such
of CSA and conservation agriculture. A key factor in as Syngenta, Makamba, Ethiopian Seed Enterprise and
the adoption (or lack of adoption) of conservation Regional Seed Enterprises are also providing various
agriculture and other climate-smart practices is the types of inputs, mainly in terms of improved seed and
availability of high-quality inputs required to undertake fertilizers which can support conservation agriculture
these practices. Private sector organizations relevant and CSA adoption. The role of buyers of CSA and
to CSA include producers of agricultural products, conservation agriculture value-chain products has to be
retailers and distributors of farming inputs. In this carefully examined as farmers will only grow what they
regard, Makobu Enterprises is one of the leading private can use themselves or sell for a profit. Financial service
agrodealers involved in the promotion of conservation providers such as banks and microfinance institutes are
agriculture. Makobu Enterprises has been involved in also key stakeholders who play a crucial role in financing
conservation agriculture in Ethiopia from the initial climate-smart investments by smallholder and commercial
stages of introduction, promotion and scaling-up by farmers as well as supporting entrepreneurs involved in
providing technical support and inputs free of charge various aspects of the CSA value chain such as equipment
for demonstrations under various environmental and manufacture or import.
farming systems. They continue to conduct training on
conservation agriculture to this day. Other stakeholders

Other agrodealers such as Lion International, Chemitex Other key stakeholders include the media, who play a key
and GCT could also play a key role in the adoption and role in spreading the message of climate-smart agriculture.
promotion of conservation agriculture, particularly

©FAO/AU/Yohannes Zirotti

30 | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

 ©Marc Bleich
5
POLICIES, STR ATEGIES AND INSTITUTIONS
RELE VANT TO CSA

The Ethiopian government has put in place a number of Ethiopia is a signatory to a number of multilateral
policies, strategies and institutions that are designed to agreements that have a bearing on the sustainable
support climate change adaptation and mitigation and development efforts of the country. Ethiopia has signed
sustainable development as a whole. and/or ratified many of the international conventions and
protocols related to climate change and land degradation
5.1 Policies and Strategies including the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (1994), the Convention on Biological
Policies, laws and strategies relevant to climate change in Diversity (CBD) and the United Nations Convention to
Ethiopia include the Climate Resilient Green Economy Combat Desertification (UNCCD).
Strategy (2011), National Adaptation Program of
Action (NAPA), Ethiopian Programme of Adaptation Climate Resilient Green Economy Strategy, 2011:
to Climate Change (EPACC) of 2011, Nationally The Climate Resilient Green Economy Strategy known
Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA) of 2010, Rural as CRGE was developed in 2011 and launched at the
Development Policy and Strategies (2003), Growth and 17th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations
Transformation Plan (GTP), CAADP Compact and the Framework Convention on Climate Change in Durban
National Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (1997). in 2011. The strategy takes an economy-wide approach
to greenhouse gas reduction. According to the strategy,
Ethiopia aims to achieve carbon-neutral middle-income
“Ethiopia has signed and/or ratified many status before 2025. The strategy is based on four pillars,
of which the first two pillars are mainly related to CSA.
of the international conventions and
protocols related to climate change and • Agriculture: Improving crop and livestock production
land degradation.” practices for greater food security and better income
for farmers while reducing emissions.

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | 31

• Forests: Protecting and re-establishing forests for Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP): In 2010
their economic and ecological value, including carbon Ethiopia developed a Growth and Transformation
stocks. Plan (GTP) for the period 2010/11-2014/15. The GTP
• Power: Expanding electricity generation from recognizes that the environment is a vital and important
renewable sources of energy for domestic and regional pillar of sustainable development, and states that building
markets. a ‘Green Economy’ and ongoing implementation of
• Transport, industry and buildings: Leapfrogging to environmental laws are among the key strategic directions
modern and energy-efficient technologies in transport, to be pursued during the plan period. It outlines building
industrial sectors and buildings. a climate-resilient green economy as a strategic priority
for the country.
Ethiopian Programme of Adaptation to Climate Change
(EPACC) 2011: EPACC aims to build a climate-resilient Ethiopia’s Agricultural Sector Policy and Investment
economy through adaptation initiatives implemented Framework (PIF) 2010-2020: The PIF provides a
at sectoral, regional and local community levels. The strategic framework for the prioritization and planning
EPACC replaced the NAPA in 2011 and takes a more of investments that will drive Ethiopia’s agricultural
programmatic approach to adaptation planning. It growth and development. It is designed to operationalize
outlines 29 components that include objectives around the CAADP Compact signed by the Government and its
mainstreaming climate change within government policies development partners. The PIF states that climate change
and plans. In response, the country has prepared sectoral is a crosscutting issue that will be addressed in all areas of
and regional programmes of adaptation to climate change. the PIF. In view of the high level of agroclimatic diversity
in Ethiopia, climate change is likely to affect agriculture
Agriculture Sector Programme of Adaptation to in many and varied ways. The PIF states that a number
Climate Change: The Agriculture Sector Programme of instruments need to be considered for adapting to
of Adaptation to Climate Change was formulated in 2011 climate change. These include research on new crops
with the following objectives: and farming systems suited to hotter or drier conditions,
• to realize the commitment of the country to the United water harvesting, agroforestry, improved short-term and
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change long-term weather forecasting and risk management
(UNFCCC), that demands the integration of climate measures to cope with increasing climatic variability.
change into sectoral policies and development efforts; Mitigation measures such as carbon sequestration through
• to have a working climate change adaptation plan, that conservation agriculture and reforestation should also
after implementation, minimizes the vulnerability of be considered. In this way, climate change issues will
the agriculture sector and the community to climate be mainstreamed into the PIF by undertaking carbon
change hazards, and increases the strength of the accounting studies of all key investments and identifying
sector to tolerate predicted climate change impacts; opportunities for adaptation and mitigation.
• to mainstream and incorporate climate change
adaptation into the social system and existing
development efforts from bottom to top levels, making “The Policy and Investment Framework
use of people’s mobilization and coordination (FDRE,
states that climate change is a crosscutting
2011).
issue that will be addressed in all areas of
National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA): As a the framework. In view of the high level of
Party to UNFCCC, Ethiopia prepared its NAPA in 2007. agroclimatic diversity in Ethiopia, climate
The NAPA represented the first step in coordinating change is likely to affect agriculture in
adaptation activities across government sectors. The many and varied ways.”
NAPA document for Ethiopia identified immediate and
urgent adaptation activities that address current and
anticipated adverse effects of climate change including CAADP Compact: The Comprehensive Africa
extreme climate events. It provides a framework to guide Agriculture Development Program (CAADP) has been
the coordination and implementation of adaptation endorsed by the African Heads of State and Government
initiatives in the country through a participatory approach; as a framework for restoration of agriculture growth, food
building synergies with other relevant environmental security and rural development in Africa. One of the
and related programmes and projects. pillars of CAADP is extending the area under sustainable

32 | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

land management and reliable water control systems, Environmental Policy of Ethiopia: The Government
and CSA falls under this pillar. Ethiopia developed a of Ethiopia (GoE) issued an Environmental Policy in
CAADP Compact in 2009 and this provides the consensus 1997. The aim was to rectify the economic and social
around the goals and priorities that Ethiopia has set to costs of environmental damage from widespread
accelerate agriculture growth, improve food security and mismanagement of environmental resources, and
thereby livelihoods, and the partnerships and assistance to provide overall guidance in the conservation and
required to achieve these goals. In Ethiopia, government sustainable utilization of the country’s environmental
programmes and project activities have been aligned resources. The policy considers the vulnerability of
with the CAADP pillars. Accordingly, the Sustainable the country to climate variability and aims to promote
Land Management Programme, which has been financed a climate-monitoring programme, take appropriate
by the World Bank and other donors, is implementing mitigation measures, develop the energy sector, actively
pillar I of CAADP, which is improving natural resource participate in protecting the ozone layer, and maximize the
management and utilization. standing biomass in the country through a combination
of reforestation, agroforestry, rehabilitation of degraded
Environmental Impact Assessment Proclamation: areas, re-vegetation, control of free-range grazing (in the
An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a tool highlands) and seeking financial support for offsetting
used for the environmental assessment of projects to carbon dioxide emissions from such activities.
ensure that the environmental implications are taken
into account before decisions are made. In Ethiopia, the Ethiopia Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions
EIA Proclamation of 2002 and the procedural guidelines (NAMA): Ethiopia has reaffirmed its commitment to the
developed by the Environmental Protection Agency Copenhagen Accord and has submitted a statement to
(EPA) set the framework for EIA processes. With regard the UNFCCC highlighting potential NAMAs in various
to development projects, the proclamation stipulates that areas including agriculture and forestry. In forestry this
no person shall commence implementation of a proposed includes enhanced reforestation actions and sustainable
project identified by directive as requiring EIA without forest management, reclamation of degraded lands,
first passing through an EIA process and obtaining controlled grazing and area closures, and creation of
authorization from the competent organization. forest buffers to halt desertification. In agriculture this
includes composting and practising of agroforestry.

Policy Year Intention or goal

Environmental Policy of Ethiopia 1997 Overall guidance in the conservation and sustainable
utilization of the country’s environmental resources
Environmental Impact Proclamation Ensure that the environmental implications are taken into
Assessment 2002 account before decisions are made
National Adaptation Program of 2007 The NAPA represented the first step in coordinating
Action (NAPA): adaptation activities across government sectors
CAADP Compact 2009 One of the pillars of CAADP is extending the area under
sustainable land management and reliable water control
systems
Growth and Transformation Plan 2010 The GTP recognizes that the environment is a vital pillar
(GTP) of sustainable development
Agriculture Sector Programme 2011 The Agriculture Sector Climate Change Adaptation Plan
of Plan on Adaptation to Climate
Change/APACC
Ethiopian Programme of 2011 More programmatic approach to adaptation planning
Adaptation to Climate Change
(EPACC)
Climate Resilient Green Economy 2011 Carbon-neutral middle-income status before 2025
Strategy

Figure 4: Summary of key policies relevant to CSA in Ethiopia

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | 33

5.2 Institutions harmonizing efforts of various development partners
supporting the sector; and promoting dialogue with
CRGE Coordination Unit: The CRGE Coordination development partners to provide overall support. It was
Unit is established within the MoA Natural Resources officially established by government and development
Management Directorate. Technical teams include the partners in 2008 to support government development
livestock subsector technical committee, soil and crop objectives effectively.
technical committee and sustainable land management
technical committee. The major responsibility of the National Conservation Agriculture Taskforce (NCATF):
CRGE Coordination Unit is mainstreaming climate In March 2014, the first NCATF workshop was conducted.
change adaptation and mitigation strategies into the Terms of reference were developed and national taskforce
regular activities of each sector. The CRGE Coordination members from Government, FAO, NGOs and the private
Unit is implementing a pilot programme known as sector were identified. The role of the NCATF includes
Agriculture Sector Fast Track CRGE in 27 woredas of supporting the coordination of conservation agriculture
the four main regions. at national level, leading promotion of conservation
agriculture implementation, providing technical
Rural Economic Development and Food Security support to federal and regional conservation agriculture
Sector Working Group (RED & FS): The platform implementing institutions, mobilizing resources and
brings together government and development partners identifying issues for policy decisions and interventions.
under three thematic technical committees – Agricultural
Growth, Sustainable Land Management and Disaster Risk National Committee for Promotion of Climate-Smart
Management and Food Security (DRMFS). The mandate of Push-Pull Strategy: A national technical committee was
the RED & FS sector working group is sharing information established within the Agricultural Extension Directorate
on government policies, strategies and programmes; of the Ministry of Agriculture in February 2014. Members
review of sector-level implementation; coordinating and include staff from MoA, EIAR, ATA, ISD and icipe.

FAO/Eddy Patrick Donkeng

34 | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

The aim is to reduce striga and stalk borer infestation The SLM programme demonstrates how the green
of maize crops through intercropping with silver leaf economy can be operationalized in practice by protecting
desmodium and border planting with Napier grass. natural assets and increasing local development by
improving agricultural productivity in the country.
The National SLM Steering Committee is chaired by In SLMP II, climate-smart agriculture is adequately
the State Minister for Natural Resources in MoA and incorporated and refers to practices that seek to increase
comprises high-level representation from the Ministry of agricultural productivity, strengthen farmers’ resilience
Finance and Economic Development, Ministry of Water to climate change, reduce GHG emissions and increase
Irrigation and Energy, Ministry of Environment and carbon sequestration. SLMP II is working on capacity
Forests and development partners. The steering committee building to provide skills training to government and
is responsible for providing policy guidance, oversight other stakeholders to promote climate-smart agriculture
and overall supervision for project implementation. and thus promote implementation.

The National SLM Technical Committee is also chaired The most recent strategy related to climate change is
by the State Minister for Natural Resources in MoA. It the CRGE, which was developed in 2011. Institutional
is made up of senior technical staff from institutions arrangements for coordinating and implementing public
such as the Ministry of Agriculture; Ministry of Water, policy responses for CRGE are being developed. The
Irrigation and Energy; Ministry of Finance and Economic responsibility of coordinating CRGE planning lies with
Development; Ministry of Environmental Protection and the Ministry of Environment and Forests. The CRGE
Forestry; Ethiopian Institute for Agricultural Research Inter-Ministerial Committee, under the Council of
(EIAR); development partners supporting SLM projects Ministers, provides oversight of the CRGE process. This
or initiatives; and civil society organizations (NGOs) Committee is the top body within the CRGE institutional
actively engaged in SLM activities. Generally, this body arrangements. It is responsible for providing overall
is responsible for providing technical advice to MoA direction to the CRGE process and for approving financial
on SLM. decisions of the CRGE facility. The Committee comprises
State Ministers and senior officials from participating
5.3 Effectiveness of CSA Policies, Strategies and institutions. The Government of Ethiopia is designing
Institutions institutional arrangements that will enable demand-driven
articulation and implementation of CRGE investments.
In Ethiopia significant efforts are made to develop policies The proposed arrangements include outlining a role for
and strategies pertinent to climate change. Such policies implementing and executing entities, along with the
are also adequately integrated into subsequent government establishment of CRGE units within the implementing
plans such as the GTP. The GTP addresses climate change entities.
as a crosscutting issue under the strategic priority of
environment and climate change. It outlines building a In addition, policies such as the Environment Policy
climate-resilient green economy as a strategic priority are being operationalized through the development
for the plan period of 2010 to 2015. of District Environmental Management Plans, which
have been prepared and are being implemented in
A number of developmental projects and programmes various districts. Forest, soil and water conservation area
that are supported by policies have been initiated and enclosure activities have been exercised as main actions
implemented. Most of the work focused on soil and to achieve the desired goals.
water conservation, soil/land management for improved
agricultural productivity and reforestation practices. Despite the fact that policies are being operationalized,
Many projects conducted in the country were recognizable more needs to be done to implement the policies and
by their use of approaches for climate resilience and ensure their effectiveness. Another challenge is a lack of
adaptation. The MERET project and PSNP-PW are coordination and a relevant legislative framework and
among the early programmes and projects operating in consultations on climate change-related activities, projects,
Ethiopia aimed at curbing environmental degradation research programmes and responses that are currently
and focused mainly on reducing soil erosion through the undertaken by the various stakeholders, especially
construction of physical structures such as terraces, check between government NGOs and donor agencies. This
dams, cut-off drains and micro-basins, afforestation and may lead to duplication of efforts and inefficiencies in
revegetation of degraded and fragile hillside areas. A large project implementation.
volume of work has been done in such areas and some
ecological and agricultural benefits have been obtained.

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | 35

 ©FAO/AU/Yohannes Zirotti
GENDER AND CSA
6
Women constitute nearly half of the country’s population. own the oxen give priority to their own fields. Women
Many of them are living in dire economic conditions farmers practising conservation agriculture maintain that
characterized by endemic poverty and poor working their work within agriculture has become more planned
and living conditions. Akililu and Alebachew (2009) and systematic (including planting, use of fertilizer and
reported that in Ethiopia, the majority of the poorest crop rotation). Women manage to improve the welfare of
groups are composed of women, the disabled and those their families due to increased agricultural productivity,
living with HIV/AIDS. Not surprisingly, these social improved access to and use of water and other natural
and demographic groups are also the most vulnerable, resources, as well as the reduction in damage caused by
least prepared and likely to be worst affected by climate environmental degradation and pollution.
change. Moreover, climate variability and change affects
women as it makes fuelwood and water difficult to access. It has been stated that if women farmers were given the same
This forces rural women to walk longer distances to fetch access to resources as men, women’s agricultural yields
water and collect fuelwood. could increase by 20 to 30 percent, national agricultural
production could rise by 2.5 to 4 percent and the number
Conservation agriculture and other CSA practices have of malnourished people could be reduced by 12 to
many benefits for women. These practices can lessen and 17 percent (Senay, 2012). The 1995 Ethiopian constitution,
spread their workload over time and reduce their burden in article 35 (3), took a historic measure on gender equality.
of fetching water for crops. The practices can enable It provides women with the right to acquire, administer,
early planting of crops, make women less dependent control, use and transfer property. The proclamation
on oxen or mechanical tillage equipment, increase crop states explicitly that women have equal rights to men with
productivity and production of different crops, and respect to the use, transfer, administration and control
increase food security and nutrition among women and of land (WABEKBON, 2006). It is hoped that this will
vulnerable groups. It has been said that when a woman encourage improved land management and improved
practises conservation agriculture, she is not dependent investment in sustainable agricultural practices such
on oxen or mechanical tillage equipment and can plant as climate-smart agriculture by both men and women.
earlier. In conventional agriculture, women smallholder Studies on the gender implications of conservation
farmers who rent oxen or mechanized tillage equipment agriculture in initiatives such as the FACASI Project
have experienced problems in planting on time. Women are ongoing.
farmers without oxen often plant too late, as farmers who

36 | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

 FAO/Eddy Patrick Donkeng
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7
7.1 Conclusions • There are a number of institutions, organizations and
government departments involved in climate-smart
• The current policies, strategies and laws related agriculture in Ethiopia. There is a need to ensure that
to climate change and sustainable agriculture these institutions, organizations and departments
are adequate. However, they are not adequately coordinate their efforts and conduct their work in a
incorporated into extension guidelines and manuals manner that adds value to one another rather than
(and the extension system as a whole) in a way that the duplicating or being in conflict with one another.
great majority of the rural farming population could
understand and participate in their implementation. • There is a lack of adequate research findings on
For this reason adoption of practices such as climate-smart agriculture in Ethiopia for the various
conservation agriculture remains relatively low. agro-ecological zones, soil types, rainfall patterns,
farming systems, as well as temperature and moisture
• Ethiopia has a number of adequate policies and ranges. Hence there is a need to support more research
strategies pertinent to climate change adaptation and projects on climate-smart agriculture, particularly
mitigation as well as agriculture and food security. action research and field-based research.
What remains to be done is creating awareness about
the policies as well as promoting their implementation • Ethiopia is characterized by low agricultural
at all levels, for example through mainstreaming production and productivity and there are significant
of the policies into agricultural extension and the yield gaps. Such low productivity is emanating
development of national CSA and conservation from environmental factors such as climate change,
agriculture implementation manuals. soil erosion and land degradation as well as weak
extension services. Therefore, improving productivity
• In Ethiopia there are numerous projects and while addressing the adverse effects of climate change
programmes that are conducting and promoting on agriculture is a major concern.
climate-smart agricultural practices and technologies.
However, these programmes and projects are being • There is a lack of common understanding on the
implemented in a fragmented project-based manner, content of conservation agriculture in different parts
which poses a threat to the sustainability of these of the country among the conservation agriculture-
initiatives. implementing public, NGOs and private sector

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | 37

 organizations. At the moment there is no organization • In Ethiopia skills and knowledge on climate-smart
responsible for the promotion and technical support agriculture, particularly on conservation agriculture,
of conservation agriculture at all levels. Conservation are not adequate and require support.
agriculture is not incorporated in the annual action
plans of the agricultural offices. 7.2 Key challenges to implementing CSA in
Ethiopia
• So far efforts to promote conservation agriculture and
other CSA practices have shown some encouraging • Weak capacity on climate change adaptation and
results at grassroots level. There are woredas where mitigation at all levels including the public sector,
farmers have adopted some of the components of civil society organizations and the private sector
conservation agriculture such as reduced tillage, soil remains a key challenge. There is a lack of skilled
mulching with crop residue and intercropping as well human resources at all levels.
as other climate-smart practices such as agroforestry
and water harvesting. However, documentation and • Organizations do not tend to work together in
data on adoption rates are lacking at woreda, zonal, an integrated manner in CSA implementation
regional and federal level. and promotion. This is in part because of weak
coordination mechanisms at federal and regional
• The presence of free grazing across many parts levels. In addition, there is a lack of mechanisms to
of Ethiopia remains a challenge to environmental bring together and coordinate stakeholders involved
management and the adoption of some climate-smart in different forms of CSA technology promotion.
practices such as intercropping and mulching.
• In Ethiopia conventional agricultural practices like
• There is a wealth of knowledge held by farmers on frequent ploughing and removal and burning of crop
traditional soil and water conservation methods that residues have contributed to the deterioration of the
can be useful in supporting the upscaling of climate- physical quality of the soil and hence crop productivity
smart agriculture across the country. These practices decline is common.
need to be studied, documented and shared.

FAO/Eddy Patrick Donkeng

38 | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

 ©Marc Bleich
• In many parts of Ethiopia livestock husbandry is (CRGE) Strategy. In the MoA, a CRGE coordination
characterized by open grazing, land degradation and unit has been established for piloting climate-smart
the loss of forests, which could lead to releasing large agriculture as well as mainstreaming the CRGE into
quantities of greenhouse gases. It is also reported agriculture projects and programmes.
that livestock is the largest major source of global
methane emissions. • Regional states have embarked on the promotion
of integrated watershed management to improve
7.3 Untapped opportunities agricultural productivity, with major emphasis on
avoiding open and uncontrolled grazing. This provides
Untapped opportunities to support the upscaling of a good opportunity for large-scale implementation
CSA and conservation agriculture in Ethiopia include and promotion of climate-smart practices such as
the following: agroforestry and conservation agriculture.

• There is willingness and commitment from the • Resources are available in the form of projects and
government to reduce poverty and ensure food programmes like AGP, SLM, PSNP and others. These
security while addressing climate change. The projects are operating in many parts of the country
government has developed policies and strategies under various agro-ecological zones and farming
that are pertinent to ensure food security as well systems.
as address climate change. The government has
moreover ratified international climate change-related • There are private sector organizations and numerous
conventions. NGOs in the country. At grassroots level there are
also adequate numbers of extension and development
• The country has developed a comprehensive green agents to create climate-related awareness, provide
growth strategy that encompasses agriculture in capacity-building training and promote climate-smart
the form of the Climate Resilient Green Economy agricultural activities.

ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | 39

7.4 Recommendations • In areas where conservation agriculture technology
has not yet been popularized, demonstrations have to
• CSA needs to be mainstreamed into core government be given at farmers’ training centres (FTCs) and on
strategies, guidelines, manuals and annual action plans. farmers’ fields. In this regard extension materials such
In this regard the experience of the SLM Programme as leaflets and brochures and organizing experience-
is a good lesson for integrating CSA technologies into sharing visits and farmers’ field days are crucial.
project and programme implementation manuals.
Priority needs to be given to CSA practices that bring • It is important to have a proactive platform for
productivity gains, enhance resilience and reduce governmental institutions, NGOs, donors, private
emissions. sector and civil society organizations in Ethiopia
to fill gaps and enhance collective action on CSA.
• For effective CSA promotion, adequate mechanisms are This can be done through the National Conservation
needed for generating, capturing, and disseminating Agriculture Task Force (NCATF). Enabling the
knowledge and information through the use of existing climate-smart agriculture implementing
effective processes and institutional arrangements. institutions to share information, knowledge and
Sources of knowledge on climate-smart agriculture experience is crucial.
include scientific research and indigenous knowledge.
After knowledge has been created and sourced, it • A wide range of measures are required to reduce the
needs to be disseminated to users to support adoption livestock sector’s climate-change responses. These
of climate-smart practices. include improving production and feed systems,
breeding low methane-emitting ruminants and
• For CSA knowledge dissemination a comprehensive introducing manure management methods that
capacity-development approach for all stakeholders reduce emissions. Efforts should be made towards
that builds on a sound assessment of needs is required. implementing restricted grazing to avoid overgrazing,
In this regard, within the diversified extension service which causes degradation, and crop residue removal
delivery, there is a need to build the capacity of all through open grazing.
CSA and/or conservation agriculture-implementing
organizations, with major emphasis on the extension • CSA has to be integrated into tertiary level education,
directorate of the MoA and integration of CSA and/or including TVET colleges and universities, so as to
conservation agriculture into the country’s extension develop a large number of professionals with an
package. It is through the extension system that the in-depth knowledge of the subject.
technologies reach the wider community.
• The CSA value chains need to be evaluated and
• The CSA technology promotion process has to be strengthened in order to enable access to key inputs
documented at all levels of implementation so as to and equipment (e.g. rippers) needed as well as enabling
undertake evidence-based promotion and upscaling the sale of CSA produce, particularly legumes used
of the technologies. Documentation would provide a in rotations and intercropping.
good basis for those involved in the implementation
of CSA to attain knowledge and methodologies,
which could then be used and applied for influencing
policy-makers and for developing networks for the
promotion of best practices.

• The importance of conservation agriculture as

a key climate-smart practice for Ethiopia has to
be recognized among high-level policy-makers
and decision-makers as well as government and
civil society organizations in the country. A solid
awareness-creation programme of conservation
agriculture technology should be provided to all
stakeholders at federal and regional level.

40 | ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY

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ETHIOPIA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE SCOPING STUDY | 41

This climate-smart agriculture scoping study for
Ethiopia was produced by the FAO. The study is
aimed at identifying and documenting existing
climate-smart agriculture practices in Ethiopia
that enable stakeholders to understand the
opportunities and constraints to adopting particular
climate-smart agriculture technologies or practices.

For further information, please contact:

Edward Kilawe
Forestry Officer
FAO Sub-regional Office for Eastern Africa
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: +251 11 647 8888
E-mail: [email protected]

Sebastian Grey
Natural Resources Officer
FAO Sub-regional Office for Eastern Africa
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: +251 11 647 8888
E-mail: [email protected]

www.fao.org

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