MODULE II.

RESEARCH PROBLEM

 Formulate a research problem that concerns your own field;

 Express the research problem in question form; and
 Identify and label the variables in your research problem.

This module helps the students the importance of defining research problem that
has significance in their field and area of specialization. This also guides them on how to
express their research problem that follows that SMART characteristics and define them
into statements or in question form. Moreover, it presents the importance of identifying the
research variables based on their characteristics which direct them on what research
would be appropriate. Lastly, this module also equips the students on how to formulate
hypothesis/es to certain research problems.
 Lesson 1: Formulating research problem

At the end of this lesson, the students should have been able to:
1. Define a research problem in concept map;
2. Cite the purposes of research problem; and
3. Formulate a research problem in question form.

Activity: Let’s Read These

Robert Adams, a high school teacher in Omaha, Nebraska, wants to

investigate whether the inquiry method will increase the interest of his
eleventh-grade students in history. Phyllis Gomez, a physical education
teacher in an elementary school in Phoenix, Arizona, wants to find out how
her sixth-grade students feel about the new exercise program recently
mandated by the school district. Tami Mendoza, a counselor in a large inner-
city high school in San Francisco, wonders whether a client-centered
approach might help ease the hostility that many of her students display
during counseling sessions.

Based on the sample literature above;

1. What are the problems of the two teachers and one counselor?
2. Are these problems the same or different? Why or Why not?
3. How would they be able to solve their problems?

ABSTRACTION: Let’s Add from?

to What You Know
Where do research ideas come

CONCEPT FOR RESEARCH PROBLEM

A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be

improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly
literature, in theory, or in practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding
and deliberate investigation. In some social science disciplines the research problem is
typically posed in the form of a question. A research problem does not state how to do
something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a value question.
RESEARCH QUESTION

Usually a research problem is initially posed as a question, which serves as the focus
of the researcher’s investigation. In our view, the research question should dictate the
research type and paradigm (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed method) used to conduct
the study rather than the other way around, i.e., the methodology determining the question.
The following examples of initial research questions in education are not sufficiently
developed for actual use in a research project but would be suitable during the early stage
of formulating a research question. An appropriate methodology and research paradigm (in
parentheses) are provided for each question. Although there are other possible
methodologies that might be used, we consider those given here as particularly suitable.

 Does client-centered therapy produce more satisfaction in clients than traditional

therapy?
(experimental research; quantitative)
• What goes on in after-school programs during an average week? (ethnographic research;
qualitative)
• Does behavior modification reduce aggression in autistic children? (single-subject
experimental research; quantitative)
• Do teachers behave differently toward students of different genders? (causal-comparative
research; quantitative or mixed method)
• How can we predict which students might have trouble learning certain kinds of subject
matter? (correlational research; quantitative) • How do parents feel about the school
counseling program? (survey research; quantitative)
 Why do first-generation college students have a lower graduation rate at San Simeon
University? (case study; mixed method)
• How can principals improve faculty morale at lowperforming middle schools? (interview
research; qualitative)

What all these questions have in common is that these data of some sort to answer
them (at least in part) can be collected. That’s what makes them researchable. For example,
a researcher can measure the satisfaction levels of clients who receive different methods of
therapy. Or researchers can observe and interview in order to describe the functioning of
an elementary school classroom. To repeat, then, what makes these questions researchable
is that some sort of information can be collected to answer them.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Once a research question has been formulated, researchers want to turn it into as
good a question as possible. Good research questions possess four essential characteristics.
1. The question is feasible (i.e., it can be investigated without expending an undue
amount of time, energy, or money).
 2. The question is clear (i.e., most people would agree as to what the key words in
the question mean).
3. The question is significant (i.e., it is worth investigating because it will
contribute
important knowledge about the human condition). 4. The question is ethical (i.e., it will not
involve physical or psychological harm or damage to human beings or to the natural or
social environment of which they are a part).

PURPOSES OF PROBLEM STATEMENT

The purpose of a problem statement is to:

1. Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied. The reader is
oriented to the significance of the study and the research questions or
hypotheses to follow.
2. Place the problem into a particular context that defines the parameters of what is
to be investigated.
3. Provide the framework for reporting the results and indicates what is probably
necessary to conduct the study and explain how the findings will present this
information.

BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM

For research problem to be effective, it must contain these basic characteristics:

1. Reflecting on important issues or needs;

2. Basing on factual evidence (it’s non-hypothetical;
3. Being manageable and relevant;
4. Suggesting testable and meaningful hypothesis (avoiding useless answers)

So What!

In the social sciences, the research problem establishes the means by which you
must answer the "So What?" question. The "So What?" question refers to a research
problem surviving the relevancy test [the quality of a measurement procedure that
provides repeatability and accuracy]. Note that answering the "So What" question requires
a commitment on your part to not only show that you have researched the material, but
that you have thought about its significance.

To survive the "So What" question, problem statements should possess the
following attributes:

1. Clarity and precision [a well-written statement does not make sweeping

generalizations and irresponsible statements],
2. Identification of what would be studied, while avoiding the use of value-laden
words and terms,
 3. Identification of an overarching question and key factors or variables,
4. Identification of key concepts and terms,
5. Articulation of the study's boundaries or parameters. Some generalizability in
regards to applicability and bringing results into general use,
6. Conveyance of the study's importance, benefits, and justification [regardless of
the type of research, it is important to address the “so what” question by
demonstrating that the research is not trivial]. Does not have unnecessary
jargon; and,
7. Conveyance of more than the mere gathering of descriptive data providing only a
snapshot of the issue or phenomenon under investigation.

I. TYPES AND CONTENT

There are four general conceptualizations of a research problem in the social

sciences:

1. Casuist Research Problem -- this type of problem relates to the determination

of right and wrong in questions of conduct or conscience by analyzing moral
dilemmas through the application of general rules and the careful distinction of
special cases.
2. Difference Research Problem -- typically asks the question, “Is there a difference
between two or more groups or treatments?” This type of problem statement is
used when the researcher compares or contrasts two or more phenomena.
3. Descriptive Research Problem -- typically asks the question, "what is...?" with the
underlying purpose to describe a situation, state, or existence of a specific
phenomenon.
4. Relational Research Problem -- suggests a relationship of some sort between two
or more variables to be investigated. The underlying purpose is to investigate
qualities/characteristics that are connected in some way.

A problem statement in the social sciences should contain:

 A lead-in that helps ensure the reader will maintain interest over the study
 A declaration of originality [e.g., mentioning a knowledge void, which would be
supported by the literature review]
 An indication of the central focus of the study, and
 An explanation of the study's significance or the benefits to be derived from an
investigating the problem.

II. SOURCES OF PROBLEMS FOR INVESTIGATION

Identifying a problem to study can be challenging, not because there is a lack of

issues that could be investigated, but due to pursuing a goal of formulating a socially
relevant and researchable problem statement that is unique and does not simply duplicate
the work of others. To facilitate how you might select a problem from which to build a
research study, consider these three broad sources of inspiration:

Deductions from Theory

This relates to deductions made from social philosophy or generalizations embodied
in life in society that the researcher is familiar with. These deductions from human
behavior are then fitted within an empirical frame of reference through research. From a
theory, the research can formulate a research problem or hypothesis stating the expected
findings in certain empirical situations. The research asks the question: “What relationship
between variables will be observed if theory aptly summarizes the state of affairs?” One
can then design and carry out a systematic investigation to assess whether empirical data
confirm or reject the hypothesis and hence the theory.

Interdisciplinary Perspectives
Identifying a problem that forms the basis for a research study can come from
academic movements and scholarship originating in disciplines outside of your primary
area of study. A review of pertinent literature should include examining research from
related disciplines, which can expose you to new avenues of exploration and analysis. An
interdisciplinary approach to selecting a research problem offers an opportunity to
construct a more comprehensive understanding of a very complex issue than any single
discipline might provide.

Interviewing Practitioners
The identification of research problems about particular topics can arise from
formal or informal discussions with practitioners who provide insight into new directions
for future research and how to make research findings increasingly relevant to practice.
Discussions with experts in the field, such as, teachers, social workers, health care
providers, etc., offers the chance to identify practical, “real world” problems that may be
understudied or ignored within academic circles. This approach also provides some
practical knowledge which may help in the process of designing and conducting your study.

Personal Experience
Your everyday experiences can give rise to worthwhile problems for investigation.
Think critically about your own experiences and/or frustrations with an issue facing
society, your community, or in your neighborhood. This can be derived, for example, from
deliberate observations of certain relationships for which there is no clear explanation or
witnessing an event that appears harmful to a person or group or that is out of the
ordinary.

Relevant Literature
The selection of a research problem can often be derived from an extensive and
thorough review of pertinent research associated with your overall area of interest. This
may reveal where gaps remain in our understanding of a topic. Research may be conducted
to: 1) fill such gaps in knowledge; 2) evaluate if the methodologies employed in prior
studies can be adapted to solve other problems; or, 3) determine if a similar study could be
conducted in a different subject area or applied to different study sample [i.e., different
groups of people]. Also, authors frequently conclude their studies by noting implications
for further research; this can also be a valuable source of problems to investigate.

III. WHAT MAKES A GOOD RESEARCH STATEMENT?

A good problem statement begins by introducing the broad area in which your
research is centered and then gradually leads the reader to the narrower questions you are
posing. The statement need not be lengthy but a good research problem should incorporate
the following features:

Compelling topic
Simple curiosity is not a good enough reason to pursue a research study. The
problem that you choose to explore must be important to you and to a larger community
you share. The problem chosen must be one that motivates you to address it.

Supports multiple perspectives

The problem most be phrased in a way that avoids dichotomies and instead
supports the generation and exploration of multiple perspectives. A general rule of thumb
is that a good research problem is one that would generate a variety of viewpoints from a
composite audience made up of reasonable people.

Researchable
It seems a bit obvious, but you don't want to find yourself in the midst of
investigating a complex research project and realize that you don't have much to draw on
for your research. Choose research problems that can be supported by the resources
available to you. Not sure? Seek out help from a librarian!

NOTE: Do not confuse a research problem with a research topic. A topic is something to
read and obtain information about whereas a problem is something to solve or framed as a
question that must be answered.

IV. Mistakes to Avoid

Beware of circular reasoning. Don’t state that the research problem as simply the
absence of the thing you are suggesting. For example, if you propose, "The problem in this
community is that it has no hospital."

This only leads to a research problem where:

 The need is for a hospital

 The objective is to create a hospital
 The method is to plan for building a hospital, and
 The evaluation is to measure if there is a hospital or not.
 This is an example of a research problem that fails the "so what?" test because it
does not reveal the relevance of why you are investigating the problem of having no
hospital in the community [e.g., there's a hospital in the community ten miles away] and
because the research problem does not elucidate the significance of why one should study
the fact that no hospital exists in the community [e.g., that hospital in the community ten
miles away has no emergency room].

Formulating the research problem

Once the general topic or problem has been identified, this should then be stated as
a clear research problem, that is, taken from just a statement about a problematic situation
to a clearly defined researchable problem that identifies the issues you are trying to
address.
It is not always easy to formulate the research problem simply and clearly. In some
areas of scientific research the investigator might spend years exploring, thinking, and
researching before they are clear about what research questions they are seeking to
answer. Many topics may prove too wide-ranging to provide a researchable problem.
Choosing to study, for instance a social issue such as child poverty, does not in itself
provide a researchable problem. The problem is too wide ranging for one researcher to
address. Time and resources would make this unfeasible and the results from such a study
would consequently lack depth and focus.

STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

An adequate statement of the research problem is one of the most important parts
of the research. Different researchers are likely to generate a variety of researchable
problems from the same situation since there are many research issues that can arise out of
a general problem situation. Your research will be able to pursue only
one in depth.
For a problem statement to be effective in the planning of applied research it should
have the following characteristics (Andrew and Hildebrand 1982).

(1) The problem reflects felt needs

(2) The problem is non-hypothetical, i.e. it must be based on factual evidence
(3) It should suggest meaningful and testable hypotheses – to avoid answers that
are of little or no use to the alleviation of the problem
(4) The problems should be relevant and manageable
 VARIABLES AND HYPOTHESES

At the end of this lesson, the students should have been able to:
1. Identify the variables in a research problem;
2. Classify the variable based on their characteristics; and
3. Formulate possible hypotheses from the identified research problem.

Marge Jenkins and Jenna Rodriguez are having coffee following a meeting of
their graduate seminar in educational research. Both are puzzled by some of
the ideas that came up in today’s meeting of the class. “I’m not sure I agree
with Ms. Naser” (their instructor), says Jenna. “She said that there are a lot of
advantages to predicting how you think a study will come out.” “Yeah, I
know,” replies Marge. “But formulating a hypothesis seems like a good idea
to me.” “Well, perhaps, but there are some disadvantages, too.” “Really? I
can’t think of any.” “Well, what about ...?”

Based on the story above:

1. What are the two talking about?
2. Whose side do you agree with? Or are they both correct? What do you think?

CONCEPT OF VARIABLES

A variable is a concept—a noun that stands for variation within a class of objects,
such as chair, gender, eye color, achievement, motivation, or running speed. Even spunk,
style, and lust for life are variables. Notice that the individual members in the class of
objects, however, must differ—or vary—to qualify the class as a variable. If all members of
a class are identical, we do not have a variable. Such characteristics are called constants,
since the individual members of the class are not allowed to vary, but rather are held
constant. In any study, some characteristics will be variables, while others will be
constants.
An example may make this distinction clearer. Suppose a researcher is interested in
studying the effects of reinforcement on student achievement. The researcher
systematically divides a large group of students, all of whom are ninth-graders, into three
smaller subgroups. She then trains the teachers of these subgroups to reinforce their
students in different ways (one gives verbal praise, the second gives monetary rewards, the
third gives extra points) for various tasks the students perform. In this study,
reinforcement would be a variable (it contains three variations), while the grade level of
the students would be a constant.
Notice that it is easier to see what some of these concepts stand for than others. The
concept of chair, for example, stands for the many different objects that we sit on that
possess legs, a seat, and a back. Furthermore, different observers would probably agree as
to how particular chairs differ. It is not so easy, however, to see what a concept like
motivation stands for, or to agree on what it means. The researchers must be specific here
—they must define motivation as clearly as possible. They must do this so that it can be
measured or manipulated. We cannot meaningfully measure or manipulate a variable if we
cannot define it. As we mentioned above, much educational research involves looking for a
relationship among variables. But what variables?

QUANTITATIVE VERSUS CATEGORICAL VARIABLES

Quantitative variables exist in some degree (rather than all or none) along a
continuum from less to more, and we can assign numbers to different individuals or objects
to indicate how much of the variable they possess. Two obvious examples are height (John
is 6 feet tall and Sally is 5 feet 4 inches) and weight (Mr. Adams weighs only 150 pounds
and his wife 140 pounds, but their son tips the scales at an even 200 pounds). We can also
assign numbers to various individuals to indicate how much “interest” they have in a
subject, with a 5 indicating very much interest, a 4 much interest, a 3 some interest, a 2
little interest, a 1 very little interest, down to a 0 indicating no interest. If we can assign
numbers in this way, we have the variable interest.
Quantitative variables can often (but not always) be subdivided into smaller and
smaller units. Length, for example, can be measured in miles, yards, feet, inches, or in
whatever subdivision of an inch is needed.

Categorical variables do not vary in degree, amount, or quantity but are qualitatively
different. Examples include eye color, gender, religious preference, occupation, position on
a baseball team, and most kinds of research “treatments” or “methods.” For example,
suppose a researcher wishes to compare certain attitudes in two different groups of voters,
one in which each individual is registered as a member of one political party and the other
in which individuals are members of another party. The variable involved would be
political party. This is a categorical variable—a person is either in one or the other
category, not somewhere in between being a registered member of one party and a
registered member of another party. All members within each category of this variable are
considered the same as far as party membership is concerned.
 Figure 5.1 Quantitative Variables Compared with Categorical Variables

INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES

Independent variables are those that the researcher chooses to study in order to
assess their possible effect(s) on one or more other variables. An independent variable is
presumed to affect (at least partly cause) or somehow influence at least one other variable.
The variable that the independent variable is presumed to affect is called a
dependent variable. In commonsense terms, the dependent variable “depends on” what the
independent variable does to it, how it affects it. For example, a researcher studying the
relationship between childhood success in mathematics and adult career choice is likely to
refer to the former as the independent variable and subsequent career choice as the
dependent variable. It is possible to investigate more than one independent (and also more
than one dependent) variable in a study. For simplicity’s sake, however, we present
examples in which only one independent and one dependent variable are involved. The
relationship between independent and dependent variables can be portrayed graphically
as follows:

Independent Dependent
Variable Affects Variables

(possible (presumed
cause) results)
 At this point, let’s check your understanding. Suppose a researcher plans to
investigate the following question: “Will students who are taught by a team of three
teachers learn more science than students taught by one individual teacher?” What are the
independent and dependent variables in this question? * Notice that there are two
conditions (sometimes called levels) in the independent variable- “three teachers” and “one
teacher.” Also notice that the dependent variable is not “science learning” but “amount of
science learning.” Can you see why? At this point, things begin to get a bit complicated.
Independent variables may be either manipulated or selected. A manipulated variable is
one that the researcher creates. Such variables are typically found in experimental studies.
Suppose, for example, that a researcher decides to investigate the effect of different
amounts of reinforcement on reading achievement and systematically assigns students to
three different groups.
One group is praised continuously every day during their reading session; the
second group is told simply to “keep up the good work”; the third group is told nothing at
all. The researcher, in effect, manipulates the conditions in this experiment, thereby
creating the variable amount of reinforcement. Whenever a researcher sets up
experimental conditions, one or more variables are created. Such variables are called
manipulated variables, experimental variables, or treatment variable:

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Gender (categorical) Musical aptitude (quantitative)

Mathematical ability Career Choice
(quantitative) (Categorical)
Gang membership (categorical) Subsequent marital status (categorical)
Test anxiety (quantitative) Test performance (quantitative)

Notice that none of the independent variables in the above pairs could be

directly manipulated by the researcher. Notice also that, in some instances, the
independent/ dependent relationship might be reversed, depending on which one
the researcher thought might be the cause of the other. For example, he or she might
think that test performance causes anxiety, not the reverse. Generally speaking,
most studies in education that have one quantitative and one categorical variable
are studies comparing different methods or treatments. As indicated above, the
independent variable in such studies (the different methods or treatments)
represents a categorical variable. Often the other (dependent) variable is
quantitative and is referred to as an outcome variable. The reason is rather clear-cut.
The investigator, after all, is interested in the effect(s) of the differences in method
on one or more outcomes (student achievement, their motivation, interest, and so
on).

MODERATOR VARIABLES
 A moderator variable is a special type of independent variable. It is a secondary
independent variable that has been selected for study in order to determine if it affects or
modifies the basic relationship between the primary independent variable and the
dependent variable. Thus, if an experimenter thinks that the relationship between
variables X and Y might be altered in some way by a third variable Z, then Z could be
included in the study as a moderator variable.
Consider an example. Suppose a researcher is interested in comparing the
effectiveness of a discussion- oriented approach to a more visually oriented approach for
teaching a unit in a U.S. History class. Suppose further that the researcher suspects that the
discussion approach may be superior for the girls in the class (who appear to be more
verbal and to learn better through conversing with others) and that the visual approach
may be more effective for boys (who seem to perk up every time a video is shown). When
the students are tested together at the end of the unit, the overall results of the two
approaches may show no difference, but when the results of the girls are separated from
those of the boys, the two approaches may reveal different results for each subgroup. If so,
then the gender variable moderates the relationship between the instructional approach
(the independent variable) and effectiveness (the dependent variable). The influence of
this moderator variable can be seen in Figure 5.2.

Instructional Approach

Figure 5.2 Relationship Between Instructional Approach (Independent

Variable) and Achievement (Dependent Variable), as Moderated by
Gender of Students

Here are two examples of research questions that contain moderator variables.
Research Question 1: “Does anxiety affect test performance and, if so, does it depend on
test-taking experience?”
• Independent variable: anxiety level
• Moderator variable: test-taking experience
• Dependent variable: test performance
Research Question 2: “Do high school students taught primarily by the inquiry method
perform better on tests of critical thinking than high school students taught primarily by
the demonstration method and, if so, does it vary with grade level?”
• Independent variable: instructional method
 • Moderator variable: grade level
• Dependent variable: performance on critical thinking tests

As you can see, the inclusion of a moderator variable (or even two or three) in a
study can provide considerably more information than just studying a single independent
variable alone. Their inclusion is recommended whenever appropriate.

MEDIATOR VARIABLES

While a moderator variable can modify or influence the strength of a relationship

between two other variables, a mediator variable is one that attempts to explain the
relationship between the two other variables. Let us reexamine the relationship in
Hypothesis 1 above between anxiety level (AL) and test performance (TP) on high-stakes
test like the SAT exam. The moderator variable in this case is test-taking experience (TTE)
because the relationship between AL and TP is stronger for students with prior experience
taking the SAT. A possible mediator variable in this case could be socioeconomic status
(SES) because it could explain why there is a relationship between AL and TP.

Figure 5.3 Examples of

Extraneous Variables

The principal of a high school compares the final examination scores of two history classes
taught by teachers who use different methods, not realizing that they are also different in
many other ways because of extraneous variables. The classes differ in:
Size of class
• Gender of students
• Gender of teacher
Extraneous • Age of teacher
Variables • Time of day class meets
• Days of week class meets
• Ethnicity of teacher
 Length of class
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES

A basic problem in research is that there are many possible independent variables
that could have an effect on the dependent variables. Once researchers have decided which
variables to study, they must be concerned about the influence or effect of other variables
that exist. Such variables are usually called extraneous variables. The task is to control
these extraneous variables somehow to eliminate or minimize their effect.
Extraneous variables are independent variables that have not been controlled. Look
again at the research question about team teaching on page 80. What are some other
variables that could have an effect on the learning of students in a classroom situation?
There are many possible extraneous variables. The personality of the teachers involved, the
experience level of the students, the time of day the classes are taught, the nature of the
subject taught, the textbooks used, the type of learning activities the teachers employ, and
the teaching methods—all are possible extraneous variables that could affect learning in
this study. Figure 5.3 illustrates the importance of identifying extraneous variables.
One way to control extraneous variables is to hold them constant. For example, if a
researcher includes only boys as the subjects of a study, she is controlling the variable of
gender. It means that the gender of the subjects does not vary; it is a constant in this study.
Researchers must continually think about how they might control the possible effect(s) of
extraneous variables.

WHAT IS A HYPOTHESIS?

A hypothesis is, simply put, a prediction of the possible outcomes of a study. For
example, here is a research question followed by its restatement in the form of a possible
hypothesis: Question: Will students who are taught history by a teacher of the same gender
like the subject more than students taught by a teacher of a different gender? Hypothesis:
Students taught history by a teacher of the same gender will like the subject more than
students taught history by a teacher of a different gender. Here are two more examples of
research questions followed by the restatement of each as a possible hypothesis: Question:
Is rapport with clients of counselors using client-centered therapy different from that of
counselors using behavior-modification therapy?

Hypothesis: Counselors who use a client-centered therapy approach will have a

greater rapport with their clients than counselors who use a behavior-
modification approach.
Question: How do teachers feel about special classes for the educationally
handicapped? Hypothesis: Teachers in XYZ School District believe that
students attending special classes for the educationally handicapped will be
stigmatized.
Or
Teachers in XYZ School District believe that special classes for the
educationally handicapped will help such students improve their academic
skills.

ADVANTAGES OF STATING HYPOTHESES IN ADDITION TO RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Stating hypotheses has both advantages and disadvantages. What are some of the
advantages? First, a hypothesis forces us to think more deeply and specifically about the
possible outcomes of a study. Elaborating on a question by formulating a hypothesis can
lead to a more sophisticated understanding of what the question implies and exactly what
variables are involved. Often, as in the case of the third example above, when more than
one hypothesis seems to suggest itself, we are forced to think more carefully about what we
really want to investigate.
 A second advantage of restating questions as hypotheses involves a philosophy of
science. The rationale underlying this philosophy is as follows: If one is attempting to build
a body of knowledge in addition to answering a specific question, then stating hypotheses
is a good strategy because it enables one to make specific predictions based on prior
evidence or theoretical argument. If these predictions are borne out by subsequent
research, the entire procedure gains both in persuasiveness and efficiency. A classic
example is Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity. Many hypotheses were formulated as a
result of Einstein’s theory, which were later verified through research. As more and more
of these predictions were shown to be fact, not only did they become useful in their own
right, they also provided increasing support for the original ideas in Einstein’s theory,
which generated the hypotheses in the first place.
Lastly, stating a hypothesis helps us if we are, or are not, investigating a
relationship. If not, we may be prompted to formulate one.

DISADVANTAGES OF STATING HYPOTHESES

Essentially, the disadvantages of stating hypotheses are threefold. First, stating a

hypothesis may lead to a bias, either conscious or unconscious, on the part of the
researcher. Once investigators state a hypothesis, they may be tempted to arrange the
procedures or manipulate the data in such a way as to bring about a desired outcome.
This is probably more the exception than the rule. Researchers are assumed to be
intellectually honest— although there are some famous exceptions. All studies should be
subject to peer review; in the past, a review of suspect research has, on occasion, revealed
such inadequacies of method that the reported results were cast into doubt. Furthermore,
any particular study can be replicated to verify the findings of the study. Unfortunately, few
educational research studies are repeated, so this “protection” is somewhat of an illusion. A
dishonest investigator stands a fair chance of getting away with falsifying results. Why
would a person deliberately distort his or her findings? Probably because professional
recognition and financial reward accrue to those who publish important results.
Even for the great majority of researchers who are honest, however, commitment to
a hypothesis may lead to distortions that are unintentional and unconscious. But it is
probably unlikely that any researcher in the field of education is ever totally disinterested
in the outcomes of a study; therefore, his or her attitudes and/or knowledge may favor a
particular result. For this reason, we think it is desirable for researchers to make known
their predilections regarding a hypothesis so that they are clear to others interested in
their research. This also allows investigators to take steps to guard (as much as possible)
against their personal biases.
The second disadvantage of stating hypotheses at the outset is that it may
sometimes be unnecessary, or even inappropriate, in research projects of certain types,
such as descriptive surveys and ethnographic studies. In many such studies, it would be
unduly presumptuous, as well as futile, to predict what the findings of the inquiry will be.
The third disadvantage of stating hypotheses is that focusing attention on a
hypothesis may prevent researchers from noticing other phenomena that might be
important to study. For example, deciding to study the effect of a “humanistic” classroom
on student motivation might lead a researcher to overlook its effect on such characteristics
as sex-typing or decision making, which would be quite noticeable to another researcher
who was not focusing solely on motivation. This seems to be a good argument against all
research being directed toward hypothesis testing.
Consider the example of a research question presented earlier in this chapter: “How
do teachers feel about special classes for the educationally handicapped?” We offered two
(of many possible) hypotheses that might arise out of this question: (1) “Teachers believe
that students attending special classes for the educationally handicapped will be
stigmatized” and (2) “Teachers believe that special classes for the educationally
handicapped will help such students improve their academic skills.” Both of these
hypotheses implicitly suggest a comparison between special classes for the educationally
handicapped and some other kind of arrangement. Thus, the relationship to be investigated
is between teacher beliefs and type of class. Notice that it is important to compare what
teachers think about special classes with their beliefs about other kinds of arrangements. If
researchers looked only at teacher opinions about special classes without also identifying
their views about other kinds of arrangements, they would not know if their beliefs about
special classes were in any way unique or different.

IMPORTANT HYPOTHESES

As we think about possible hypotheses suggested by a research question, we begin

to see that some of them are more important than others. What do we mean by important?
Simply that some may lead to more useful knowledge. Compare, for example, the following
pairs of hypotheses. Which hypothesis in each pair would you say is more important?

Pair 1
a. Second-graders like school less than they like watching television.
b. Second-graders like school less than first-graders but more than third-graders.
Pair 2
a. Most students with academic disabilities prefer being in regular classes rather
than in special classes.
b. Students with academic disabilities will have more negative attitudes about themselves
if they are placed in special classes than if they are placed in regular classes.
Pair 3
a. Counselors who use client-centered therapy procedures get different reactions
from counselees than do counselors who use traditional therapy procedures.
b. Counselees who receive client-centered therapy express more satisfaction with
the counseling process than do counselees who receive traditional therapy.

In each of the three pairs, we think that the second hypothesis is more important
than the first, since in each case (in our judgment) not only is the relationship to be
investigated clearer and more specific but also investigation of the hypothesis seems more
likely to lead to a greater amount of knowledge. It also seems to us that the information to
be obtained will be of more use to people interested in the research question.

DIRECTIONAL VERSUS NONDIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES

 Let us make a distinction between directional and non-directional hypotheses. A
directional hypothesis indicates the specific direction (such as higher, lower, more, or less)
that a researcher expects to emerge in a relationship. The particular direction expected is
based on what the researcher has found in the literature, in theory, or from personal
experience. The second hypothesis in each of the three pairs above is a directional
hypothesis.
Sometimes it is difficult to make specific predictions. If a researcher suspects that a
relationship exists but has no basis for predicting the direction of the relationship, she
cannot make a directional hypothesis. A non-directional hypothesis does not make a specific
prediction about what direction the outcome of a study will take. In non-directional form,
the second hypotheses of the three pairs above would be stated as follows:
1. First-, second-, and third-graders will feel differently toward school.
2. There will be a difference between the scores on an attitude measure of students
with academic disabilities placed in special classes and such students placed in
regular classes.
3. There will be a difference in expression of satisfaction with the counseling
process
between counselees who receive client-centered therapy and counselees who receive
traditional therapy.

Figure 5.5 illustrates the difference between a directional and a non-directional

hypothesis. If the person pictured is approaching a street corner, three possibilities exist
when he reaches the corner:
• He will continue to look straight ahead.
• He will look to his right.
• He will look to his left.

A non-directional hypothesis would predict that he will look one way or the other. A
directional hypothesis would predict that he will look in a particular direction (for
example, to his right). Since a directional hypothesis is riskier (because it is less likely to
occur), it is more convincing when confirmed.
Both directional and non-directional hypotheses appear in the literature of research,
and you should learn to recognize each.

HYPOTHESES AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

What is notable about the formation of hypotheses in qualitative research is that

they are typically not stated at the beginning of a study, but rather they emerge as a study
progresses. Rather than testing hypotheses as in quantitative studies, qualitative
researchers are more likely to generate new hypotheses as a result of what they find as
they go about their work—as they observe patterns and relationships in the natural setting
rather than hypothesizing what such patterns and relationships might be beforehand.
Many qualitative researchers do state some of their ideas before they begin a study, but
these are usually called propositions rather than hypotheses. Propositions differ from
hypotheses in that they are not intended to be tested against the data (as in quantitative
research) but rather are viewed as flexible tools intended to help guide researchers in their
collection and analysis of qualitative data. The reluctance of qualitative researchers to
formulate hypotheses at the beginning of a study is based on their conviction that
participants and situations often differ widely and must first be understood before any
hypotheses can be suggested.

Concretizing

A. 1. Make a schematic diagram of a research problem. (20 pts.)

2. Make a Venn diagram of research variables. (15 pts.)
3. Define a hypothesis through a concept map. (15 pts.)

B. Group Task (the same grouping with module 1)

1. From your research topic/ research problem you identified in module 1, do the
following: (40 pts.)
a. Define your research problem in statements form;
b. Identify the variables whether (quantitative/categorical; independent /dependent
variable)
c. Formulate possible hypothesis from your research problem.

Synthesizing

I learned that ________________________________________________________________________________

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